Valparaiso: Company Town Evolution by indopacificatlas

COMPANY

TOWN

EVOLUTION The Experimental Process to Invisible Labour Controls

Book Designed and Curated by Alice He, Shokefeh Rajaian, Faraneh Jabalameli, Cindy Qian Zhang, Melinda Barbagallo University of Technology Sydney Masters of Architecture Design Studio 2015 Curtesy of Urtzi Grau / Fake Industries and Gonzalo Valiente

CONTENTS

01 02 03 04

INTRODUCTION What is a Company Town?

CHAPTER ONE: Ideological Utopias Disciplinary Societies of Control; Prisons, Hospitals , Factories ad Schools

2 3

CHAPTER TWO: Bio-Politics of Control; Neoliberalism Historic Mutations; Fordism, Pullman, Phalanstere & Familistere Companies as Transient Bodies; Remote Control Operations and the Movement of Bodies

4 5 14

CHAPTER THREE: The Evolutionary State of Company Towns Introduction: Industrial Capitalism to Financial Capitalism Mining Company Towns; Fragmented localisation (Perth and Sydney) Obsolete Company Towns - Mono-functional Communities (Bulga, Australia) - Mono-Cultural Systems (Atacama Desert, Chile) - Experimentation Failures and Corrupt Repurposed Productions

15 15 16 18 20 25

CHAPTER FOUR: Government Experimentations (El Salvador) Hybridised Urban Planning Strategies Housing Typologies Social Cohesion Welfare Capitalism Ecosophy Alliances: Retrieving an Environmental Discourse

28 29 30 31 33 35

05 06

CHAPTER FIVE: Fly-In Fly-Out, Outsourced Domesticity for Remote Locations Introduction: Postscripts on Control Societies and the Curation of FIFO Emotional Symptoms Associated to Alternative Life Schedules Testing Social Organisation Perth

36 36 37 38 40

CHAPTER SIX: Transferring Ownership / Valparaiso Valparaiso City Infrastructure: Heritage Valparaiso City Infrastructure: Housing Valparaiso City Infrastructure: Funikular Valparaiso City Infrastructure: Termal 2

42 44 46 48

Company Town

Underlying Principles The company town, is a planned community owned or controlled by a single company. It symbolises the power of the industrial capitalism to transform society, both in its vast ambition and its remarkable futility. Company Towns first appeared in Europe and in North America, and represented the ambitions of industrialists and social reformers to build communities on their own terms. It meant an imposition to control working habits at the prospect of increasing labour productivity and diminishing social conflict. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s influence cause a dramatic transformations in working class culture. (Vergara, A, 2011) For Company Towns to exist, common elements involved the exploitation of natural resources in mass isolated areas. In order to exploit natural resources, companies often had to create the infrastructure in places that lacked extensive urban development, which was then used as their basis of power. To recruit and establish the material conditions for the retention of a workforce in isolated areas, accommodation of basic dwellings were built and basic services provided. The services of welfare existed in forms of health care, education, and recreational facilities for workers and their families. Company towns thus owed their existence to the same economic rationale that drove all investment by industrial capitalists: production and profit. Social ideology also played a major role in internal organisation. Leading control figures embodied the vision of architects and urban planners to design new spaces of human habitation that promised, but not necessarily accomplished, improvements in living conditions for working families in material, social, and spiritual terms. Together, they aimed to assist the residents in their daily lives in order to exercise a degree of control over local society. Control insulated workers from class and political conflicts, focusing solely on production, and theoretically achieving social harmony.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;...to create a space that is other, another real space, as perfect, as meticulous, as well arranged as ours is messy, ill constructed, and jumbled.â&#x20AC;? (Foucault. M, 1984, p. 27) _ Michael Foucault

As industrialization expanded, company towns emerged in Latin America, Africa, Middle East, Oceana and colonial territories throughout Asia like china and japan. All of which were given different names as single enterprise communities and factory villages.

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Chapter One Ideological Utopias Introduction

Heterotopias

Ideological Utopia and Heterotopias of Deviation The telescope of research begins at the study of space and the added process of secularization. Space typically is divided based on their mutual relations or program characteristics. Some spaces, however, are different and encode unique relationships that suspend, neuturalise or reverse the typical space requirements used to reflect or perceive them. Theorist, Michael Foucault, defines these other places they don’t really exist as, ‘utopias’ or for the aversion and deviation to the standard ‘utopia’, we use the term ‘heterotopias’. (Foucault, M. 1984, p. 1) A ‘heterotopia’ is a real place that stands outside of known space. A zoo is categorize a heterotopia because it brings together into a single space things that are not usually together. A mirror, Foucault says, is at the same time a utopia and heterotopias. On the one hand a mirror is a place without place, and on the other it is a real place. In the mirror we find ourselves missing in the place that we are. Heterotopias are a part of every culture, manifested differently in different places and times. They function differently according to their variable situation, such as the space given to a cemetery in the middle of a town, removed later to forecast a barren scope of ‘other place’ only to be removed revels how the heterotopia is able to oppose its stationary place to other places. Heterotopias can also be linked to time, separate from our usual time, they are called ‘heterochronic’, which can be witnessed as libraries or festivals which are transient. Additionally, they maintain systems of opening and closing to isolate and connect them to their surroundings. Finally, and most importantly, their roles in relation to other spaces, allows for their creation of an imaginary order giving reason to their inexistence elsewhere. (Foucault, M. 1984, p. 4)

