CIT-002: Introduction to Information Technology by IGNOU MCA

UNIT 1

ATTRIBUTES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Attributes of Information Technology

Structure 1.0

1.10 1.11 1.12

Introduction Objectives Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom 1.2.1 Data Vs Information 1.2.2 Information Vs Knowledge Types of Information Sources of Information Quality of Information Value of Information Storage of Information Information Effectiveness Parameters Types of Information Systems Summary Solutions / Answers Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

1.9

Information technology [IT] and computers have enormous influence on all segments of our life. All our workplaces and the living surroundings are being mechanized or rather automated. The benefit of information technology is that, it empowers people to do what they want to do, let’s people to be creative, make people to be productive and allow people to learn things which they didn't think they could learn before, and so in a sense it is all about potential. Technology, in all its forms, has had an impact on practically one and all. Information technology, with its complication and remarkable alteration, has debatably had the most philosophical force on community. Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. Information technology makes it practicable for all sorts of information to be stored, accessed and transmitted electronically, and with no orientation to customary print on paper media. In this unit, we will explore IT and its attributes. We start with the definitions of the data, information, knowledge and wisdom. In the later sections, we will study the types of information, quality of information, value of information, various forms of storing the information and effectiveness parameters of the information.

1.1

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to: • define an attribute; • define data, information, knowledge and wisdom; • differentiate between data and information; • differentiate between information and knowledge; • describe the value of information; • discuss the quality and significance of the information; and • describe various ways to store the information.

Elements of Information Technology

1.2

DATA, INFORMATION, KNOWLEDGE AND WISDOM

Data: A datum, a unit of data, derived from the Latin word is one or more symbols that are used to communicate something. They are raw facts that represent persons, places, things or events that have occurred or are about to obtain place. It is a symbol, sign or measure in a form which can be directly captured by a person or a machine. It is selfregulating, unrelated and limitless in number. It is raw, simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence. It can exist in any form, usable or not. Data represents a fact or statement of event without relation to other things. Example: It is raining. Information: Information is the interpretation of data. It is the data that has been processed (see Figure 1.1) into an outward appearance that is having an important effect to the beneficiary, and is of authentic perceived value in the current or potential decision making process. It is the data that has been processed in such a way that it can augment the knowledge of the person who uses it. The processing of the data and its appraisal, psychoanalysis and interpretation by users, alter it into constructive information.

Figure 1.1: Process of Data Conversion into Information

Information embodies the understanding of a relationship of some sort, possibly cause and effect. Example: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining. Knowledge: Knowledge consists of information that has been organized and processed to communicate understanding, experiences, accumulated learning and expertise as it applies to a contemporary problem or process. It is the appropriate collection of information, such that its intent is to be useful. Knowledge is a deterministic process. When someone “memorizes” information then they have amassed knowledge. Knowledge represents a pattern that connects and generally provides a high level of predictability as to what is described or what will happen next. 6

Example: If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially the atmosphere is often unlikely to be able to hold the moisture so it rains.

Attributes of Information Technology

Wisdom: Wisdom is an extrapolative and nondeterministic, nonprobabilistic process. It calls upon all the previous levels of consciousness, and specifically upon special types of human programming (moral, ethical codes etc..). It beckons to give us understanding about which there has previously been no understanding, and in doing so, goes far beyond understanding itself. It is the essence of philosophical probing. Wisdom embodies more of an understanding of fundamental principles embodied within the knowledge that are essentially the basis for the knowledge being what it is. Wisdom is essentially systemic. Example: It rains because it rains. And this encompasses an understanding of all the interactions that happen between raining, evaporation, air currents, temperature gradients, changes and raining. Figure 1.2 shows the contemporary view of the data, information, knowledge and wisdom.

Figure 1.2 Contemporary View of Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom

Figure 1.3 gives a clear view about the hierarchy from Data to Wisdom. Data is collection of isolated facts; information is data with outline; knowledge is applied and finely tuned information and wisdom is at a standstill more wideranging and significant.

Figure 1.3: Building on data in the Wisdom Hierarchy. Source: [Ahsan and Shah, 2006]

Elements of Information Technology

The terms Data, Information, Knowledge, and Wisdom can be presented in the form that suggests a scale depicted as shown below in the Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Scaling of different Terms Source: http://otec.uoregon.edu/datawisdom.htm

1.2.1

Data Vs Information

Data processing (DP) is any computer process that converts data into information or knowledge. The processing is usually assumed to be automated and running on a computer, as data is most useful when wellpresented and actually informative data processing systems are often referred to as information systems to emphasize their practicality. Nevertheless, both terms are roughly synonymous, performing similar conversions; dataprocessing systems typically manipulate raw data into information, and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to produce information as output. Figure 1.5 shows the conversion process of the data to information.

Figure 1.5: Conversion of data to information

Let us study the differences between data and information from the Table presented below: Table 1.1: Distinction between Data and Information

Data Data is raw. It simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence.

Information Where as Information can be called as “metadata”, or data about data.

The word data is derived from the Latin Information, on the other hand, is facts or datum, literally a given or fact, which conclusions that have meaning within a might take the form of a number, a context. statement, or a picture. 8

Data is the raw material in the production of information. The data is input to the process.

Information is the finished product, which is generated from data. To become information, data is manipulated through tabulation, addition, subtraction, division, or any other operation that leads to greater understanding of a situation.

Data is just data which would not help in making decisions.

Information is a collection of meaningful data which is useful in making decisions. Information is the input to decision making

1.2.2

Attributes of Information Technology

Information Vs Knowledge

Let us study the difference between the Information and Knowledge with respect to some of the important parameters. Table 1.2: Distinction between Information and Knowledge

Parameter Style

Information Information is piecemeal, fragmented, and particular.

Knowledge Knowledge is structured, coherent, and often universal.

Significance

Information is timely, transitory, and perhaps even shortlived. Information is a flow of messages

Knowledge is of enduring significance.

Flow

Acquired

Information is acquired by being telling.

Knowledge is a stock, largely resulting from the flow, in the sense that the “input” of information may affect the stock of knowledge by adding to it, restructuring it, or changing it. Knowledge can be acquired by thinking.

Let us study the various types of information in the next section.

1.3

TYPES OF INFORMATION

Business organizations set up will have dissimilar levels. Each level has a dissimilar role to take part in. In order to be successful, each level has specific information requirements. The top management is involved in strategic activities, policy making and goal surroundings. The central point management is mixed up in tactical activities while the operating level is implicated in routine operations of the organization. The information requirements at unlike levels in the organization are dissimilar. The information can be considered as strategic, tactical and operational information based on the receiver and user of the information. The details are as follows:

Elements of Information Technology

Strategic

Tactical

Types of Information

Operational

Figure 1.6: Types of Information

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Strategic Information: The strategic information by and large relates to the top management functions in an organization. The strategic information deals with international and national subject, trends in the industry, investment patterns, government regulations and policies, competition strategies, technological trends etc. The strategic information prerequisite may be in house as well as exterior in character. It is usually observed that strategic information from external sources plays more vital role than inner information. The temperament of strategic information is such that it addon the long term planning action. It includes future projections and forecasts etc. The strategic information may encompass essence that is not a direct result of conventional data processing activity using computers. The information about projected demand trends for a prearranged product based on population trends and estimates of purchasing power of the recognized buyer group of information about estimated cost of conservative fuels such as petroleum products and coal in the next five years are examples of typical strategic information that the top management employs.

•

Tactical Information: Tactical information usually relates to the middle management level in an organization. The tactical information takes in hand shortrange planning action. The planning period addressed by tactical information is quantifiable in months and not years as in the case of strategic information mentioned above. Typical examples of tactical information are those of sales forecasts, cash flow projections, financial results, sales analysis, budgetary control and variance statements, capacity utilization plans, production plans etc. Some tactical information is acquired from external sources. For example, the information about product mix changes achieved by competition is tactical information collected from outer sources. In a usual environment foremost segment of the tactical information is engendered internally inside the organization. Tactical information is characteristically produced through data processing activity.

•

Operational Information: The operational information, as the name recommends, deals with particular operations within an organization. The operational information is often produced as a result of data processing movement. Exact users, often limited in numbers are users of the operational information. The operational information is more precise than other types of

information. Some of the additional widespread examples of operational information are day by day attendance report, pending purchase orders statement item wise stocks held, work in progress, shift reports etc. This

Attributes of Information Technology

operational information is used as a data for further processing to get hold of tactical information. Typically, the information systems produce dissimilar types of information that meet the organization’s information requirements. Information systems are designed to be flexible enough to meet the changes in information needs by types and contents.

1.4

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Information is obtained from different sources in an organization. The sources of information can be classified by their nature into Internal and External.

•

External: The external information sources are characteristically related to the surroundings in which the organizations function. In real life situations the external sources of information comprise of Government, trade organizations, published information, newspapers, news agencies, banks and financial institutes, customers and suppliers etc.. Specific external information sources include market research and marketing intelligence agencies.

•

Internal: The internal sources of information consist of the functional or departmental data processing activities. These activities fabricate information which is used at operational, tactical as well as strategic levels within the organization. The quantity and degree of processing required to engender the desired quality and quantity of information varies according to the information requirement.

1.5

QUALITY OF INFORMATION

Quality of information is tremendously noteworthy in an organization. Information is used for planning and control functions. Information is a fundamental input for decisionmaking activities. If the information used is not of the right quality, it is bound to unfavorably affect the actions based on such information. In a typical environment, with numerous types of information and with large information volume, it becomes moreover nonspecific to characterize the term quality of information. The guiding attitude used in this case is the definition of the term quality. If quality is defined as “conformance to the requirements”, it becomes troublefree to stick to this definition in an organization. Information is used in a diversity of applications. It is used for planning, controlling, motivating, staffing, coordinating, decisionmaking etc. Each of these activities has a confident set of requirements about the information. If the information produced meets these requirements, the information can be considered as quality information.

1.6

VALUE OF INFORMATION

Information extends the concept of data in a broader context. Information plays a very significant role in organizations. Smooth flow and proper utilization of information is important for the very continuation of the organization. Information is a key input in 11

Elements of Information Technology

decision making action. If erroneous or imperfect information is used as the basis for decision making, the resultant decision itself will be distrustful. Information is pertinent and useful knowledge produced as output of processing action. Information is used to present increased understanding or for decision making or to accomplish explicit objectives. Information by itself does not have a value characteristic. The value is gained through suitable application of the information in explicit activities. Theoretically, value of information is measured to be the value of the change in decision behavior resulting due to information less the cost of obtaining the information. The mathematical model of computing the value of information in decision making takes into consideration the payoff matrix and computation of the value of information by assigning the values of change in the decision behavior and the cost of obtaining the information. The computation of values of information has to take into account the degree of certainty and extent of risk and optimal solution.

Figure 1.7: Mathematical Model for computation of value of Information Source: AMR Research

When innovative information results in a dissimilar decision, value of such information is obtained by subtracting the value of previous decision from the new decision. If the new information does not effect in a new decision the value of information is considered to be nil. The value of perfect information is calculated by finding out the difference between the optimal policy with and without perfect information. In addition to decision making, information plays a significant role in activities such as planning, control, coordination, motivation etc. The value of information in such application areas may not automatically be quantified. The value of information in planning is manifested through the degree of correctness in forecasting the future events, realistic estimations, success probability etc. In the context of control 12

activities, the manifestation is in terms of response time for feedback control loop completion, accuracy of measurement etc..

1.7

Attributes of Information Technology

STORAGE OF INFORMATION

Data storage is the holding of data in an electromagnetic form for access by a computer processor. There are two main kinds of storage: Primary storage is data that is held in random access memory (RAM) and other memory devices that are built into computers. Secondary storage is data that is stored on external storage devices such as hard disks, tapes, CD's. The Table1.3 summarises the main methods of data storage.

Table 1.3 Way of Storing Information in a Distinguish Device

Method

Explanation

Hard disks

Often called a disk drive, hard drive or hard disk drive, this method of data storage stores and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data. The information is stored on electromagnetically charged surfaces called “platters”.

Floppy disks

A floppy disk is a type of magnetic disk memory which consists of a flexible disk with a magnetic coating. Almost all floppy disks for personal computers now have a capacity of 1.44 megabytes. Floppy disks are readily portable, and are very popular for transferring software from one PC to another. They are, however, very slow compared to hard disks and lack storage capacity. Increasingly, therefore, computer manufacturers are not including floppy disk drives in the products as a builtin storage option.

Tape storage

Tape is used as an external storage medium. It consists of a loop of flexible celluloidlike material that can store data in the form of electromagnetic charges. A tape drive is the device that positions, writes from, and reads to the tape. A tape cartridge is a protectively encased tape that is portable.

Optical disks

An optical disc is a storage medium that can be written to and read using a lowpowered laser beam. A laser reads these dots, and the data is converted to an electrical signal, finally converted into the original data.

CDR

Compact DiscRecordable (CDR) discs have become a universal data storage medium worldwide. CDRs are becoming increasingly popular for music recording and for file storage or transfer between personal computers. CDR discs are writeonce media. This means that once used they cannot be erased or rerecorded upon. CDR discs can be played back in any audio CD player or CDROM drive, as well as many DVD players and drives.

CDRW

Compact DiscRewritable (CDRW) disks are rewritable and can be erased and rerecorded upon over and over again. CDRW discs can only be used on CD players, CDROM drives, and DVD players and drives that are CDRW playbackcompatible. 13

Elements of Information Technology

DVD

1.8

A DVD (Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc) is a high density optical disc with large capacity for storage of data, pictures and sound. The capacity is 4.7 GB for single sided, singe layer DVD disc which is approximately 7 times larger than that of a compact disc.

INFORMATION EFFECTIVENESS PARAMETERS

Information can be identified by effective parameters. The degree of significance for each of these parameters would differ depending on organizational and environmental factors. The information parameters are as follows: •

•

Exactness: The information make available for Manager’s to make decision must be adequately exact. No body expects total accuracy at any cost. Rising of correctness level at times amplify the costs significantly. Suitable height of accurateness is matter of judgment in a given state of affairs. Timing: The information must be communed to the actual user of the information at appropriate time. Even imperative information if made accessible late becomes outmoded. Contents: The contents of information must be proper to congregate the user necessities. Unnecessary information must be eradicated so to avoid “Information Overload” leading to misunderstanding. The contents of the information idyllically should be administered by the user of information relatively than by producer of information. Should be complete and accurate in nature. Appreciative: The information which is endowed with should be effortlessly unstated by the genuine users. The information in cryptic form using complex codes, though exact, may not be comprehensible to the end user. The straightforwardness of understanding is vital for effectual usage of information. Application: The information should be designed based on the end application to which the information is being place. If the information is being used to support critical decisions, then the content, timing and exactness requirements would be dissimilar than the information which is being used for orientation use or routine control function. Regularity: The frequency at which information updates are to be provided should be in line with the procedure of information or the time cycle of the movement. For example, the information that is used for making decisions about monthly production plan required not be updated on a on a daily basis, providing on line updates in such cases may turn out to be cost ineffective. Communication: For valuable use, information must be communicated from the source to the destination. Communication problems can turn into a management information system unproductive. Elucidation: Information communicated by the source to destination can be elucidated in a diverse way creating confusion or problems. The perception that a person gets on receiving information is called elucidation or awareness. The degree and extent of sensitivity is a person dependent phenomenon. The information generated by the MIS should result in proper user interpretation. In many situations, information is in form of numbers. People have different perceptions of sentences and numbers. Too much of information in numeric for can cause confusion.

•

Costeffective – balance the cost/benefit.

Let us go through the various types of information systems in the next section.

1.9

Attributes of Information Technology

TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

For most businesses, there are a variety of requirements for information. Senior managers need information to help with their business planning. Middle management needs more detailed information to help them monitor and control business activities. Employees with operational roles need information to help them carry out their duties. As a result, businesses tend to have several “information systems” operating at the same time. This revision note highlights the main categories of information system and provides some examples to help you distinguish between them. Below given Table 1.4 summarizes various types of Information Systems and their purpose: Table 1.4: Various Types of Information Systems

Information System

Description

Executive Support Systems

An Executive Support System (ESS) is designed to help senior management make strategic decisions. It gathers analyses and summarises the key internal and external information used in the business. A good way to think about an ESS is to imagine the senior management team in an aircraft cockpit with the instrument panel showing them the status of all the key business activities. ESS typically involves lots of data analysis and modelling tools such as “whatif” analysis to help strategic decisionmaking.

Management Information Systems

A management information system (MIS) is mainly concerned with internal sources of information. MIS usually take data from the transaction processing systems (see below) and summarise it into a series of management reports. MIS reports tend to be used by middle management and operational supervisors.

Decision Support Systems

Decisionsupport systems (DSS) are specifically designed to help management make decisions in situations where there is uncertainty about the possible outcomes of those decisions. DSS comprise tools and techniques to help gather relevant information and analyse the options and alternatives. DSS often involves use of complex spreadsheet and databases to create “whatif” models.

Elements of Information Technology

Knowledge Management Systems

Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) exist to help businesses create and share information. These are typically used in a business where employees create new knowledge and expertise which can then be shared by other people in the organisation to create further commercial opportunities. Good examples include firms of lawyers, accountants and management consultants. KMS are built around systems which allow efficient categorisation and distribution of knowledge. For example, the knowledge itself might be contained in word processing documents, spreadsheets, PowerPoint presentations. Internet pages or whatever. To share the knowledge, a KMS would use group collaboration systems such as an intranet.

Transaction Processing Systems

As the name implies, Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) are designed to process routine transactions efficiently and accurately. A business will have several (sometimes many) TPS; for example:

• • • • Office Automation Systems

Billing systems to send invoices to customers. Systems to calculate the weekly and monthly payroll and tax payments Production and purchasing systems to calculate raw material requirements Stock control systems to process all movements into, within and out of the business

Office Automation Systems are systems that try to improve the productivity of employees who need to process data and information. Perhaps the best example is the wide range of software systems that exist to improve the productivity of employees working in an office (e.g. Microsoft Office XP) or systems that allow employees to work from home or whilst on the move.

Check Your Progress 1 1) Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word given in the brackets:

a) Knowledge has become the most significant fact of___________ life. [economic/ political]

b) The source of information at times has a bearing on the ___________ of c) d) e) f) g)

information. [quality/ quantity] It is through_______________ nervous system that information is communicated and used. [initial/central] Quality of information is tremendously______________ in an organization [noteworthy/insignificant] Right information is___________ of the many inputs for the decision making process. [Many/ One] One byte usually represents a ___________character of data in the computer. [Multiple/Single] Value of information is obtained by _____________ the value of previous decision from the new decision. [Subtracting/ Adding]

2) State True or False:

a) Knowledge consists of information that has been organized and processed. b) The operational information is not often produced as a result of data processing movement. c) Strategic information relates to middle management in an organization. d) The internal sources of information consist of the functional or departmental data processing activities. e) Data, voice, and video networks and all associated communications apparatus and software. f) Bits in strings of eight are called bytes. g) Value of information is not essentially an outcome of choice in uncertain situations. h) Information by itself has a value characteristic. i) Aim of the Organization function is to plan, develops, and manages the information technology.

Attributes of Information Technology

1.10 SUMMARY Computers are often called data processing machines or information processing machines. People understand and accept the fact that computers are machines designed for the input, storage, processing, and output of data and information. “Information technology and business are becoming inextricably interwoven. I don't think anybody can talk meaningfully about one without the talking about the other.”[Bill Gates]. According to Russell Ackoff, a systems theorist and professor of organizational change, the content of the human mind can be classified into five categories: •

• • • •

Data: symbols Information: data that are processed to be useful; provides answers to "who", “what”, “where”, and “when” questions Knowledge: application of data and information; answers "how" questions Understanding: appreciation of "why" Wisdom: evaluated understanding.

Thus, IT is an enabler to enormous advances in human work in every field, which is essential to stay alive in the competitive world. Basically the use of IT at workplace and personal life, direct us and rather facilitate hoe to study information technology. In this unit, we have studied about the data, information, knowledge and wisdom. We have seen the differences between them. In the later sections we have studied the types of information, quality of information, value of information, various forms of storing information, effectiveness parameters and types of Information Systems.

1.11 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS Check Your Progress Fill in the Blanks a) Economical b) Quality c) Central d) Noteworthy e) One g) Subtracting

f) Single 17

Elements of Information Technology

True or False

a) True b) False c) False d) True e) True f) True g) False h) False i) True

1.12 FURTHER READINGS 1) Information SystemsAn Introduction to Informatics in Organization, Paul BeynonDavies, Palgrave Mcmillan, UK.

2) Introduction to Information Technology, V. Raja Raman, 1st Edition, 2007, 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

Prentice Hall of India. Introduction to Information Technology, 1st Edition, 2007, Pearson Education. Fundamentals of Information Technology, Deepak Bharioke, 3/e, excel Books, 2005. Management Information Technology, C. W. Frenzel, Cengage Learning 2008. Case Studies in Information Technology Ethics, Richard A. Spinello Second Edition, PrenticeHall, 2003. Introduction to Information Technology, Second Edition, Efraim Turban, R. Kelly Rainer, Jr., Richard E. Potter, Wiley India, 2006.

Elements of Information Technology

UNIT 2

ICT AND DIGITAL DIVIDE

Structure 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12

Introduction Objectives Evolution of ICT Meaning of ICT Benefits of ICT Concept of Digital Divide Reasons for the Existence of the Divide Dimensions of the Divide Impact of Digital Divide Measures to Bridge the Divide Summary Solutions / Answers Further Readings

2.0

INTRODUCTION

ICT deals with how digital information passes between the devices. The most prolific example is the Internet, a worldwide network of computers linked together by telephone lines. There are however, other examples, like mobile phones, interactive televisions and personal organizers. When ICT is applied to business, it can lower Costs, raise productivity and improve customer and supplier relationship. In learning, ICT widens participation and raises attainment. In public services, ICT engages people with services more effectively and in communities, ICT links people to economic opportunity and brings together those with common agendas. The opportunities for social and economic development which can not be availed by the people because of inaccessibility and lack of information will now be available to all. This information could be used for trade, online education, telemedicine, egovernment and many other applications that solve vital problems in the developing countries. It could open up new possibilities for more transparent and efficient public administration/governance everywhere. It could distribute knowledge and expertise in the areas of education and public health from the centers of expertise to the remote corners of our country. But the advantages of ICT are not reaching to the people who need it most. Its benefit is going mostly to those who are already well placed. It has given birth to a new kind of division not only at international even at national level. This division is between those who have access to ICT and those who don’t have. This division is popularly referred as ‘Digital Divide’. In this unit, we will study the evolution of ICT, benefits, concept of digital divide and the problems created by the digital divide.

2.1 • • 18

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to: describe the meaning and different forms of ICT; explain the evolution of ICT;

Elements of Information Technology

• • • • • • •

list the advantages of ICT; explain the concept of Digital Divide; state the reasons for the existence of digital divide; describe the different dimensions of the digital divide; list the problems created by the divide; explain the possible measures to bridge the divide; and describe the challenges posed by the digital divide and the responses of the government of India.

2.2

EVOLUTION OF ICT

The first major use of Information Technology (IT) could be said to have started with the introduction of early mainframe computers to respond to the needs of scientific research and the Government’s statistical data gathering and processing, where the technology helped to speed up research and forecasting. These techniques were later applied to the business environment where mainframe computers and robotics were used to automate business processes and number crunching functions. From automation of business processes, IT was then applied to higher valueadding, functions such as design, resource planning, sophisticated manufacturing and mission critical functions the developments and applications of IT have stretched beyond imagination. Together with the rapid development and innovation in telecommunication technology and the Internet, this evolution has ushered in many new business models and applications. ICT is robust that it can be harnessed in many ways, but its true potential is limited only to the human mind. With ICT, the physical boarder dissipates as information moves freely through the digital medium which is less controlled as compared to other existing mass media. Globalization is said to accelerate, and enabled by ICT, making market bigger and more accessible by business with strong capital, management and technology. Business or Ecommerce has started to be done virtually and transaction occurs at a click of a mouse anywhere and any time. Scientific findings churn faster and newer discoveries and inventions through the journal and reports are made available through ICT. The technology that began life as a faster way to process data and compute statistics has become pervasive in almost all parts of our life today. So ICT has become the backbone of Techsavvy Society, having combined both information technology and communication through digital environment today.

Check Your Progress 1 Fill in the Blanks: i)

ICT has become the backbone of __________.

ii)

______________, _________________, interactive television are few examples of ICT.

2.3

MEANING OF ICT

ICT is an acronym that stands for Information and Communication Technology. However, apart from explaining an acronym, there is not a universally accepted definition of ICT Why? Because the concepts, methods and applications involved in 19

ICT are constantly evolving on an almost daily basis. It is difficult to keep up with the changes because they happen very fast. • • •

ICT and Digital Divide

Let us focus on the three words behind ICT: INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY A good way to think about ICT is to consider all the uses of digital technology that already exist to help individuals, businesses and organizations also use information. ICT covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form for example, personal computers, digital television, email and robots. ICT is concerned with the storage, retrieval, manipulation, transmission or receipt of digital data. Importantly, it is also concerned with the way these different uses can work with each other. In business, ICT is often categorized into two broad types of product:

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The traditional computerbased technologies (things you can typically do on a personal computer or using computers at home or at work); and

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The more recent and fast growing range of digital communication technologies (which allow people and organizations to communicate and share information digitally) Let us have a brief look at these two categories to demonstrate the kinds of products and ideas that are covered by ICT: Traditional Computer Based Technologies These types of ICT include: 1)

Standard Office Applications Main Examples are as below:

Word processing, e.g. Microsoft Word: Write letters, reports etc;

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Spreadsheets, e.g. Microsoft Excel, Analyze financial information, calculations, create forecasting models etc.;

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Database software, e.g. Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, Access, Managing data in many forms, from basic lists (e.g. customer contacts to complex material like catalogue);

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Presentation software, e.g. Microsoft PowerPoint, make presentations, either directly using a computer screen or data projector, publish in digital format via email or over the Internet;

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Desktop publishing, e.g. Adobe In design, Quark Express, Microsoft Publisher, produce newsletters, magazines and other complex documents; and 20

Elements of Information Technology

•

Graphics software, e.g. Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator, Macromedia Freehand and Fireworks, create and edit images such as logos, drawings or pictures for use in DTP, web sites or other publications.

Specialized Applications

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Accounting packages, e.g., Tally, Sage, Oracle, manage an organization’s accounts including revenues/sales, purchases, bank accounts etc. A wide range of systems are available ranging from basic packages suitable for small businesses to sophisticated ones aimed at multinational companies.

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Computer Aided Design (CAD) is the use of computers to assist the design process. Specialized CAD programs exist for many types of design like architectural, engineering, electronics and roadways.

•

Customer Relations Management (CRM) is software that allows businesses to better understand their customers, by collecting and analyzing data, such as their product preferences, buying habits etc. Often linked to software applications that run call centers and loyalty cards, for example, traditional computer based technologies. The C part of ICT refers to the communication of data by electronic means, usually over some distance. This is often achieved via networks of sending and receiving equipment, wires and satellite links. The technologies involved in communication tend to be complex. You certainly do not need to understand them for your ICT course. However, there are certain aspects of digital communications that you need to be aware of. These relate primarily to the types of network and the ways of connecting to the Internet. Let us look at these two briefly: i) Internal Networks Network which used to share information between a specific group or peoples of an entity. Internal network is also known as private network. In corporate world internal network mean the entire employ realm login to one common domain “not Microsoft OS domain” to access the enterprise’s shareable application like payroll, health insurance, or emergency services or business development services. These types of applications are proprietary to the particular organization. To share the information between employees or different groups of organization, it requires its own network which is also called as private network or internal network. This is also usually referred to as a local area network (LAN), this involves linking a number of hardware items (input and output devices plus computer processing) together within an office or building. The aim of a LAN is to be able to share hardware facilities such as printers or scanners, software applications and data. This type of network is invaluable in the office environment where the colleagues need to have access to common data or programs. ii) External Networks

Like we discussed the internal network is the private network and restricted from the outer world. External network is also called public network. A business entity or the corporate provide the information and business solution on the www form or web page to the public on external network of the company, so all the individuals can go the external network and fetch the information from anywhere according to their requirement. External network is provided by the service provider or also called

backbone carrier. For example, AT& T “the mother bell” is also known as the backbone carrier or service provider world wide. It means when two remote business entity like to share the private information they can use any service provider network i.e. “External network” to complete their communication path. Often you need to communicate with someone outside your internal network; in this case you will need to be a part of a Wide Area Network (WAN). The Internet is the ultimate WAN it is a vast network of networks.

2.3.1

ICT and Digital Divide

ICT in a Broader Context

ICT will almost certainly cover the above examples of ICT in action, perhaps focusing on the use of the key applications such as spreadsheets, databases, presentations, graphics and web design software. It will also consider the following important topics that deal with the way ICT is used and managed in an organization:

•

The nature of information (the “I” in ICT): This covers topics such as the meaning and value of information, how information is controlled, the limitations of ICT, legal considerations;

•

Management of information: This covers how data is captured, verified and stored for effective use the manipulation, processing and distribution of information, keeping information secure, designing networks to share information; and

•

Information systems strategy: This considers how ICT can be used within a business or organization as part of achieving goals and objectives. Thus, ICT is a broad and fastchanging subject. A new generation of computer network software aims at building virtual communities: permanent (or at least recurring) online meeting places where people can work and play, buy and sell, gossip and govern, flirt and fight and generally seek their fortunes. The first such places are being built more or less ad hoc. Their builders are mostly innocent of the history of human efforts to shape the spaces where people live so that these might better serve people’s needs and express their dreams. Construction tools appropriate to the physical (i.e. electronic) constraints of shared online environments are rapidly becoming available. But there is no generally accepted conceptual framework for their design, nobody of validated experience to guide their construction. There is not yet any architecture for cyberspace. In a world so new that its most fundamental properties are still being created (gravity, for example), cyberspace designers confront consciously or unconsciously many of the classic architectural challenges which may be classified as: i)

Selecting from alternative construction approaches and materials: The “native” medium of cyberspace, a finely woven mesh of polygons with subtly refractive polychrome surfaces, demands more machine resources than most visitors can currently afford to. A richly realized environment is thus, in cyberspace as elsewhere, inevitably an elitist one. Buildings based on simple cubes covered with lowresolution bitmaps are accessible to all, but are also banal and dispiriting. How can we build virtual villages that are at once idiomatic, pleasant to be in and socially inclusive?

ii)

Using prefabricated elements to reduce costs and speed up construction. Cyberspace is made of software; and software engineers have been wrestling

for decades with a problem that is also central to modern architecture how systems can be modularly designed to make them more economic and more reliable. Here, however, the issues are more complex, since cyberspace communities are built on a constantly shifting infrastructure. In fact, the relationship between structure and infrastructure is all but reversed; how can we design places for human community that can survive a continual redesign of the foundations on which they are built?

Elements of Information Technology

iii)

Supporting sensible patterns of traffic flow: In most virtual settings, next, ignoring all barriers. People may be present without taking up any visible space, or alternatively their virtual representative (“avatar”) may be so huge or so resource intensive that it fills a space intended to hold a hundred visitors. What is “traffic?” when the users of a space are themselves constructs produced by other (perhaps even antagonistic) designers?

iv)

Designing to human scale: In the virtual world, the role of “size” as a design factor is disconcertingly variable. It depends on the visitor’s/user’s field of view and functional reach, which in turn depends on the power of the user’s display and controls. It is like the shift to electronic music, where timbre, volume and tonal range, once given by the physical nature of instrument, become variables, which the composer/performer must learn to control. Issues of appropriate scale do not go away, but must be redefined in relative terms: what is the ratio of sizes that must be maintained to support different experiences?

Designing new structures (or repurposing the old ones) to enhance existing settings: The Musee D’Orsay and the new subterranean entrance arcade created for the Louvre will soon have their analogues in cyberspace; perhaps a conference room smuggled into the design model of an automobile engine, or an entire city whose “streets” are the circuit diagrams of a computer processor. Current work to build a database of 3D mages (the “Digital Human”) to serve as an explorable setting for medical education suggests part of the challenge; how can virtual reality help making physical/natural structures more accessible? The far broader issue is: how can we connect the various virtual environments we build to one another? What design criteria can be established to aid the process of linking new worlds to the old? There wouldbe cyberarchitect navigating this maze of conflicting constraints in search of more than just the solution to a puzzle. In cyberspace as in the physical world, the goal of architectural design is always a place which, while fulfilling its various functions, also communicates something to (and about) the people.

