3.5 Climate change, urbanisation, and informality nexus- vulnerabilities and risks

implementing agencies of these schemes include Karnataka Slum Development Board, Karnataka Housing Board, Urban Development Authorities, Urban Local Bodies, etc. (MoHUA,202019).

3.5 Climate change, urbanisation, and informality nexus- vulnerabilities and risks

Evidence from across the globe over the past years have shown how cities will be at the forefront of climate change impacts (Dodman et al., 2019). While urban areas are the major contributors of climate change with economic activities in cities accounting for 76 % of the carbon emissions, a high concentration of population, financial and infrastructure assets make these areas highly vulnerable to climate change impacts (UN Habitat). These impacts will intensify manifold for slum dwellers, vulnerable settlements, and informal traders with inherent socio-economic deprivations. This section elucidates the vulnerabilities and risks associated with the urbanisation, climate change, and informality nexus in Dharwad.

As an outcome of unprecedented urbanisation, the land use in Hubballi-Dharwad has undergone tremendous change over the past few decades. The agricultural area in the city region has more than halved (from nearly 5000 Ha to 2320 Ha), and the built-up area has more than tripled (1080 Ha to 3850 Ha) from 1975 to 2011. The area covered by water bodies in the city has also reduced by 10% (L.T.Nayak & Priyadarshani, 2014). The expansion of Dharwad town over the years has led to densification and overcrowding of the older clusters in the city such as Haveripeth, Hosayellapur, Saidapur, and Fort Area. Some of these areas have been redeveloped and have access to basic services, while the rest have remained as informal clusters.

This urban transformation, which is not cohesively planned, has been accompanied by temperature rise, pollution, water depletion, urban floods, etc. which is further exacerbated by climate change impacts like heat waves, extreme rainfall events, and droughts. A few of these layered vulnerabilities in Dharwad are evidenced in the following sections.

Temperature rise and air pollution

The temperature variation between the city and neighbouring hinterland20 is 1.90C (L.T.Nayak & Priyadarshani, 2014). The city is warmer than the surrounding rural areas due to the heat island effect caused by urban emissions, high density of buildings and road network, and heat generated directly from human activities. A reduction in the number of water tanks in the city, from nearly 100 in 1975 to barely a few in 2011, has also contributed to this rise in temperature (L.T.Nayak & Priyadarshani, 2014).

A study carried out in 2018 indicate that the average PM2.5 concentration for the twin cities has increased from 15 μg/m3 in 1998 to 28.0 ± 13.4 μg/m3 in 2018. While the 2018 value is within the national standard (40), it is nearly three times the WHO guideline (10) (urban emissions, 2018)21 . The main sources contributing towards PM2.5 in 2018 was transport emissions, followed by dust emissions from road re-suspension and construction activities. Industrial emissions and open waste burning are also major contributors. There is also a variation in PM 2.5 concentration over the months, with the levels dipping usually during monsoons (between June to September) (urban emissions,

19 https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/2-%20Karnataka.pdf 20The study doesn’t specify the exact location where temperature measurements were undertaken 21 https://urbanemissions.info/india-apna/dharwad-india/

2018)22 .Urbanization along with the Dharwad wind pattern can also induce phenomena such as the urban dryness island -referring to conditions where lower humidity values are observed in cities relative to more rural locations, and slower wind speed compared to adjacent suburbs and countryside.

The impacts of increase in temperature and air pollution are intensified for urban poor communities in the city. Many of these settlements live near busy roads and are prone to pollution and dust related health issues. This coupled with high density, low vegetation, burning of waste, and cooking outdoors with firewood amplifies the impacts. Increase in temperature also increases fire risks within the settlements because of increased use of inflammable materials like tarpaulin for housing. Increased temperature associated with occupations (like working in rice puff industries), is already leading to health impacts among informal settlement dwellers. Many of these workers are unable to work beyond 45 years of age due to deteriorated health conditions. This occupational hazard together with projected increase in temperature will lead to further aggravation of heat related health issues for the vulnerable (inference based on site study).

Water depletion

As per a WRI analysis, the water risk is extremely high for the Dharwad city region. Presently Karnataka Urban Water Supply and Drainage Board (KUWSDB) relies on surface water sources23 , borewells and tanks/reservoirs in the city limits for sourcing the water demand of the city. Maintaining these thus become crucial in this water stressed region (HDPA, 2016). The leakage in the water supply network in the city is estimated to be around 40%. Further as per WRI’s water risk atlas, the city area is predicted to face high water stress (40-80%) with medium to high water depletion levels by 2031 (based on business-as-usual scenario climate projection). In the core areas of the Dharwad city, the ground water level has depleted, and the over-extraction has turned groundwater brackish along with high nitrate concentration.

Dharwad city lies in a region that is prone to heat waves and heat stress according to Karnataka State Natural Disaster Monitoring Centre (KSNDMC) (Karnataka State Health System Resource Center, 2018) which puts pressure on the water sources. The risk of water stress is worsened due to increased surface water run-off (because of decreased permeability exacerbated by the soil type in the region).

The North Karnataka arid region traditionally supported water demands through series of interconnected manmade tanks. These artificial systems were used for domestic 24 and irrigation purpose and formed a larger ecosystem and were maintained and improved by communities. In 1884 there were 2,979 tanks in Dharwad district but by 1901 the number of tanks reduced to 2,404. (Gazeteer Department, 2002). Within Dharwad area tanks such as Kempagere tank, Yemmikere tank, Sadankere tank, Koppadakere tank, Kolikere tank, Laxmisinghakere tank, Attikollaand others (I.T. & S.G., 2002; Gazeteer Department, 2002) have been filled and the area has been used for commercial and residential development. In the ones that remain, privatisation and fencing has disrupted the socio-ecological relationship that the communities had with these water systems (Hazareesingh,

22 https://urbanemissions.info/india-apna/dharwad-india/ 23Renukasagar Reservoir on Malprabha River and Neerasagar Reservoir 24 Herekeri, Koppadakeri and Halakeri along with some stepwells were sourcing water to households in Dharwad town area in early eighteenth century