...the Panopticon must not be understood as a dream building: it is the diagram of a mechanism of power reduced to its ideal form. image xx

Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 1977 image xx

Chapter One

Idological Utopias

Infrastructures

Prisons, Hospitals, Factories and Schools Foucault has brilliantly analysed the ideal project of environments of enclosure, titled ‘disciplinary societies’. The origin of Disciplinary societies began in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; reaching their height in the outset of the twentieth century. Their visibilities transpire within the factory: to concentrate; to distribute space; to become ordered in time; to compose a productive force within the dimension of space-time whose effect is greater than the sum of its component forces. Their status initiated the organisation of vast spaces into confined visible enclosures with each closed environment having its own laws. Today, with juxtaposing eyes, we convey these models as a prison analogy. At the sight of some labourers, the heroine of Rossellini’s Europa ‘51 could exclaim, “I thought I was seeing convicts.”

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Plan of Monasterio Del Escorial

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Plan of Palma Nova

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Concurrently, everyone is conditioned to their environment, being the tangled web of enclosed control. Prisons, hospitals, factories, schools, and even families because within each, is an administra force. As administrators, they have the power to propose supposed necessary reforms their enclosed subject societies, however, the life of these reforms are tied to the life of the institution.

image xx

“Control” is the name Burroughs proposes as a term for the new monster, one that Foucault recognizes as our immediate future. Paul Virilio also is continually analyzing the ultrarapid forms of free-floating control that replaced the old disciplines operating in the time frame of a closed system. There is no need to ask which is the toughest regime, for it’s within each of them that liberating and enslaving forces confront one another.

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Idological Utopias

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Over time, however, these places transition from Societies of Sovereignty to largerscale conversions of one society to another. From taxing production and focusing on the demise of control, to organising it and concentrating on administering life. The turn of transitional disciplines were gradual, occurring over the succession of global crisis and technological advancements. After WWII, they accelerated into a ceased to be disciplinary society.

Plan of Garden City

Chapter One

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Plan of Maria Elena

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Plan of Ville Radieuse

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Plan of Bentham Panopticon

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Plan of Epcot

Neoliberalism: Freedom vs Security

Neoliberalism: Freedom vs Security In Security, Territory, Population, Foucault had outlined the shift in eighteenthcentury governance from the disciplinary micro-control of individuals to a control of populations. This control over the greater masses is termed “biopower”. Biopolitics, or politics of biopower, is the explanation of a governmental organization of society oriented to feed neoliberal structures. Its purpose was to control life, with the intention to allow greater individual freedom. Informed by emerging governmental rationality (raison d’État), this shift sought to respect the then newly identified complex economic mechanisms in what defined the principles and limitations of governance. Neoliberalism applied the decisions on freedom and safety of individuals as well as the politics of organization of the movement and operation of labour bodies. Individuals, families and societies become organised elements to the chain of capital production.

“The ‘perfect’ society is at the service of manufacturing…that it treats development and its sole, new function, the factory, with no other end than to maximize productive efficiency.” (Feliu, E. G, 2000, p. 337) _ Fancesco Dal Co image xx

“the architecture, everywhere, proved the integration of the ideological and industrial plan” (Porteous, J, 2010, p.411)

It is believed that this shift amounted to the beginning of liberalism iterating the key concern of individual liberty at both eighteenth-century governmental rationality and political economy. In light of these transformations, Foucault delineates the gains and the ambiguities of liberalism. He highlights that if liberal government enshrines individual liberty, then it no longer limits state power. The natural right of the individual still falls to the service of the economy. Concessions of freedom become wrapped up in liberalism. Consequently, the immediate proliferations of security mechanisms, that create conditions of freedom, are born. Its contradictions draw irreconcilable tension between freedom and security, which Foucault argues, is the source of the repeated crises in liberal societies.

_The Goodmans

Chapter Two Biopolitics Of Control: Historic Mutations

Biopolitics of Control

Fordism to Godin

FORD (1890-1910)

PULLMAN (1867-1957)

PHALANSTERE (early C19th)

FAMILISTERE (1859-1918)

Company: Ford Motor Company by Henry Ford

Company: Pullman Palace Car Co. A new manufacturing complex and town by George Pullman

Company: A self-contained community designed and developed by Charles Fourier to house workers after their service in the military unit.