Check Your Progress 2 1) Discuss the meaning of the term information and communication technology?

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2.4 23

BENEFITS OF ICT

Obviously, there are significant tangible and intangible benefits of ICT:

ICT and Digital Divide

•

Can be a powerful enabler of development goals because its unique characteristics dramatically improve communication and the exchange of information to strengthen and create new economic and social networks;

•

Is pervasive and cross cutting as it can be applied to the full range of human activity from personal use to business and government. It is multifunctional and flexible, allowing for tailored solutions — based on personalization and localization — to meet diverse needs; and

•

Facilitates disintermediation, as it makes it possible for users to acquire products and services directly from the original provider, reducing the need for intermediaries. This not only become a considerable source of efficiency, but has in fact been one of the factors leading to the creation of an alternative development paradigm that skips the formation of Cooperatives and selfhelp groups. It is, thus, evident that ICT has the potential to bring in multiple benefits in the areas of governance, integration of marginalized sections, development of rural areas profitability, and productive improvement in major sectors of the economy. This would provide the muchneeded forward linkage by adding value to information for using it as an enabler that has been discussed widely in literature. What need to be tested are the various hypotheses that evaluate the role of ICT and its contribution and impact on the Indian economy. Till this section we have seen the concept of ICT and its benefits. Let us study about the Digital Divide and its impact in the next sections.

2.5

CONCEPT OF DIGITAL DIVIDE

As evident, the term ‘Digital Divide’ combines two words in itself: ‘Digital’ & ‘Divide’. The term ‘Digital’ here refers to Information and Communication Technology (ICT) while ‘Divide’ means differences, disparity or gap. In general, the digital divide is a phenomenon wherein those who have access to ICT are benefited by the use of it. Their economic well being is ensured in the form of highly paid jobs and more business opportunities, while those who do not have the access to ICT remain aloof of these benefits and hence comparatively they are in a disadvantageous position. The divide does not affect only economically but socially as well. Hence the digital divide is the socioeconomic difference between peoples in their access to ICT. The term also refers to gaps between groups in their ability to use ICTs due to varying literacy and technical skills, and the gap in availability of quality, useful digital content. The divide is seen as a socioeconomic problem. The term was used for the first time in the mid1990s in reference to the disparity in Internet access between rural and urban United States of America. The idea of the digital divide, as put by some scholars, echoes of reservations against claims of the revolutionary power of the ICT. It is commonly suggested that the ICT is transforming society by bridging the distance or gap. Against this the skeptics have pointed out that ICT is forming a new kind of gap and this gap is known as digital divide. Their argument is based on a hypothesis found in Communications Studies i.e., “the knowledge gap hypotheses”.

2.5.1 Knowledge Gap Hypothesis 24

The knowledgegap hypothesis suggests that each new medium of information increases the gap between the informed class and the uninformed class in the society. Those who have access to the new medium will get more information than their counterparts. It was first proposed by Phillip J. Tichenor and his colleagues. However this hypothesis is applicable more in case of print medium than in nonprint medium because in case of print medium illiteracy also plays a role to widen the gap. The gap was thought to decrease as television replaces newspaper as a source of knowledge. As compared to newspapers, television requires less literacy. But with the advent of the ICT, in particular the internet, it is feared that the gap may widen, since it is predominantly a text medium.

Elements of Information Technology

2.6

REASONS FOR EXISTENCE OF DIGITAL DIVIDE

There are many reasons which are responsible for the existence of the divide. Some of them are:

•

The non availability of a reliable ICT infrastructure to access the internet. The ICT infrastructure of a country is determined through a number of measures like number of PCs, teledensity etc. ICT is highly advanced technology and it is available with select countries. Hence, other countries have to import the necessary structure. There is lack of resources to invest in information infrastructure, and research and development in most of the developing countries.

•

There are problems in accessing the internet regularly. There is the problem of connectivity i.e., availability of a fast, reliable and cost effective internet connection. Then there is the cost of accessing the internet which includes telephone tariff and line rental and cost of Internet Service Provider (ISP). To this may be added the replacement cost of computer. Cost of Internet access may be prohibitive for many lowincome households. The quality of service provided by ISP is also important. Because of poor quality of services available due to backward technology it becomes difficult to exploit benefits of ICT.

•

Education is one of the major factors hampering diffusion of ICT amongst masses. Only those who are not only literates but computer literates can really benefit from ICT. In developing countries where Governments are still trying to universalize elementary education computer literacy is a far cry. Hence, the divide is bound to exist.

•

The availability of relevant material in one’s own language. The most important benefit of the internet is that it is the vast reservoir of knowledge & information. However this knowledge should be comprehensible to those who actually require it i.e., there must be availability of web content in the language of the user. Another challenge for the user is to find the information. The absence of relevant content may act as a barrier to Internet access.

•

The digital capacity of the society i.e., ereadiness. Ereadiness is the capacity of the society to incorporate ICT in all its pursuits. The ereadiness of the society primarily depends upon availability of skilled human resource that is capable of using, improving, innovating and adapting the new technologies. The different segments of the society viz the households, business, the government etc. should be willing to accept and absorb ICT. The government must provide a regulatory framework by making necessary laws and rules to govern the use of ICT in different sectors of the society. Lesser the readiness, wider the divide and viceversa.

2.7

DIMENSIONS OF THE DIVIDE

ICT and Digital Divide

The concept of digital divide as presented above may give an impression that it is a clear single gap which divides a society into two groups: information haves and information havenots, but the gap is much complex than this simple formulation. In the initial stage the debate on digital divide was focused on the issue of availability of ICT to all at an affordable cost. But now many new dimensions have been added to this debate. An overview of the dimensions of the divide can be presented in following manner:

2.7.1 Global Dimensions of Digital Divide The global digital divide, refers to differences in availability of the ICT between countries which is reflective of existing economic realities in the world. The developed nations with the resources to invest in and develop ICT Infrastructure are reaping enormous benefits from the information age, while developing nations are trailing along at a much slower pace. This difference in rates of technological progress is widening the economic disparity between the most developed nations of the world (primarily Canada, the United States, Japan, and Western Europe) and the underdeveloped and developing ones (primarily Latin America, Africa, and Southeast Asia), thus creating digital divide. Between the countries, the divide’s features have common characteristics. The level of national income is strongly related to ICT diffusion and is clearly the distinguishing feature of the divide between industrialized and developing countries. The cost and availability of telecommunications determines the extent to which the Internet is used, and per capita access costs are most often higher in poorer countries. According to the latest UN Human Development Report, industrialized countries, with only 15% of the world’s population, are home to 88% of all Internet users. Barely 6 per cent of the world’s people have ever logged onto the Internet and 85 to 90 per cent of them are in the industrialized countries. Less than 1% of people in South Asia are online even though onefifth of the world’s population lives here. The situation is even worse in Africa. There are only 1 million Internet users on the entire continent of billion plus people. In the early 21st century; residents of developed countries enjoy many Internet services which are not available in developing & underdeveloped countries, including widespread internet access, ecommerce, online education etc..

2.7.2 National Dimensions of Digital Divide Within countries, the digital divide often has common characteristics. Use of the internet is more common among young generation than older one, men than women, the well educated than the lesser ones, urban rather than rural population, and those with higher incomes. In our country some states are ahead of others so far as availability of ICT is concerned. The states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh etc. are more advanced in ICT as compared to states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Orissa etc. Further ICT is seldom available in villages where it is needed most. Income level is an important factor since like every other technology ICT has also got a cost and its benefits can be reaped by those who can pay for it. A study has concluded that the penetration rate of ICT for the highest income groups is approximately 7 times larger than that for the lowest income groups. Hence, the poor are largely left out of the ICT. Another significant factor is the level of education, as ICT is basically a print medium. The impact of education will be discussed below while discussing the reasons for the existence of the divide. The gender disparity is also visible in case of use of ICT and in most of the countries the percentage of

Elements of Information Technology

females is less than onethird of the population online. According to the Human Development Report 1999, the average age of the internet user is in between 3040 years. However there is a clear increase in all age groups in the world as for as use of ICT is concerned.

2.7.3 Connectivity Based Divide This is an emerging dimension of the divide which has come up due to technological innovations in the field of ICT. A new kind of digital divide based on the usage of more sophisticated, advanced telecommunication technologies — that include broadband, WLANs, PDAs and other new information and telecommunication technologies are emerging. So while developing countries are still in the process of implementing basic telephony services, advanced countries are focused on rolling out wire line and wireless broadband services.

Check Your Progress 3 1) Whether digital divide is a simple divide between the haves and havenots? .......................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................................................

2.8

IMPACT OF DIGITAL DIVIDE

In this section, we are going to discuss the effect of digital divide. There should not be any kind of divide in the society, all should be equal & every benefit should go to all. But it’s a distant dream. In fact there are various kinds of divide in the society & digital divide is one of them. Greater the divide, greater is bound to be the tension between people and in the society. Due to the impact of the ICT the world is becoming a global village. The marketing strategies is adopted by the producers with the help of improved communications technology opposed both rich and poor, equally to the better quality of life, better consumer goods and so on and thus, they aspire for the same. If those aspirations are not fulfilled it may lead to frustration and possibly anti social behavior. The divide’s impact can be explained as follows:

2.8.1 On Employment In order to understand the impact of the divide on employment, we have to see how ICT has changed the work scenario in the economy. By removing the obstacles to communication ICT has made work independent of location. ICT has created a new class of skilled workers who are highly paid. There is huge demand of software professionals. The creation of jobs, the nature, content and quality of work, the location of work, the education & skills required etc. is to be determined by ICT. But the question is: Will the information economy be a jobs economy? The World Employment Report 2001 examines this question and is optimistic. There is evidence that employment ratios are highest in those countries where the use of ICT is most widespread. Use of the technologies is nevertheless associated with new patterns of job creation and job loss. And despite the hopeful signs of employment creation, it is 27

clear that jobs will also be lost through three main channels: obsolescence, automation, and disintermediation.

ICT and Digital Divide

Certain kind of works, for example, manual record keepers will become obsolete. The producers and consumers can directly interact online so that there is no longer requirement of channels of distribution. ICT replaces old tasks and occupations through automation, such as the telephone switchboard operator. But the ICT has also created new jobs such as webpage designers or callcentre workers and a variety of new intermediaries. Hence, those who are skilled in ICT are benefited. In such a scenario if there is digital divide, then those who are at the disadvantaged side have lower job prospects.

2.8.2 On Development ICT is associated with productivity improvements. The exploitation of the ICT gives industries of a country a competitive advantage. ICT opens up a whole new avenue of economic activities including development of hardware and software, online services, and many others. ICT offers tools that accelerate development and may become shortcut to economic growth. The countries with the right mix of skills, infrastructure, and policies could become important locations in global markets for ICT products generally. Countries as diverse as Brazil, China, Costa Rica, Israel, Malaysia and Romania have all been able to gain niches in such markets. This benefit of ICT is denied to those countries that stand at the other side of the digital divide. Thus, the existing gap between the developing and developed countries keeps on widening. ICT has spread at an astonishing rate. This has created disruptions and divisions in the world. Disruption occurs because of the inadequacies of existing institutions to cope with the rapid change and new demands. Institutions and organizations that do not cope up would, risk loss, irrelevance and closure. Technological changes are favourable to those who are prepared in advance. The world’s different speeds of change and different stages of preparedness mean that the existing “digital divides” are certain to widen.

2.8.3 On National and Social Interest Access to the ICT is an important component of civil life. Telephone (including mobile services) is often considered important for of security, and in emergencies. Internet is an important source of many vital information regarding career, civic life, safety, etc. In the unit on egovernance we have seen the use of ICT in governmental functions. In that unit we have seen how the use of the ICT would lead to a healthier democracy by increased public participation in election and decision making processes. Many social welfare services are delivered through ICT. ICT improves social mobility by enabling people to remain in touch with others. ICT plays important role in the learning and career. The existing digital divide works unfairly to all those in the lower socioeconomic status and all the above mentioned benefits do not accrue. In the ultimate analysis it is national and social interest which suffers.

Check Your Progress 4 1) What are the harmful effects of the digital divide?

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Elements of Information Technology

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2.9

MEASURES TO BRIDGE THEDIVIDE

Those who are on the less favorable side of the divide have less opportunity to take part in new ICT based economy, in which more and more jobs are related to computers. They have fewer opportunities to take part in the education, training, shopping, entertainment and communications as compared to those who have access to ICT. Since, now more people are regularly making use of ICT, people who lack accesses to it are at an increasing disadvantage. Therefore increasing the number of people who have access to ICT is of vital importance. So now it is imperative to bridge the divide. The solution lies in the problem itself and ICT is the very tool that can be used to bridge this divide. There are certain steps which can narrow down the divide if not completely close it. These have been mentioned below:

Providing internet access at public places The first step to be taken in this direction is to solve the problem of non availability of infrastructure. Since it is impossible to give everyone the required infrastructure there can be community approach i.e. all have access to common facilities which are available at public places like schools and libraries. The lack of infrastructure & financial resources in many countries suggests that access at public locations will be a relatively cheaper means for increasing internet access and use. These could either be publicly owned libraries, community centres, etc. or private cyber cafes, internet cabins. Increasing Internet connectivity in public places would effectively improve the internet access and use by those who cannot afford computers.

Education matters most of all Education is vital for reaping the advantages from the emerging ICT era. The promotion of education and literacy generally, and digital literacy in particular, is a basic step to bridge the divide. Educational differences underlie the different rates of penetration of ICT and Internet usage. Efforts have to be made to provide computer education along with schooling. Providing computer only is insufficient, teachers need to be trained in ICT. Besides the school goers, large part of the existing workforce also needs to be trained in ICT. Training them taking into account their needs is the key to narrow the digital divide.

Exploring the various forms of ICT Besides the Internet, there are other information and communications technologies which can be helpful. International Telecommunication Union has reported that mobile phones diffuse faster than the Internet. Thus, mobile phones can become alternative routes of getting information because they are not as demanding as computers and the PCbased Internet in terms of cost and skills. Even illiterates can use them.

Government policies and support Enhanced governmental support in the form of budgetary allocations, lower taxes and a regulatory framework are essential for the transition to the ICT

society. Besides economic support the presence of an appropriate telecommunication policy is also necessary. The deregulated telecommunications market in the European Union has led to a substantial decline in access cost and a sharp rise in Internet users. Clearlydefined national strategies promoting the development of the Internet and other ICTs – as in the U.K., Japan, or Korea – accelerate the diffusion of Internet use through government sponsored projects. 5)

ICT and Digital Divide

Uneven distribution of ICT Last but not the least understanding the causes of the uneven distribution of ICT across countries is the most important step in bridging the digital divide. As we have seen that digital divide has got many dimensions. Further, there are various factors responsible for the existence of the digital divide, bridging the digital divide is more complicated than merely providing computers and internet connections. Bridging the divide has to promote both broader access to and effective use of, the Internet. It requires cooperation between governments, the private sectors, and nongovernmental organizations.

Check Your Progress 5 1) In what way access to ICT can be provided to those who can not afford it?

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2.10 SUMMARY ICT stands for information and communication technology. It is concerned with the storage, retrieval, manipulation, transmission or receipt of digital data. Importantly it is also concerned with the way these different uses can work with each other. It is very essential for businesses, individual and government. Ereadiness is the degree to which a country/state is prepared to participate in the networked world and demand the adoption of important applications of ICTs in offering interconnection between the government, business and the citizens.

• •

• • •

Digital Divide refers to the gap between those who have access to ICT and those who have not. The divide is not a unitary concept but a multidimensional problem. Some of its dimensions are: Global digital divide i.e. the divide between the countries in their capacity to adopt and use ICT. National dimension of digital divide; in a country ICT is not evenly spread in all regions, over all societies. There is also a gender and generation based digital divide. Due to technological innovations like broadband, wifi etc., there is an emerging connectivity based digital divide. The divide exists because of: Non availability of ICT infrastructure; High installation and access cost; Low level of education and eliteracy;

Elements of Information Technology

• • • •

Lack of relevant content in mother tongue. The divide has adverse impact on: Employment Development National and social interest Certain measures can be taken to bridge the divide. These are: Making ICT accessible to all. Universalizing education including computer education. Through governmental support. Understanding the causes of the divide and remedying them In India, the position of digital divide is serious both in terms of global and national dimensions of digital divide. Governments have taken certain steps in this direction. Major steps are: (i) Promotion of eliteracy and (ii) Egovernance.

2.11 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS Check Your Progress 1 Fill in the Blanks 1) (i) Tech Savvy Society and (ii) the Internet, Mobile Phone

Check Your Progress 2 1)

ICT stands for Information Communications Technology. ICT is concerned with the storage, retrieval, manipulation, transmission or receipt of digital data.

Check Your Progress 3 1)

Digital divide is primarily the divide between those who have access to ICT and those who have not. But this simple statement does not cover the whole concept of digital divide. The divide has got many dimensions. There is (i) a divide at global level, (ii) a divide at national level, and (iii) connecting bored divide.

Check Your Progress 4 1)

Digital divide harms in many ways. It affects people by restricting employment opportunities and through denial of benefits of ICT. If affects countries by slowing down their economic growth and development.

Check Your Progress 5 1) 31

Access to ICT can be provided by installing computer systems at public places like Schools, libraries community centre etc. By encouraging private persons to establish internet kiosks will also help in diffusion of ICT.

ICT and Digital Divide

2.12 FURTHER READINGS 1) Employment strategy (EMP/TRENDS)World Employment Report 2001, 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

International Labour Organisation. Sept. 2004.10Jan.2006 http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/strat/wer2001.html. Emerging Trends in Business: Role of Government & Industry, N.Vittal, Paper presented in the IPM Seminar. Meerut.28 Jan. 2002. 4 Jan.2007<http://cvc.nic.in/>. ITU Telecom Asia 2002: Spotting trends in communications, Network Magazine, Sandeep Ajgaonkar, http://www.networkmagazineindia.com. Digital Divide: Where Does India Stand? And the Way Forward, Subhash Bhatnagar, Workshop on Scaling up ICT for Poverty Alleviation in India. Indian Institute of Management. Ahmedabad. 2627 Feb. 2004. The Four Digital Divides, Ed. Kenneth Keniston and Deepak Kumar. New Delhi, Sage Publishers, 2003. Government of India. Ministry of communication and Information Technology.

Cyberspace and Cyber Crimes

UNIT 3

CYBERSPACE AND CYBER CRIMES

Structure 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12

Introduction Objectives Real Space Vs Cyberspace Digital Identity: An Overview Verifying Vs. Revealing an Identity Cyber and Computer Crimes Architecture of Cyberspace Preventing Crimes Implications of Choosing the Link System Road to Implementation Summary Solutions / Answers Further Readings

3.0

INTRODUCTION

Cyberspace is such a term, which is not yet completely defined and also has no geographical limitation. It is a term associated with application of the Internet worldwide. It is also called as a virtual space as physical existence of cyberspace is not detectable at all. Cyberspace is “the total interconnectedness of human beings through computers and telecommunication without regard to physical geography. Cyberspace is a term coined by science fiction author William Gibson to describe the whole range of information resources available through computer networks. For our purposes, cyberspace is a realm in which communication and interaction between two individuals or between an individual and a computer is facilitated by digital data exchanged over computer networks. This interaction or communication can be used for a host of different purposes. The Internet is currently the biggest network for linking computers, but cyberspace, as a concept, is independent of the Internet. Cyberspace communication began before the Internet and the World Wide Web, and cyberspace interaction and communication will continue to take place after the Internet is no longer the network of choice. Currently there is no generic system for identification in cyberspace. It is not possible to absolutely identify an entity or to accurately tell whether an object has a specific characteristic. Digital environments have inherent differences from real space which causes this discrepancy, and when implementing an identity system for cyberspace one needs to consider more than just the architectural nature of the system any system chosen will have the social repercussions which need to be also taken into account. Identity is a unique piece of information associated with an entity. Identity itself is simply a collection of characteristics which are either inherent or are assigned by another. The colour of a person’s hair is good or bad and whether he is attractive or not is part of a person’s identity which is usually reviewed by another person. Interactions done in real space inherently carry the identity of the person originating the transaction. Generally, physical traits are carried along in a transaction for 32

example when one purchase a book from a book store, the book dealer may remember the buyer’s face or build.

Cyberspace and Cyber Crimes

In this unit, we will study about the cyberspace, difference between real space and cyberspace, digital identity, cyber crimes and their prevention mechanisms.

3.1 • • • • • • •

OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to: describe what is Cyberspace; explain the difference between Real Space and Cyberspace; explain the concept of Digital Identity; describe Computer and Cyber Crimes; describe the architecture of Cyberspace; state implications of choosing the link system; and list the barriers before cyberspace identity mechanism.

3.2

REAL SPACE Vs CYBERSPACE

The difference between real space and cyberspace is that the essence of any digital transaction is unbundling. Ones and zeros do not inherently carry any separate information along with them; a real space transaction carries along inseparable secondary information. Digital transmissions can only transmit; there is no secondary information encoded in the transmission unless explicitly put there. Thus, for authentication purposes, additional information needs to be carried with cyberspace transactions for identity purposes. Providing extra information in digital communication introduces the possibility for identity theft as nothing can prevent the transmission of false identity information, or the duplication of another’s identity information. To prevent these problems, the actual identity must not be transmitted along with the message; instead a verification scheme needs to be used to convince the recipient that the message was actually sent by the sender. This eliminates the need to send one’s actual identity. The concept of verifying instead of revealing provides an extra layer of security to the sender. The other point of insecurity is in the digital certificates which were issued to verify these characteristics. These certificates are meant to be used only by their owner, but if another party obtains them, then that party can falsify his identity, representing him as the individual for whom he has digital certificates. Architecturally, we must decide how to store and use these certificates. The certificates can be stored on a smart card for use on a computer terminal, or the certificates can be stored in an “identity server” locked via password or biometrics information and available for transmission over the Internet. In real space, it is difficult to select, to verify or reveal portions of one’s identity: most forms of identification contain more information than is needed for any transaction. The unbundling that is possible in cyberspace allows portions of identity to be disassociated and verified by a third party.

This not only creates the ability to verify via the least revealing means, but it also creates the framework for anonymous transactions. It is possible to merely verify the

proper information without ever distributing the same characteristic. Further, cyberspace users have control over the strength of the link between their real world and the cyberidentities.

3.3

Elements of Information Technology

DIGITAL IDENTITY: AN OVERVIEW

A digital identity system must serve several functions:

Authentication ensuring that when a message purports to be from Alice, Alice sent it, not someone pretending to be Alice.

Message integrity providing certainty that when a message arrives from Alice, it is the same message that Alice sent, not modified en route in any way.

Non Repudiation ensuring the inability of Alice later to deny that she sent the message, and the inability of the recipient of Alice’s message to deny that the message was received.

Establishing digital identity architecture may have the beneficial side effect of facilitating confidentiality through encryption. The knowledge that none besides Alice can read a message intended for her. Before proceeding with cyber architecture, however, it is important to examine the concept of identity itself. This section develops a working definition of identity, considers the ways in which people use their identities, and articulates the reasons why it is important to protect our identities, especially in the digital context.

3.3.1 Working Definition of Identity It is difficult to craft a formal definition of identity. Basically, the essential and unique characteristics of an entity are what identity it is. For example, how the system will identify this person is called Joe Jindo where there are many Joe Jindo’s around the world. These characteristics might include, among other things, the unchanging physical traits of the person, his preferences, or other people’s perceptions of the individual’s personality. The skills that a person possesses can also become part of one’s identity. For example, a person’s identity could include the fact that he “has the ability to drive” or that he “has brown hair”. Some characteristics, such as height, have one correct setting. Those traits of an individual that reflect someone else’s perceptions do not have to have an absolute setting. Bob may set Alice’s “is friendly” flag to true, whereas Charles may set the same flag to false. Even if Bob and Charles agree on what should be the flag’s setting for Alice, Alice’s own view may differ from theirs. Thus, in practice, there is a degree of fuzziness to the definition of an entity’s identity, and most certainly that how others perceive it. No two identities are the same. Each identity maps to a unique set of characteristics. Two people may share some of the same characteristics, such as being old enough to drive or having the same hair colour, but that does not mean that they have the same identity. If Joe Jindo 2 can identified himself as Joe Jindo 1 then Joe Jindo 2 can access and manipulate all the private information of Joe Jindo 1 which is called identity theft. 34

Cyberspace and Cyber Crimes

3.3.2 Identity as a Commodity In today’s economy, information on identity often is viewed as a valuable commodity. This view of identity is worth a closer examination. Businesses desire to advertise their products to the markets most interested in them, and may even retool their products to be more appealing to certain segments of a market. Knowing the preferences of individuals allows a corporation to target perfectly their products to those who would prefer and, thus, be most likely to purchase them. Making a detailed survey of an individual’s preferences, though, is very difficult, if not impossible. Often an individual cannot specify the exact motivation for her purchase of a particular product. From the seller’s perspective, determining which questions to ask purchasers can be a daunting task. Further, certain questions, despite their potential usefulness, are not likely to be answered by a purchaser. To work around this problem, businesses use identity information as a proxy for preferences. For example, rather than trying to discover the exact reason why an individual purchased a Ford Mustang, a car dealer might instead try to find out the purchaser’s profession or income level. Suppose the car dealer discovers that a number of his customers who have purchased Ford Mustangs are lawyers. Although the car dealer may not understand why they purchased Ford Mustangs, he can assume with some level of confidence that there is something about lawyers that leads them to purchase Mustangs instead of Cougars.

Check Your Progress 1 1)

Why identity is viewed as a valuable commodity? ............................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................

3.4

VERIFYING VS. REVEALING AN IDENTITY

Cyberspace creates opportunities for identity theft. One inherent property of digital media is that, it can be duplicated perfectly and easily. Exact copies of everything sent over a digital communications channel can be recorded. Consider the act of sending a signed letter to someone. In the real space, I will reveal to the recipient the exact form of my signature, but the difficulty of mastering the art of forgery protects me from the possibility that the recipient would begin signing letters with sender’s signature. However, if I send a digital letter that contains the digital representation of my signature, the recipient could easily duplicate and use my signature to assume my identity when signing documents. The seriousness of this problem is highlighted when you consider that future technologies will allow extremely important identifiers, such as a retinal scan or a fingerprint, to be represented digitally. These biometrics characteristics are protected in real space because they are embedded in the physical body of the person. This is lost in cyberspace. Thus, cyberspace needs a system that allows individuals to verify their identities to others without revealing to them the digital representation of their identities. A verification system would let Bob, for example, know the identity of Alice or that she possesses a particular trait, but would not give him the ability to impersonate Alice or use the trait identifier as if it was his own. In our digital letter example, Bob 35

would be able to verify that the letter contains Alice’s signature but would not let him sign the documents as Alice. Similarly, a verification that someone is of the proper age to purchase alcohol would not give the person a change to verify this identifier anything that would allow him to represent himself as being of the proper age to purchase alcohol. Such a system helps both the parties obtain what they want out of exchanging identity information without the risk of identity theft.

3.5

Elements of Information Technology

CYBER AND COMPUTER CRIMES

Computer crimes can involve criminal activities that are traditional in nature, such as theft, fraud, forgery and mischief, all of which are subject everywhere to criminal sanctions. The term computer misuse and abuse are also used frequently but they have significantly different implications. Annoying behaviour must be distinguished from criminal behaviour in Law. As per IT Act, 2000, no description has been categorically made for computer crime and cyber crime. So till today, it is very difficult to differentiate between these two words. In relation to the issue of intent, the principle of claim of right also informs the determinations of criminal behaviour. For example, an employee who has received a password from an employer, without direction as to whether a particular database can be accessed, is unlikely to be considered guilty of a crime if he or she accesses those databases. So, a distinction must be made between what is unethical and what is illegal, the legal response to the problems must be proportional to the activity that is alleged. Common types of computer crimes are: • • • •

Forgery; Fraud by system manipulation intentionally; Any modification to data or programs or databases; and Accessing computers without authorization; But cyber crimes are somehow different from computer crimes. Computer crime happens in physical space with or without the network. Cyber crime takes place in a virtual space through digital environment. Recent example of cyber crime was Bazzee.com case, which is a MMS scandal. Cyber crimes may happen globally as there is no geographical limit for cyberspace. Check Your Progress 2 1)

Give two examples of Computer Crimes. ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................

3.6

ARCHITECTURE OF CYBERSPACE

Practically cyberspace architecture for global standard is not yet possible, though certain groups of networks are maintaining some rules and regulations to make minimum architecture through TCP/IP and a virtual global server system. Here some theoretical architectural choice has been described. 36

Cyberspace and Cyber Crimes

3.6.1 Link and NoLink: An Architectural Choice As identified earlier, any digital identification system must determine where to lie upon the continuum of anonymity and accountability; that is, a system must adopt an appropriate degree of Type II unbundling. However, within the context of law enforcement it becomes clear that not all points along this continuum are equal. One point is very different from all the others: the point at the far end of the spectrum where there is absolutely no traceability. For the sake of clarity in our further discussion, this point will be called “nolink”. At the nolink point, there exists within the digital identification the architecture which has no mechanism for determining the link between data in cyberspace and the real world recipient or sender. The nolink point implies only that there is no mandatory link between cyberspace and the real world; this does not preclude an additional, nonmandatory method of determining an identity that could be layered on the top of the nolink architecture. All other points along the spectrum will be designated as “link” points. This indicates that there is some mandatory architectural mechanism for determining the real world identity of the sender and receiver of data in cyberspace. Both link and nolink architecture has benefits and drawbacks associated with them. With link architecture, access to the link information can be limited, presumably, only to an appropriately regulated law enforcement agency with specific regulatory processes in place for obtaining the information. However, the immediate point is that not everyone will have the access to the information contained in the architectural link; to those without access, link architecture is identical to nolink architecture. The benefit of identification is still present, but the ability to gain knowledge of the person’s real world identity from the architecture of the system is limited to those specific bodies with access. Thus, once again, the interesting area of discussion is that pertaining to law enforcement: when cans a link system effectively be used as a no link system, and are there benefits able to determine a link which outweighs any corresponding drawbacks? At all the points along the continuum, except for the extreme of onetoone identity, there is a need to distinguish between “transient anonymity” and “persistent anonymity”. With transient anonymity, no persistent link remains to the sender of the information; this is analogous to anonymous leafleting. Persistent anonymity is perhaps more useful: it allows continuity of cyber identity, generally without disclosing the real world identity, i.e., both the sender and receiver mutually agreed and define their private communication channel in the network which is not accessible to any other at any circumstances unless the private information of any party is not tempered or compromised. It only permits disclosure of the real world identity within a link system. In a nolink system, continuity is preserved, but without facilitating the link. Both the types of anonymity are useful in some circumstances, but persistent anonymity is likely to be more generally useful. No Link

The benefits of a nolink system are, as mentioned above, those pertaining mostly to issues of freedom of speech and freedom of action. In the commercial domain, the wheels of capitalism are greased by the nolink architecture. People who have no fear of ever being personally associated with what they buy are far less likely to be concerned about the social norms which might have previously restricted them from purchasing a product. Unbundling facilitates the necessary degree of identification that commerce will require without necessitating the revelation of the entire real world

identity. Free speech is likewise assisted by the absence of traceability: where potential oppressors are unable to determine the sender’s real world identity, there is no danger of oppression.

Elements of Information Technology

Link Architecture Nolink architecture provides protection from McCarthyism. But in so doing, it removes all accountability from speech. It is an architecture that completely eliminates the power of social norms, market regulation, and legal regulation to govern interaction on the Internet. Society should not overlook the more general consequences that may result from the ability to avoid accountability in all speech, especially the speech which would not be considered criminal: people may routinely without concern spout inaccurate and misleading information, and the responsibility may disappear even further from the moral landscape. However, the aspects which can be most clearly identified and discussed are those which result in criminal behaviour.

Check Your Progress 3: 1)

Discuss about the various types of Cyberspace Architecture. ............................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................