Company: Built over three years by Jean-Baptiste Andre Godin

Location: A system of operations that existed in masses across the United States but originally formed in Detroit, US Status: A modern economic social system based on industrialised standards for mass production. It became a concept used in social theories and management studies related to socio-economic phenomena.

Location: 4000 acres in South Chicago, US Status: An ambitious social experiment that failed

Characteristics: Its production system involved synchronization, precision, and specialization within a company. It was the eponymous manufacturing system designed to spew out standardized, low-cost goods, affording its workers decent enough wages to make it affordable for workers to become consumers. That ultimately led to rapid employee turnover. Special purpose machinery allowed for the flexibility of unskilled labour

Characteristics: With more than 1000 homes, public buildings and parks, the Pullman village intended to provide a clean and orderly environment for his workforce away from the big city. Although services were rich, indoor plumbing, daily trash removal and rare amenities for workers use, the workers who rented lived under an iron rule of restriction. They had random inspections and were forced to eviction at short notice. Saloons and town meetign swere banned and they had total control over what books were stocked at the library and what performances were played at the theatre.

It is also related to the idea of mass consumption and changes of working condition of workers over time. Nowadays different theoretical positions assume that Fordism has either been replaced or continues to exist in various forms.

At an eonomic downturn, the company lost control, and workers were finally able to buy their homes which was annexed to the larger whole of Chicago in 1889. The factory slowed to a gradual halt.

Historic Mutations

Location: Several dispersed throughout USA Status: A type of utopian community designed and developed within a building complex. Characteristics: The organisation aimed at integrating urban and rural characteristics within a utopian socialistic community, rejecting industrialisation, free marketing and criticising capitalism. â&#x20AC;&#x153; A phalanstĂ¨re would have the structure of a public limited society, whose members would receive shares in relation with the capital they provided to the community, and it would be ruled in a democratic way. Three parts of the activity would be devoted to agriculture and one part to manufacturing. The members could choose the work they wanted to do. In order to avoid monotony, Fourier proposed that workers changed activity 8 times a day. By creating professional commitments for women such as teaching, daycare, nursing etc. Fourier thought this community structure would help with advancing the role of women in the community and the society.

Historic Mutations

Location: Guise, France Status: A social palace built to improve production, trade, supply, eductaion and recreation Characteristics: The owners aimed at improving the living condtions of workers, an economic interest advantageous to their businesses to create stronger attachments to the company in the hope of generating higher productivity. Villages were built in the country in order to keep the workers away from subversive or revolutionary ideas. Rural areas were also cheaper, building materials were lower quality, rents were high and were often calculated to redeem the invested capital. Tenant-workers were chosen stratigically on their skills in relation to efficieny and industriousness at work. The company secured obedience in the tenants, influencing their attitude towards home and family through providing adequete facilities such as: gardens, schools, churches, hospitals, canteens, meeting rooms, theatres, shops, laundries, public lavatories, sports facilitires etc. Strict control was given to the maintenance of houses, gardens and even more and political conduct to the supression of the tenants.

Historic Mutations

Robeling to Hershey

ROBELING (1840-1974)

STEINWAY VILLAGE (1870)

Company: Prussian immigrant John Roebling wire rope manufacturing buisiness for suspension bridges

Company: Foundry and Sawmill by William Steinway

Location: New Jersey, US Status: A town that helped to build some of America’s most famous bridges

Robeling to Hershey

Status: Active. Created as an escape from the anarchists and socialists and targeted towards labour agitators.

Characteristics: Based by a bridge plant, the town was built adjacent with 750 houses, several hotels for unmarried working men, stores, recreation fields and an auditorium. The company maintained the housing, lawns and street. Roebling’s did not try to control the moral lives of their employees.

Characteristics: The village was established to house workers for his sawmill and foundry. Steinway had total control over the workers, evicting anyone who went on strike. Further money was made by leasing houses and selling land to non-employees. An amusement park that drew thousands of New Yorkers to the area on weekends, developed streetcar lines linking his settlement to other parts of New York and eventually headed a committee that planned the city’s subway system. Today, while his village has merged with other neighbourhoods, the factory remains in place, producing more than 1000 pianos each year.

Historic Mutations

Robeling to Hershey

SCOTIA (1880-2007)

HERSHEY (1900)

Company: Pacific Lumber Corporation

Company: Milton Hershey chocolate emporium

Location: Northern California, US

Location: rural Pennsylvania, US near dairy farms and access to ample supply of dairy milk

Status: Bankrupt. One of the longest surviving company towns in the United states

Location: 400 acres in Queens, New York

Characteristics: Taken over by the Nova Scotian Lumberjacks, the town was developed to house workers from the logger and mill. The town was run under a paternalistic system, favoured towards its employees, which earned Scotia a reputation as a desirable place to live. This company maintained all of the town’s housing, which was rented to company employees at affordable rates, and even gave residents presents at Christmas. There contained 270 homes, several churches, a hotel and a handful of other commercial buildings. Generations of workers raised their families in Scotia until it was bought by the New York Hedge Fund. In 2011, the 800 residents of Scotia voted for an independent community as a self-governing town where they could then buy their own homes.

Historic Mutations

Status: A chocolate king’s industrial utopia Characteristics: Due to the remote location of the factory, he also provided a town for his employees, intending it as an industrial utopia that reflected his progressive beliefs. With streets named chocolate and cocoa avenues, the new town featured a wide variety of affordable, modern homes that workers could rent or own, a trolley system, public schools, social clubs, an amusement park and zoo. Nine years later, Hershey who was childless and limited education, established a local boarding school for orphaned boys. During the great depression, he launched a building campaign that kept hundreds of people employed and resulted in the addition of a large hotel, sports arena and other public structures to his model town. Despite Hershey’s altruism and the chocolate scented community’s amenities, town inhabitants behaviour was strictly policed and company managers were accused of showing favouritism when it came to wages and hiring practices. In 1937 his workers went on a strike. However, the strike short lived, and after Hershey’s death, the town survived and chocolate is still made there today.

Historic Mutations

Remote Control Operations and the Movement of Bodies

Remote Control Operations and the Movement of Bodies The variations of traditional Fordist production lines began to phase out at the availability of new technologies. Microelectronics, robotics, information systems and telecommunications made it possible to simplify, separate and fragmenting most of the production system. Simultaneously, incorporation of new technologies meant radical improvements to transport networks in terms of extension and of management efficiency. As a result, concentration of production had the flexibility to become transferable bodies. Production could be outsourced and relocated in remote parts of territory. This meant that less relevant heavy and extractive industries or factors relating to environmental quality demands, were phased out or made more efficient through remote control operations or movement of bodies.

This new economic scenario involved; - Progressive segmentation described the switch into a networked organization where each productive unit represented a particular stage of the production line. - A change into a model of territory that combined urban locations with a more diffuse location within territory. It happened across regions and territories more extensive and integrated at the same time.

Chapter Three The Evolutionary State Of Company Towns Companies As Transferable Bodies

Industrial Capitalism to Finalncial Capitalism

Mining Company Towns; Fragmented localisation (Perth and Sydney)

Industrial Capitalism to Finalncial Capitalism During industrial era, production depended on mass consumer markets for the same product. Companies saw it as their mission to prepare workers for the modern industrial world. Traditional Fordist industrial activities became abandoned, showing signs of decayed landscapes. Strikes became important events in the growth of the national labour movement, which came about towards the postindustrial era. New stages of Capitalism highlighted fragmentation, multiplication and hierarchy of lifestyles. The last three decades has witnessed even more progressive fragmentation of consumption markets and a constant emergence of diverse consumer types. At the end of 1980´s hyper industrialization was adopted as a term to define the process of application to tertiary activities. Intense applications of cutting edge technologies forced the sector to multiply and diversify at an incredible rate. They were associated to specialization of economic activity within deteriorated or vacant spaces, recovered by an incipient industry of cultural tourism. The New Company Town movement (or Modern Industrial Town) took shape in first half of C20th. It resembled the garden city more than the geometrical camp like in El Salvador, offered a wide range of social programs, and provided support for workers’ home ownership. They pushed the frontier of Industrial Capitalism into new areas of Financial Capitalism. They became outposts of industrial modernity connecting remote and sparsely settled areas to urban centers and strengthening their integration into the nation-state.

Introduction

PERTH Company: Gina Rinehart SYDNEY

Location: Perth, Western Australia

Company: MINMETALS

Status: Mobile company towns

Location: Fragmented moments in Sydney Status: Active. Expanding. People become indirectly workers to the companies. Characteristics: MINMETALS, one of China’s biggest mining companys. Their investments of property developments look at experimental nodes of domesticity for generating the most ideal profitable lifestyle for Chinese cultured communities. It is a felxible and adaptive model revealing materialisation of money in its final form. Micro cities controlled by the powers of money miners, prospect buyers and inhabitants indirectly become mining labourers as an extension of the closing economic loop to the mining industry. For Centuries, mining towns have been built, they’ve expanded, some have shrunken to an alarming scale and others, many, abandoned and forced to close. Inevitably, the activities and lifestyles of inhabitants are entwined within the lifespan of company mining towns. Within the last century, the global mineral flow has expanded in an exponential way to establish a complex network of associated money flow. In order to cope with mass demand, several countries and international corporations have started to radically alter the dynamics of land property with experimental models of habitation, modes of travel and ways in which to deactivate urban communities.