3.7

PREVENTING CRIMES

The issue then becomes one of the preventing crimes, while simultaneously attempting to mitigate this potential “chilling effect” on free speech. At the heart of this discussion, lies the distinction between transactional information and content information. Transactional information is the information regarding the sender, recipient, and other information associated with the transmission of the information, but not regarding the content of the information. Thus, so far the argument has centred on transactional information; however, the value of content to law enforcement must be considered: if it is absolutely necessary to have content as well as transactional information, then it will do no good to consider offering the latter without the former. If, on the other hand, transactional information without content is a tool that can be utilized, it may result an effective compromise between the needs of law enforcement and the desires of the society. Encryption represents the single largest barrier to law enforcement obtaining content from a computer. This is an issue that is relatively unique to cyberspace, as handwritten and telephone encryption is relatively rare. One choice can be made with respect to encryption: allow it, without regulation, or disallow it. Disallowing encryption altogether is pragmatically different from allowing only key escrowed encryption, but for the purposes of this discussion, they are effectively the same. The

Cyberspace and Cyber Crimes

overwhelming response of the government has been that, encryption controls are in fact necessary, and several initiatives have been proposed to this effect; however, both the public and legal reaction to these initiatives have been negative: many organizations are resisting the degree of control which law enforcement would be given, and the Communications Decency Act was recently ruled as too general to be constitutional. In this situation, law enforcement’s claims of what it needs to be effective are strongly disputed by the public: the equilibrium between the two is harder to strike in cyberspace.

3.8

IMPLICATIONS OF CHOOSING THE LINK SYSTEM

The negative implications of choosing the link system are clear: it may place an unreasonable burden on free speech. Even if it is not unconstitutional in this manner, it may simply deter people from speaking out in situations where their voices would be most useful. In order to convince the society that its interests in avoiding unreasonable persecution are maintained, the architectural decision to include the link must be combined with legal regulations regarding who is given sanction to disclose the link, and under what circumstances such disclosure is acceptable. While the negative impacts of providing a link with all the transmitted data can never be fully accounted for, the goal of a system which provides an architectural link must be to mitigate the impact of the architecture as fully as possible. Nolink architecture has more tangible drawbacks. Crimes can be easily planned and carried out on a system with no accountability, and there is no reason to think that they would not be. However, practical concerns such as sovereignty and providing unrestricted speech to political dissidents regardless of their governments’ policy on free speech may outweigh the potential societal costs. It may be also that suitable mechanisms for regulating their identity can be created in a legal or market based way; it is hard to see how these methods would be enforceable in a costeffective manner, but the number of criminal deviants might be small enough that the identification by law enforcement could be reasonably achieved. A Note on Architectural Choice It is very important whether the architecture of a digital authentication mechanism should be designed to permit traceability. Although the discussion focuses on how traceability on the Internet would meet the needs of the government in carrying out its law enforcement function, it should be noted that businesses also have an interest in the development of architecture with such a feature. Many corporations have established Intranets to facilitate communication between the various divisions of their companies. Traceability in the architecture would help the leadership of a business monitor the activities of its employees. Monitoring of this sort might be motivated by a desire to track the productivity of the individual workers or a need to ensure procedures designed to govern access to the company’s sensitive information are followed. The development of architecture for the Internet that included traceability would provide a standard that could be adopted for the corporate internal networks, without the associated research and development costs. Aside from the caveat presented above, businessdomain interests in the use of identity do not require the developers of the architecture to make any fundamental architectural choices for the system. Instead, most of the concerns regarding the business arena are related to how businesses and consumers will behave in an environment using the digital authentication mechanism proposed. 39

Social Aspects

Elements of Information Technology

Community in cyberspace is based on the interaction between people. Cyberspace has an important social aspect to it that must not be overlooked. Ever since the ARPA Net was created, its primary use has been to communicate with other people. With the advent of a faster backbone, different types of communication media became possible namely, interactive communications. Community in cyberspace is based on the interaction between people. Although a community is a group of people who interact with each other, at the basic level it comprises a group of people who exist with each other in a common plane. Cyberspace can be treated as a conduit touching portion of real space at key points. Ideas are passed through the conduit, and business is transacted through this conduit. The cyberspace communities are members of the global community interacting on a different plane than in real space. These members rarely interact in the real space, but they communicate through multimedia means in cyberspace whether it be by text, image, sound, or a combination of the three. It is not possible to use the Internet without being part of this community of people; you cannot avoid being a part of the community, even if you are using the Internet as a conduit: by emailing people, reading web pages, reading newsgroups, or doing commerce online, one has joined the cyberspace community.

3.9

ROAD TO IMPLEMENTAION

The current state of cyberspace identification mechanisms is far from the flexible broad potential of the identity architecture. There is still a long way to go from the ‘here’ of the Internet as it exists in 1998 to the ‘there’ of the ubiquitous, secure identity architecture. In order for the Internet to reach its full potential, a secure mechanism for managing and verifying the digital identity is necessary. There remain ranges of hurdles to overcome before a cyberspace identity mechanism will be deployed and ubiquitous. These hurdles can best be analysed in four categories: social norms, market, legal, and architectural barriers. Social Norms Barriers The main social obstacle to implementation of a cyberspace identification mechanism is that the general public does not recognise that there is a problem with the existing identification architecture. The general public does not understand the need for an improved, secure cyberspace identification system. Even without any effective identification mechanism, the use of the Internet − for both casual and secure applications − has soared, with doubledigit growth rates measured monthtomonth rather than yeartoyear. While more sophisticated Internet users may recognise the need for a digital identity mechanism, these advanced users represent a shrinking percentage of the overall Internet? Community? Many people using popular Internet applications seem to be satisfied with the existing levels of security and identification. Email, for instance, is often selfidentifying through the content of the message. Forged email, while easy to create in the current architecture, is not perceived to be a major problem. 40

Cyberspace and Cyber Crimes

Email eavesdropping, also a relatively simple technical task, has not slowed the flood of email communications. Online commerce is booming even based on systems requiring credit card numbers and the overly revealing identification that credit card numbers enable. Market Barriers The market barriers to the implementation of a secure Internet identification system stem from the difficult business economics inherent in solving this type of problem. One of the key problems is that, there is significant business model risk for companies providing identity verification solutions. In other words, it is unclear exactly how these companies can make money. In addition, economic incentives do not encourage the development of an openstandard identity infrastructure. Ultimately, success of an openstandard identification architecture, such as our proposed system, may require government intervention in the marketplace. Legal Barriers The most critical legal obstacle to the development and adoption of any effective digital identity mechanism is the current confusion over legal liability rules. In other words, who is responsible if someone’s digital identity is misused or stolen? Who bears the cost if a digital identification mechanism is compromised? The lack of a clear legal liability regime for these two issues discourages the cyberspace identity market from emerging in the first place and from operating efficiently once it does become widespread. Legislatures may need to enact liability laws that cover digital identity before the identity infrastructure can be effectively implemented. The appropriate liability rules must reconcile two competing principles. First, because the market for the digital identity mechanisms is in its infancy, the selected liability rules must help create incentives that will drive towards the widespread adoption of a secure identity infrastructure. According to this goal, the liability for identity misuse should be placed on whichever party can best induce the introduction and implementation of the identity architecture. Second, in order to have an efficiently operating marketplace for identity mechanisms, it is desirable for the selected liability rules to place liability on the party who is the “least cost avoider” of harm. Adopting this goal, liability for identity misuse should be placed on whoever is best able to avoid misuse of the digital identity. If these two goals point towards the same party, both goals can be accomplished together. However, if these two goals suggest that different parties should bear liability, then one goal or another must be made paramount or the goals must be balanced. Architectural Barriers In broad terms, there are just three types of identification mechanisms. Authentication can be based on a person’s shared knowledge (such as a password); a person’s possession of unique information or device (such as a digital certificate); or a person’s inherent unique characteristics (such as a fingerprint or other biometric).

Check Your Progress 4 1)

What are the barriers before cyberspace identity mechanism can be deployed? ............................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................

3.10 SUMMARY

Elements of Information Technology

There is no proper definition of Cyberspace yet. Only some concepts have been derived. Cyberspace is the total interconnection of human beings through networked computers and telecommunications without any regard to physical geography. The difference between real space and cyberspace is that the essence of any digital transaction is unbundling. Main problems are to identify the reality. Digital Identity is the mechanism to identify the man or product through digital environment. In the present scenario, digital identity is also often viewed as a commodity. Computer crime and cyber crime seem to be similar but both are different. Computer crime belongs to any individual computer without the Internet connection i.e. physically whereas cyber crime happens in cyberspace through the Internet only. Cyberspace architecture, which is not properly defined now, is a design in which virtual space transactions are being made through digital environment. Presently the cyberspace identification mechanism is not flexible; there are a number of barriers, for example: social norms, market, legal and architectural, before a cyberspace identity mechanism could be deployed.

3.11 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS Check Your Progress 1 1.

As there is no chance of physical verification of personal identity in cyberspace, the identity, in cyberspace plays a crucial role for electronic identity. So, this electronic identity (called identity only) is viewed as valuable commodity for commercial purpose.

Check Your Progress 2 1)

Forgery, Accessing the Computer without Authorization.

Check Your Progress 3 1)

In practice, there is no specific architecture defined for cyberspace but some theoretical concept has been yet proposed for the same like link and nolink architecture for architecture frame work.

Check Your Progress 4 1)

The cyberspace identification mechanism is not flexible; there are a number of barriers, for example: social norms, market, legal and architectural, before a cyberspace identity mechanism could be deployed.

3.12 FURTHER READINGS 42

Cyberspace and Cyber Crimes

1) 2) 3)

“Cybernotary Subcommittee Home Page”. Section of Science and Technology Law. <www.abanet.org/scitech/ec/cn/home.html>. “Digital & Electronic Signatures”. WTV Home page. 5Dec.1997. Winchel “Todd” Vincent, II.8Jan.2007 <members.aol.com/Winchel3/Links/Legal/Signatures/Signatures LegalLinks.htm>. Uniform Electronic Transactions Act,23 March, 1998.

UNIT 1

E-COMMERCE

E-Commerce

Structure 1.0 1.1 1.2

1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13

Introduction Objectives E-Commerce: Definition 1.2.1 Commerce and Internet Advantages and Limitations 1.3.1 Advantages of E-Commerce 1.3.2 Limitations and Constraints of E-Commerce E-Commerce Business Operations 1.4.1 Consumer Oriented E-Commerce Applications Benefits from Various Points of View Types of E-Commerce Storage of Information Systems of Payments 1.7.1 Methods of Implementing Systems of Payments over the Web Security Issues 1.8.1 Digital Signatures and Certificates 1.8.2 Secure Socket Layer (SSL) 1.8.3 PCI, SET, Firewalls and Kerberos 1.8.4 Transactions ATM and Online Banking 1.9.1 Online Banking 1.9.2 Online Banking Safety Checks Online Purchase of Railway Tickets Summary Solutions / Answers Further Readings

1.0

INTRODUCTION

1.3

1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

1.9

Commerce has a long tradition of profiting from innovative systems and tools. As technologies emerge, successful businesses are quick to identify developing opportunities and expand their commercial capabilities. Conducting commerce electronically is no different. For many businesses, new technologies that digitally exchange text and monetary information are effective tools to serve traditional business goals of streamlining services, developing new markets, and creating innovative business opportunities. In addition, they offer the potential to develop types of services that are so innovative and distinct from tradition that they define a new type of commerce. Appropriately named, electronic commerce (E-Commerce) is the synthesis of traditional business practices with computer, information and communication technologies.

http://store.templatemonster.com/?aff=orlandowebE-Commerce is not an entirely new type of commerce. It first emerged in the 1960's on private networks, as typically large organizations developed electronic data interchange (EDI) installations and banks implemented electronic funds transfer (EFT). Today, however, E-Commerce is no longer the exclusive domain of large organizations or private networks. The open network Internet and particularly the World Wide Web not only present new commercial potential for large organizations, but also provide a viable entry point for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) into E-Commerce opportunities.

IT in Action

Even though E-Commerce has existed for past several years, it has just recently sustained significant growth. In the past 5 years, the Internet has transformed from an auxiliary communication medium for academics and large organizations into an entrenched communication medium that spans across nearly all parts of mainstream society. E-Commerce growth is tied directly to these socio-technological changes. The more entrenched the medium becomes; the more users are drawn to it. An increase in users increases markets. As markets expand, more businesses are attracted, which in turn drives the development of better, more stable and secure technology to facilitate E-Commerce. A stable, secure environment for exchanging mission-critical and monetary information only draws more businesses and consumers to the Internet and ensures the growth pattern continues. All these related factors contribute to a burgeoning E-Commerce marketplace that should continue to grow well into the new millennium. Only now it is becoming apparent how large the potential for E-Commerce will be in the next few years. With E-Commerce prospects continuing to improve, most large corporations have already developed preliminary E-Commerce strategies. Although many SMEs are not following this trend of large corporations, others have found that a modest investment in a simple website can develop into a commitment to ECommerce as a major component of the business plan. At this stage of development, E-Commerce is not an essential operation for every type of SME, but in the near future it may become standard for many. In this Unit, we will study about the concept of E-Commerce, how it will be done, advantages, benefits, limitations, types of E-Commerce, electronic payment systems and security issues.

1.1

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to: • understand the concept of E-Commerce; • list the advantages and disadvantages of E-Commerce; • differentiate between traditional commerce and E-Commerce; • describe the types of E-Commerce; • discuss the various electronic payment modes; and • describe the security issues pertaining to the online transactions.

1.2

E-COMMERCE: DEFINITION

Electronic commerce or E-Commerce is a term for any type of business, or commercial transaction that involves the transfer of information across the Internet. It covers a range of different types of businesses, from consumer based retail sites, through auction or music sites, to business exchanges trading goods and services between corporations. It is currently one of the most important aspects of the Internet to emerge. E-Commerce allows consumers to electronically exchange goods and services with no barriers of time or distance. Electronic commerce has expanded rapidly over the past five years and is predicted to continue at this rate, or even accelerate. In the near future, the boundaries between “conventional” and “electronic” commerce will become increasingly blurred as more and more businesses move sections of their operations onto the Internet.

1.2.1

Commerce and the Internet

E-Commerce

There are a number of ways in which companies can make money from the internet. Probably the best known way of making money is by selling some commodity; this could be a non-IT commodity such as a CD or item of clothing or it could be some piece of application software, a font, a browser plug-in or an operating system. Other forms of revenue rising are: • Auction sites which auction items on the Internet and make profits by taking some commission from the sales. • Affiliate sites which contain a link to a normal retailing site and are paid when a visitor from the affiliate site makes a visit to the retail site to make a purchase. The affiliate site will usually attract visitors by offering some information such as providing links to resources and tutorials on some specific topic or technology such as Java. • Banner adverts. These advertisements will contain links to the company doing the advertising; they will be displayed on a site and will result in some revenue being earned by the site owner when the banner advert is clicked. • Bulk-buying sites where a site collects a number of users together all of whom want to buy some item; the site negotiates a discount with the supplier and takes a commission. • Shopping malls where a number of e-commerce sellers congregate together on the same website; often these sellers will be related to each other, for example they may all sell luxury goods. The mall owner takes a percentage of their profit. • Portals which contain massive amounts of material on a particular topic, for example a portal devoted to fishing. Such sites will contain thousands of resource links, tutorials and indexes. They will also contain links to merchants who sell goods associated with the portal topic. There may be a number of ways that the portal owner would make money, for example they could be paid by a merchant for each visit from the portal or the merchant may pay a flat fee for being included in the portal. • Digital publishing sites which are effectively magazines on the web. They make profits in a number of ways including advertising and charging vendors for references to their website. • Licensing sites which make some software available to other sites, for example search engines which allow a visitor to the site to search for material more easily. • Community sites: These are like portals but involve the visitors more, for example a community site devoted to nurses might include a number of chat rooms which allow nurses to talk together in real time and swap advice. Money is made from such sites in the same way as with portals. • Name-your-price sites are websites where the buyer haggles with the retailer and names what price they will pay for a particular product. Such sites make profits in the same way as normal retail sites. Such applications have changed the face of retailing, for example the fast communication of the Internet has made bulk buying sites feasible and popular and has given rise to a number of novel commercial models. The most popular model is one which involves a pyramid of services, ranging from those that are free, to those which are charged at a premium rate. For example, a site which sells a piece of software might give the basic software away for free and then offer increasingly more sophisticated versions of the software to buyers. This form of partially free charging has percolated down from the internet to conventional software sales; for example, the company Qualcomm that markets the Eudora email reader makes a version of the program available for no cost, but will charge for fully featured versions. 7

IT in Action

1.3

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

E-commerce provides many new ways for businesses and consumers to communicate and conduct business. There are a number of advantages and disadvantages of conducting business in this manner. 1.3.1

Advantages of E-Commerce

Some advantages that can be achieved from e-commerce include:

•

Being able to conduct business 24 x 7 x 365.: E-commerce systems can operate all day every day. Your physical storefront does not need to be open in order for customers and suppliers to be doing business with you electronically.

•

Access the global marketplace: The Internet spans the world, and it is possible to do business with any business or person who is connected to the Internet. Simple local businesses such as specialist record stores are able to market and sell their offerings internationally using e-commerce. This global opportunity is assisted by the fact that, unlike traditional communications methods, users are not charged according to the distance over which they are communicating.

•

Speed: Electronic communications allow messages to traverse the world almost instantaneously. There is no need to wait weeks for a catalogue to arrive by post: that communications delay is not a part of the Internet / ecommerce world.

•

Marketspace: The market in which web-based businesses operate is the global market. It may not be evident to them, but many businesses are already facing international competition from web-enabled businesses.

•

Opportunity to reduce costs: The Internet makes it very easy to 'shop around' for products and services that may be cheaper or more effective than we might otherwise settle for. It is sometimes possible to, through some online research, identify original manufacturers for some goods - thereby bypassing wholesalers and achieving a cheaper price.

•

Computer platform-independent: Many, if not most, computers have the ability to communicate via the Internet independent of operating systems and hardware. Customers are not limited by existing hardware systems.

•

Efficient applications development environment: In many respects, applications can be more efficiently developed and distributed because the can be built without regard to the customer's or the business partner's technology platform. Application updates do not have to be manually installed on computers. Rather, Internet-related technologies provide this capability inherently through automatic deployment of software updates.

•

Allowing customer self service and 'customer outsourcing': People can interact with businesses at any hour of the day that it is convenient to them, and because these interactions are initiated by customers, the customers also provide a lot of the data for the transaction that may otherwise need to be entered by business staff. This means that some of the work and costs are effectively shifted to customers; this is referred to as 'customer outsourcing'.

•

Stepping beyond borders to a global view. Using aspects of e-commerce technology can mean your business can source and use products and services provided by other businesses in other countries..

•

A new marketing channel: The Internet provides an important new channel to sell to consumers.

1.3.2

Limitations and Constraints of E-Commerce

E-Commerce

Some disadvantages and constraints of e-commerce include the following. •

Time for delivery of physical products: It is possible to visit a local music store and walk out with a compact disc or a bookstore and leave with a book. E-commerce is often used to buy goods that are not available locally from businesses all over the world, meaning that physical goods need to be delivered, which takes time and costs money. In some cases there are ways around this, for example, with electronic files of the music or books being accessed across the Internet, but then these are not physical goods.

•

Physical product, supplier and delivery uncertainty: When you walk out of a shop with an item, it's yours. You have it; you know what it is, where it is and how it looks. In some respects e-commerce purchases are made on trust. This is because, firstly, not having had physical access to the product, a purchase is made on an expectation of what that product is and its condition. Secondly, because supplying businesses can be conducted across the world, it can be uncertain whether or not they are legitimate businesses and are not just going to take your money. It's pretty hard to knock on their door to complain or seek legal recourse! Thirdly, even if the item is sent, it is easy to start wondering whether or not it will ever arrive.

•

Perishable goods:. Forget about ordering a single gelato ice cream from a shop in Rome! Though specialized or refrigerated transport can be used, goods bought and sold via the Internet tend to be durable and non-perishable: they need to survive the trip from the supplier to the purchasing business or consumer. This shifts the bias for perishable and/or non-durable goods back towards traditional supply chain arrangements, or towards relatively more local e-commerce-based purchases, sales and distribution. In contrast, durable goods can be traded from almost anyone to almost anyone else, sparking competition for lower prices. In some cases this leads to disintermediation in which intermediary people and businesses are bypassed by consumers and by other businesses that are seeking to purchase more directly from manufacturers.

•

Limited and selected sensory information: The Internet is an effective conduit for visual and auditory information: seeing pictures, hearing sounds and reading text. However it does not allow full scope for our senses: we can see pictures of the flowers, but not smell their fragrance; we can see pictures of a hammer, but not feel its weight or balance. Further, when we pick up and inspect something, we choose what we look at and how we look at it. This is not the case on the Internet. If we were looking at buying a car on the Internet, we would see the pictures the seller had chosen for us to see but not the things we might look for if we were able to see it in person. And, taking into account our other senses, we can't test the car to hear the sound of the engine as it changes gears or sense the smell and feel of the leather seats. There are many ways in which the Internet does not convey the richness of experiences of the world. This lack of sensory information means that people are often much more comfortable buying via the Internet generic goods - things that they have seen or experienced before and about which there is little ambiguity, rather than unique or complex things.

•

Returning goods: Returning goods online can be an area of difficulty. The uncertainties surrounding the initial payment and delivery of goods can be exacerbated in this process. Will the goods get back to their source? Who pays for the return postage? Will the refund be paid? Will I be left with nothing? How long will it take? Contrast this with the offline experience of returning goods to a shop. 9

IT in Action

•

Privacy, security, payment, identity, and contract: Many issues arise privacy of information, security of that information and payment details, whether or not payment details (eg credit card details) will be misused, identity theft, contract, and, whether we have one or not, what laws and legal jurisdiction apply.

•

Defined services and the unexpected: E-commerce is an effective means for managing the transaction of known and established services, that is, things that are everyday. It is not suitable for dealing with the new or unexpected. For example, a transport company used to dealing with simple packages being asked if it can transport a hippopotamus, or a customer asking for a book order to be wrapped in blue and white polka dot paper with a bow. Such requests need human intervention to investigate and resolve.

•

Personal service: Although some human interaction can be facilitated via the web, e-commerce can not provide the richness of interaction provided by personal service. For most businesses, e-commerce methods provide the equivalent of an information-rich counter attendant rather than a salesperson. This also means that feedback about how people react to product and service offerings also tends to be more granular or perhaps lost using e-commerce approaches. If your only feedback is that people are (or are not) buying your products or services online, this is inadequate for evaluating how to change or improve your e-commerce strategies and/or product and service offerings. Successful business use of e-commerce typically involves strategies for gaining and applying customer feedback. This helps businesses to understand, anticipate and meet changing online customer needs and preferences, which is critical because of the comparatively rapid rate of ongoing Internet-based change.

•

Size and number of transactions: E-commerce is most often conducted using credit card facilities for payments, and as a result very small and very large transactions tend not to be conducted online. The size of transactions is also impacted by the economics of transporting physical goods. For example, any benefits or conveniences of buying a box of pens online from a US-based business tend to be eclipsed by the cost of having to pay for them to be delivered to you in Australia. The delivery costs also mean that buying individual items from a range of different overseas businesses is significantly more expensive than buying all of the goods from one overseas business because the goods can be packaged and shipped together.

1.4

E-COMMERCE BUSINESS OPERATIONS

By virtue of its similarities, the scope of operations for E-Commerce is nearly as broad as traditional commerce. E-Commerce includes both traditional activities (e.g. providing product information) and new activities (e.g. conducting online retail in virtual malls, publishing digital information). Some of the common operations that define E-Commerce are specific business-to-business and business-to-customer interactions, such as: • • • • • • • • 10

http://store.templatemonster.com/?aff=orlandowebInformation exchange Goods or services trading Sales promotion and advertising Online digital content delivery Electronic funds transfers and transaction processing Electronic share trading Electronic bills of lading processing Collaborative work interaction

• • • • • • • •

Manufacturing management Accounts settlement Online sourcing Public procurement Direct consumer marketing Inventory management Post-sales service Commercial auctions.

E-Commerce

Although every E-Commerce implementation will differ, most SMEs focus operations on: • • •

Product promotion via online catalogues Transaction processing (exchanging digitized monetary information) Customer Support.

E-Commerce conducted over the Internet differs from typical commercial activity in that it is influenced by the unique characteristics of the medium itself. In contrast to print media, E-Commerce is dynamic, allowing users to interact with the commercial site, send comments, and even define the scope of a document. Unlike person-toperson commerce, E-Commerce allows for a controlled interaction between vendor and potential purchaser, where the vendor may strategically direct the customer through a series of options and processes. E-Commerce also differs from traditional commerce by its boundless relation to time and space. Interaction is not restricted to normal working hours or geopolitical borders. There is potential to conduct business with other merchants and consumers around the world in different time zones, 7 days a week, 24 hours a day.

1.4.1

Consumer Oriented E-Commerce Applications

The wide range of applications for the consumer marketplace can be broadly classified into: • • • •

1.5

Entertainment: Movies on demand, video cataloging, interactive ads, multiuser games, on-line discussions. Financial services and information: Home baking, financial services, and financial news. Essential services: Home shopping, electronic catalogs, tele-medicine, remote diagnostics. Educational and training: Interactive education, video conferencing, online databases.

BENEFITS FROM VARIOUS POINTS OF VIEW

In the short-term, entry into E-Commerce may offer a competitive advantage over slower to act competitors. The market for E-Commerce is growing; as more consumers and businesses gain Internet access and transaction processing technologies improve security. Companies that establish an operation today, still in the early stages of Internet based E-Commerce, will have a fuller understanding of the issues and be better prepared to capitalize on emerging technologies when E-Commerce markets open up in the next few years.

IT in Action

The benefits of E-Commerce have various views which include: From business point of view • Extend the range of sales territory • Streamline communication to suppliers and clients • Expand reach to new clients • Improve service to existing clients • Reduce paperwork and time spent on correspondence • Track customer satisfaction • Expedite billing • Improve collaboration on work projects • Expand markets beyond geographical, national boundaries • Leverage legacy data • Improve inventory control, order processing • Establish position in emerging E-Commerce marketplace • Lower costs of overhead • Realize economies of scale by increasing sales volume to new markets • Monitor competition and industry trends • Improve or expand product lines - locate new suppliers, products that could be included in catalogue. For marketing point of view • Improved market analysis, product analysis and customer analysis. • Low-cost advertising • Easy to create and maintain customer o client database From customer point of view • Wide-scale information dissemination • Wide selection of good products and goods at the low price • Rapid inter-personal communications and information accesses • Wider access to assistance and to advice from experts and peers. • Save shopping time and money • Fast services and delivery.

1.6

TYPES OF E-COMMERCE

There are a number of different types of e-commerce:

Business to Consumer (B2C): It is the direct trade between companies and end consumers. This is the direct selling via the Internet. For example: selling goods direct to customer and anyone can buy any products from the supplier’s website. In this mode is intended to benefit the consumer and can say business to consumer (B2C) E-Commerce works as retail store over internet.

Business to Business (B2B): Business to business E-Commerce existed in marketing from the very beginning. It is the trade that takes place between companies. Terms like off-shoring and outsourcing are generally associated with B2B E-Commerce. For example: If I give my company’s payroll work to another accounting firm, it would be deemed as outsourcing. The term offshoring decides the outsourcing term further. If the work is outsourced to a company, which is outside the geographical boundary of the country in which the outsourcing company resides, it is termed as off-shoring.

Consumer to Business (C2B): In today’s E-Commerce arena, it is growing trend wherein consumers demand specific products or services from

respective businesses. For example: I contact a tour and travel operator via their website for purchasing a holiday package. Consumer to business E-Commerce is growing at a rapid pace and the trend is set to continue in the future. 4)

Consumer to Consumer (C2C): Usually, this type of E-Commerce works as Consumer to Business to Consumer (C2B2C). It essentially means that a consumer would contact a business in search for a suitable customer. Most of the auction websites (like eBay) and matrimonial websites are working on this methodology.

Business to Employee (B2E): Business to Employee e-commerce is growing in use. This form of e-commerce is more commonly known as an 'Intranet'. An intranet is a web site developed to provide employees of an organization with information. The intranet is usually accessed through the organization’s network, though it can and is often extended to an entrant who uses the Internet but restricts uses by sign-on and password.

E-Commerce

Apart from the types of E-Commerce mentioned above, there are various other hybrid forms of E-Commerce being practiced in today’s globalized world. Choosing the appropriate model is crucial and vital for the business firm. G2G (Government-to-Government), G2E (Government-to-Employee), G2B (Government-to-Business), B2G (Business-to-Government), G2C (Government-toCitizen), C2G (Citizen-to-Government) are other forms of E-Commerce that involve transactions with the government - from procurement to filing taxes to business registrations to renewing licenses.

1.7

SYSTEMS OF PAYMENTS

Majorly, there are four business payment methods which include: 1) 2) 3) 4)

Processes that use existing credit/debit card Models. Funds Transfer request to the Banks through existing ECS, EFT, SWIFT etc.. OR On-line debit /credit to respective accounts. Electronic Funds Transfer using Digital Check Electronic monetary alternatives (Digital “Cash”) • Electronic Wallets • Stored-Value (Smart) Card

Let us see the details of them: •

Credit card-based: if consumer want to purchase a product or service, they simply send their credit card details to the service provider involved and the credit card organization will handle this payment like any other.

•

Smart card: these are credit and debit cards and other card products enhanced with microprocessors capable of holding more information than the traditional magnetic stripe. The chip can store significantly greater amounts of data, estimated to be 80 times more than a magnetic stripe. Smart card are basically of two types: •

Relationship based smart credit cards: this is an enhancement of existing card service and/or the addition of new service that a financial institution delivers to its customers via chip-based card or other service. These new services may include access to multiple financial accounts, value-added marketing programmes, or their information cardholders may want to store on their card. 13

•

IT in Action

Electronic Purses: these are wallet-sized smart cards embedded with programmable microchips that store sums of money for people to use instead of cash fro everything from buying food to paying subway fares.

•

Digital and electronic cash: Also called e-cash, these terms refer to any of several schemes that allow a person to pay for goods or services by transmitting a number from one computer to another. The number, just like those on a dollar bill, is issued by a bank and represents specified sums of real money. One of the key features of digital cash is that it’s anonymous and reusable, just like real cash. This is a key difference between e-cash and credit card transactions over the Internet.

•

Electronic checks: currently being tested by Cybercash, electronic checking system such as Paynow take money from users’ checking accounts to pay utility and phone bills.

•

Electronic wallet: this is a payment scheme, such as a Cybercash’s Internet Wallet, that stores your credit card number on your hard drive in an encrypted form. You can then make purchases at web sites that support that particular electronic wallet. When you go to a participating online store, you click a Pay button to initiate a credit card payment via a secure transaction enabled by the electronic wallet company’s server. The major browser vendors have struck deals to include electronic wallet technology in their products.

•

Micropayments: Transaction in amount between 25 cents and $10, typically made in order to download or access graphics, games and information are known as micropayments. Pay-as-you-go micropayment was supposed to revolutionize the world of e-commerce.

1.7.1

Methods of Implementing Systems of Payments over the Web

There are many possibilities for conducting transactions over the web, from simple and cheap to complicated and expensive. Let us see some of them: PayPal The cheapest/easiest is PayPal - this is an inexpensive way to start taking payments quickly, especially if you don't have a merchant account. With PayPal, your visitors can pay you with a credit card or by sending a payment from their checking account (echeck). PayPal provides a shopping cart and many other free services that are helpful to sites that are starting out. They charge 2.9% +$.30 per transaction and have no start-up fees. PayPal is inexpensive both because there are no merchant account or payment gateway fees, but also because PayPal provides a very easy way to integrate their shopping cart into your site, which reduces development time. To implement it, just sign up with PayPal, click on Merchant Tools, and then on Make Shopping Cart Buttons. You will input your options for each product and it will produce a snippet of HTML code which you put in your page where you want the "Add to Cart" button to be. Non-profit Payment Solutions A similar solution just for non-profits is Network for Good, which allows you to accept credit card donations on your site. They charge 3% of each transaction. 14

E-Commerce

Mal's E-commerce Cart This is also an inexpensive option and is a free solution. Mal's is a shopping cart system that is remotely hosted. With the free version, you can accept PayPal, offline payments like checks, and credit cards if you have your own way to charge them already. It will store the numbers securely for you to run offline. For $6 a month you can upgrade your cart so it can integrate with a number of popular payment gateways like Authorize.net. In this case you would also be responsible for merchant account and payment gateway fees. Fully featured shopping carts Finally, there is the option of creating a full e-commerce solution. This involves several different components - a merchant account from a bank, a payment gateway service that allows you to accept payments into your merchant account from your website (this is sometimes bundled with the merchant account as a complete package), a shopping cart or payment script that integrates with your payment gateway, and certain elements of the server environment like having an SSL certificate and a static IP. There are some shopping carts that are available as pre-packaged scripts such as ClearCart that can be customized for your situation, or a custom payment script can be developed that exactly matches your needs. Full e-commerce is much more expensive and time-consuming to develop than PayPal or Mal's, but it can be integrated into your site for a truly seamless payment experience. It can also save you money in the long run if you are doing a high volume of sales. Merchant Accounts There are many merchant accounts to choose from, often including your local bank. E-onlinedata is the merchant account provider. It is the company that had the best balance of low fees, solid customer service, and experience serving online merchants.

1.8

SECURITY ISSUES

Most E-Commerce merchants leave the mechanics to their hosting company or IT staff, but it helps to understand the basic principles. Any system has to meet four requirements: • • • •

Privacy: information must be kept from unauthorized parties. Integrity: message must not be altered or tampered with. Authentication: sender and recipient must prove their identities to each other. Non-repudiation: proof is needed that the message was indeed received.

Privacy is handled by encryption. In PKI (public key infrastructure) a message is encrypted by a public key, and decrypted by a private key. The public key is widely distributed, but only the recipient has the private key. For authentication (proving the identity of the sender, since only the sender has the particular key) the encrypted message is encrypted again, but this time with a private key. Such procedures form the basis of RSA (used by banks and governments) and PGP (Pretty Good Privacy, used to encrypt emails). Unfortunately, PKI is not an efficient way of sending large amounts of information, and is often used only as a first step — to allow two parties to agree upon a key for symmetric secret key encryption. Here sender and recipient use keys that are generated for the particular message by a third body: a key distribution center. The keys are not identical, but each is shared with the key distribution center, which allows the message to be read. Then the symmetric keys are encrypted in the RSA 15

IT in Action

manner, and rules set under various protocols. Naturally, the private keys have to be kept secret, and most security lapses indeed arise here.

1.8.1

Digital Signatures and Certificates

Digital signatures meet the need for authentication and integrity. To vastly simplify matters, a plain text message is run through a hash function and so given a value: the message digest. This digest, the hash function and the plain text encrypted with the recipient's public key is sent to the recipient. The recipient decodes the message with their private key, and runs the message through the supplied hash function to that the message digest value remains unchanged (message has not been tampered with). Very often, the message is also time stamped by a third party agency, which provides nonrepudiation. What about authentication? How does a customer know that the website receiving sensitive information is not set up by some other party posing as the E-Merchant? They check the digital certificate. This is a digital document issued by the CA (certification authority: Verisign, Thawte, etc.) that uniquely identifies the merchant. Digital certificates are sold for emails, e-merchants and web-servers.

1.8.2

Secure Socket Layer (SSL)

Information sent over the Internet commonly uses the set of rules called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol). The information is broken into packets, numbered sequentially, and an error control attached. Individual packets are sent by different routes. TCP/IP reassembles them in order and resubmits any packet showing errors. SSL uses PKI and digital certificates to ensure privacy and authentication. The procedure is something like this: the client sends a message to the server, which replies with a digital certificate. Using PKI, server and client negotiate to create session keys, which are symmetrical secret keys specially created for that particular transmission. Once the session keys are agreed, communication continues with these session keys and the digital certificates. 1.8.3

PCI, SET, Firewalls and Kerberos

Credit card details can be safely sent with SSL, but once stored on the server they are vulnerable to outsiders hacking into the server and accompanying network. A PCI (peripheral component interconnect: hardware) card is often added for protection, therefore, or another approach altogether is adopted: SET (Secure Electronic Transaction). Developed by Visa and MasterCard, SET uses PKI for privacy, and digital certificates to authenticate the three parties: merchant, customer and bank. More importantly, sensitive information is not seen by the merchant, and is not kept on the merchant's server. Firewalls (software or hardware) protect a server, a network and an individual PC from attack by viruses and hackers. Equally important is protection from malice or carelessness within the system, and many companies use the Kerberos protocol, which uses symmetric secret key cryptography to restrict access to authorized employees.

1.8.4

Transactions

Sensitive information has to be protected through at least three transactions:

â&#x20AC;˘

Credit card details supplied by the customer, either to the merchant or payment gateway. Handled by the server's SSL and the merchant/server's digital certificates.

â&#x20AC;˘

Credit card details passed to the bank for processing. Handled by the complex security measures of the payment gateway.

•

Order and customer details supplied to the merchant, either directly or from the payment gateway/credit card processing company. Handled by SSL, server security, digital certificates (and payment gateway sometimes).

E-Commerce

Let us see the following Table 1.1 for better understanding: Table 1.1: Security Issues, Solutions and Implementers

THREAT Site Security

Message Security

SOLUTION Firewalls

IMPLEMENTOR Consumer

Physical Measures

Merchant

Operating Procedures Encryption

Acquirer Software

SSL-HTTP

Message Authentication

SET-Card Payment Digital Signatures

Software

Message Integrity

Public Key Certificates Message Hashes

Certification Authority Software

Digital Signatures

Certification Authority

Public Key Certificates Let us discuss another application namely ATM and online banking in the next section.

1.9

ATM AND ONLINE BANKING

ATM sometime known as all time money and any time money but the exact meaning of ATM is ‘Automated Teller Machine’. In other words it is a machine, which automatically works on telecommunication electronic principals. It is a computer like machine, which don’t want any full time operator on it. Who ever are using it will become the operator of it and this machine it self will tell what to do next after completing a step. This machine will enable people to withdraw and deposit money without the help of any bank clerk. Any person who is the customer of a particular bank and have an ATM card with him can use the ATM of that particular bank only. For example if I am the customer of Punjab National Bank and I also have the ATM card of that bank, then I can use any ATM of Punjab National Bank or any other banks associated with it. It means ATM is bank specific. If an ATM is supporting more than one bank then the customers of those banks can use the same ATM. ATM card always embedded with a magnetic strip, which contain either a unique number or some security information or both. Along with this card customer is provided with a PIN (Personal identification number) to make it sure that right man is using the right card. Thief can steal card but until or unless he/she is not having its associated PIN one cannot use it as PIN confirms the ownership of the card in the machine. Firstly man need to insert the card inside the ATM machine (or need to swap the card from magnetic side at mentioned place) so that machine could read the unique number or also may check the other security information encrypted in the card. After that person needs to fill his/her PIN in the machine manually to verify the usages. Through this PIN, ATM provides security to its user.

IT in Action

ATM machine (see the Figure 1.1) is just like a computer, which is attached with the server for accessing the database. In this case each and ever ATM is attached with its concerned bank server for accessing the customer detail. The connection can be established through modem or leased line; the choice depends on the desirable speed. Modem is rather slower than the leased line connection. An ATM therefore requires: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

CPU: to control the transaction and computer-user interface. Vault: restricted access machinery storage area. ATM card: to identify the customer. PAD: pad will include calculator like structure, to insert manual instruction/data. Crypto processor: to convert the human readable language (English) into secret code and vice-versa. Function keys / Touch screen: to carry on the process (where the process options are mentioned and user need to select the option) Printer: to provide hard record of the transaction. Dispensing Machine: to provide cash out of the machine.

Figure 1.1: An ATM Machine

After getting a little idea of hardware requirement of the ATM, let’s talk about the software. ATM generally stores off-the-shelf software inside itself. It is commercial software. Generally ATM prefer the Microsoft Operating system because they are more user friendly in comparison to JAVA, UNIX and LINUX etc. and the most important protocol is ‘Transaction protocol’ in the ATM. The process of the ATM starts with physical security that’s why, now-a-days in spite of swapping the card inside the machine one need to swap it at the gate to take permission to enter into the ATM room. After entry one need to swap/insert the card in the machine also to stat the process of the machine. On demand the PIN is to be entered manually to restrict unauthorized access. After that the ATM will work as per your instructions. It maintains the records of the transaction and also the security of the currency stored in it. 18

E-Commerce

1.9.1

Online Banking

Online banking, also known as Internet banking allows customers to conduct financial transactions on a secure website operated by their retail or virtual bank. The system allowed on-line viewing/checking of statements, bank transfers and bill payments.

Figure1.2: Sample Online banking website Source website: ICICI Bank

Security is provided through userid and password. Every customer is provided distinct single password to use the online service. This password is in encrypted form which makes it next to impossible for a third party to obtain or modify information after it is sent. Advantages of online banking are: 1) 2) 3) 4)

Convenience Safety Secure Time saving

In general if a bank is has its website (for example, see the figure 1.2) it provides the facility of operating her/his account online in a secure mode (by paying some nominal fees or may be free). This is called as online banking. Online banking provides some of the following services to its customer: 1)

Account summary: A customer can check or view its account summary online just by logging on the internet or by entering the account number. It help in make it sure that your money is where it's supposed to be is getting simpler all the time with online banking. One can safely monitor his money 19

IT in Action

movement without standing in the queue. Online banking provides privacy, accuracy and convenience. 2)

Fund transfer: in order to make bank-to-bank transfer one can do this online. Fund can be transfer online on Internet. A written instruction needs to be sent to bank online. On the basis of instruction bank transfer the fund from one bank to another, one account to another and many more transfers.

Bill Payment: Now a day peoples have les time to stand in queue for payment of bills like electricity, water, and telephone etc. Online banking provides such facility also. On the request of customer bank pay your bill on your behalf. After payment of bill a written feedback if sent by bank to the customer to verify the transaction. Some time bank sent the SMS also on the mobile to verify the transaction.

Investment purchase or sale: Through bank investment can be purchased or sale out online. Bank provide the facility of DEMAT Account which allow his customer to purchase investment like shares, mutual fund etc. online.

Loan applications: one either the customer or non-customer client can apply for loan online. One can have all the instruction regarding applying, terms and condition etc. online. Loan form is available online.

Opening a new account: account open forms are also available online. One can apply for new account online.

1.8.2

Online Banking Safety Checks

With the rapid increase in use of technology by the companies / individuals, for banking as well as nonbanking activities, it is imperative that each user is aware of prudent use of computers and gadgets. Enjoy the convenience of Online Banking with just a few simple safety checks as given below: PC Security • It is essential to update antivirus software regularly with a personal firewall and spyware programme. • It is also important to ascertain that firewall is ON, if the computer is used in cyber cafes or is not self owned. Precautions while logging in • Always access a bank’s Internet banking website only by typing the correct URL (website address) into the browser. • Never click a link sent in an e-mail that is supposed to link to the bank’s website • A spurious link could be a fraudster’s phishing attack designed to collect personal information • This information is then used for accessing accounts and making unauthorized transfer of funds • In case of doubt, immediately contact the bank. Confirm that the website is secure When you use the Internet for banking, check that the session is secure by: • Checking presence of digital certificate, a padlock or key at the bottom right hand corner. Double click on this icon to view information about the organization with which you have entered into a secure session. • Verify the name of the website displayed in the top bar to avoid entering a spoof (false) website. 20

Ensure to log out Always log off completely when you have finished your internet banking activity.

E-Commerce

Special caution for e-mails from unknown sources • Never reply to any email that is received from unknown people asking about confidential information or payment of fees etc., for surprise gifts. Example: You have won lottery – $100,000 • Be careful with such email; do not fill up any form given in such emails, most likely it is for phishing (fishing out information from you). • Be very suspicious of any person who ask for your log-in-ID, password, account details, card details, or similar sensitive information • Be especially careful about opening an e-mail with an attachment. Check your transactions regularly • •

It is very important to check your bank statements regularly to identify any erroneous or unauthorized transaction. You can also register for SMS alert services for your banking transactions and electronic statements provided by most banks (for example, from ATM).

Keep your Banking documents safe • Destroy expired debit / credit cards and other old statements that are not required and may contain sensitive personal information.

1.10 ONLINE PURCHASE OF RAILWAY TICKETS After reading the heading you might have wondered whether we can buy tickets online. The method of buying ticket online is called E-Ticketing. This method is quite a new method. Let’s compare the traditional method with the online method of buying a railway ticket: Table 1.2: Traditional Method Vs Online Method of Buying Railway Ticket

Traditional Method Should go to a specific ticket counter to purchase ticket. Take the help of ticker seller. May be self or some other person is purchases ticket on your behalf. Tell the ticket seller source and destination station or fill in a specific reservation form. Ticket seller will tell you the trains availability, time, waiting etc. Make the payment and purchase the ticket

You take the ticket immediately and come back to home

You have only one copy of the ticket. In case of theft / lost you will be in trouble

Online Method No need to go physically to any place. Just you have to login online to the website. Read the instructions available online on the user interface to purchase the ticket. You yourself are purchasing the ticket. Fill in the source and destination stations.

A list of all the available train will appear in front of you to choose from You enter your credit and debit card detail for payment. If approved your reservation details will appear on the screen. You will simply receive an email with an attachment. The attachment can be opened and the tickets will become available for print. e-tickets can be printed an infinite of times 21

IT in Action

Hence, e-ticket is the Hassle free, convenient and economic way of purchasing ticket and getting reservation. Hassle free and convenient is very much clear from above comparison. But how it is economic? If we are purchasing ticket through Internet it means we are not taking the help of any clerk and also we are not physically going to any of the ticket reservation counters. This is saving the economic resources. Below given is the screenshot (see the Figure: 1.3) of the Indian Railways reservation interface.

Figure 1.3 Indian Railways Online Reservation Interface Source: www.irctc.co.in

When we are purchasing the ticket on line the reservation option is also available. No need to put any special effort to get the reservation. The reservation depends upon the availability of free seats. Letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s understand the process of e-ticketing from the diagram:

Request Entered: The customer needs to mention the source and destination stations either by their name by mentioning their code (through available list) and the date of journey.

Option List: A list of all the available options will come. Like the list of trains those are available from Delhi to Bombay on a specific date. It will give you the entire information relating to that particular journey like train number, train name, time, availability, time etc.

Choice: Out of the available options the customer can choose.

Purchase/Reservation: After selecting the train, it prompts to enter the details of the passengers. Press the buy the ticket key. After this it prompts to enter the credit or debit card information for purchase/reservation. The user has to give the photo identity card details of any one of the passengers, while booking the ticket. This will require entering the identity particulars of one of the passengers, who will have to carry same ID card in original while

traveling. You can take the print out of the e-ticket and travel with the help of it along with your identity proof. 5)

Other information: some other but important information are available online. It may include history, terms and conditions, acceptable identity proof etc.

Other options: it will include the information regarding cancellation and change of ticket and also the possible options in case of lost and theft.

E-Commerce

Likewise, you can book the flight tickets of various flights, movie tickets; order your meals, various items etc online. Just log on to Internet and try some of them.

Check Your Progress 1 1)

What is E-Commerce?

What steps one needs to take to utilize E-Commerce?

What is Online Payment Processing?

What is a Merchant Account?

What are the benefits of Commerce w.r.t the Seller and Customer?

1.11 SUMMARY E-Commerce is new way of conducting, managing and executing business transactions using computer and telecommunications networks. As awareness of the 23

IT in Action

Internet throughout the commercial world and general pubic increases, more and more business activities using internet based technology. The real key to making electronic commerce over the Internet a normal, every day business activity is the convergence of the telecommunications, content/media and software industries. E-commerce is expected to improve the productivity and competitiveness of participating businesses by unprecedented access to an online global market place with million of customers and thousands of products and services. In this unit, we have studied about the concept of E-Commerce, advantages, benefits, limitations, types of E-Commerce, electronic payment systems, security issues, online banking and online railway reservation.

1.12 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS Check Your Progress 1 1)

Electronic Commerce is a convenient and affordable way to sell products or services online. E-Commerce software and service such as PayPal, MalseCom, and others enables individuals to maintain an online business while performing transactions right from the Web.

The following are the steps one needs to take to utilize E-Commerce: •

First, determine your immediate and long term needs.

•

How many items will you be selling?

•

Will purchased items need to be shipped or can they be downloaded from a secure area of your site.

•

If your product needs to be shipped, will you want shipping included with your service or will your business handle it separately?

•

How often does your inventory change?

•

Will you need the ability to update products and pricing from you own computers?

When a customer purchases products from your site with a credit card, you or your site software will request approval that the card is valid and that sufficient funds are available in the customers account for the purchase. On approval, the bank will reply with an authorization number and the order will be officially “captured”. In the next step, the merchandise or service is sent to the customer and the Merchant informs the bank where the Merchant Account is held. The bank then deposits funds into the Merchant Account as the customers account is debited the cost of the products. The bank of your Merchant Account will remove the necessary service fees and complete the transaction. Offline processing entails some labor on the part of the Merchant, but is easiest to adapt an existing business. In this case, a businesses current credit card processor will suffice. Real-time processing requires little or no intervention by the Merchant, and is ideal for businesses in need of processing hundreds of orders per month. Credit Card numbers are received through the Internet and cleared by CyberCash online processing.

All merchants of all sizes and types of business must open a Merchant Account in order to receive credit card orders and clear the transactions. The Merchant Account acts as the deposit location for the customer’s money. The bank that you choose to house your Merchant Account will take a small percentage of the sale as a service fee. This fee is extracted at the point of each sale.

Seller benefits: •

Overhead cost of an E-Commerce website is generally much less than the cost of a physical storefront.

•

You have the ability to reach customers all over the world rather than being limited to a certain geographical location.

E-Commerce

Customer benefits: •

Order your products without leaving their home

•

Security knowing every transaction is secure.

•

Purchases will be delivered directly to their door.

•

Search and find what they are looking for instantly.

•

Viewing any or all of your product specifications and photographs.

•

Choosing from a variety of options such as size and color.

•

Checking how much they have "spent" before committing to a purchase.

•

Contact you for customer service.

1.13 FURTHER READINGS 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

E-Commerce – Cutting Edge of Business, Kamlesh K Bajaj, Debjani Nag, Tata McGraw Hill, 1/e, 2003. Global Electronic Commerce- Theory and Case Studies, J Christopher Westland, Theodre H K Clark, University Press. E-Commerce – an Indian perspective, P T Joseph, Prentice Hall, 2/e, 2005. E-Commerce Concepts, Models, Strategies, C S V Moorthy, Himalaya Publications. Electronic Commerce, Gari P Schneider, Thomson Course Technology, 4/e, 2004.

E-Governance

UNIT 2

E-GOVERNANCE

Structure 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10

Introduction Objectives Government, Governance and Democracy E-Governance: An Introduction Origins in India E-Governance Projects in India Measures to be considered before going for E-Governance Workplan and Infrastructure Summary Solutions / Answers Further Readings

2.0

INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, we have discussed the concept of E-Commerce, which includes the role of ICT in the area of commerce. Now let us see the role of ICT in the public administration area. Global shifts towards increased deployment of IT by governments emerged in the nineties, with the advent of the World Wide Web. What this powerful means to publish multimedia, support hyperlinked information and interactive information meant was a clearer avenue for G to C interactions and the promise of the attainment of the goals of good governance. Governments weighed down by the rising expectations and demands of a highly aware citizenry suddenly began to believe that there can be a new definition of public governance characterized by enhanced efficiency, transparency, accountability and a citizen-orientation in the adoption of IT enabled governance. In this unit, let us study the concepts of E-Governance.

2.1

OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to: • • • • • •

2.2

define the role of ICT in education ; define E-Learning, its features and benefits; discuss the E-Learning media creation tools and the communication tools; describe the teleconferencing ,its advantages and disadvantages; discuss about EDUSAT and its usage; and discuss online examination and E-Learning standards.

GOVERNMENT, GOVERNANCE AND DEMOCRACY

"Government's foremost job is to focus society on achieving the public interest. Governance is a way of describing the links between government and its broader environment - political, social, and administrative.” - Thomas B Riley Government, governance and democracy have been with us for a long while. Government and governance are both about getting the consent and cooperation of the 26

governed. Government is the formal apparatus for this objective, governance is the outcome as experienced by those on the receiving end. Governance in the public context is closely related to government and democracy, but has a different focus. These three concepts can be considered as different views or political entities. Government is the Institutional view. Democracy is the legitimacy view and Governance is the regulatory view.

IT in Action

The role of information in all areas of the private sector and in government is now paramount for continued growth and stability in our societies. Information has become the lynchpin in the way we think, act and operate as a society. The significance of the growth of ICTs, new technologies, the Internet and the rapid deployment of information and creation of information is the “potential” for change these phenomena are creating. These are pressing issues for modern governments as the new technologies are contributing to the creation of faster communications, the sharing of information and knowledge, and the emergence of new forms of our respective cultures. Networked communities are quickly evolving through the Internet, and citizens are increasingly using the new technologies to organize themselves so their voices can be heard, and to develop tools to attempt to influence government policy and programs at the political and public administration level. It is important to put the whole question of how ICTs will be used to further engage the citizenry into a wider context of democracy as we practice it. The current trend of attaching ‘e’ to just about every topic (like E-Commerce, E-Learning, E-Health, E-Governance) is nothing more than a simple way to create a name for the use of information and communications technology to support the tasks within the topic. More importantly, the use of terms such as e-government, e-governance and e-democracy, leads to the creation of an identifiable discipline. This then widens the development of the subject beyond the parameters of simply government boundaries to the larger spheres of civil society, associations, unions, the business community, international organizations and the academic world. Governance is not a synonym for government. We will study in the next section how the concepts of E-Governmentt and E-Governance differ and how workable they are in our new digital environments.

2.3

E-Governance: An Introduction

The term E-Governance has different connotations: E-Administration: The use of ICTs to modernize the state; the creation of data repositories for MIS, computerization of records. E-Services: The emphasis here is to bring the state closer to the citizens. Examples include provision of online services. E-administration and e-services together constitute what is generally termed e-government. E-Governance: The use of IT to improve the ability of government to address the needs of society. It includes the publishing of policy and programme related information to transact with citizens. It extends beyond provision of on-line services and covers the use of IT for strategic planning and reaching development goals of the government. E-Democracy: The use of IT to facilitate the ability of all sections of society to participate in the governance of the state. The remit is much broader here with a stated emphasis on transparency, accountability and participation. Examples could include online disclosure policies, online grievance redress forums and e-referendums. Conceptually, more potent. 27

E-Governance

E-governance is beyond the scope of e-government. While e-government is defined as a mere delivery of government services and information to the public using electronic means, e-governance allows direct participation of constituents in government activities. Blake Harris summarizes the e-governance as the following; E-governance is not just about government web site and e-mail. It is not just about service delivery over the Internet. It is not just about digital access to government information or electronic payments. It will change how citizens relate to governments as much as it changes how citizens relate to each other. It will bring forth new concepts of citizenship, both in terms of needs and responsibilities. E-governance will allow citizens to communicate with government, participate in the governments' policy-making and citizens to communicate each other. The egovernance will truly allow citizens to participate in the government decision-making process, reflect their true needs and welfare by utilizing e-government as a tool. Governments are specialized institutions that contribute to governance. Representative governments seek and receive citizen support, but they also need the active cooperation of their public servants. Governance is the outcome of politics, policies, and programs. The Table 2.1 summarizes the characteristics of both conventional and electronic government and governance. Table 2.1: Characteristics of Government and Governance

Government

Governance

superstructure

functionality

decisions

processes

rules

goals

roles

performance

implementation

coordination

outputs

outcomes

E-Government

E-Governance

electronic service delivery

electronic consultation

electronic workflow

electronic controllership

electronic voting

electronic engagement

electronic productivity

networked societal guidance

2.3.1

Objectives of E-Governance, E-Government and E-Democracy

E-Governance The strategic objective of e-governance is to support and simplify governance for all parties - government, citizens and businesses. The use of ICTs can connect all three parties and support processes and activities. In other words, in e-governance uses electronic means to support and stimulate good governance. Therefore the objectives of e-governance are similar to the objectives of good governance. Good governance can be seen as an exercise of economic, political, and administrative authority to better manage affairs of a country at all levels, national and local. 28

IT in Action

E-Democracy The two main objectives of e-democracy are: • To provide citizens access to information and knowledge about the political process, about services and about choices available • To make possible the transition from passive information access to active citizen participation by: • Informing the citizen • Representing the citizen • Encouraging the citizen to vote • Consulting the citizen • Involving the citizen

E-Government Regarding e-government, the distinction is made between the objectives for internally focused processes (operations) and objectives for externally focused services. External strategic objectives: The external objective of e-government is to satisfactorily fulfil the public’s needs and expectations on the front-office side, by simplifying their interaction with various online services. The use of ICTs in government operations facilitates speedy, transparent, accountable, efficient and effective interaction with the public, citizens, business and other agencies. Internal strategic objectives: In the back-office, the objective of e-government in government operations is to facilitate a speedy, transparent, accountable, efficient and effective process for performing government administration activities. Significant cost savings (per transaction) in government operations can be the result. It can be concluded that e-governance is more than just a Government website on the Internet. Political, social, economic and technological aspects determine egovernance.

2.4

ORIGINS IN INDIA

E-Governance originated in India during the seventies with a focus on in- house government applications in the areas of defence, economic monitoring, planning and the deployment of ICT to manage data intensive functions related to elections, census, tax administration etc. The efforts of the National Informatics Center (NIC) to connect all the district headquarters during the eighties was a watershed. From the early nineties, e-governance has seen the use of IT for wider sectoral applications with policy emphasis on reaching out to rural areas and taking in greater inputs from NGOs and private sector as well. There has been an increasing involvement of international donor agencies such as DfID, G-8, UNDP, and WB under the framework of egovernance for development. While the emphasis has been primarily on automation and computerization, state endeavors to use IT include forays into connectivity, networking, setting up systems for processing information and delivering services. At a micro level, this has ranged from IT automation in individual departments, electronic file handling, and access to entitlements, public grievance systems, service delivery for high volume routine transactions such as payment of bills, tax dues to meeting poverty alleviation goals through the promotion of entrepreneurial models and provision of market information. The thrust has varied across initiatives, with some focusing on enabling the citizen29

E-Governance

state interface for various government services, and others focusing on bettering livelihoods.

2.5

E-GOVERNANCE PROJECTS IN INDIA

IT revolution, a word-wide phenomenon today has stirred societies and governments to embark upon an IT-based social, educational and administrative processes. India, as one of the pioneering countries in I.T revolution has made a great stride in egovernance. Let us study some of the project state wise / union-territory wise from the Table2.2. Table 2.1 E-Governance Projects in India

State/Union Territory

Initiatives covering departmental automation, user charge collection, delivery of policy/programme information and delivery of entitlements

Andhra Pradesh

e-Seva, CARD, VOICE, MPHS, FAST, e-Cops, AP online—Onestop-shop on the Internet, Saukaryam, Online Transaction processing

Bihar

Sales Tax Administration Management Information

Chattisgarh

Chhattisgarh Infotech Promotion Society, Treasury office, e-linking project

Delhi

Automatic Vehicle Tracking System, Computerisation of website of RCS office, Electronic Clearance System, Management Information System for Education etc

Goa

Dharani Project

Gujarat

Mahiti Shakti, request for Government documents online, Form book online, G R book online, census online, tender notice.

Haryana

Nai Disha

Himachal Pradesh

Lok Mitra

Karnataka

Bhoomi, Khajane, Kaveri,Mahiti, Smart Card System

Kerala

e-Srinkhala, RDNet, Fast, Reliable, Instant, Efficient Network for the Disbursement of Services (FRIENDS)

Madhya Pradesh

Gyandoot, Gram Sampark, Smart Card in Transport Department, Computerization MP State Agricultural Marketing Board (Mandi Board) etc

Maharashtra

SETU, Online Complaint Management System—Mumbai

Rajasthan

Jan Mitra, RajSWIFT, Lokmitra, RajNIDHI

Tamil Nadu

Rasi Maiyams–Kanchipuram; Application forms related to public utility, tender notices and display

North-Eastern States

Arunachal Pradesh,

Community Information Center. Forms available on

Manipur, Meghalaya,

the Meghalaya website under schemes related to

Mizoram & Nagaland

social welfare, food civil supplies and consumer affairs, housing transport etc.

These are only a few to mention. Other than these there are several cities, state and individual department portals available and providing services to the public.

2.6

IT in Action

MEASURES TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE GOING FOR E-GOVERNANCE

In addition to the need for a concrete set of goals and objectives the following are the detailed list of criterion and factors which are to be considered before opting for an EGovernance. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

2.7

Improve E-Readiness in aspect of E-Governance which includes human resources, budgeting resources, inter/intra departmental communication flows, society’s readiness. Investment in Telecommunication infrastructure Internet connectivity speed Governmental human resources Budget resources E-Business atmosphere which includes legal framework and security of the information. Start with a simple approach and as with development of infrastructure and acceptance of E-Governance among the various entities, functions can be added in stages. Involve top leadership Promote awareness in the public about the importance and potential of EGovernance Encourage and support from all the departments Maintain consistent implementation Monitor assessment Ensure security Encourage private sector To start with plan locally, but keep the global user community in mind. Involve stakeholders such as high-tech companies, software houses, the banking sector etc. Adoption of international standards wherever possible minimizing customization thereby reducing the risks of software and compatibility problems.

WORKPLAN AND INFRASTRUCTURE

Once the vision and priorities are established, a detailed work plan helps maneuver the agencies and officials for implementing E-Governance projects. Some of the key elements on which the work plan, infrastructure and development of website should focus are: • • • • • •

Content Development: These include development of applications, local language interfaces, and e-learning materials. Competency building: Training personnel for human resource development must be implemented at all levels. Connectivity: Intranet/Internet connections must be established across related agencies. eSecurity, eEthics and ePrivacy Two way communication flow Cyber laws: Providing legal framework to support objectives of EGovernance policies. 31

E-Governance

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Citizen Interfaces: Establishing a delivery channel to ensure accessibility & affordability of E-Governance by the citizens. Capital: Identifying revenue sources to help achieve a financial equilibrium. Citizen oriented services to offer Other services Networking and gateways Feedback and interactivity Mailing Generation of on spot reports Transformation of forms Selection of platform independent languages like JAVA and .NET platforms for website development LINUX and UNIX based applications Selection of Open Standards s/w such SOAP, WSDL, XML, Open GIS etc. Use of VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) Use of Wireless LAN and 3G Technologies, wherever applicable. Use of multimedia

For many governments the world over, the choice of Open Source is a strategic one. This preference towards Open Source platforms is firstly because, acquiring and upgrading proprietary software is expensive. There is also the proposition that it is safer to entrust knowledge in the public domain to Open Source, which is also in the public domain, than to proprietary platforms. Thirdly, using open source would enable India to encourage our own software professionals to provide software support in the form of add-on applications that could be written at a cost much smaller than that required to buy multi-featured packaged software. This would also decentralize software production, from the current paradigm of large transnational production of packaged software. While Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Goa have preferred Linux software in their official IT programmes, states like Punjab and Rajasthan fully rely on Windows while even Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh and the central government continue to base their initiatives on the windows platform in addition to Linux.

Check Your Progress 1 1)

Explain the National E-Governance Plan?

………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………........ 2)

List some of the E-Governance projects in India (state-wise).

………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………........

2.8

SUMMARY

Governance is a burning topic for many reasons, including the changing role of knowledge and information, a trend towards networks as an organizational form, 32

globalization issues and, last but not the least advances in ICTs. Like all the â&#x20AC;&#x153;eâ&#x20AC;? subjects, E-Governance is about playing advanced information and communications technology to improve and support all tasks in the governmental domain. Public awareness and Digital divide is important issues to be addressed. E-Governance through regional languages is appreciable for the nations like India where people from several states are the participants.

IT in Action

E-governance is not just the Internet as the common perception goes and governments need to move back in a certain sense, to re-appropriate the older communication tools like radio and cable TV. A critical mass of people is required to push e-governance to the next gear. In this unit, we had studied the role of ICTs in the public administration. In the next unit we will go through the ICTs in Education.