Mining Company Town

Characteristics: Perth is an example of the experimentation in harnessing opportunities to filter growth and provide solutions for a new model of domesticity. With significant growth, occupancy of land has become an increasing challenge for mining workers and their families to live as neighbours to the mine. Fly-in Fly-out systems reveals the experimental dynamics of people’s lifestyles and the concept of a home. It has had increased success in nurturing alternative lifestyles for long distant commuters. It is an evident of a company town in its fragments, hidden within dense metropolitan areas. The concept of an ideal home is presented as receiving the best of both worlds, living the lifestyle they want with their families, maximising on metropolitan density and the availability of tertiary services, whilst still, being able to work. It is an improvement on facilities, accommodation, and comfort, to enhance physical and emotional wellbeing of the workers, as well as introduction of new skills, demands education services, legal businesses and increases revenue for local communities. The cities of the copper industry are formations of elaborate patterns responding to the increased complexity of the industrial system. Physical expression of the plant within the town, became main operating elements as the heart of the town. They often contained closed systems with strong repetitive typologies and hierarchy between the component parts of the city, structured toward favoured reasons of economy and symbolic expression. Initial settlements of Chilean company towns of the industrial representative were an alternative model to the traditional city. They were built ex novo in order to achieve maximum concentration of capital and labour through the harmony of joint housing, facilities and industrial buildings. Under these ideals, the company town resorted to mount a perfect society in the service of production, seeking to reach a social balance from the benefits of industrialization. These were the proposals and ideas that inspired the Industrial Revolution.

Mining Company Town

Mono-Functional Communities: Mining Bulga, Australia

BULGA Company: Rio Tinto Location: : NSW Hunter Valley Bulga Status: The Idle / Pre - company town condition

We examine the economic, political, social, and cultural history of company towns

in Australia and Chile to illustrate the impact, often uneven and contradictory, processes of industrial modernization on working people within the Indo-Pacific Region and their transnational interaction

Like most mining towns, many of Chile’s excavation locations are in remote regions. Many of these regions exist in uninhabitable desert conditions, unnatural to an urban environment. Throughout the history of Chile, these self-sustaining cities have risen into mono-functional communities willing to cultivate their own urban placenta. They range on a scale of complete abandonment and desolate affairs, to abandoning towns hanging by loose networks, to successful ongoing production multipliers. They set a benchmark in urban planning and set up, a capacity to influence future innovative business practices. The importance of these models discusses the systemic development of self-reliance, a step towards emphasising and saving the metropolis of its inefficient make-up.

Obsolute Company Towns

Characteristics: Rio’s monopoly strategy buying out the town and transforming it from domestic into company-town Located in the NSW Hunter Valley, the town of Bulga is neigbouring an active coal-mining site run by Rio Tinto. Despite the mining industry’s significance in the region, currently the majority of Bulga’s economy is independent of mining, with the viticulture and tourism industries being more important. Subsequent to their development proposal, Rio Tinto is planning to purchase all the properties and local businesses in order to slowly gain control and power over the town and its economy, conveying a company-town system. This is a common example of companies’ monopoly set-out transforming domestic towns into company towns. Through the barren landscapes of old mining towns, we explore the complexity of urban vulnerability. We start by focusing the study of mining as an economic nucleus towards powering cities. Through the exploration of several different examples of abandoned mining towns, we x-ray the what, when and why this nucleus starts to brake down. In this exploration evokes the study of displaced indigenous communities, the motivating discourse for human habitat, the economics of building a new, and the consequences of empty structures as environmental waste / unnatural wastelands.

Obsolute Company Towns

Mono-Cultural Systems in the Atacama Desert, Chile

Foreign European and American utopian models begin to be exported to Chile as hybridised designs using the same set of geographical relationships that companies and workers have been using at a grander scale. Is what maps the distinctive patters of urbanization and discusses the impacts and limitations of urban planning. Each case explores greater emphasis on spatial dynamics, relationships and regional planning. From the 1920â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, traditional American ideas of the Housing Reform Movement, the Progressive movement and Scientific Welfare Capitalism were dominant considerations, strongly incorporated into the emphasis of design and planning of company towns. Whilst the American models differ based on size, location, ownership and characterization of production; Latin American models were more likely to rely on repression, paternalistic ideas and total control. We begin to raise the questions on the success and failures when clashing foreign urban models with local realities. (Vergara, A, 2003, p.391).