2.9

SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1 1)

The National e-Governance Plan (2003-2007) of Indian Government seeks to lay the foundation and provide the impetus for long-term growth of eGovernance within the country. The plan seeks to create the right governance and institutional mechanisms, set up the core infrastructure and policies and implements a number of Mission Mode Projects at the center, state and integrated service levels to create a citizen-centric and business-centric environment for governance.

See Section 2.5.

2.10 FURTHER READINGS 1) 2)

3) 4) 5) 6)

Governance.Com: Democracy in the Information Age, Elaine Ciulla Kamarck (Editor). Reinventing Government in the Information Age : International Practice in IT-enabled Public Sector Reform, Richard Heeks(Editor),Routledg,January 2001 Egov: Ebusiness Strategies for Government by Douglas Holmes. Electronic Government: Design, Applications and Management, Ake Gronlund (Editor). E-Government, 2003, Mark A. Abramson (Editor), Therese L. Morin (Editor) E-Government in Asia: Enabling Public Service Innovation in the 21st Century, James SL Yong.

E-Governance

Educational System

UNIT 3

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Structure 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12

Introduction Objectives Role of ICT in Education E-Learning: An Introduction Benefits of E-Learning Technologies Used for E-Learning Online Examinations E-Learning Standards Teleconferencing EDUSAT Summary Solutions / Answers Further Readings

3.0

INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, we had discussed the concept of E-Governance which includes the computerization of records, right to information, availability of information on the web complaint handling etc.. In this unit, we will define the online educational System and its features. Education is one of the main keys to economic development and improvements in human welfare. As global economic competition grows sharper, education becomes an important source of competitive advantage, closely linked to economic growth, and a way for countries to attract jobs and investment. In addition, education appears to be one of the key determinants of lifetime earnings. Countries therefore frequently see raising educational attainment as a way of tackling poverty and deprivation. In developing countries, education is also linked to a whole batch of indicators of human development. Education of women influences the health of children and family size. The experience of Asian economies in particular in the past two decades has demonstrated the benefits that public investment in education can bring. In richer countries, education is seen as important not just in the early years, but also in later life. As the pace of technological change quickens and as the workforce in many rich countries grows older, education offers a way to improve and update the skills and capabilities of the workforce. There are, however, many constraints on delivering education to the right people at the right time. In developing countries, there is frequently a shortage of qualified school teachers. People may live in scattered communities in rural areas. Money for books and teaching materials may be scarce. In wealthier countries, money is also a problem: in particular, the cost of university education has risen sharply, and students are increasingly expected to meet all or part of the cost directly. But, at the level of higher education and training, the problem is often also one of time. Students who are already in full-time employment find it hard to take part in a university course offered at conventional times of day. Finally, employers, keen to train staff, are often acutely conscious of the costs of taking people away from their main job in order to attend training courses. They are therefore eager for more efficient and flexible ways to deliver information to employees. 34

IT in Action

All these factors have encouraged an interest in the use of information and communications technologies (ICT) to deliver education and training. Computers began to appear in school and university classrooms in the more advanced countries around the early 1980s. Broadband connections to schools and universities became commonplace in wealthier countries in the second half of the 1990s. In developing countries, experience is more limited. This is not necessarily a bad thing, as it should allow those countries to learn from the investments of richer countries. Initially, educators saw the use of ICTs in the classroom mainly as a way to teach computer literacy. Most now see a broader role: that of delivering many kinds of learning at lower cost and with higher quality than traditional methods of teaching allow. In addition, schools and universities increasingly use ICTs, as do other large organizations, to reduce the costs and improve the efficiency of administration. In examining the development of ICTs in schools, universities and training, an important distinction should be made. In the case of schools, teachers primarily use ICTs in the school as an instructional device. “Distance” learning is rarely part of school teaching. In the case of higher education and training, students are more likely to use ICTs partly to learn at a distance from the instructor. If ICTs can be used effectively to improve the delivery of education, they offer worthwhile prizes: in particular, lower costs and wider access.

3.1

OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to: • • • • • •

3.2

ROLE OF ICT IN EDUCATION

Nowadays the role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), especially Internet in the education sector plays an important role, especially in the process of empowering the technology into the educational activities. Education sector can be the most effective sector to anticipate and eliminate the negative impact of ICT. Technology in another side can be the most effective way to increase the student’s knowledge. Being aware of the significant role of ICT (internet) in our life, especially in the educational activities, education authorities should be wise enough in implementing the strategies to empower ICT in supporting the teaching and learning process in the classroom. ICT is not just the bloom of the educational activities, but also it will be the secondary option to improve the effective and meaningful educational process. The following are the aims and objectives of ICT implementation in education: • to implement the principle of life-long learning / education. • to increase a variety of educational services and medium / method. • to promote equal opportunities to obtain education and information. • to develop a system of collecting and disseminating educational information.

Educational System

• • • •

to promote technology literacy of all citizens, especially for students. to develop distance education with national contents. to promote the culture of learning at school (development of learning skills, expansion of optional education, open source of education, etc.). to support schools in sharing experience and information with others.

3.3

E-Learning: An Introduction

E-Learning includes the use of a variety of media and techniques for learning, including text, sound, graphics, photography, animation, simulations, games, video, email, discussion forums, chat rooms, virtual meetings or tutorials, automated assessments, and much more. Providers of E-Learning frequently offer a blend of these with more traditional learning approaches such as coursework, coaching, action learning, etc. Users of E-Learning appreciate the range of opportunities available, with something to suit every learning style preference.

E-Learning is: • • • •

• • • • •

•

Non Linear - Learners determine how, what and when they access information. Dynamic Process - Transformed, personalized, customized on demand in response to learner and environmental variables. Available on demand and just in time. Learner Controlled - Learner controls one’s own interaction with the content and presentation. Learner has opportunities for reflection and application. Reusable Objects - Content of any media that can be chunked down to the most granular, meaningful level to allow combinations of objects to be assembled and dynamically presented for different environments and functional needs. Informal - Recognizes that at least 70% of learning occurs in meetings, in the corridors and break-rooms, through collaboration, in situational communities. Platform Independent - can be transformed for use in a variety of standard formats - XML, HTML, DHTML, PDA, etc. in a variety of environments, both formal and informal. Knowledge Management - Rich, flexible tools chosen to create, collect and distribute information, on demand and contextually, to learners, intra and extra organizationally. Communities of Interest - Collaborative, self selecting and organizing groups of individuals that share the same interests. RAD (Rapid Application Development) - Iterative, incremental design process. Define, design, refine processes are integrated and parallel. Continuously refining prototypes allows improvement to be integrated and tested with each iteration. Each iteration offers an opportunity to increase the penetration and acceptance of the learning support processes. Multi Channel – It can be Learner to Learner, Content to Learner, Expert to Learner, Expert to Content, Expert to Expert.

E-Learning is not unlike any other form of education - and it is widely accepted that E-Learning can be as rich and as valuable as the classroom experience or even more so. With its unique features E-Learning is an experience that leads to comprehension and mastery of new skills and knowledge, just like its traditional counterpart.

Instructional Design for E-Learning has been perfected and refined over many years using established teaching principles, with many benefits to students. As a result colleges, universities, businesses, and organizations worldwide now offer their students fully accredited online degree, vocational, and continuing education

IT in Action

programs in abundance. See the Figure 3.1, a snapshot for IGNOUs online programmes.

Figure 3.1: Website of IGNOU Online Source: www.ignouonline.ac.in

Based at the core of the programme are some key features that make it the perfect platform on which to build your E-Learning strategy. • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Learning is self-paced and gives students a chance to speed up or slow down as necessary Learning is self-directed, allowing students to choose content and tools appropriate to their differing interests, needs, and skill levels Allows collaborative, interactive learning L2L(learner to learner), E2L (Expert to learner), L2E (Learner to Expert), E2E (Expert to Expert), L2C (learner to content), C2L(content to Learner) Accommodates multiple learning styles using a variety of delivery methods geared to different learners; more effective for certain learners Designed around the learner Geographical barriers are eliminated, opening up broader education options 24X7 accessibility makes scheduling easy and allows a greater number of people to attend classes On-demand access means learning can happen precisely when needed Travel time and associated costs (parking, fuel, vehicle maintenance) are reduced or eliminated Overall student costs are frequently less (tuition, residence, food, child care) Potentially lower costs for companies needing training, and for the providers Fosters greater student interaction and collaboration Fosters greater student/instructor contact Enhances computer and Internet skills Draws upon hundreds of years of established pedagogical principles Has the attention of every major University in the world, most with their own 37

Educational System

•

online degrees, certificates, and individual courses. ROI - easier to determine by using “hit” reports from web areas, access reports by module and other tools to determine spread and impact of modules.

3.4

BENEFITS OF E-LEARNING

There are many significant advantages for the student who learns online. Here are just a few to consider: Convenience and Portability • • • • • •

Courses are accessible on your schedule Online learning does not require physical attendance Learning is self-paced (not too slow, not too fast) You're unbound by time - courses are available 24X7 You're unbound by place - study at home, work, or on the road Read materials online or download them for reading later

Cost and Selection • • • • • • •

Choose from a wide range of courses to meet your needs Degree, Vocational, and Certificate programs Continuing Education Individual courses Wide range of prices to fit your budget Go back to school to get a degree, learn a new skill, learn a new craft, or just have fun! From art to zoology you can do it all online in a price range to fit your budget.

Flexibility • • • •

Online learning accommodates your preferences and needs - it's studentcentered. Choose instructor-led or self-study courses Skip over material you already know and focus on topics you'd like to learn Use the tools best suited to your learning styles

Higher Retention Online learning will draw you to topics you like and enjoy. Studies show that because of this and the variety of delivery methods used to reach different types of learners, retention is frequently better than in a traditional classroom. Greater Collaboration Technology tools make collaboration among students much easier. Since many projects involve collaborative learning, the online environment is far easier (and often more comfortable) to work in since learners don't have to be face-to-face. Global Opportunities The global learning community is at your fingertips with online learning. The technologies used give online instructional designers the ability to build in tools that take you to resources you may never see in a traditional classroom. Central storage of digital resources 38

Every department accumulates huge amount of resources ranging from photocopy sheets to videos to sound bytes to OHP slides. These occupy shelves in an around the classroom and keeping them ordered and accessible takes time and discipline.

IT in Action

As more and more classroom resources become available on the web then the need to collect all the digital resources into one place becomes ever important. It does not help if each teacher has their own notes and web links on their own hard drive. Also the chance to add resources such as a good web site to the data bank whilst at home is now possible with a CMS. Make better use of “private study” periods As students reduce the range of subjects they take they are given more “free time” to study by themselves. For some this is an opportunity to make real progress within their subject. But for many this is time poorly spent. If the teacher can supply assignments and lessons for out of lesson use then the student will be more focused on the tasks they can do, especially as a “log” is recorded of everything each student does. Deliver a course that can be shared across different schools With the lack of specialist teachers in certain subjects it is important that unqualified teachers don’t get the responsibility of delivering courses beyond them. An enthusiastic knowledgeable teacher is worth a great deal. A CMS offers the choice of getting students on different sites to join together in a live environment and to receive quality instruction and support. Extra tools for teaching The world is changing fast and students are exposed to information on all sides and formats. The lessons that teacher’s deliver need to respond to this changing world and they need to be equipped with a set of modern tools to enhance the quality and variety of their lessons. Tools such as Forums and Chat Rooms facilitate every student to contribute to the discussion. Communication with students Many teachers only meet their students within the classroom environment. Extra lessons or the chance to meet in a social environment are rare. Many students don’t respond well to direct confrontation with the teachers. Also finding the time to discuss issues and to give help with assignments is often impossible in a crowded timetable. An online learning environment that provides specific chat rooms and forums adds an extra level for communication. For some of the students this is a real bonus and it can have a marked effect on their learning.

3.5

TECHNOLOGIES USED FOR E-LEARNING

In this section, let us study about the various technologies like the media creation tools and interactive tools for E-Learning.

3.5.1

Media Creation Tools

Following are some of the online media creation tools for E-Learning environment: Text Preparing text-based learning material is relatively easy and can be done with only computer keyboarding skills. Text-based materials are also easily accessed and understood by learners. A typical web page is prepared using HyperText Markup

Educational System

Language (HTML) instructions; HTML files can be created using common word processing software, such as Microsoft Word. The WWW also supports other text formats, such as Rich Text Format (.RTF) or Adobe Acrobat's Portable Document Format (.PDF), which can be embedded within HTML-coded pages.

Graphics and Images Useful to clarify or illustrate concepts in an online learning programme. Graphics and images can be created, or digitised using a scanner and imported into a computer using specific image manipulation software, such as Adobe PhotoShop or Adobe Illustrator. Images are then imported onto a HTML web page. Common image formats include the Graphic Interchange Format (.GIF) and Joint Experts Photography Group (.JEPG), which use compression technology to make image file sizes smaller for quicker web display or download. Though graphics and images are useful learning tools, their preparation requires some skill and experience in using graphic design software. Graphics or images generally have a bigger file size than plain text, and take longer to download or to display on screen. Audio and Video Useful to show practical and real life activities. Hazardous and costly experiments can be captured using video for presentation on the WWW, for repeated use. With new digital audio and video progressive download and streaming capabilities, audio and video can be transmitted directly over the Internet although transmission quality still depends on the learner's network connection and available bandwidth. Popular audio and video file formats and software include Apple Quick Time, Windows Media Technologies and RealNetwork's Real Systems. Another emerging format is the Motion Pictures Experts Group (.MPEG), although the disadvantage of MPEG is that the whole file must be downloaded before it starts to play. If high bandwidth is available, all these technologies can deliver high quality video and sound. Animation and 3D-models Can be very powerful in teaching and learning spatial applications, but need high bandwidth to display well. The WWW animation standard is animated GIF files, although Java, Shockwave and Macromedia Flash are also used. The standard for 3-D modeling is Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML). A web browser needs a VRML plug-in to display 3-D models properly. Designing quality animation and 3-D models also requires a high degree of skills and experience in the appropriate software.

3.5.2

Interactive Tools

Internet communication is either asynchronous (email, mailing lists, bulletin boards) or synchronous (text-based chat, audio chat, videoconferencing). Web-based communication for teaching and learning has been popularized by the constructivistlearning paradigm which is based on collaborative learning principles.

3.5.2.1 Asynchronous Tools Electronic Mail (E-Mail) Users send and receive email text messages asynchronously through a programme (like Microsoft Outlook or Qualcomm's Eudora Pro) installed on the user's computer, which sends and receives information through an email server provided by the user's Internet Service Provider (ISP) or office network. However, web-based email (like 40

Hotmail or Yahoo Mail) allows users to access their account from any computer with an Internet connection. A user can send emails to multiple recipients simultaneously, and can attach files (word-processed documents, spreadsheets, images) to each message. This facilitates collaborative group learning at a distance, but puts the onus on the learner to initiate or maintain contact.

IT in Action

Mailing lists Mailing lists are many-to-many communication channels on the Internet, managed using specialised software such as Listserv, Majordomo, and Listproc. People email instructions to join or leave a list to the computer running the service. Lists can be moderated or unmoderated, and can be used to collaboratively discuss and debate education or training issues within learning communities. However, too large a group can hinder rather than help the learning process. Discussion Boards Internet discussion board systems such as WebBoard, Yahoogroups or Smartgroups are similar to mailing lists, with the additional feature of everyone's messages being available on the WWW as a series of discussions. Messages are displayed online as they are received or as appended replies to the original message, allowing simultaneous coverage of many topics. Web Forums Also called discussion forums or bulletin boards. They are probably the most common form of interaction in online courses. Newsgroups New Public forums that use the Usenet system. BBS A computer bulletin board that you dial, and use like a web forum + email + file transfer.

3.5.2.2 Synchronous Tools Chat Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is the standard for synchronous, multi-person, text-based chat. Most IRC applications (such as MSN Messenger, ICQ or Yahoo Messenger) are independent of the WWW, but can also be launched from a web page. The software keeps track from a central server of when you, and a list of people you specify, are online. You can text-chat or voice chat one-to-one, or in a conference. Some systems have an electronic whiteboard on which a teacher may "write" information viewable by all online chat participants, simulating a classroom situation. However, synchronous text or voice chat can create organizational problems - especially in globally offered web courses, where there are time zone issues. Shared Whiteboards Allow class members to write on the same digital whiteboard. Application Sharing 41

Educational System

The same program and file can be shared for demonstration or collaboration. Teleconferencing Could be used to deliver instructor audio, or for collaboration. Videoconferencing Conducting a conference between two or more participants at different sites by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data. For example, a point-to-point (two-person) video conferencing system works much like a video telephone. Each participant has a video camera, microphone, and speakers mounted on his or her computer. As the two participants speak to one another, their voices are carried over the network and delivered to the other's speakers, and whatever images appear in front of the video camera appear in a window on the other participant's monitor. MOOs and MUDs Short for Multi-User Dungeon (or Multi-User Dimension) a cyberspace where users can take on an identity in the form of an avatar and interact with one another. Originally, MUDs tended to be adventure games played within enormous old castles with hidden rooms, trap-doors, exotic beasts, and magical items. Nowadays, the term is used more generically to refer to any cyberspace. MUDs are also known as 3-D worlds and chat worlds.

MOO is in the public domain and can be freely downloaded and executed..

3.6

ONLINE EXAMINATIONS

The learners can also take examinations and assessment tests online. It would mean a learner just logs in to a computer, types in his password, gets access to the questions and answers them. Not only limited to this, the evaluation/correction and marking of the answers will also be done online. The best part of this is that results too will be available online and immediately. All this makes the examination or assessment process both paperless and effortless. And the reduced effort is not just for the learners but also for the authorities involved in setting the questions and conducting the examinations. Thus, online examinations could help colleges, universities and corporate instructors meet several pedagogical and instructional objectives, including frequent assessment of student learning, elimination of grading requirements and costs, immediate feedback to students, and elimination of paper and copying costs.

How Online Assessment Tools Help • • • • • • • • 42

Questions can be authored and stored within the question/assessment database. Candidates and respondents can log in, with a user name and password to take a test or respond to a survey. Questions are delivered in order or randomly. Provision for instant feedback and scores. Create customized question papers by randomly picking questions from the question bank and shuffling them. Prepare questions for individual assessments and specify the look and feel required. Provides a secure environment for assessments Easy-to-use assessment authoring tool Delivery can be through Intranets, the Internet, and using PCs.

• • • •

Instant feedback to participants at item, topic and/or assessment levels. Adaptive branching based on how questions are answered. Online viewing of results, reports and item analysis. Completely secure with no chances of leakage of question papers.

3.7

E-LEARNING STANDARDS

IT in Action

For an effective, widely used E-Learning environment, standardization in various aspects of E-Learning is required. The following are a few examples of widely accepted standards and specifications. •

SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) SCORM is a standard specification for WBT contents, developed by ADL (Advanced Distributed Learning) in the United States. Compliance with SCORM enables materials to run on different LMS, and to use SCOs (Sharable Content Objects) in different course structures. A certification program that certifies whether LMS and contents comply with SCORM is run by ADL, and the internationalization of the program is being considered. SCORM Version 1.3 is currently being developed, integrating IMS Simple Sequencing Specification to define the dynamic behavior of contents accordingly to the learners' level and comprehension.

•

LOM (Learning Object Metadata) LOM is a standard specification for metadata to define attributes of various resources (i.e., learning object (LO)), in education and training. It is the index information to search and reuse LOs. By creating a list of LOs, it is possible to classify and select LOs depending on the types of education, and to systematize LOs accordingly to a curriculum.

•

QTI (Question and Test Interoperability) QTI is a specification for a question database for exercise and test questions. QTI specifies the question format, answer format, and grouping method for exercise questions. This standard is expected to facilitate the creation of questions for certification examinations and prep examinations, and to promote distribution of these examination questions.

•

LIP (Learner Information Package) LIP is a specification that defines the attributes of the learners. LIP standardizes the format used in exchanging learner information between systems. The dynamic generation system for the curriculum can be constructed accordingly to each learner's learning objective and learning situation by using the learner information, including learning objective, learning history, competency, and the curriculum information described in LOM.

Let us study role of more ICTs (Teleconferencing and EDUSAT) in the education in the next sections.

3.8

TELECONFERENCING

Meetings are an important part of the job in Extension. This is because face-to-face (FTF) interaction is the traditional standard on which we base our communication with clientele groups, advisory boards, and Extension colleagues. However, FTF meetings may be an inefficient and costly way to conduct business, particularly when participants must travel a great distance. Over the past few years, travel-related costs (lodging, airfare, meals), have increased at a rate frequently greater than that of

Educational System

inflation. Travel budgets, on the other hand, have often remained static or decreased. An alternative meeting format called teleconferencing may be a solution. Teleconferencing is interactive group communication (three or more people in two or more locations) through an electronic medium. In general terms, teleconferencing can bring people together under one roof even though they're separated by hundreds of miles. Teleconferencing was first introduced in the 1960's with American Telephone and Telegraph's Picture phone. At that time, however, no demand existed for the new technology. Travel costs were reasonable and consumers were unwilling to pay the monthly service charge for using the picture phone, which was regarded as more of a novelty than as an actual means for everyday communication.

Basic Types Today, teleconferencing is used in many ways. There are three basic types: 1) 2) 3)

Video conferencing-television-like communication augmented with sound. Computer conferencing-printed communication through keyboard terminals. Audio-conferencing -verbal communication via the telephone with optional capacity for telewriting or telecopying.

Advantages •

• • • • • • • • •

One of the major advantages of teleconferencing is its potential to reduce the cost of group meetings. Savings come primarily from reduced travel costs. Although saving money is a big advantage of teleconferencing, there are several other advantages: People (including outside guest speakers) who wouldn't normally attend a distant FTF meeting can participate. Follow-up to earlier meetings can be done with relative ease and little expense. Socializing is minimal compared to an FTF meeting; therefore, meetings are shorter and more oriented to the primary purpose of the meeting. Some routine meetings are more effective since one can audio conference from any location equipped with a telephone. Communication between the home office and field staff is maximized. Severe climate and/or unreliable transportation may necessitate teleconferencing. Participants are generally better prepared than for FTF meetings. It's particularly satisfactory for simple problem solving, information exchange, and procedural tasks. Group members participate more equally in well moderated teleconferences than in an FTF meeting.

Disadvantages While teleconferencing is characterized by many advantages, it does have disadvantages: • • • • • • 44

Technical failures with equipment, including connections that aren't made. Unsatisfactory for complex interpersonal communication, such as negotiation or bargaining. Impersonal, less easy to create an atmosphere of group rapport. Lack of participant familiarity with the equipment, the medium itself, and meeting skills. Acoustical problems within the teleconferencing rooms. Difficulty in determining participant speaking order; frequently one person monopolizes the meeting.

• •

Greater participant preparation and preparation time needed. Informal, one-to-one, social interaction not possible.

IT in Action

To minimize some of the potential problems, users should carefully evaluate their meeting needs and goals to determine if teleconferencing is appropriate. Users should also assess their audience. For example, consider the size of the group, their level of experience with teleconferencing, and the extent of their familiarity with each other. These precautions won't eliminate all the problems that could arise, but they should reduce the likelihood of their occurring.

3.9

EDUSAT

Over the last few years, Distance Education has come into its own as the mainstay in the field of education. The integration of satellite technology and education has yielded rich rewards socially, culturally and economically, to name just a few. It being a truism that education has its own reward for any society; distance education has also been a boon in a more specific sense to educational institutions themselves as it allows extremely useful contact across national and international borders. Indian Space Research Organization has pioneered the use of front line space based communication technologies in the field of education and development. ISRO launched EDUSAT, a satellite meant exclusively for education sector, on September 20, 2004. •

Network Configuration The satellite-based interactive narrow casting network has one-way video and two-way audio facility. The network is capable of data transfer from the teaching end to the remote classrooms. The data includes lecture notes, courseware, presentation material, exercises etc.. The network consists of three major elements: teaching end, remote receiving sites called classrooms and spacecraft.

•

Teaching End The teaching end consists of a small studio and an uplink earth station. The studio, which originates live or recorded lectures, is linked to the uplink earth station. The lectures (visual images and the audio signal) are transmitted to the satellite from where they are beamed back to earth covering a large geographical area. •

Receiving End or Classroom The live lectures are received at classrooms of the engineering colleges. There are two types of classrooms - interactive and noninteractive. The 1.2-meter antenna has been installed in each college. •

In the interactive classroom, the students can interact with the subject expert at the teaching end through a voice link via satellite (64 kbps audio return channel). The question and the subject expert's response to the question can be heard live in all classrooms.

•

Non- interactive classroom will have “receive-only” facility and the students can interact with the subject expert via telephone line or mobile phone or internet. In this case,

normally, the subject expert repeats the question for greater clarity.

Educational System

Check Your Progress 1 1)

What are ICTs and what types of ICTs are commonly used in education?

Narrate the uses of ICTs in Education.

3.10 SUMMARY The growth of the Internet and broadband connections has unleashed massive potential to deliver a more stimulating and personalized education that earlier was unheard of. ELearning has created a new dimension in education, both within and beyond the curriculum and is still looking at further opportunities of becoming more useful via new emerging technologies. We are really on the threshold of new opportunities and this is just the beginning of a new horizon of education. In this unit, we have discussed the concept of online education and the new methods and technologies used in the Education, teleconferencing, its advantages and disadvantages .The unit also focused light on The Education Satellite that was launched by Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) to provide education to all.

3.11 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS Check Your Progress 1 1)

ICTs stand for information and communication technologies and are defined, for the purposes of this primer, as a “diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information.” These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. In recent years there has been a groundswell of interest in how computers and the Internet can best be harnessed to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of education at all levels and in both formal and non-formal settings.

The potential of each technology varies according to how it is used. Haddad and Draxler identify at least five levels of technology use in education: presentation, demonstration, drill and practice, interaction, and collaboration.

IT in Action

Each of the different ICTs- print, audio/video cassettes, radio and TV broadcasts, Computers and the Internet - may be used for presentation and demonstration, the most basic of the five levels. Except for video technologies, drill and practice may likewise be performed using the whole range of technologies. On the other hand, networked computers and the Internet are the ICTs that enable interactive and collaborative learning best; their full potential as educational tools will remain unrealized if they are used merely for presentation or demonstration.

3.12 FURTHER READINGS 1) 2) 3) 4)

Online Education, John Bourne ,Janet C-More, Sloan Center for OnLine Education, 2002. Online Education Using Objects, Rory Mcgreal ,RoutledgeFalmer. E-Moderating, Gilly Salmon , RoutledgeFalmer. Technology ,E-learning and Distance Education,Tony Bates, Routledge Falmer, 2 edition (July 19, 2005).

UNIT 4

MEDICAL SYSTEMS

Structure 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11

Introduction Objectives Importance of Computers in Medicine Computer-Based Medical Systems and Equipment Role of ICT in Health Care 4.4.1 Health Education 4.4.2 Online Health Records 4.4.3 Patient Monitoring and Home Care 4.4.4 Online Medical Advice 4.4.5 Knowledge-based and Expert Systems 4.4.6 Online Pharmacies 4.4.7 Computer-Assisted Surgery 4.4.8 Evidence Based Medicine (EBM) 4.4.9 Telemedicine and Remote Consultation 4.4.10 Electronic Communication 4.4.11 Public Health 4.4.12 E-Prescription 4.4.13 Health Insurance 4.414 Popular Medical Websites 4.4.15 Online Support Groups Bioinformatics Medical Informatics Medical Transcription Hand-held Computers in Medicine Summary Solutions / Answers Further Readings

4.0

INTRODUCTION

Computers play a key role in almost every sphere of life. They facilitate storage of huge amounts of data, enable speedy processing of information and possess an inbuilt intelligence. Owing to these unique capabilities, computers function on levels close to that of a human brain. Computers can hence be employed in a wide variety of fields like engineering, data processing and storage, planning and scheduling, networking, education as well as health and medicine. In the field of medicine, computers are causing incredible advances in patient care and the advancement of the science. Major innovations such as electronic medical record keeping and electronic prescriptions are vastly improving the quality of care while advancements in sub-fields such medical imaging are vastly improving diagnosis. Projects involving computers in fields such as genomics are also allowing for vast leaps in understanding the complex biology of the human body. In this Unit, we will study the importance of computers in medicine; computer based medical systems and various equipment, role of ICT in health care, bioinformatics, medical informatics, medical transcription and use of hand-held devices in medicine.

Medical Systems

4.1

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to: • • • • • • •

4.2

identify the significant use of computers in medicine; list various computer based medical systems and equipment; describe the role of ICT and Internet in health-care; browse various online medical websites; define bioinformatics, medical informatics, evidence based medicine, computer assisted surgery etc.; discuss medical transcription and its process; and describe the role of hand-held devices in medicine.

IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTERS IN MEDICINE

Computers are the excellent means for storage of patient related data. Big hospitals employ computer systems to maintain patient records. It is often necessary to maintain detailed records of the medical history of patients. Doctors often require the information about a patient’s family history, physical ailments, already diagnosed diseases and prescribed medicines. This information can be effectively stored in a computer database in the form of patient records. Computers can keep track of prescriptions and billing information. They can be used to store the information about the medicines prescribed to a patient as well as those, which cannot be prescribed to him/her. Computers enable an efficient storage of huge amounts of medical data. Medicine comprises vast base of knowledge. Computer storage can serve as the best means of housing this information. Medical journals, Research and Diagnosis papers, important medical documents and reference books can best be stored in an electronic format. As shown in Figure 1, many of the modern-day medical equipment have small, programmed computers. Many of the medical appliances of today work on preprogrammed instructions. The circuitry and logic in most of the medical equipment is basically a computer. The functioning of hospital-bed beeping systems, emergency alarm systems, X-ray machines and several such medical appliances is based on computer logic.

Figure 1: Sample Hospital Setup with Modern Medical Equipment

IT in Action

Computer software is used for diagnosis of diseases. It can be used for the examination of internal organs of the body. Advanced computer-based systems are used to examine delicate organs of the body. Some of the complex surgeries can be performed with the aid of computers. The different types of monitoring equipment in hospitals are often based on computer programming. Medical imaging is a vast field that deals with the techniques to create images of the human body for medical purposes. Many of the modern methods of scanning and imaging are largely based on the computer technology. We have been able to implement many of the advanced medical imaging techniques, wit the recent developments in computer science. Magnetic resonance imaging employs computer software. Computed tomography makes use of digital geometry processing techniques to obtain 3-D images. Sophisticated computers and infrared cameras are used for obtaining high-resolution images. Computers are widely used for the generation of 3D images in medicine. Computer Networking enables quicker communication. Computers and Internet have proved to be a boon in all the spheres of life. In the field of medicine, computers allow for faster communication between a patient and a doctor. Doctors can collaborate better over the Internet. Today, it is possible to obtain expert’s opinions within seconds by means of the Internet. Medical professionals sitting on opposite sides of the globe can communicate within minutes by means of the Internet. It is due to computer networking technology that network communication has become easy. Medical practitioners can discuss medical issues in the online medical forums. They can exchange images and messages in seconds and derive conclusions speedily. They can seek advice and share knowledge in a convenient manner over the Internet. The importance of computers cannot be stressed enough as computer technology has revolutionized the field of medicine. Let us see some of the computer based medical systems and equipment in the following section.

4.3

COMPUTER-BASED MEDICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT

Imaging devices, CAT and MRI scanners, depend on computers to process their data into a readable format. Microprocessors are used to control a variety of support devices. For example, pacemakers, which by the use of a computer maintain a patient’s heart beat. Computer guided lasers have been used in operations, including the removal of brain tumours etc. Below listed are some of the medical systems and equipment based on computers. • • • • • • • • • 50

CT Scanner Systems Digital Angiography Systems Digital R&F Systems General Radiography Systems Mobile X-ray Systems Ultrasound Systems Cardiovascular Systems Medical Imaging Systems Digital Dental Systems

Medical Systems

Figure 2: Computer Based Medical Systems

4.4

ROLE OF ICT IN HEALTH CARE

Information and communication technologies are enabling more flexible forms of medical care and treatment. The development of mobile communications, teleconferencing facilities, multi-media capabilities of telecommunications and the Internet has been of immense benefit in healthcare delivery. By this revolution, spatial differences between medical specialists, medical centers and patients have been eliminated. ICTs permit valuable professional expertise to be made available to remote areas. Through the internet, it is possible to set up facilities for intensive patient monitoring service which can enable doctors to watch their patients at a remote site, monitor their vital signs in real time as well as give advice for treatments. ICTs can also be used for exchange of information between different health professionals. For example, they can be used to transfer patient information between different sites thereby improving clinical effectiveness. With broadband facility and video conferencing, doctors in one part of the country, or in any part of the world for that matter, can consult with other specialists in any part of the world on any medical case of interest. Let us study the impact of ICT in the following sections.

4.4.1

Health Education

The emergence of the Internet and Internet-based technologies has the potential to transform health professional education at all levels. Educational systems that were once teacher-centred and geographically limited can now become learner-centred and unconstrained by geography. Very large amount of database like abstracts, journals, books, reports, seminars, conferences, dictionaries, directories etc. can be stored, retrieved and transported efficiently. These databases are available in various forms like CD, software, magnetic tapes or database files uploaded on the Internet. The advent of online textbooks, journals, and interactive courseware could accelerate the trend so that students spend less time reading books and attending lectures and more time researching topics online.

IT in Action

4.4.2

Online Health Records

The Computer and Internet is an emerging medium for giving direct access to health consumers for their personal health records. A number of new websites like personalmd.com allow consumers to store update and retrieve their own health record online. These records are well organized and easily accessible compared to historical voluminous paper work. This can create comprehensive chronological record that carry information about care received from different organizations over an extended period of time, which can be used anytime from anywhere to monitor and evaluate their health status. Organizations that store online health record, with the help of security policies balances the need for privacy and security against the need for ready access to record by patients and eventually by care providers and perhaps insurance companies, researchers and others. Some of the methods to ensure security of electronic patient information are authentication, access control, audit trails, encryption and sessions.

4.4.3

Patient Monitoring and Home Care

Information technologies offer the opportunity for improved monitoring of consumer health and potentially provision of in-home care through video-based consultations with care providers and control of medical equipment (e.g. pacemakers) deployed in the home. The goals of such activities are to assist in the early detection of potential health problems, ranging from heart attack to diabetes, and to reduce the need for clinical intervention and costly hospital stay. It can result in fewer office visits and hospitalizations, thereby lowering costs while improving patients monitoring and care. Continued advances in computing and information technologies could enable more widespread availability of health monitoring systems. Medical devices such as stethoscope, glucometers and electrocardiogram monitors can be made available to consumers at low costs through online shopping. Clinical/Diagnostic Decision Support Systems (CDSS) are interactive computer programs which directly assist physicians & other health professionals with decision making tasks. These application offer an adjunct to the traditional patient care model as it incorporate individual patient characteristics into a computerized knowledge base to generate patient-specific assessment or recommendations. Clinical judgment is dependent on information gathering, accurate assessment of probabilities and problem-solving skills. They save lives and reduce costs. Advanced modalities of diagnostics like Computerized Tomography Scanning, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Echocardiography, Automated biochemical analyzers can not exist without innovation of computer science. Future will definitely show advances in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices, combined with those forecasts in microelectronic, biosensors and biomaterials, could lead to revolutionary changes in therapies, delivery of medication, and monitoring and alerting systems for elderly and those with chronic conditions. Very truly, 'the scissors are replaced by joysticks and scalpels by lasers' which is evident by various forms of Cyber-surgery, Micro-robotic surgery and 3-D image modelling.

4.4.4

Online Medical Advice

The websites with medical advice that you visit could give you valuable information and may help you decide what questions to ask when you visit your doctor. By researching the information, you can better describe your symptoms to your doctor. This may lead to an open conversation about the possibilities and optional treatment methods. For example, many medical symptoms sound alike. By educating yourself before you go to the doctor, so you can discuss the best method for diagnosis. For example, mono and strep throat have similar symptoms; scratchy throat, swollen lymph nodes, and 52

fever. It would be easier to check for strep throat, which only takes a throat culture by using a cotton swab, instead of checking for mono, which usually means drawing blood. Knowing this, you and your doctor could create a plan, opting for the least painful and less costly procedure first before taking the next step up.

Medical Systems

While medical advice websites are helpful for finding answers, they do not replace a professional doctor's diagnosis. Do not begin your own medical treatment without talking to your doctor. Misdiagnosis and incorrect treatment could lead to serious problems. Use online medical advice websites as a resource, not as a replacement for professional medical advice.

4.4.5

Knowledge-based and Expert Systems

The rapid evolution of technology and clinical research makes it difficult even for the specialist to keep up. In the light of this â&#x20AC;&#x2122;information explosionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, it has been demonstrated that physicians do not always make optimal decisions. A computerassisted diagnostic support system (CAD) generates diagnostic hypothesis from a set of patient data. It can be used simultaneously with the doctor-patient consultation. The knowledge-based system (KBS) is designed to meet the knowledge gaps of the individual physician with specific patient problems. KBS and such other expert systems (ES) can be a boon to the rural health centres because even the general medical practitioners can operate the systems. Computer-assisted medical decision making and knowledge- based systems are ideal examples of artificial intelligence. Expert systems are software systems that can successfully compare to human experts. Their purpose is mostly advisory. Besides, they give explanation and advice to human experts when performing certain tasks. They are intelligent information systems, and are capable to explain and justify their conclusions. Knowledge systems are smaller software systems, and are usually less successful than human experts. Main reasons for expert systems development in medicine are: need for justification of decisions, need for enhancing performances in many uncertain relations; need for explaining of decision making process etc. One of the reasons of developing knowledge-based systems was that conventional statistic formalisms have not provided satisfactory solutions in medical decision making (MDM). Also, today, the relations between cases and conclusions are not universally valid. So, few causes can provide the same conclusion. Besides, data are not necessarily absolutely accurate. The area of applying expert systems is very wide: diagnosis, prognosis, self-education, directing etc. Basic structure of expert system consists of: knowledge, data base, inferring mechanism, explaining mechanism and user-interface. Though, expert systems also have certain bad features: primarily, they are not physicians i.e. they can not examine a patient. Furthermore, expert system that is good for one certain area is often not good for another one. There are some cases, when these systems can confuse a physician and make him to make a wrong decision. This occurs very often in two specific cases: when the clinical situation is urgent; and when accuracy of clinical information is not definite. Expert systems typically have a number of several components. The knowledge base is the component that contains the knowledge obtained from the domain expert. Normally the way of representing knowledge is using rules. The inference engine is the component that manipulates the knowledge found in the knowledge base as needed to arrive at a result or solution. The user interface is the component that allows the user to query the system and receive the results of those queries. Many ES's also have an explanation facility which explains why a question was asked or how a result or solution was obtained. Expert or knowledge-based systems are the commonest type of AIM (Artificial Intelligence in Medicine) system in routine clinical use. They contain medical knowledge, usually about a very specifically defined task, and are able to reason with 53

IT in Action

data from individual patients to come up with reasoned conclusions. Although there are many variations, the knowledge within an expert system is typically represented in the form of a set of rules. Expert systems can be applied in various tasks of medicine domains: Generating alerts and reminders: In so-called real-time situations, an expert system attached to a monitor can warn of changes in a patient's condition. In less acute circumstances, it might scan laboratory test results or drug orders and send reminders or warnings through an e-mail system. Diagnostic assistance: When a patient's case is complex, rare or the person making the diagnosis is simply inexperienced, an expert system can help come up with likely diagnoses based on patient data. Therapy critiquing and planning: Systems can either look for inconsistencies, errors and omissions in an existing treatment plan, or can be used to formulate a treatment based upon a patient's specific condition and accepted treatment guidelines. Agents for information retrieval: Software 'agents' can be sent to search for and retrieve information, for example on the Internet, which is considered relevant to a particular problem. The agent contains knowledge about its user's preferences and needs, and may also need to have medical knowledge to be able to assess the importance and utility of what it finds. Image recognition and interpretation: Many medical images can now be automatically interpreted, from plane X-rays through to more complex images like angiograms, CT and MRI scans. This is of value in mass-screenings, for example, when the system can flag potentially abnormal images for detailed human attention. Currently there are many systems that have made it into clinical use. Many of these are small, but nevertheless make positive contributions to care. Following are more successful examples of knowledge-based clinical systems, in an effort to understand the reasons behind their success, and the role they can play. CaDet CaDet is a computer-based clinical decision support system for Early Cancer Detection. Cancer risk evaluation and early detection are subject to serious limitations mainly related to human factors and to characteristics of the data involved. To help overcome these problems, a computer-based system was designed to provide the physician with a clearer clinical picture and aid in directing patients to appropriate measures. DXplain DXplain is an example of one of these clinical decision support systems, developed at the Massachusetts General Hospital. It is used to assist in the process of diagnosis, taking a set of clinical findings including signs, symptoms, and laboratory data and then produces a ranked list of diagnoses. It provides justification for each of differential diagnosis, and suggests further investigations. The system contains a data base of crude probabilities for over 4,500 clinical manifestations that are associated with over 2,000 different diseases. Gerwatcher Germwatcher has been developed to assist the Infection Control Departments of Barnes and Jewish Hospitals (teaching hospitals affiliated with the university) with

their infection control activities. These activities include surveillance of microbiology cultures data.

Medical Systems

Hospital-acquired (nosocomial) infections represent a significant cause of prolonged inpatient days and additional hospital charges. Using a rule-base consisting of a combination of the NNIS criteria and local hospital infection control policy, GermWatcher scans the culture data, identifying which cultures represent nosocomial infections. These infections are then reported to the CDC. HELP The HELP (Health Evaluation through Logical Processes) System is a complete knowledge based hospital information system. It supports not only the routine application of an HIS including ADT, order entry/charge capture, pharmacy, radiology, nursing documentation, ICU monitoring, but also supports a robust decision support function. The HELP system is an example of this type of knowledge-based hospital information system, which began operation in 1980. It not only supports the routine applications of a hospital information system (HIS) including management of admissions and discharges and order entry, but also provides a decision support function. PEIRS PEIRS (Pathology Expert Interpretative Reporting System) appends interpretative comments to chemical pathology reports. The knowledge acquisition strategy is the Ripple Down Rules method, which has allowed a pathologist to build over 2300 rules without knowledge engineering or programming support. New rules are added in minutes, and maintenance tasks are a trivial extension to the pathologist's routine duties. PEIRS commented on about 100 reports/day. Domains covered include thyroid function tests, arterial blood gases, glucose tolerance tests, hCG, catecholamines and a range of other hormones. PIERS was implemented in the St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, but is now out of use while a new hospital information system is settling in. Once this is stable, PIERS will need to be interfaced into the system. Puff The Puff system diagnoses the results of pulmonary function tests. Puff went into production at Pacific Presbyterian Medical Center in San Francisco in 1977. Several implementations and many thousands of cases later, it is still in routine use. The PUFF basic knowledge base was incorporated into the commercial "Pulmonary Consult" product. Several hundred copies have been sold and are in use around the world. The PUFF system for automatic interpretation of pulmonary function tests has been sold in its commercial form to hundreds of sites world-wide (Snow et al., 1988). PUFF went into production at Pacific Presbyterian Medical Center in San Francisco in 1977, making it one of the very earliest medical expert systems in use. Many thousands of cases later, it is still in routine use. SEITH The aim of SETH is to give specific advice concerning the treatment and monitoring of drug poisoning. Currently, the data base contains the 1153 most toxic or most frequently ingested French drugs from 78 different toxicological classes. The SETH expert system simulates expert reasoning, taking into account for each toxicological class, delay, clinical symptoms and ingested dose. It generates accurate monitoring and treatment advice, addressing also drug interactions and drug exceptions. 55

IT in Action

4.4.6

Online Pharmacies

There are a wide variety of online pharmacies available on the Internet. Some of the online pharmacies offer cheap drugs that you can get with or without a prescription, but you probably don't want to take the risk with these types of companies. These websites may promise a lot, but you often run the risk of running into overnight scams, where they will take your money and run. The problem with that is, depending on where you are located; it could be illegal to purchase those drugs without a prescription, so you may be reluctant to report your case to the police. On the other hand, websites like CVS and Drugstore.com are making it easier for you to get your prescriptions the legal way, by taking orders online. Both of these sites will also let you order your prescriptions online and have them delivered to your door. It's a better way to get your prescriptions because you can save yourself a trip to the drug store, and the drugs are delivered to your door.

4.4.7

Computer-Assisted Surgery

The interest in computer-assisted surgery is motivated by the prospect of increased intra-operative patient safety. Review of current literature shows a sustained interest in developing a role for available frameless stereotactic technologies. The image guidance assists the surgeon in navigating through diseased or surgically revised complex anatomy. Surgical simulations: The advancement in imaging technology and high performance computer hardware and software have made it possible for the surgeons to intuitively explore the complex data to determine the best form of treatment in the most difficult pathologic conditions. The development of 3-D interactive anatomic road map for a particular patientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease and anatomy enables the surgeon to have accurate pre-operative assessment. In this interactive with real-time performance intuitive environment, students can study the lesion and practice the procedure in a non-threatening way. Virtual environment: In the simulated world of virtual environments, the surgeon can plan and practise surgical procedures. The computer-generated surgical simulation has great potential. The virtual reality is valuable where the anatomy is complex and the surgical problem is difficult. This advanced technology can become an adjunctive training aid to the residents in training and the experienced surgeons. Telesurgery: The surgeonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hand motions are converted into electronic signals and then sent to the tip of the surgical instrument. Endoscopic surgery, tele-presence, virtual reality, digital imaging, and networking are coming together at the physicianâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work station, enabling him to work at a distance, so dissolving time and space.

4.4.8

Evidence Based Medicine (EBM)

It is useful for making decisions about care of individual patient, in a scientific and systematic manner. EBM is the best tool that allows students and physicians to search and retrieve the latest medical literature over the Internet and use the evidence retrieved to guide clinical decisions. The process of incorporating knowledge from the medical literature into patient care decisions is referred to as evidence-based practice. It provides an effective and efficient frame work for post-graduate education and also supplies a model of worldwide applicability when coupled with virtual libraries and distance learning programmes. In addition to learning in virtual conferences, physicians will do much of their learning of new diagnostic and therapeutic measures in the context of daily patient care.

4.4.9

Telemedicine and Remote Consultation

Medical Systems

It is the delivery of healthcare services where “distance” is a critical factor, by all healthcare professionals using electronic information and communication technologies. “Store and Forward Telemedicine” has become more commonplace using multimedia e-mail and web technology to forward medical images, audios, medical records, and laboratory results. By combining these data with real-time synchronous consultations, consultants can now provide comprehensive evaluations from anywhere in the world. The next generation of telemedicine applications will expand the remote clinician's capabilities beyond diagnosis to therapeutic interventions. Telesurgery, Remote psychotherapy and virtual “home visits” to manage chronic medical problems are all in early development. Examples of current telemedicine applications are in-flight emergency resuscitation guidance; home fetal monitoring during complicated pregnancies; remote dermatologic, pathologic or radiographic consultations; tele-laparoscopic surgery; and providing specialty care to incarcerated violent criminals. Closely related to the provision of remote medical consultation is the use of communication networks to transfer still medical images like X-rays, CT scans etc. Picture Archiving and Communication System (PACS) is used to retrieve digital images like Cineo-angiography, Echocardiograms and Gait analysis from online repository and send them to specialists for interpretations. Advantages of PACS in medical imaging are improved management and use of images, expert interpretation for better quality of care and cost reduction. In India, a large rural based populated country separated by large distances is faced with many preventable life threatening diseases, which can easily be avoided by the application of telemedicine. Remote consultations could give consumers greater access to skilled health professionals regardless of geographic proximity. Even where clinical expertise is available, but inconvenience for the patient or the provider, remote consultation may be a cost effective alternative.

4.4.10 Electronic Communication E-mail is more permanent than oral communication and more spontaneous than letters and other text documents. Clinicians and care providers have been communicating with their patients by E-mail for several years. E-communication can extend and complement personal encounters, improve compliance and increase the involvement of patients in their own care. It is an effective mechanism for improving care and reducing costs because more frequent communications might enable better tracking of a patient's progress and eliminate the need for office visit. Most of these e-mail exchanges between patients and providers involve discussions of personal health information, which must be suitably protected from leakage of confidentiality and alterations. E-communication is well suited for communicating administrative information, medication or nursing instructions, patient education materials, lab results, appointments reminders and prescription refills. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) encryption and user authentication can largely improve the security of e-mail exchanges. The policies that can address issues of confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, timeliness and the appropriateness of safe and effective use of e-mail for clinical discussions are highly required.

4.4.11 Public Health Public health workers promote health and the quality of life by preventing and controlling the spread of diseases, injury and disability. A number of public health activities could be enhanced by an internet that is better attuned to public health needs, that provides sufficient security to protect sensitive medical records, that is accessible to all public health workers and the public at large and that remains operational even in times of natural or man-made disasters. Public health surveillance can be benefited 57

IT in Action

from internet based transactions to assist in collecting data about the health of individuals, personal risk factors and medical treatment as well as data about potential sources of disease and injury in the environment and resources that can be used to take effective action. Integrating Data Sources for improved decision making: There are dozens of systems that support individual diseases (such as AIDS) or disease groups (e.g., hospital-acquired-nosocomial-infections). The result is massive duplication, and a patient's clinical information could reside in several different systems that do not interconnect. The Internet could be a powerful technical tool (and political motivator) to realign these programs and allow better integration of data for monitoring public health.

4.4.12 E-Prescription E-prescriptions are computer-generated prescriptions created by your healthcare provider and sent directly to your pharmacy. Instead of writing out your prescription on a piece of paper, your doctor or other healthcare provider enters it directly into his or her computer. Your prescription travels from your doctor or other healthcare provider’s computer to the pharmacy’s computer. E-prescriptions are sent electronically through a private, secure, and closed network – the Pharmacy Health Information Exchange™, operated by SureScripts® – so your prescription information is not sent over the open Internet or as e-mail. Benefits of e-prescriptions are: • • • •

Fast: Your prescription arrives at your pharmacy before you leave your doctor’s office. Convenient: You don’t have to make that extra trip to drop off your prescription at the pharmacy. Legible: There is no handwriting for the pharmacist to interpret. Economical: Makes it easier for your doctor to prescribe the most cost effective medication based on your insurance coverage

More than 75% of community pharmacies in the U.S. currently accept e-prescriptions, and more are doing so every day. If you do not want your prescription sent electronically, or your pharmacy does not yet accept e-prescriptions, your healthcare provider will print your prescription for you.

4.4.13 Health Insurance The Internet is being evaluated as a medium for streamlining financial and administrative transactions in health care systems. Now health care in India is financed largely by a network of so-called third-party payers- entities that insure and pay for health services but are not directly engaged in providing care. Internet can be used by providers to submit claims for payment or by individuals to enroll, disenroll, and change their coverage. Advantages are accelerated transactions, reduced misunderstanding and disputes, fasten the payments from both sides and reduce administrative cost.

4.4.14 Popular Medical Websites Over the past few years, organizations providing health information have identified the computer and Internet as an effective medium for reaching large numbers of health consumers. It resulted in explosion of consumer-oriented health web sites, which are dedicated to diagnosis and management of diseases, the suggestion for healthy lifestyle, and prevention of disease. Very popular of them are: WebMD is one of the leading medical reference websites. The website contains thousands of articles on diseases and how to stay healthy. You can go through a minitest to check out if that sore throat is really just a sore throat, or if it could be 58

something worse. The test is divided for men and women, to give a more accurate diagnosis.

Medical Systems

The Mayo Clinic website uses a similar symptom checker to help you diagnosis your medical problem, along with additional information about drugs and supplements. The website contains an “Ask the Specialist” section, where you can ask different doctors whether that mole on your arm is something serious and if it should be looked at by a doctor. The CDC is globally recognized for efforts to prevent and control infectious and chronic diseases, injuries, workplace hazards, disabilities, and environmental health threats. An agency of the US government, the Centres for Disease Control strives to apply research and findings to improve people’s daily lives and responds to health emergencies. MedLine Plus is a service of the US National Library of Medicine, and will direct you to information to help answer health questions. MedlinePlus brings together authoritative information from NLM, the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and other government agencies and health-related organizations. HealthAtoZ.com is another website filled with medical suggestions, tips and advice. Use it as a resource to check on when you want a second source for your research. The RX List website offers current prescription information, including a list of side effects for many drugs. Alternative Medicine is one of the most thorough sites about alternative medicines. It includes articles from doctors and medical practitioners and some very creative alternatives to common medicines. Mercola.com website, and publishes a popular natural health newsletter, espousing the philosophy that the human body is designed to self-regulate and be healthy. Betterhealth.com website offers various aspects of physical & emotional health, expert advice, feature articles and many support groups. Healthon.com website is a free consumer site that covers health news, information, doctor's directory and other links. Mediconsult.com website publishes information about 60 common chronic ailments. Medscape.com website publishes well organized original reports and journal articles. Thriveonline.com website features alternative medicines, diet and exercise tips. Cnnhealth.com, mdconsult.com and emedicine.com allow physicians to review useful information such as clinical knowledge and therapeutic evaluations.

4.4.15 Online Support Groups If you need someone to talk to about your current medical problems, you may want to visit an online support group. Online support groups are there for you if you don't have time to visit a live group, or you just prefer to remain anonymous. You can exchange emails and posts about your questions, get answers, and provide support for others. Open Directory provides a list of many health support groups that you can find on the Internet. The directory is extensive, with support groups for victims of diseases, recovering patients, and for families of those who are ill. You can also check out Google's Support Groups for a list of some of the more common support groups.

IT in Action

4.5

BIOINFORMATICS

The utility of computers and communication tools to enhance and improve medical practice, education and research has increased exponentially in the past 30 years. Recent years have seen an explosive growth in biological data and to cope with that, a new scientific discipline has emerged which is known as Bioinformatics, Biocomputing or Computational Biology. It combines the tools and techniques of mathematics, computer science and biology in order to understand the biological significance of a variety of data. Bioinformatics is located at intersection of informatics and the different disciplines of medicine and healthcare. It is considered as the essential and pervasive element in all healthcare activity. Modern information system offers the promise of unprecedented quality, innovation and efficiency in the delivery of health care.

Figure 3: Biomedical Informatics

4.6

MEDICAL INFORMATICS

The hospital management and information system consists of not only information of the hospital and clinical information of a patient but also includes telemedicine, computer-assisted instructions to patient as well as doctors, and may even cover computer-assisted imaging and surgery. Surgical simulations and virtual environment are educational tools not only for doctors but also for patients. It is the era of convergence with the computer screen. Medical Informatics (MI) provides a comprehensive survey of current work performed to develop information technology for the clinical workplace. It deals with the acquisition of data from patients, processing and storing in computers, and the transformation of that data into information. Some topics pertain to methodological aspects of medical informatics and others are intended to be used for more advanced or specialized education. They contain the methodology for information systems and their processing. The future of MI as a profession is very promising. Medical Informatics means managing medical and health care through information science and technology. Like medicine, MI is also multidisciplinary. MI deals with the entire domain of medicine and health care, from computer-based patient records to image processing and from primary care practices to hospitals and regions of health care. 60

Medical Systems

4.7

MEDICAL TRANSCRIPTION

Medical Transcription is the process of converting voice dictation (typically either cassette or digital format) into a permanent written record utilizing word processing equipment and software using computers.

4.7.1

Medical Transcription Process

Physicians generally use either a cassette based voice dictation system or a digital voice dictation system to record their findings. Dictating reports verbally not only allows physicians to be more thorough in their reporting, it also saves them a great deal of time. Physicians/clients upload the dictation files over the Internet on to the secured Internet Servers. Traditionally staff of skilled medical transcriptionists working in the medical records department of the hospital downloads the dictation files and converts them to the written document format using word-processing software. This process of converting voice dictation to a softcopy is known as medical transcription. After the transcription is over, the proof readers and the quality analysts ensure the maximum possible accuracy. The final reports are stored on the Secured Internet file servers which are ready to be delivered. The physicians/clients download the transcripts for their use and reference. The below given Figure 4 explains the complete process.

Figure 4: Medical Transcription Process

IT in Action

4.7.2

Basic Skills Required for Medical Transcription

Medical Transcription is a highly skilled profession. It requires an attention to detail and an ability to recognize and understand technical terminology. Good typing skills are a must. Typically an accurate typing speed of 50-70 words per minute is a prerequisite for most positions. Obviously the faster you type the more money you will be able to make as most pay is on a production basis. Spelling and grammar skills are also vitally important. On-line dictionaries and spell checks are always available to assist you, but they should not be relied upon completely. You should feel relatively well grounded in spelling and grammar before you decide to enter this field. Most of the skill that you will acquire as a transcriptionist will come over time. Experience is the great teacher. Prior to gaining hands on experience, it is usually wise to go through a formal course to gain a foundation of knowledge and practical experience.

4.8

HAND-HELD COMPUTERS IN MEDICINE

Hand-held computers are known by several names and acronyms. They include PDAs (personal digital assistants), PIMs (personal information managers), hand-helds and Palms.

Figure 5: Hand Held device with Clinical Application

Physicians are embracing the use of hand-held computers with notable enthusiasm. There are indications that these devices are being incorporated into medical practice at a faster rate than full-sized computers ever were. Most hand-held computers are easier to use than full-sized computers, but have considerable capability nevertheless. They are also much more reliable and do not crash with the frequency for which full-sized units are renowned. The portability of hand-held units is attractive, as is the extensive array of available software. Many users welcomed the elimination of keyboards. The devices are also inexpensive, and viruses are nowhere near the threat they represent to full-sized computers.

Medical Systems

Physicians use the hand-held units to: • •

• • • • • • •

Access patient records. Store and refer the textbooks and handbooks such as Griffith’s 5 Minute Clinical Consult Series at Skype.com, the Washington Manual, a version of Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, Cline’s Emergency Medicine Handbook, the PDR and the MERK manual etc). Numerous drug resources and drug databases. Use the Medical calculators like MedMath, MedCalc, and MedRules Keep track of contacts. Keep track and schedule their appointments. Store and refer the Antibiotic guides. Keep track of Medications. Check lab results access patient records etc..

Hand-held computers are finding considerable acceptance at medical schools also. They offer great potential for students and faculty beyond the applications mentioned. Database programs permit residents to keep track of patient contacts, to submit evaluations electronically, and to keep copies of training manuals with them. Students can synchronize their PDAs with medical school information systems to get updated schedules they can carry with them.

Check Your Progress 1 1)

What is medical informatics?

………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………. 2)

What is telemedicine?

………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………

4.9 SUMMARY Over the years, computers have consistently been expanding in the use of our everyday lives. We use them at work, at home, at school, on our cell phones, to predict the weather, to get information, and so on. It is constantly growing and has become a major player in the medical field ashttp://ads.associatedcontent.com/www/delivery/ck.php?n=a14de4a9&cb=659551587 well. Most hospitals and clinics rely on computers for their administration, financials, and data submission and retrieval purposes. When you break a bone, a computer takes an x-ray to determine the exact placement of the break, MRI's take pictures your internals, and surgery can now be performed through small incisions using cameras hooked up to computers. Computers manage everything. The progress of medicine in the past few years has been rapid and extremely 63

IT in Action

beneficial. Computers play such a large role in this advancement, that it is likely that they will become an absolute necessity in every part of medical practices in the near future. Artificial intelligence is the ability of the computer-based system to imitate human actions or skills such as problem solving, decision making, learning, reasoning, and self-improvement. Expert systems mimic the decision-making processes of human experts. Many of these expert systems already exist and assist the physician in the clinical decision making process. In this unit, we have studied about the importance of computers in medicine; computer based medical systems and various equipment, role of ICT in health care, bioinformatics, medical informatics, medical transcription and use of hand-held devices in medicine.

4.10 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS Check Your Progress 1

The integrative discipline that arises from the synergistic application of computational, informational, cognitive, organizational, and other sciences whose primary focus is the acquisition, storage, and use of information in the health/biomedical domain.

Telemedicine is a rapidly developing application of clinical medicine where medical information is transferred via telephone, the Internet or other networks for the purpose of consulting, and sometimes remote medical procedures or examinations. Telemedicine may be as simple as two health professionals discussing a case over the telephone, or as complex as using satellite technology and videoconferencing equipment to conduct a real-time consultation between medical specialists in two different countries. Telemedicine generally refers to the use of communications and information technology or the delivery of clinical care.

4.11 FURTHER READINGS 1) 2) 3) 4)

Computers in Medicine, R.D.Lee, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1999. Handbook of Medical Informatics, J.H. van Bemmel and M.A. Musen, Springer-Verlag, 1997. HMI , ISBN: 3540633510. Introduction to Clinical Informatics, Degoulet, P.; Fieschi, M. : (1997), ISBN: 0-387-94641-1. Medical Informatics: The Essentials, F.T. Dombal, Oxford University Press, 1996.

UNIT 1 DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Development of Information Systems

Structure 1.0

Introduction

1.1

Objectives

1.2

Development Steps of a Typical Information System

1.3

Tools for Development of Information Systems

1.4

Maintenance of Information Systems

1.5

Updating Information Systems

1.6

Summary

1.7

FURTHER READINGS

Fundamentals of Information Systems by Ralph Stair and George Reynolds; Course Technology(Publisher);2008 Information Systems Today: Managing in the Digital World, Third Edition by Leonard Jessup and Joseph Valacich; Prentice Hall;2007 http://ocw.mit.edu http://www.egyankosh.ac.in

Information Systems

UNIT 2 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM Structure 2.0 2.1

Introduction Objectives 2.2 MIS:A Three Letter Acronym

2.3

Functions of Management

2.4 Purpose of Information System

2.5

Types of Information System

2.6

Definitions of MIS

2.7 Why Management Information System? 2.8 Different Components of MIS

2.9

MIS : An Integrated Application

2.10 Developing MIS : Do’s And Don’ts 2.11

Forces Which Makes MIS Strong & Successful

2.12

Stumbling Blocks

2.13 Limitations of MIS 2.14 Steps for Avoiding Pitfall 2.15

Summary

2.16

Keywords

2.17

Answers/Solutions

2.18

FURTHER READINGS

http://home.nic.in http://www.eis.ernet.in http://www.mit.gov.in

UNIT 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS Structure

Page Nos.

1.0 Introduction 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Embedded System: An Introduction

1.3

Fundamentals of Embedded Systems

1.2.1 Components of an Embedded System 1.2.2 Block Diagram and Characteristics of an Embedded System 1.2.3 Classification of an Embedded System

5 5 6

Embedded Operating System 1.3.1 Classification of an Embedded Operating System

Requirements and Specification in Embedded System Programming Languages for Embedded System and Classification

10 12

1.3.2 Characteristics of an Embedded Operating System

1.4 1.5

1.5.1 Hardware Languages 1.5.2 VHDL V/s Verilog

1.6

Selected Embedded System applications

1.7 1.8 1.9

Summary Answers/Solutions Further Readings and References

19 19 19

1.0

1.6.1 Washing Machine 1.62. Digital Sound Recorder

INTRODUCTION

Embedded systems are basic electronic devices used to control, monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or a plant. The choice of word “embedded” reflects the fact that these are integral part of the system. Uses of embedded system in our real life are increasing day by day. Children need such systems to play video games and to operate chocolate vending machine, Housewives need embedded systems for microwave, TV, music system, and other system appliances. In this unit you will learn about basics of embedded system: its uses, its components, its basic requirements in terms of Hardware and Software and support of Programming Languages. We will also highlight some application of embedded system in our real life scenario at the end of this unit.

1.1

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

•

define embedded operating system;

•

identify Basic Requirements and its Specification;

•

explain Design methodology;

•

describe the use of programming languages in embedded system; and 5

State of the Art Practices in Information Technology

•

1.2

list the use of applications of Embedded System.