Obsolute Company Towns

Mono-Cultural Systems in the Atacama Desert, Chile

The initial mining activities of the Saltpeter boom brought modernity to Chile

on a geopolitical, economic, technical, social scale. The industrial settlements of Humberstone & Santa Laura Saltpetre Works and Chacabuco triggered the initial urban processes in the Atacama dessert, of the Antafagasta region. This led to the development of land and the founding of a new kind of city based on the extraction of natural resources. The towns developments included large industrial plants, several auxiliary buildings and extensive housing. As a result, a network of railway lines were built to connect the town to several ports such as Antofagasta, Taltal, Mejillones, which were built for product shipment and the import of raw materials, manufactured goods, food and labour. These gave new shape and content to the ideological, economic, technical and architectural current characteristics of the nineteenth century, projecting them into the twentieth. (Feliu, 2000, p. 346)

Obsolute Company Towns

Nitrate Industries

The initial mining activities of the Saltpeter boom brought modernity to Chile CHUQUICAMATA (1900)

EL TENIENTE / SEWELL (1905)

Company: Anaconda Copper Mining Company

Company: Kennecott Corporation / UNESCO

Location: The heart of the Atacama Desert.

Location: Southern province of Rancagua, Chile

Status: Active. Expanding. New Company Town Model.

Status: The modern copper company town

Characteristics: The town was a school of moral and and material improvement for itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personnel. Workers enjoyed a superior life than in other mining towns of Chile because of its housing, school, medical services, cultural, social and sport centers, and organisation of work.

Characteristics: The company invested large amounts of capital introducing new twchnologies and new labour and social ideas, to enable large-scale copper companies to continue and become more efficient in the extraction of low-grade copper deposits. At the time it was the largest company mining town in the world. It is an example of geological engagement of spatial engineering. Building elements were used to structure social relations by concealing and revealing.

The plant underwent several expansions of mechanical engineering improvement in 1920s, 1950s, and still today continues to expand, being the third largest delivering economic wealth to Chile.

Obsolute Company Towns

The remote and hostile environment carried harsh winds of dirt and dust making living conditions unbearable. More than 100 multi-coloured buildings arose that housed 15,000 miners and their families. Hospitals, church, technical schools, social clubs, theatres, a bowling alley and a heated pool also went up. Despite the abandoned city, the mine continues and workers conditions and safety are far superior. In 2006, it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which stopped the demolition of various buildings.

Obsolute Company Towns

Experiementation Failures and Corrupt Repurposed Productions

“..the idea of a unitary plan for the city… the presence of an ideal, distinct model, in opposition to reality” (Feliu, E. G, 2000, p.140) _Benevolo (1981)

MARIA ELENA (1925-2007)

PEDRO DE VALDIVIA (1931-1960)

Company: Sociedad Quimica & Minera Company, Chile

Location: Center of the Atacama Desert.

Status: Maria Elena is an ideal city expressed as a global and synthetic project. Now exists as a mine only for transferrable workers.

Status: New company town with strict traditional controls. Town closed for business.

Characteristics: Designed as a new plant experiment whilst maintaining a conformed grid. The urban plans encode a shape that implies a subordination of building, carefully managed to keep the necessary irregularities. Initial building typologies used colonial type practices to incorporate ‘ship-style’ constructions, neatly ordered into long narrow rows. Clear divisions are made according to function to ensure development of appropriate morphology that were the additions to the town over the years of its survival. A strategy strongly influenced by similar social organization design of El Salvador. However, the devisable harmonic balance occurred only in theory and was not as successful as the execution of El Salvador. Further experimentation led to the design of Pedro de Valdiva.

Characteristics: Designed in the early C19th based off of the industrial revolution urbanism using a Roman (Anglo-Saxon) axial grid formation adopted by the Europeans. It was developed along two axes to distribute operations through a given territory. Similar to Maria Elena, houses were laid out in a similar fashion in long narrow rows seeking sun exposure. Although the designed was made in critical and rational review of Maria Elena, avoiding its inherent defects, Pedro de Valdiva still cultivated contradictions. It’s poor execution of design caused the town to close in 1996, whereby the population moved to nearby mining town Maria Elena.

At the death of Chilean President Sallvador Allende in 1973, the contraversy of company owned towns took seige. The military dictatorship set to grasp Chile for the next 18years, was puppeterd by American citizen, Augusto Pinochet. He utilised the synthetic powers of national-owned towns as an opportunity of space to mitigate his own schedule of demise. The modernity progressing Chile and the transofrmations of new company models were brought to a halt in many territories of Chile. What were once obsolete towns, were put through the recycling container for new uses as a concentration camps. The severities of enclosures were altered to mimic prison heteropias. The people were lost their freedom to the supposed security pressures of the nation, with new role were as victims to torture.

“the arc“I am not a dictator. I just have a grumpy face” “Sometimes democracy must be bathed in blood” _ Augusto Pinochet (1973-1989)

Obsolute Company Towns

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Indio Muerto (El Salvador); the bright star of the economic destiny of Atacamaâ&#x20AC;? (Vaergara, A, 2012, p.399) _Esteban Sanchez (1956)

Chapter Four Goverment Experimentations(El Salvador)

Introduction

Hybridised Urban Planning Strategies

Housing Typologies

‘Indio Muerto (El Salvador); the bright star of the economic destiny of Atacama” (Vaergara, A, 2012, p.399) _Esteban Sanchez (1956)

POTRERILLOS (1920-1995)

EL SALVADOR (1959)

Company: Anaconda Copper Mining Company

Location: Southern end of the Atacama Desert. Driest part of the world.

Location: Eight hectares of land with a building area of 40,000 m2, Southern end of the Atacama Desert

Status: Typified an older approach conforming most closely to the traditional company town Fordism model. It used the similar scientific management, rationalising production and centering the town on religious belief. Now exists soeley as a plant. Characteristics: Potrerillos best exemplified the ways Andes Copper adapted the company town model to the Chilean high-altitude desert. Included were buildings and facilities unknown in the early twentieth century of Chile. It was a more pragmatic urban and architectural project that promoted good life, health and recreation. Structured an interconnected system of five mining camps that supported the exploitation and transportation of copper. With a population of about six thousand people in the 1930s, Potrerillos was a populated, diverse, heterogeneous, and well-equipped camp. It had a traditional square grid plan that separated the Chilean workers a of the “Chilean village” and foreign employees from the “American camp”. While housing for foreign employees was of excellent quality and built according to the California bungalow style, Chilean houses were small, were made of calamine or adobe, and lacked private bathrooms. The company owned all houses in the camp and provided free housing for its employees, such as teachers and police officers. Community and housing regulations were strict, and residents were responsible for maintaining their houses without company authorisation.

Status: The New Company Town of Financial Capitalism Characteristics: At the closure of Potrerillos, a $53 Million investment went into the design and construct of the last city of the copper production industry. In Chile, El Salvador stood as a landmark for the most experimented project to incorporate the mass ideologies of power heads throughout at 60 yr period.

El Salvador experimented with different formulas of urban and architectural ensembles that brought new building typologies, materials and construction technologies contributing to the development of social housing in Chile. Of the same time in other regions, social housing standards were deplorable, with serious risks to the health of the population. Visual analysis of photographs, drawings, and plans might help to explain what companies were trying to convey (or avoid) in their architecture. Their disciplinary boundaries help us to further comprehend the dynamics of the workplace.

The need for rest, privacy and territorial expression in the urban-industrial world has been the driving factor that has shaped many of our cities. Demands to meet the importance of man’s requirements have accumulated a series of strategies that serve the purpose to all parties and alliances involved. The companies empowered by money have had the most potential, proclaimating the most amount of control in the order of these cities. Tactics of house supply has been extensively explored through experimentation and altered to suit the global market. In the shortage of metropolitan areas, companies look towards regional areas to devise alternate mechanics of housing in the suburbs or, like in the examples that will be explored, often in more remote extremes. The major strategies looked at are those largely governed through government intervention through developer support or the direct supply of social housing. (Porteous, J, 2010, p.409)

Geographically, the town was appropriately constructed to the contours of the land. Several incorporated elements fight to breakdown the monotony of the landscape unlike the organisation of traditional camps, which were repetitive and regular. Designed to be a ‘pedestrian community’, the streets curve in large radial avenues all pointed toward a central focal plaza high in commercial and corporate programmatic relief. It accommodated 1,200 homes and facilities for a population of over 6,500.

Chilean Company Towns Potrerillos and El Salvador represent the latest state of human folly and hope in the aspiration to measure this degree of utopia more explicitly. These settlements reveal the always dynamic and constant transmogrify of the copper mining industry. Their development in urban and building typologies, material testing and construction systems, has constituted for valuable research in technique and urban morphologies.

Originally fabricated in the layout, two large residential areas divide the town into the Labour Camp and the American Quarter in the practise of social division. El Salvador experimented with different formulas of urban and architectural ensembles that brought new building typologies, materials and construction technologies contributing to the development of social housing in Chile.

The Urban strategies of El Salvador reflected the transformation of hybridised ideas of company towns in the mid-twentieth century. It manifests the changes in managerial ideologies with company aims to modernize its practices with respect to production as well as labour relations. Incorporated were some of the newest ideas about industrial management and urban planning at the time, but in the end it was still a company town with all the benefits and drawbacks that urban form entailed.

El Salvador

HOUSING TYPOLOGIES Several incorporated elements fight to breakdown the monotony of the landscape unlike the organisation of traditional camps, which were repetitive and regular. A maximum of ten different pastel colours highlight the domestic rows of El Salvador. The houses are prefabricated, reinforced concrete structures and enclosures of concrete block stucco, repeated within their model range. The models accommodate various sizes to include more or less bedrooms, with larger models appropriated to executives, officers and managers of CODELCO who lived up on the hill in the American Quarter. Mass production of duplex dormitories made it affordable for workers to live. The extreme isolation of El Salvador and Potrerillos means that their distinct character will remain for some time.