EMBEDDED SYSTEM: AN INTRODUCTION

An embedded device can range from a relatively simple product for ex. a toaster to complex mission critical applications such as those used in avionics. A typical embedded device will have both hardware and software components. The hardware could be micro components such as embedded microprocessor or microcontroller. Microcontroller is relatively small, has a onchip memory, an I/O controller and other supported modules to do processing and controlling tasks. The software consists of applications that perform dedicated tasks and may run on Real time operating system which will be explained later in this unit. Embedded System may be either an independent system or a part of a large system. It is specialized computer system but not a general purpose workstation like a desktop or a computer. Such kind of systems is housed on a single microprocessor board with programs which are stored in ROM (Read Only Memory). Embedded system is usually a compact, portable and mass produced electronic devices. In the early days, embedded systems were designed using microprocessors like 8085. But nowadays, we are using a wide range of processors from other manufacturers. Before we want to the basic of an embedded system, we should see a wide range of its applications. In fact, almost all modern electronic devices use some sort of embedded system technology inside them and we always come across such devices: DVD players, air conditioners, printers, attendance machines, handphone, digital camera, ATM machines, we will see some examples of embedded system in section 1. Now it is time to give a proper definition. Definitions: “Embedded Systems are devices which are used to control, monitor or assist the operation of an equipment, machinery or plant”. The term “control” defines the main function of Embedded System because their purpose is to control an aspect of a physical system such as pressure, temperature and so on. Also the term “monitor” defines the progress of activities. Where do we use Embedded Systems? From several examples listed earlier these systems are extremely common in the home, vehicle and the workplace.

•

At Home: Washing Machines, dishwashers, ovens, central heating system, burglars alarms, etc.

•

In Motor Vehicle: Engine management, security (locking or antitheft devices), air conditioning, brakes, radio etc.

•

In Industry & Commerce: Machine control, factory automation, robotics, electronic commerce office equipments.

1.2.1

Components of an Embedded System

An embedded system has three main components : Hardware, Software and time operating system i) 6

Hardware

• • • • • •

Power Supply Processor Memory Timers Serial communication ports Output/Output circuits • System application specific circuits ii) Software: The application software is required to perform the series of tasks. An embedded system has software designed to keep in view of three constraints: • • •

Fundamentals of Embedded Systems

Availability of System Memory Availability of processor speed The need to limit power dissipation when running the system continuously in cycles of wait for events, run , stop and wake up.

iii) Real Time Operating System: (RTOS) It supervises the application software and provides a mechanism to let the processor run a process as per scheduling and do the switching from one process (task) to another process.

1.2.2

Block Diagram and Characteristics of an Embedded System

Embedded systems are executed by a microcontroller, which communicates with the sensors and actuators. It means that a user of an embedded system is not able to change the functionality of the system through modifying or replacing the software because it is kept in ROM. Embedded System

Microcontroller

Sensors

Actuator s

Input

Output

Figure 1: Embedded System

Figure 1 shows basic components used in Embedded System are as follows:

•

Microcontroller: It monitors and controls the environment.

•

Sensors: It collects data from environment through input devices.

•

Actuators: It displays the system's status through output devices.

•

Timer: It provides response within a certain time frame. Characteristics of Embedded System 7

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Some of important Characteristics of embedded system are: 1) Embedded Systems are designed to do some specific task i.e., it is not a general purpose kind of a system. 2) Software for Embedded Systems are stored in ROM or flash memory. 3) Knowledge about behavior at design time can be used to minimize resources and to maximize robustness. 4) Embedded Systems provide low power consumption in many situations.

1.2.3 Classification of an Embedded System Embedded system can be classified as:

•

Standalone Embedded System: It is built using a specialized communication processor, memory a number of network access interfaces (known as network ports), and special software that implements logic for sending information from one device to another device.

•

Real Time Embedded System: A realtime embedded system usually monitors the environment where the embedded system is installed. This kind of system is required to respond in time to a request. Examples of realtime embedded systems are aircraft engine control systems, nuclear monitoring systems and medical monitoring equipment.

•

Network Appliances: Network appliances are a new class of embedded systems that in addition to traditional realtime processing must support a broad and changing array of network protocols.

•

Mobile Embedded System: Mobile Embedded Systems usually are simple, batterypowered systems with resource limitations. In some situations, their batteries lifetime becomes a prim issue.

1.3

EMBEDDED OPERATING SYSTEM

An embedded operating system (EOS) is a system software that manages all the other programs and devices in an embedded system. It normally guarantees a certain capability within a specified storage size and time constraint as well as with application programs. Its structure is very similar to a structure of a normal operating system however mainly differentiated by some factors such as type of preinstalled device, functional limits, taking designed job only. It also normally has boot loader, OS kernel, required device drivers, file systems for the user data and so forth. At their core, embedded operating systems contain some of the same software components used on larger operating systems, such as windows and Linux etc. larger operating systems (OS), embedded operating systems deals with task switching, scheduling of tasks, memory allocation, etc. But there are some distinctions between desk top computerOS and embedded system OS. Desktop Computer is a general purpose computing system whereas embedded system purpose is for a specific task. Embedded operating systems have several common characteristics that distinguish such systems from other computing systems: 8

•

Fundamentals of Embedded Systems

Single Functioned: Usually executes a specific program repeatedly e.g. pager.

•

Tightly Constrained: All computing systems have constraints on design metrics, but those on embedded systems can be especially tight. A design metric is a measure of an implementation’s features, such as cost, size, performance and power.

•

Reactive and Real Time: Many embedded systems must continually react to changes in the system’s environment and must compute certain results in real time without delay. In contrast, a desktop system typically focuses on computation with relatively infrequent reactions to input devices.

•

Secondary Memory: Generally embedded system doesn’t need secondary memory. • Unlike a desktop computer system which may have new software loaded onto it frequently, embedded systems retain the same code for a long time, sometimes indefinitely. Embedded operating systems do not usually include support for external storage or graphical interfaces, or protection from malicious or unstable code. The limited memory in embedded systems requires the operating system and process to work very closely to manage the free resources.

1.3.1

Classification of an Embedded Operating System (EOS)

We can classify Operating Systems (for embedded systems) into two parts called as RealTime Operating Systems and NonRealTime OS as shown in Figure 2.

Embedded OS

Real Time Operating System (RTOS) E.g. VxWorks, OS9, RTLinux

Non Real Time Operating System E.g. Windows, Palm OS

Figure 2: Classification of embedded operating system

•

Real Time Operating Systems are operating systems which guarantee responses to each event within a defined amount of time. This type of operating system is mainly used by timecritical applications such as measurement and control systems. Some commonly used RTOS for embedded systems are: VxWorks, OS9, Symbian, and RTLinux etc.

•

NonReal Time Operating Systems do not guarantee defined response times. Those systems are mostly used if multiple applications are needed. Windows and Palm OS are examples for such embedded operating systems. Some other features which are quite common to EOS irrespective of any classification are presented below.

Single System Control Loop: Such systems run a single task. 9

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2) Multitasking Operating System: In a multitasking operating system, several tasks or processes appear to execute concurrently

3) Preemptive Operating System: A preemptive operating system is a

multitasking operating system that defines preemptive priorities for tasks. A higher priority task always interrupts and is always run before a lower priority task.

4) Rate Monotonic Operating System: Such operating system guarantees that tasks in the system can run at a certain interval of time for a certain period of time. When this guarantee is not met, the system software can be notified of failure and take appropriate action.

5) Constant Time Operations: Constant time operations are the cornerstone of real time responsiveness and predictable capacity loading.

6) Interrupt Response Times: Embedded Operating Systems normally provide

for fast interrupt response times by separating interrupt handlers in two phases. In the first phase, the interrupt handler program reacts to an interrupt and satisfies the interrupt condition from a hardware perspective. In the second phase, the interrupt handler processes the interrupt condition. While executing in the second phase, other interrupts in the system are enabled and may be handled to allow higher priority interrupts to take precedence over lower priority interrupts.

7) Priority Inversion: Priority inversion is a condition in preemptive operating systems where a lower priority task claims a resource that is subsequently required by a higher priority task.

8) Monolithic Operating Systems: A monolithic operating system includes all

operating system code such as device drivers and file system handlers as part of a single system image.

9) Micro Kernels: A micro kernel operating system includes only the bare

necessities such as task switching, scheduling and device handling interfaces in the operating system code.

1.3.2

Characteristics of an Embedded Operating System

For an Embedded OS to be regarded as good, it should have the following features: Modularity: Modularity is a concept that has an application in the contexts of computer science, particularly programming language. A module can be defined variously, but generally must be a component of a larger system, and operate within that system independently from the operations of the components of the system. •

Scalability: The property of a multiprocessing computer that defines the extent to which addition of more processors increases aggregate computing capability. Windows NT server 4.0 is generally considered to be scalable to eight Intel processors. •

•

CPU. 10

A CPU support: There is no meaning of an OS without a compatible

• Flexibility and Configurability: By flexibility we mean to say that the Embedded OS must be adjustable to change/modification. A configuration is an arrangement of functional units according to their nature, number, and chief characteristics. Often, configuration pertains to the choice of hardware, software, firmware, and documentation. The configuration affects the system function.

Fundamentals of Embedded Systems

• Have a small footprint: In computer science, the footprint of a piece of software is the portion of computing resources, typically RAM, CPU time peripheral devices. Have a large Device Driver Database: The larger the Device Driver Database of an Embedded OS, the greater is the number of devices that can be controlled through that particular OS. •

1.4

REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATION OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM

A requirement is a condition needed by a user to solve a problem or achieve an objective. Specification is a document that specifies, in a complete, precise, verifiable manner, the requirements, design, behavior, or other characteristics of a system, and often, the procedures for determining whether these provisions have been satisfied. For example, a requirement for a car could be that the maximum speed to be at least 120mph. The specification for this requirement would include technical information about specific design aspects. Requirements and specifications are very important components in the development of any embedded system. Requirements analysis is the first step in the system design process, where a user's requirements should be clarified and documented to generate the corresponding specifications. For example, errors developed during the requirements and specifications stage may lead to errors in the design stage. When this error is discovered, the engineers must revisit the requirements and specifications to fix the problem. This leads not only to more time wasted but also the possibility of other requirements and specifications errors. Many accidents are traced to requirements flaws, incomplete implementation of specifications, or wrong assumptions about the requirements. Establishing good requirements requires people with both technical and communication skills. Technical skills are required as the embedded system will be highly complex and may require knowledge from different engineering disciplines such as electrical engineering and mechanical engineering. Communication skills are necessary as there is a lot of exchange of information between the customer and the designer. Without either of these two skills, the requirements will be unclear or inaccurate. Example of a System Requirement of an Embedded System: Embedded System requires minimal hardware requirements as follows: Minimum Requirements Operating System

Microsoft Windows NT® Workstation operating system version 4.0 with Service Pack 5 (SP5) or later 11

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Browser

Microsoft Internet Explorer 4.0 Service Pack 1 (SP1) or later

Processor

Computer with Pentiumclass processor; Pentium 300megahertz (MHz) or higher processor recommended

Memory

64 MB of RAM

Drive

100 MB for generated image storage 20 MB for installation of the Windows NT Embedded 4.0 development system 170 MB if the Binary Repository is copied to the local development system hard drive (optional)

Optional

Microsoft Visual Studio® 6.0 development system to create Target Designer extensions

Specification and Design A specification enables everyone involved in the process to comprehend the entire design and his/her piece of it. The specification must include the following: •

An external block diagram showing how the device fits into the system.

•

An internal block diagram showing each major functional section.

•

A description of the I/O pins. Physical specification — package type, physical size, connector requirements, and so on. •

• • •

Power consumption target Price target Test procedures The design step of Design Methodology depends on the kind of device targeted. Digital hardware differs from analog hardware. Design Methodology doesn't limit or dictate design practices, but it's important that you use reliable, accepted design practices during this step. However, system integration and system testing is necessary to ensure that all parts of the system work correctly together. At the system integration and test step of the design, you have the responsibility to determine that the entire system, including the device you've designed, works correctly. You should perform a burnin test to assure that any manufacturing defects are discovered before the product is delivered. If you've followed the procedure up to this point, chances are good that your system will perform correctly. Minor hardware problems can often be worked around by slight modifications to the system or changes to the system software.

1.5

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEM AND CLASSIFICATION

Embedded systems are applicationspecific computers that interact with the physical world. Each has a diverse set of tasks to perform, and although a very flexible 12

language might be able to handle all of them, instead a variety of problemdomain specific languages have evolved that are easier to write, analyze, and compile. The choice of programming language is very important for real time embedded software.

Fundamentals of Embedded Systems

The following factors influence the choice of languages: • A language compiler should be available for the chosen RTOS (Real Time Operating System) and hardware architecture of the embedded system. • Compilers should be available on multiple OSs and microprocessors. This is particularly important if the processor or the RTOS needs to be changed in future. • The language should allow direct hardware control without sacrificing the advantages of a high level language. • The language should provide memory management control such as dynamic and static memory allocation. So, we can categorize embedded programming languages in to two parts such as hardware language and software language.

1.5.1

Hardware Languages

A hardware description language can be used to describe the logic gates, the sequential machines, and the functional modules, along with their interconnection and their control, in a embedded system. There are various languages used for this purpose as follows: VHDL VHDL is the Very High Speed Integrated Circuit Hardware Description Language. It can describe the behaviour and structure of electronic systems, but is particularly suited as a language to describe the structure and behaviour of digital electronic hardware designs, VHDL is an international standard, regulated by the international languages. VHDL is suitable for use today in the digital hardware design process, from specification through highlevel functional simulation, manual design and logic synthesis down to gatelevel simulation. VERILOG Verilog HDL is one of the two most common Hardware Description Languages (HDL) used by integrated circuit (IC) designers. The other one is VHDL. HDL’ allows the design to be simulated earlier in the design cycle in order to correct errors or experiment with different architectures. Designs described in HDL are technology independent, easy to design and debug, and are usually more readable than schematics, particularly for large circuits. Verilog can be used to describe designs at four levels of abstraction: i) Algorithmic level (much like, C language code with if, case and loop statements). ii) Register transfer level (RTL uses registers connected by Boolean equations). 13

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iii) Gate level (interconnected AND, NOR etc.). iv) Switch level (the switches are MOS transistors inside gates). The language also defines constructs that can be used to control the input and output of simulation.

1.5.2 VHDL VS. VERILOG Let us compare between the two languages on the following parameters: 1) Capability • Hardware structure can be modeled equally effectively in both VHDL and Verilog. When modeling abstract hardware, the capability of VHDL can be achieved in Verilog. 2) Compilation

•

VHDL: Multiple designunits (entity/architecture pairs), that reside in the same system file, may be separately compiled if so desired. However, it is good design practice to keep each design unit in it's own system file in which case separate compilation should not be an issue.

•

Verilog: The Verilog language is still rooted in it's native interpretative mode. Compilation is a means of speeding up simulation, but has not changed the original nature of the language. As a result care must be taken with both the compilation order of code written in a single file and the compilation order of multiple files. Simulation results can change by simply changing the order of compilation. 3) Data types

•

VHDL: A multitude of language or user defined data types can be used. This may mean dedicated conversion functions are needed to convert objects from one type to another.

•

Verilog. Compared to VHDL, Verilog data types are very simple, easy to use and very much geared towards modeling hardware structure 4) Design reusability

•

VHDL. Procedures and functions may be placed in a package so that they are available to any designunit that wishes to use them.

• Verilog. There is no concept of packages in Verilog. 5) Easiest to Learn • Verilog is probably the easiest to grasp and understand as compared to VHDL. 14

Fundamentals of Embedded Systems

6) Operators

•

Verilog has a very useful unary operators that are not in VHDL.

•

VHDL has the mod operator that is not found in Verilog.

Java and C++ are another programming languages which are used extensively for embedded system design.

1.6

SELECTED EMBEDDED SYSTEM APPLICATIONS

We can categorize applications of Embedded System into various categories as mentioned in Table: Area Aerospace Automotive Communications Computer Peripherals Home Industrial Instrumentation Medical Office Automation

Applications Navigation Systems, Automatic landing systems, Flight altitude controls, engine controls, space exploration Fuel Injection Control, Passenger environmental controls, antilock braking systems, air bag controls, GPS mapping Switches, Hubs Printers,scanners,keyboards,displays,modems,Hard Disk Drives,CDROM drives Ovens, Washing Machine,Digtal Watch, Security Alarm, Sound Recorder Elevator Controls, Robots, Engine Control Data Collection, power supplies Imaging Systems, Patient monitors, Heart pacers FAX machines, Telephones, Cash Registers

Now, we will discuss here two well known applications used for home appliances in detail as follows:

1.6.1

Washing Machine

Washing machine supports three functional modes: i) Fully Automatic Mode: In fully automatic mode, once the system is started it perform independently without user interference and after the completion of work it should notify the user about the completion of work. This mode instantaneously sense cloth quality and requirement of water, water temperature, detergent, load, wash cycle time and perform operation accordingly. ii) Semi Automatic Mode: In this semiautomatic mode in which washing conditions are predefined. Once the predefined mode is started the system perform its job and after completion it inform the user about the completion of work. iii) Manual Mode: In this mode, user has to specify which operation he wants to do and has to provide related information to the control system. For example, if user wants to wash clothes only, he has to choose ‘wash’ option manually. Then the system ask the user to enter the wash time, amount of water and the load. After these data are 15

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entered, the user should start the machine. When the specified operation is completed system should inform the user. Remember that Modes should be a selectable by a keypad. A washing machine may have a System Controller (Brain of the System) which provides the power control for various monitors and pumps and even controls the display that tells us how the wash cycles are proceeding. A washing machine comprise several components as shown in Figure 3.

Sensor

Display panel System Controller

Driving Motor Water Pump

Inverter Unit

Figure 3: Block Diagram of Washing Machine

The working of these components is as follows: i)

Display Panel: It is a touch panel screen to control all the operations of a machine

ii) Sensor: It measures the water level and appropriate amount of soap. Input devices for automatic washing machine are sensors for water flow, water level and temperature; door switch; selector knob or buttons for settings such as spin speed, temperature, load size and types of wash cycle required. Water Level Sensor: It indicates beep sound when water level is low in washing tub. Door Sensor: It indicates beep sound when all clothes are washed that means now you can open the maching door and also you can move to your next phase. Next phase will be dry Phase. This phase also follows same concept for drying the clothes. iii) Driving Motor: Motor can rotate in two directions either “reverse’ or ‘forward’. The forward direction drives the current in forward direction and motor rotates forward. The reverse direction driver does the opposite of it. A washing machine can maintain single motor in fully automatic or double motor in semi automatic washing machine. Sequence of washing the clothes with this can be explained in few steps as follows: 1) Put on your dirty clothes on to the wash tub for washing 2) Put the detergent Soap (of your choice like Surf n Excel etc.) 16

3) Put ON the tap, water rushes inside the tub.

Fundamentals of Embedded Systems

4) If its electronic control , then by the press of the keys ,you could program , if its mechanical it shall something like an mechanical switches wherein you are allowed to operate for setting the wash time. 5) Now the wash motor rotates and washes the clothes and gives you a beep sound 6) Now your clothes are washed …remove it from the wash tub and put it on the spin tub and program it accordingly…after spinning clothes are dried and you are allowed to hang it for proper drying in sunlight. The fully automatic also comes in two category front loading as well as top loading. i) Front loading is the one wherein you are given an opening to put clothes in on the front side. ii) Top loading is on the top. iv) System Controller: Such Component is used to control the motor speed. Motor can move in forward direction as well as reverse direction. System Controller reads the speed of motor and controls the speed of motor in different phases such as in Washing, Cleaning Drying etc. All kinds of Sensors such as Door Sensor, Pressure Sensor and Keypad, Speed sensor are also maintained by this. v) Water Pump: The water pump is used to recirculate water and drain out the dirty water. This pump actually contains two separate pumps inside one: The bottom half of the pump is hooked up to the drain line, while the top half recirculates the wash water. The motor that drives the pump can reverse direction. It spins one way when the washer is running a wash cycle and recirculates the water; and it spins the other way when the washer is doing a spin cycle and draining the water

1.6.2

Digital Sound Recorder

A digital sound recorder is a consumer electronic appliance designed to record and play back speech. The messages are recorded using a builtin microphone and they are stored in a digital memory. The user can quickly play back any message at any moment through a speaker placed in the front of the device.

Figure 4 shows what our sound recorder could look like. It is a hand held unit with flat display and fairly large buttons. 17

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Screen

Yes

Figure 4: Block Diagram of Digital Sound Recorder

The main features of the digital sound recorder are: •

Easy to use with on screen menus.

•

Direct access to any message.

• Alarm clock with year2000ready calendar. The user can set a daily alarm. The alarm beeps until the user presses a key, or after 60 seconds. • Full Function LCD Display. The current date and time is always shown in the display. The display also shows clear directions about how to use it and what it is doing. •

Batterylevel indicator. The system beeps when the battery is low.

• Standby mode. It economizes the battery power. The system switches off the peripherals when they are not in use. The normal operation is resumed when the user presses a key. Such a system provides good sound quality. And also sound is processed at 6 KHz using eight bits per sample. In Digital Sound Recorder system there are six different Functions:

Functions of Digital Sound Recorder System

Delete Recording

Playback

Set Alarm

Set Clock

Watch Time

1) Record a message

Fundamentals of Embedded Systems

When we want to record a message then we will use following steps: Step1: Selects a message slot from the message directory Step2: presse the ‘record’button. If the message slot already stores a message, it is deleted. The system starts recording the sound from the microphone until the user presses the ‘stop’ button, or the memory is full. 2) Playback a message When we want to playback a message Then we will use following steps: Step1: Selects a recorded message slot Step2: and then presses the ‘play’ button. If the message slot contains a recorded message then it is played through the speaker until its end or until the user presses the stop button. 3) Delete a message When we want to delete a message Then we will use following steps: Step1: The user selects a used message slot Step2: and then presses the ‘delete’ button. The message is permanently deleted from the memory and its memory space is freed up. 4) Set the alarm time When we want to Set the alarm state, Then the user can switch on and off the alarm and set the time when the alarm will sound. This is done by selecting the different options of the alarm menu. 5) Set the clock time When we want to set the clock time message Then user can set the clock time and adjust it to the current time zone. 6) Watch the time The system constantly shows the current time and date on the display. The user just looks at it.

F Check Your Progress 1 1) Distinguish between Embedded Systems and Non Embedded Systems. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… 2) Explain the characteristics of real time operating system for embedded system applications. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………

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3) What are advantages of Verilog HDL? ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………

1.7

SUMMARY

Embedded system is a kind of computer system or computing device that performs a dedicated function and/or is intended for use with a specific embedded software application. It has been found that such systems are not usable as a commercially viable substitute for generalpurpose computers. In the same way, we can define embedded operating system as the software program that manages all the other programs in an embedded device after initial load of programs. Important concepts like requirement and specifications play a vital role in Embedded System design implementation. Such Systems use programming languages in which hardware languages such as Verilog and VHDL are used for their hardware support and also well known software languages like C, C++ and Java etc. We have also discussed various applications of Embedded System in section.

1.8

ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS

1) An embedded system is a singlepurpose computer built into a larger system for the purposes of controlling and monitoring the system. These are also known as special purpose computer system. Example: Digital watches and MP4 Players, Digital Sound Recorder. Non Embedded Systems are also known as general Computer general purpose computer (e.g. a personal computer) is defined not to be an embedded system. Such system can do many tasks depending on programming. Example: Handheld devices. share some elements with embedded systems — such as the operating systems and microprocessors which power them — but are not truly embedded systems, because they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected. 2) RTOS Characteristics for Embedded Systems Applications:

•

They have limited memory that is modular kernels. Modular kernels means only include the needed services.

•

The executed processes are usually known at system design. RTOS often linked with the executed application(s) to the instruction memory.

3) The advantages using Verilog HDL are: I) Easy to write II) Easy to understand as it similar to C program III) Easier to learn compared with VHDL.

1.9 20

FURTHER READINGS

Raj Kamal, “Embedded Systems”, Tata Mcgraw Hill. Steve Health, “Embedded Systems Design”, EDN 2nd Ed.

Fundamentals of Embedded Systems

Reference Websites:

i) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system ii) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_operating_system iii) http://wapedia.mobi/en/Embedded_system iv) http://www.learnc.com

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UNIT 2 ADVANCED METHODS OF COMMUNICATION WITH A COMPUTER Structure 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3

2.4

Introduction Objectives Human Computer Interface: Different Perspectives Interacting with Computers 2.3.1 Input Devices

20 20 20 21

HCI Development and its Applications

2.3.2 Output Devices 2.3.3 Controls 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6 2.4.7 2.4.8

2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8

2.0

Page Nos.

Universal Access to Large and Complex Distributed Information Virtual Machines Command Line Interface Hypertext Hypermedia Graphical User Interface Voice User Interface Other User Interfaces

Future/Advance Methods of Communication with a Computer Summary Answers/Solutions Further Readings

33 34 34 37

INTRODUCTION

Humancomputer interaction is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use. If the interface is well designed, it will allow the systems functionality to support the user’s task. This unit tracks the development path of human computer interaction from the command line mode to hyperlinks, hypermedia, voice user interface etc.

2.1

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to: •

understand the basics of human computer interface;

•

understand different perspectives of human computer interface;

•

list different kinds of input and output devices;

•

differentiate between menu, pushbuttons, radiobuttons, checkboxes; and

•

understand future/advance methods of human computer interaction.

2.2 20

HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACE:

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DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES Humans communicate with computers in many ways, and the interface between humans and the computers they use is crucial to facilitating this interaction. Earlier the interaction between a computer and human was done through command (s) mode using keyboard. Now we click folder, icons for performing tasks. Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) becomes a key component of application. Humancomputer interface (HCI) is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them. From a computer science perspective, the focus is on interaction and specifically on interaction between humans and computers. If the interface is well designed, it will allow the system’s functionality to support the user’s task. 1) The Human perspective: HCI design teams must consider several factors in regard to users: what users expect and need, what physical abilities and limitations they may have, how their perceptual systems work, and what they find attractive and enjoyable when they use computers. Users have various preferences, work environments, and physical capabilities, designers must also provide alternative ways for different users to communicate with their computers. Information can be exchanged by voice, keyboard, mouse, or other means. 2) Interaction: So, given all these differences between humans and computers, how are we supposed to get along with them and get our work done? In other words, how can we interact with them effectively? In order to come up with a product that's easy for people to use, software designers apply what they know about humans and computers, and consult with potential users of their products throughout the design process. When they know what their users want and need the product to do, they collaborate with programmers. Programmers know how to write instructions in languages that computers can understand. They also know what computers are capable of doing. The designers and programmers look for a reasonable balance between what can be programmed (written as computer instructions) within the necessary schedule and budget, and what would be ideal for the users. They have users try out any changes to make sure that the product is still easy, efficient, and pleasant to use. 3) User Interface (or UI) is one of those jargon terms that you hear from computer salespeople .It's not a hard concept to understand, though. It's simply the parts of a computer and its software that you (the computer user) see, hear, touch, or talk to. It is the set of all the things that allow you and your computer to communicate with each other. For example, if you are reading something on a computer screen, then you're looking at part of a user interface right now. The screen is showing you these words, communicating a message to you. Like any good communication channel, a user interface is a twoway street. You don't want to just see or hear whatever the computer puts in front of you, you also want to tell it what you'd like to do. For instance, to get to this web page, you "asked" your computer to show you pages on a certain subject. You may have used a mouse to point and click on a button or word, or maybe you spoke instructions to the computer. However you express it, everything you tell the computer is input; what it conveys to you is output. The ways you can receive output and give input depend entirely on the user interface. The best user interfaces are the ones you don't have to pay much attention to. They make sense to you and do what you expect them to. When an interface is easy to use, you can spend your time doing your work instead of looking everywhere for the right button or key to press. It's

almost transparentyou can see right through the interface to your own work.

2.3

Advanced Methods of Communication with A Computer

INTERACTING WITH COMPUTERS

Computers are not like you and me, so to communicate with them, we need some tools or mechanisms. At a basic level, we need something to relay information from the computer to us and from us to the computer. We call these translation aids as input devices, output devices, and controls. Effective communication is not possible without these I/O devices and controls. Let’s understand these basic devices in details

2.3.1 Input Devices

Input devices are the hardware components you use to "talk" to a computer. It is a hardware device through which you send information to the computer. Below is a description of different types of computer input devices. A few examples of commonly used input devices are: • Keyboard: A keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, which act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. The keyboard is used to type text and numbers into a word processor, text editor or other program. One of the sample keyboard is shown below:

Numeric Keys

Function Keys

Figure 1: Keyboard

• Microphone: A microphone is a hardware peripheral that allows computer users to input audio into computers. • Mouse: An input device that allows an individual to control a mouse pointer in a graphical user interface (GUI).

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Figure 2: Mouse

•

Optical Scanner: Hardware input device that allows a user to take an image and/or text and convert it into a digital file, allowing the computer to read and/or display the scanned object.

•

WebCam: A camera connected to a computer or server that allows anyone connected to the Internet to view still pictures or motion video/moving video of a user. There are millions of webcams around the world that allow you to view other people, places, and even events. One of popular Logitech webcam is described below in the diagram.

Figure 3: Webcam

• Digital Camera: A type of camera that stores the pictures or video it takes in electronic format instead of to film. There are several features that make digital cameras a popular choice when compared to film cameras. First, the feature often enjoyed the most is the LCD display on the digital camera. This display allows users to view photos or video after the picture or video has been taken. • Touch Screens: A touch screen is a display which can detect the presence and location of a touch within the display area. The term generally refers to touch or contact to the display of the device by a finger or hand.

Advanced Methods of Communication with A Computer

Figure 4: Touch Screen

2.3.2 Output Devices Any machine capable of representing information from a computer to the user is called as output device. Since most information from a computer is output in either a visual or auditory format, the most common output devices are the monitor and speakers. Some of the common output devices are listed below: • Monitor: it is also called a video display terminal (VDT) a monitor is a video display screen and the hard shell that holds it (as show in diagram below). In its most common usage, monitor refers only to devices that contain no electronic equipment other than what is essentially needed to display and adjust the characteristics of an image. Monitors display images and text which are made up of small blocks of coloured light called pixels. The resolution of the screen improves as the number of pixels is increased.

Figure 5: Monitor

• Printer: It is an external hardware device responsible for taking computer data and generating a hard copy of that data. Printers are one of the most used peripherals on computers and are commonly used to print text, images, and/or photos. The two main types of printer are impact and nonimpact. 24

State of the Art Practices in Information Technology

Figure 6: Printer

• Projector: It is a hardware device that enables an image, such as a computer screen, to be projected onto a flat surface (as show in diagram below). These devices are commonly used in meetings and presentations as they allow for a large image to be shown so everyone in a room can see.

Figure 7: Projector

• Plotters: Plotters are used to produce graphs or diagrams. Plotters can be of two types: Pen plotters and Electrostatic plotters. Pen plotters have an ink pen attached to draw the images, and electrostatic plotters work similarly to a laser printer. A diagram of plotter is mentioned below.

Figure 8: Plotter

• Speakers: A speaker gives you sound output from your computer. Some speakers are built into the computer and some are separate.

Advanced Methods of Communication with A Computer

Figure 9: Speakers

• Headphones: Headphones give sound output from the computer. They are similar to speakers, except they are worn on the ears so only one person can hear the output at a time.

Figure 10: Headphone

2.3.3 Controls Controls are the software elements, usually shown on a display, which you use to set preferences and make choices. Like such hardware controls as knobs and dials, they can be used to control many different things. Some familiar controls include: • Menus: In a graphical user interface (GUI) for a personal computer system, an improved method and apparatus for accessing and executing commands associated with user applications. Menu can be both static as well as dynamic.

State of the Art Practices in Information Technology

Figure 11: Menu

• Pushbuttons: In a window or dialog box, a rectangular control that, when clicked, immediately causes an action to be performed. Push buttons can be labeled with text, graphics, or both.

Figure 12: Pushbutton

• Radio buttons: A radio button or option button is a type of graphical user interface element that allows the user to choose only one of a predefined set of options.

Figure 13: Radio button

• Sliders: A control enabling users to choose among a continuous range of allowable values. Slider controls can be horizontal or vertical.

Vertical Slider

Horizontal Slider Figure 14: Sliders

• Checkbox: A check box is a type of graphical user interface element that allows the user to choose more than one of a predefined set of options.

Figure 15: Checkbox

Advanced Methods of Communication with A Computer

 Check Your Progress 1 1) Discuss various kinds of perspectives of Human computer interface. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 2) Discuss any four types of input devices used for human computer interaction. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 3) What is output device? Explain any four kind of output devices used for human computer interaction. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 4) Define controls and explain any two popular controls used in human computer interaction. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………

2.4

HCI DEVELOPMENT AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The goal of this section is to provide background for this report in terms of some of the major themes and influences that have shaped the field of HCI. In addition, an attempt is made to project some current trends into the near future.

2.4.1

Universal Access to Large and Complex Distributed Information

As the "global information infrastructure" expands at unprecedented rates, there are dramatic changes taking place in the kind of people who access the available information and the types of information involved. Virtually all entities (from large corporations to individuals) are engaged in activities that increasingly involve accessing databases, and their livelihood and/or competitiveness depend heavily on the effectiveness and efficiency of that access. As a result, the potential user community of database and other information systems is becoming startlingly large and rather nontechnical, with most users bound to remain permanent novices with respect to many of the diverse information sources they can access. It is therefore urgently necessary and strategically critical to develop user interfaces that require minimal technical sophistication and expertise by the users and support a wide variety 28

State of the Art Practices in Information Technology

of informationintensive tasks. Informationaccess interfaces must offer great flexibility on how queries are expressed and how data are visualized; they must be able to deal with several new kinds of data, e.g., multimedia, text, documents, the Web itself; and they must permit several new styles of interaction beyond the typical, twostep queryspecification/result visualization loop, e.g., data browsing, filtering, and dynamic and incremental querying. Fundamental work is being conducted on visual query languages, user defined and constraintbased visualizations, visual metaphors, and generic and customizable interfaces, and advances seem most likely to come from collaborations between the HCI and database research communities.

2.4.2 Virtual Machines A virtual machine is a type of computer application used to create a virtual environment, which is referred to as virtualization. Virtualization allows the user to see the infrastructure of a network through a process of aggregation. It is one of the latest developments in the field of human computer interaction. Virtualization may also be used to run multiple operating systems at the same time. Through the help of a virtual machine, the user can operate software located on the computer platform. Through the use of the hardware virtual machine software, the user has a seemingly private machine with fully functional hardware that is separate from other users. Hardware virtual machine software also makes it possible for users to boot and restart their machines quickly, since tasks such as hardware initialization are not necessary.

2.4.3 Command Line Interfaces This is next most important development in the field of Human computer interface. A commandline interface (CLI) is a mechanism for interacting with a computer operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks. This textonly interface contrasts with the use of a mouse pointer with a graphical user interface (GUI) to click on options, or menus on a text user interface (TUI) to select options. This method of instructing a computer to perform a given task is referred to as "entering" a command: the system waits for the user to conclude the submitting of the text command by pressing the "Enter" key (a descendant of the "carriage return" key of a typewriter keyboard). A commandline interpreter then receives, analyses, and executes the requested command. Upon completion, the command usually returns output to the user in the form of text lines. This output may be an answer if the command was a question, or otherwise a summary of the operation.

C:\>csc Example.cs Figure 16: Command Line interfaces

2.4.4 Hypertext Hypertext is text which is not constrained to be linear. Hypertext is text which contains links to other texts. The term was coined by Ted Nelson around 1965, for example. Apparently Ted Nelson was the first to use this term too. Hypertext is a concept, not a product. 29

When you select an object, you can see all the other objects that are linked to it. You can move from one object to another even though they might have very different forms. Hypertext links can access numerous types of material, for example, educational material such as course syllabi and resources, explanatory notes for a Webbased document, sources for references, explanatory notes, and commentaries by other writers, links to other relevant resources or publications, graphics, sound, video. The term "hypertext" is being replaced by "hyperlink," since text is not the only kind of link. By simply clicking, the user can be taken to a new bit of information, a new Web page or multimedia such as sound, graphics or video.

Advanced Methods of Communication with A Computer

Hypertext systems are particularly useful for organizing and browsing through large databases that consist of disparate types of information. There are several Hypertext systems available for Apple Macintosh computers and PCs that enable you to develop your own databases. Such systems are often called authoring systems.

Figure 17: Hypertext

Assumes that one starts reading the piece of text marked A. Instead of a single next place to go, this hypertext structure has three options for the reader: Go to B, D or E. Assuming that one decides to go to B, then to C or to E, C and from E, one can go to D. Since it is also possible to go directly from A to D, this example shows that these may be several different paths that connect two elements in a hypertext structure. Hypertext presents several different options to the readers, and the individual reader determines which of them to follow at the time of reading the text. This means that the 30

State of the Art Practices in Information Technology

author of the text has set up a number of alternatives for reader to explore rather than a single stream of information.

2.4.5 Hypermedia It is defined as an extension to hypertext that supports linking graphics, sound, and video elements in addition to text. The World Wide Web is a partial hypermedia system since is supports graphical hyperlinks and links to sound and video files. New hypermedia systems under development will allow objects in computer videos to be hyperlinked. This contrasts with the broader term multimedia, which may be used to describe noninteractive linear presentations as well as hypermedia. It is also related to the field of Electronic literature. Hypermedia may be developed a number of ways. Any programming tool can be used to write programs that link data from internal variables and nodes for external data files. Multimedia development software such as Adobe Flash, Adobe Director, Macromedia Authorware, and MatchWare Mediator may be used to create standalone hypermedia applications, with emphasis on entertainment content.

Figure 18: Hypermedia

2.4.6 Graphical User Interfaces Graphical user interfaces make computing easier by separating the logical threads of computing from the presentation of those threads to the user, through visual content on the display device. This is commonly done through a window system that is controlled by an operating system’s window manager. The WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointers) interface is the most common implementation of graphical user interfaces today. The appeal of graphical user interfaces lies in the rapid feedback provided by the direct manipulation that a GUI offers. Direct manipulation interfaces provide the following features Modems come in a variety of configurations. The robustness of the direct manipulation interface for the desktop metaphor is demonstrated by the documents and folders being visible to the user as icons that represent the underlying files and directories. With a draganddrop style command, it is impossible to make a syntactically incorrect operation. For example, if a user wants to move a file to a different folder, the move command itself is guaranteed to be syntactically correct; and even though the user may make a mistake in placing the file in the wrong place, it is relatively easy to detect and recover from those errors. While 31

the document is being dragged, continual visual feedback is provided to the user, creating the illusion that the user is actually working in the desktop world.

Advanced Methods of Communication with A Computer

Figure 19: Graphical User Interfaces

2.4.7 Voice User Interfaces Voice User Interfaces (VUIs) use speech technology to provide people with access to information and to allow them to perform transactions. VUI development was driven by customer dissatisfaction with touchtone telephony interactions, the need for cheaper and more effective systems to meet customer needs, and the advancement of speech technology to the stage where it was robust and reliable enough to deliver effective interaction. With the technology finally at the stage where it can be effectively and reliably used, the greatest challenge remains in the design of the user interface. A Voice User Interface is what a person interacts with when using a spoken language application. Auditory interfaces interact with the user purely through sound. Speech is input by the user, and speech or nonverbal audio is output by the system. VUIs are comprised of three main elements: 1) Prompts, also known as system messages, are the recorded or synthesized speech played to the user during the interaction. 2) Grammars are the possible responses users can make in relation to each prompt. The system cannot understand anything outside of this range of possibilities. 3) Dialog logic determines the actions the system can take following a user’s response to a prompt. Aside from speech recognition systems, other speech technologies include Textto Speech (TTS) Synthesis and Speaker Verification. Speaker Verification involves collecting a small amount of a person’s voice to create a voice template, which is used to enroll a person into a system and then compare future conversation. TexttoSpeech technology, on the other hand, synthesizes text into speech.

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Figure 20: Voice User Interface

2.4.8 Other User Interfaces Many other paradigms for humancomputer interaction exist. Perhaps one of the best known paradigms is the World Wide Web. The web itself did not provide any technological breakthroughs, because all the required functionality, such as transmission protocols, hypertext and distributed file systems, already existed. The breakthrough came with the advent of a browser and HTML, which enabled easy access to information on the internet, first through academia and then through business and leisure circles. The unpredicted shift of focus to the Internet, intranets, and the WorldWide Web has ended a period in which the focus was on the interaction between an individual and a computer system, with relatively little attention to group and organizational contexts. Computermediated human communication raises a host of new interface issues. Additional challenges arise in coordinating the activities of computer supported group members, either by providing shared access to common online resources and letting people structure their work around them.

2.5

FUTURE/ADVANCE METHODS OF COMMUNICATION WITH A COMPUTER

Future or advance methods of communication with computer are described below:

1) Ubiquitous communication Computers will communicate through high speed local networks, nationally over widearea networks, and portably via infrared, ultrasonic, cellular, and other technologies.

2) Mass availability of computer graphics Computer graphics capabilities such as image processing, graphics transformations, rendering, and interactive animation will become widespread as inexpensive chips become available for inclusion in general workstations.

3) Mixed media Systems will handle images, voice, sounds, video, text, and

formatted data. These will be exchangeable over communication links among users. 33

4) Highbandwidth interaction: The rate at which humans and machines interact

Advanced Methods of Communication with A Computer

will increase substantially due to the changes in speed, computer graphics, new media, and new input/output devices. This will lead to some qualitatively different interfaces, such as virtual reality or computational video.

5) Large and thin displays New display technologies will finally mature

enabling very large displays and also displays that are thin, light weight, and have low power consumption. This will have large effects on portability and will enable the development of paperlike, penbased computer interaction systems very different in feel from desktop workstations of the present.

6) Group interfaces Interfaces to allow groups of people to coordinate will be

common (e.g., for meetings, for engineering projects, for authoring joint documents). These will have major impacts on the nature of organizations and on the division of labor. Models of the group design process will be embedded in systems and will cause increased rationalization of design.

7) Information Utilities Public information utilities (such as home banking and

shopping) and specialized industry services (e.g., weather for pilots) will continue to proliferate. The rate of proliferation will accelerate with the introduction of highbandwidth interaction and the improvement in quality of interfaces. One consequence of the above developments is that computing systems will appear partially to dissolve into the environment and become much more intimately associated with their users' activities.

 Check Your Progress 2 1) What is virtual machine? ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 2) Explain the role of Command Line interface in HCI development. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 3) Explain hypertext and hypermedia. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 4) Explain advance methods of communication with computers. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………

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2.6

SUMMARY

In this unit we have learnt about different perspectives of communication with computer. Humans communicate with computers in many ways, and the interface between humans and the computers they use is crucial to facilitating this interaction. Different perspectives of human computer interface are human perspective, computer’s persona, user interface and interactions etc. To communicate with computers, we require different kind of input and output devices are available. Controls are the software elements, usually shown on a display, which you use to set preferences and make choices. Some familiar controls include menus, pushbuttons, radio buttons, sliders etc. In this unit, we have also learnt about the evolution of User Interfaces and importance of Human computer interface. There are various future or advance methods of communication with computer which are evolving at a very fast pave like Ubiquitous communication, Mass availability of computer graphics, Mixed media Systems and Large and thin displays etc.

2.7

ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS

Check Your Progress 1 1) i) The Human Perspective: HCI design teams must consider these factors in regard to users: what users expect and need, what physical abilities and limitations they may have, how their perceptual systems work, and what they find attractive and enjoyable when they use computers. When humans interact with computers, they bring to the encounter a lifetime of experience. ii) The Computer's Persona: A computer carries on its business in a much less obvious way. The information a computer contains and the operations it performs are represented inside the computer in a form that we can't directly observe binary digits encoded as two levels of electrical charge. What a computer displays or presents does not arise naturally from what it is doing inside. Any feedback the user might need must be explicitly planned out and programmed. iii) Interaction: So, given all these differences between humans and computers, how are we supposed to get along with them and get our work done? In other words, how can we interact with them effectively? In order to come up with a product that's easy for people to use, software designers apply what they know about humans and computers, and consult with potential users of their products throughout the design process. When they know what their users want and need the product to do, they collaborate with programmers iv) User Interface: User Interface (or UI) is one of those jargon terms that you hear from computer salespeople and other technogeeks, but that you may have never heard defined. It's not a hard concept to understand, though. It's simply the parts of a computer and its software that you (the computer user) see, hear, touch, or talk to. It is the set of all the things that allow you and your computer to communicate with each other. For example, if you are reading this on a computer screen, then you're looking at part of a user interface right now. The screen is showing you these words, communicating a 35

message to you. 2) Four input devices are described below:

Advanced Methods of Communication with A Computer

Keyboard: A keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, which act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. The keyboard is used to type text and numbers into a word processor, text editor or other program. Mouse: An input device that allows an individual to control a mouse pointer in a graphical user interface (GUI). Optical Scanner: Hardware input device that allows a user to take an image and/or text and convert it into a digital file, allowing the computer to read and/or display the scanned object. A scanner is commonly connected to a computer USB, Firewire, Parallel or SCSI port. WebCam: A camera connected to a computer or server that allows anyone connected to the Internet to view still pictures or motion video of a user.. 3) Any machine capable of representing information from a computer to the user is called as output device. Some of the common output devices are listed below: •

Monitor: it is also called a video display terminal (VDT) a monitor is a video display screen and the hard shell that holds it. Monitors display images and text which are made up of small blocks of colored light called pixels.

•

Printer: It is an external hardware device responsible for taking computer data and generating a hard copy of that data. Printers are one of the most used peripherals on computers and are commonly used to print text, images, and/or photos.

•

Projector: It is a hardware device that enables an image, such as a computer screen, to be projected onto a flat surface Speakers: A speaker gives you sound output from your computer. Some speakers are built into the computer and some are separate.

•

4) Controls are the software elements, usually shown on a display, which you use to set preferences and make choices. Some familiar controls include: •

Menus: In a graphical user interface (GUI) for a personal computer system, an improved method and apparatus for accessing and executing commands associated with user applications. Menu can be both static as well as dynamic.

•

Pushbuttons: In a window or dialog box, a rectangular control that, when clicked, immediately causes an action to be performed. Push buttons can be labeled with text, graphics, or both.

Check Your Progress 2 1) A virtual machine is a type of computer application used to create a virtual environment, which is referred to as virtualization. Virtualization allows the user to see the infrastructure of a network through a process of aggregation. It is one of the latest developments in the field of human computer interaction. Virtualization 36

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may also be used to run multiple operating systems at the same time. 2) A commandline interface (CLI) is a mechanism for interacting with a computer operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks. This textonly interface contrasts with the use of a mouse pointer with a graphical user interface (GUI) to click on options, or menus on a text user interface (TUI) to select options. 3) Hypertext: Hypertext is text which is not constrained to be linear. Hypertext is text which contains links to other texts. Hypertext links can access numerous types of material, for example, educational material such as course syllabi and resources, explanatory notes for a Webbased document, sources for references. Hypertext systems are particularly useful for organizing and browsing through large databases that consist of disparate types of information. Hypermedia: It is defined as an extension to hypertext that supports linking graphics, sound, and video elements in addition to text. The World Wide Web is a partial hypermedia system since is supports graphical hyperlinks and links to sound and video files. New hypermedia systems under development will allow objects in computer videos to be hyperlinked. 4) i)

Ubiquitous communication Computers will communicate through high speed local networks, nationally over widearea networks, and portably via infrared, ultrasonic, cellular, and other technologies.

ii) Mass availability of computer graphics Computer graphics capabilities such as image processing, graphics transformations, rendering, and interactive animation will become widespread as inexpensive chips become available for inclusion in general workstations. iii) Mixed media Systems will handle images, voice, sounds, video, text, and formatted data. These will be exchangeable over communication links among users. iv) Highbandwidth interaction: The rate at which humans and machines interact will increase substantially due to the changes in speed, computer graphics, new media, and new input/output devices. This will lead to some qualitatively different interfaces, such as virtual reality or computational video.

2.8

FURTHER READINGS

1) “The HumanComputer Interaction Handbook”, Julie A. Jacko and Andrew Sears, IOS Press. 2) “Data and computer communications”, William Stallings Ed. 8, Prentice Hall.

References Website: • •

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HCI http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humancomputer_interaction

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UNIT 3 COMPUTER VISION Structure

3.0

Page Nos.

Introduction

38 3.1 Objectives 38

3.2 What is Computer Vision

38 3.3 Basic Terminology 39 3.4 Goals of Computer Vision 41 3.5 Technical Challenges 41 3.6 Applications of Computer Vision 42 3.7 Advantages of Computer Vision 44 3.8 Examples 45 3.9 Summary 49 3.10 Answers/Solutions 49 3.11 Further Readings and References 51

3.0

INTRODUCTION

Computer Vision is the branch of Computer Science whose goal is to model the real world or to recognize objects from digital images. These images can be acquired using video or infrared cameras, radars or specialized sensors such as those used by doctors, scientist, geologist etc. Vision is a most powerful interfacing device for computers. They have the potential to sense body movements and their position, head orientation, direction of the body, and gestures. When the vision based interaction is established with the machine, they could make the interaction between both of us enjoyable or safer. The algorithms for the computer vision should be reliable, work for different people, and work in odd conditions. The responding time of these algorithms should be very fast. The user should sense delay between when he moves or make gesture and when computer responds. The student will learn the basic techniques of the field of Computer Vision. You will also learn what are the technical challenges and applications for this approach with examples. You will also learn the use of computer vision in computer graphics to make interactive and effective.

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3.1

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

3.2

•

define the term computer vision;

•

list the goals, applications & advantages of computer vision; and

•

define technical challenges of computer vision.

WHAT IS COMPUTER VISION

The goal of Computer vision is to process images acquired with cameras in order to produce a representation of objects in the world. There already exists a number of working systems that perform parts of this task in specialized domains. For example, a map of a city or a mountain range can be produced semi automatically from a set of aerial images. A robot can use the several image frames per second produced by one or two video cameras to produce a map of its surroundings for path planning and obstacle avoidance. A printed circuit inspection system may take one picture per board on a conveyer belt and produce a binary image flagging possible faulty soldering points on the board. A zip code reader takes single snapshots of envelopes and translates a handwritten number into an ASCII string. A security system can match one or a few pictures of a face with a database of known employees for recognition. Vision is the task of “see”. It is seeing with understanding other than seeing with camera. When we “see” things, our eyes (sensing device) capture the image, then pass the information to brain (interpreting device). The brain interprets the image, gives us meanings of what we see. Similarly, in computer vision, camera serves as sensing device, and computer acts as interpreting device to interpret the image the camera captures. “Computer vision is the science that develops the theoretical and algorithmic basis by which useful information about the world can be automatically extracted and analyzed from an observed image image”. Computer vision is related to many areas, including biology, psychology, and information Engineering, physics, maths, and of course computer science. Further Subsections, will focus on the methods adopted in computer vision area, specifically object recognition, which is the hardest domain in computer vision research.

3.3

BASIC TERMINOLOGY

There is several application of basic terminology. We will explain at some of them: Point: A precise location or place on a plane. Usually represented by a dot. Light: Light is everywhere in our world. We need it to see: it carries information from the world to our eyes and brains.. Ray: A line which starts at a point and goes off in a particular direction to infinity. 39

Image: “An optical or other representation of a real object; a graphic; a picture.”

Computer Vision

Pixel: “In digital imaging, a pixel (or picture element) is the smallest item of information in an image. Pixels are normally arranged in a 2dimensional grid, and are often represented using dots, squares, or rectangles”. Intensity: “The intensity of each pixel is variable; in color systems, each pixel has typically three or four components such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black”. Range: “image line of sight distance”. Focus: it is also known as an image point, is the point where light rays originating from a point on the object converge Image Processing: the study of the properties of operators that produce images from other images – we will touch on image filtering and related operators from image processing. Pattern Recognition: typically refers to the recognition of structures in 2D images (usually without reference to any underlying 3D information). Diffused light Source: The light source may be a point light source as in Figure A or a parallel beam of light source as depicted in Figure B or a diffused light source similar to that of an ambient light.

Point light Source

A parallel beam of light source

Photogrammetry: The science of measurement though noncontact sensing, e.g. terrain maps from satellite images. Usually is more focused on accuracy issues than interpretation.

 Check Your Progress 1 1) What do you understand by “Computer Vision”? …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… 40

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2) Explain the term image processing with suitable example? …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… 3) What is a Photogrammetry? ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……….…………………………………………………………………………….. …….……………………………………………………………………………….. 4) Define the term intensity, focus and pixel? ………………………………………………………………….…………………... ……………………………………………………………………….……………... ………………………………………………………………………………………

3.4

GOALS OF COMPUTER VISION

The technology “computer vision” is used to generate intelligent and useful scenes and visual sequences by performing some operations on the signals that received from the video cameras. The goal of computer vision is to produce a representation of objects by processing images captured through cameras. The main goals behind this technology are: •

To make useful and intelligent decisions based on sensed images.

•

To construct 3D structure from 2D images.

•

Compression of videos or images for content delivery. These are the following subdomains of computer vision:

•

scene reconstruction

•

event detection

•

tracking

•

object recognition

•

motion estimation

•

image restoration

3.5

TECHNICAL CHALLENGES

Every technology has faced many challenges either in technical form or 41

manufacturing form. Computer vision also has lots of technical problems to construct an intelligent system with the help of video sequences or images. The technical problems related to computer vision are explained below:

Computer Vision

•

Inversion of 3D into 2D: every image has a twodimensional projection, but the people around this world want to sense visually in threedimension. So, if you want to recover world properties from the image, you need to invert the 3D into 2D projection. Hence, the vision is invert optics. If we talked about in mathematical terms the inversion of 2D into 3D of a projection is strictly impossible.

•

Face detection: A classical and central problem in computer vision is face recognition. Humans perform this task without any effort, and reliablity. Recognition: recognition is the classical problem stated in computer vision. Recognition is used to determine whether or not the image contains some specific object, feature, or activity. These tasks can be done by without effort of human, but still doesn’t solve satisfactorily for the general case “arbitrary objects in arbitrary situations”. Image restoration: The main aim of the image restoration is to remove noise (sensor noise, motion blur, etc.) from images. By using various types of filters to avoid this types of problems. • View point variation: view point variation refers to the different view points of a same object. Whenever we see any sculpture or image from different view points, we always get totally different pictures of the same object.

•

Illumination: the illumination refers to the light. When we take a photo of a person in dim light and another in heavy light, always we can get two different images of same person. Hence light affect images.

•

Occlusion: occlusion means to complete an incomplete image of an object. Occlusions help to complete the incomplete images. In Human beings they have capabilities to complete an incomplete image automatically. Whenever we get an image with top half of the person, we complete the image by occlusion.

•

Background clutter: picking up an object from background of the same image is not an easy task to done by computers.

•

Loss of Depth: Camera images of a scene are formed by projecting 3D space to a 2D plane. During this process the distance traveled by light between scene and camera (i.e. depth) is lost.

3.6

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER VISION

There is several application of computer vision. We will look at some of them: Medical: One of the most prominent application fields is Medical computer vision or medical image processing. This area is characterized by the extraction of information from image data for the purpose of making a medical diagnosis of a patient. Generally, image data is in the form of microscopy images, Xray images, angiography images, ultrasonic images, and tomography images. 42

State of the Art Practices in Information Technology

Figure 1: Shows MRI image of brain

An example of information which can be extracted from such image data is detection of tumors, arteriosclerosis or other malign changes. It can also be measurements of organ dimensions, blood flow, etc. This application area also supports medical research by providing new information, e.g., about the structure of the brain, or about the quality of medical treatments. Industry: A second application area in computer vision is in industry. Here, information is extracted for the purpose of supporting a manufacturing process. One example is quality control where details or final products are being automatically inspected in order to find defects. Another example is measurement of position and orientation of details to be picked up by a robot arm. Military: Military applications are probably one of the largest areas for computer vision. The obvious examples are detection of enemy soldiers or vehicles and missile guidance. More advanced systems for missile guidance send the missile to an area rather than a specific target, and target selection is made when the missile reaches the area based on locally acquired image data. Modern military concepts, such as "battlefield awareness", imply that various sensors, including image sensors, provide a rich set of information about a combat scene which can be used to support strategic decisions. In this case, automatic processing of the data is used to reduce complexity and to fuse information from multiple sensors to increase reliability. Automobiles: One of the newer application areas is autonomous vehicles, which include submersibles, landbased vehicles (small robots with wheels, cars or trucks), aerial vehicles, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). The level of autonomy ranges from fully autonomous (unmanned) vehicles to vehicles where computer vision based systems support a driver or a pilot in various situations. Fully autonomous vehicles typically use computer vision for navigation, i.e. for knowing where it is, or for producing a map of its environment (SLAM) and for detecting obstacles. It can also be used for detecting certain task specific events, e. g., a UAV looking for forest fires.

Computer Vision

Figure 2: NASA's Mars Exploration Rover

Examples of supporting systems are obstacle warning systems in cars, and systems for autonomous landing of aircraft. Several car manufacturers have demonstrated systems for autonomous driving of cars, but this technology has still not reached a level where it can be put on the market. There are ample examples of military autonomous vehicles ranging from advanced missiles, to UAVs for recon missions or missile guidance. Space exploration is already being made with autonomous vehicles using computer vision, e. g., NASA's Mars Exploration Rover. Video surveillance Perhaps the most developed modern application of computer vision is video surveillance. Long gone are the days when video surveillance meant lowresolution, blackandwhite, analog closedcircuit television. Nowadays, computer vision enables the integration of views from many cameras into a single, consistent “super image.” Such an image automatically detects scenes with people and/or vehicles or other targets of interest, classifies them in categories such as people, cars, bicycles, or buses, extracts their trajectories, recognizes limb and arm positions, and provides some form of behavior analysis The Voice: The Voice provides a simple yet effective means of augmented perception for people with partially impaired vision. In the virtual demonstration, the camera accompanies you in your wanderings. The camera periodically scans the scene in front of you and turns images into sounds, using different pitches and lengths to encode objects’ position and size.

 Check Your Progress 2 1) What is the goal of using computer vision? …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… 44

State of the Art Practices in Information Technology

2) Write down two technical challenges faces of computer vision and explain it? ………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… 3) Write three applications area where computer vision is used?

................................................................................................................... ………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………… 4) What is an occlusion?

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3.7

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER VISION

Computer vision has almost all kinds of applications. For example in the medical industry, it is used for microscopy images, Xray images, angiography images, ultrasonic images etc; in military application, it is used for missile guidance and detecting soldiers or vehicles. The major advantages of computer vision with respect to different kinds of applications are: •

Automatically detect face and recognize facial expression.

•

Object based compression of video streams.

•

Track down the moving objects and avoid collision

• Automatically analyse the medical image, then interpret the image and finally provide diagnosis. •

Recognition of handwritten and printed materials.

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Slow and fast motion detection.

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Small and large object tracking.

3.8

EXAMPLES

Computer vision and biological vision are complement of each other (but not necessarily the opposite). In biological vision, humans and animals visual perception are studied and creating models for evaluating the systems operate in terms of physiological processes. On the other hand, in computer vision, it includes studies and descriptions of artificial vision systems that are implemented in software and hardware. The following examples of computer vision are stated below: 45

•

Image processing: in image processing, image is an input such as image of a person and the output can be either an image form or a set of objects (face, eye etc.) related to the image. Feature detection is a lowlevel image processing operation. This is the first operation performed on an image. In this, we examine every pixel of an image to see if there is a feature present at that pixel. In Figure 3, it is shown that through process of digital assembling of multiple images how to create a final image.

Computer Vision

Figure 3: Image processing

•

Examining the internal structure of a human body: It is a medical imaging technique most commonly used in radiology to visualize the internal structure and function of the body for medical and clinical purpose. It especially useful in neurological (brain), musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncological (cancer) imaging. MRI (Figure 4) is used to get the image of internal body parts to diagnose a patient. MRI stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

State of the Art Practices in Information Technology

Figure 4: MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Machine

•

Optic Character Recognition (OCR): it is a electronic or mechanical device equipped with OCR software that used to convert characters to respective ASCII codes. It is a used to translate images that are handwritten, typewritten or printed text into machineeditable text. These devices work reliably for printed text. They are using two standard fonts first is OCRA (American standard) and other is OCRB (European standard).

Figure 5: Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

•

Computer Vision

Figure 6: Satellite images

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Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV): It is a remotely piloted aircraft. There are two varieties of UAVs: some has control from their remote location, and others are having preprogrammed flight planes which fly autonomously. It is used to perform wide variety of functions. The major functions of UAVs (Figure 7) are remote sensing.

Figure 7: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)

•

Smart offices: it is used to get information regarding to all office staff. It is used to tracks staff members and office items. It also record gesture of a person.

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Biometric based visual identification of persons: there are lots of tools available for identification and authorization of persons. As we talked in 48

State of the Art Practices in Information Technology

terms of computer vision, there are wide ranges of tools such as finger printing, face detection cameras, visual biometric speakers, signature tracking etc.

Figure 8: Biometric based figure printing

•

Compression of videos: compressing videos means reducing quantity of the video image to represent digital video images. We can compress videos by using model based system in computer vision. It is very easy and convenient to compress videos and send these video sequences anywhere.

•

Human Face Identification: it is used to detect human facial expression. It is also used to authenticate a person to permit in highly security zone.

Figure 9: Face detection by face images

 Check Your Progress 3 1) Write down three advantages of computer vision? ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 49

………………………………………………………………………………………

Computer Vision

2) Write down few example of computer vision and explain two of them? ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… 3) What is an OCR? ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… 4) Write down the uses of MRI machine? ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………

3.9

SUMMARY

In this unit we learnt about computer vision and their application fields. Started with computer vision introduction we move to the different goals of computer vision in today’s era. In this unit we covered up all the applications area of computer vision where it is used. The application area is very wide most of the area used this technology according to their need such as medical, industry, military, automobiles etc. After all of this, they have some issues which are very difficult to solve. The basic technical problems related to the computer vision are face detection, occlusion, illumination, recognition are major problems. In this unit we also covered up advantages of using computer vision.

3.10 ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS Check Your Progress 1 1) Computer Vision is the branch of Computer Science whose goal is to model the real world or to recognize objects from digital images. These images can be acquired using video or infrared cameras, radars or specialized sensors. 2) It is a form of signal processing, input is an image such as images or videos sequences and the output can be either an image form or a set of parameters related to the image. Mostly in imageprocessing techniques, it takes an image as a twodimensional signal and applying standard signalprocessing techniques to it. 3) The science of measurement though noncontact sensing, e.g. terrain maps from satellite images. Usually is more focused on accuracy issues than interpretation 4) Intensity: “The intensity of each pixel is variable; in color systems, each pixel has 50

State of the Art Practices in Information Technology

typically three or four components such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black”. Focus: it is also known as an image point, is the point where light rays originating from a point on the object converge. Pixel: “In digital imaging, a pixel (or picture element) is the smallest item of information in an image.

Check Your Progress 2 1) The main goals behind this technology are: • • •

To make useful and intelligent decisions based on sensed images. To construct 3D structure from 2D images. Compression of videos or images for content delivery

2) The technical problems related to computer vision are explained below: i)

ii) Recognition: recognition is the classical problem stated in computer vision. Recognition is used to determine whether or not the image contains some specific object, feature, or activity. These tasks can be done by without effort of human, but still doesn’t solve satisfactorily for the general case “arbitrary objects in arbitrary situations”. 3) The three application areas of computer vision are: i)

Military

ii) Medical iii) Industry

4) Occlusion means to complete an incomplete image of an object. Occlusions help to complete the incomplete images. In Human beings they have capabilities to complete an incomplete image automatically. Whenever we get an image with top half of the person, we complete the image by occlusion.

Check Your Progress 3 1) The three advantages of computer vision are: • • •

Automatically detect face and recognize facial expression. Object based compression of video streams. Track down the moving objects and avoid collision

2) The following examples of computer vision are stated below: 51

• • • • •

Image processing MRI OCR UAV Analyze Satellite Image

Computer Vision

Analyze Satellite Image: It is also used to get satellite images of the climatic condition, environment etc and analyse these images to get useful information from the images. These satellite images are very help full for whether forecasting, whether reports etc. Satellite images have been used in several areas such as geology, agriculture, forestry, education etc. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV): It is a remotely piloted aircraft. There are two varieties of UAVs: some has control from their remote location, and others are having preprogrammed flight planes fly autonomously. It is used to perform wide variety of functions. The major functions of UAVs are remote sensing. It can also commonly used as interaction and transport. 3) Optic Character Recognition (OCR): It is a electronic or mechanical device equipped with OCR software that used to convert characters to respective ASCII codes. It is a used to translate images that are handwritten, typewritten or printed text into machineeditable text. These devices work reliably for printed text. They are using two standard fonts first is OCRA (American standard) and other is OCRB (European standard). 4) MRI especially useful in neurological (brain), musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncological (cancer) imaging.

3.11 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES 1) Computer Vision wiki en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision 2) Image Processing wiki en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processing