El Salvador

Social Cohesion

Welfare Capitalism

"I am against the concentration of power."

“...ordinary men and women may often feel unmotivated to exert their citizenship... because they feel that the really important issues are not in their power to decide”

_Sebastián Piñera (2010-2014)

_Patricio Azocar (1990-1994)

THE NATIONALISATION OF COPPER & CODELCO

PROGRAMS

Originally fabricated in the layout, is the practice of social subdivisions. Two large residential areas divide the town into the Labour Camp consisting of employees and their families, and the American Quarter situated on the higher hillside of the town separating the executives, officers and managers of CODELCO. The arrangement was seen as such a success, the social divide was repeated in Sewell and Maria Elena. Despite having this disjunction of classes, constant renewal of mining processes sets all employees under the same working standard, which has allowed for workers and executives to work in more fluid and natural ways to decrease social discrimination.

SOCIAL DIVISION El Salvador region’s newer and limited social provision is designed as equilateral triangle between the town, plant and the mine. The method is used to distance the plant and the town’s populace to provide workers with psychological satisfaction during non-working hours. Workers able to walk to work but far enough to not impede on living. At the time of its creation, this modification of traditional rigid planning did not satisfy Chilean nationalism. In fact, it spawned during pinnacle moments in Chilean governance when decisions were being made to end isolated towns and reintegrate workers back into metropolitan areas. The psychological satisfaction of a regular life, commuting daily to the mines, was implemented in two of the oldest company towns, El Teniente and Chuquicamata, that showed signs of growing obsolescence.

El Salvador

Isolation continued to be used not only a geographical condition but also a human construction confirmed by its private character and company control outside of the camp. Production was organised as an occupational community in an isolated enclave aided the owners / companies in minimizing links with the host country and hence to stabilize their financial assets. Control of access forced residents to carry a special identification card that further separated the town residents from the rest of the country. It was used to promote the development of a ‘safe’, ‘clean’, and ‘orderly’ place away from alcoholism, gambling, prostitution, diseases, and dangerous ideas. Additionally, strict isolated territories enabled companies to send undesired labour activists and laid-off workers on trains elsewhere to give the semblance town image of stabilized and efficient employment.

El Salvador

Education: Free education for high school seniors and an incentive to increase pupil admission. Free workshops aimed at improving basic education students to interact more directly with the challenges of the future.

In 1971, Chile took control of the financial resources exiting their country through foreign bank accounts. The exploitation of copper and mining towns shifted powers to become predominantly owned by Codelco, the largest copper producing company in the world. As a state-owned company ensures the stability of their mining finances and the country’s reinvestment into the economy. The government regulates the company’s profit allowance, governing how much money may be redirected into the company as capital investment for the mine and how much money can be redirected into transportation and energy resources for the country. Subsequently, When Codelco took ownership of El Salvador, Police become private property, tipping the balance of power through occupation.

Training: Designed to increase employability. Quality of Life: Care and counselling programs and services such as, for indigenous and women. Sustainability: Raising awareness through training and workshops through educational institutions and social organisations. Implemented systems of rural drinking water, photovoltaic panels, sanitary solutions and a cultural center. Housing: Welfare benefits of free housing, education and health sparked a life support system that would help the town manage as a micro-industrial ecology. Transportation: Desierto de Atacama Airport allows for diversity in labour skills, flexibility in shift work regularities to expand worker interests to live beyond isolated boundaries and to expand its tourism and visitor profile.

El Salvador

WELFARE CAPITALISM Strengthened by its close but distant bond to plant and mine, El Salvador began to centralise company towns away from production, and more towards Welfare Capitalism. Programs were internalised as one singular continuous structure, like a mining hotel. At the time of construction, El Salvador was considered a high quality designed city, built to ensure the best functional and construction standards, and played an important role in the occupation of it’s territorial region. Now, its survival is determined on new uses and activities that are complementary and alternative to mining. More recently, the challenge to stabilise the population of El Salvador has been accepted with social engineering projects to provide stimuli for harmonious development of social and family life. The scheme presents efforts in providing the best possible living conditions for workers and their families

El Salvador

Ecosophy Alliances: Retrieving an Environmental Discourse

“The elimination of nature is something external, sublime and incontestable.” _(Alonso, P, 2014) Deserta

These disruptive industries of production explored so far, have played a major role in reshaping regions. The desert is not a beautiful or sublime and rejects the traditional sense of nature. It has become a natural concept that these industries pave real nature as a barren external and autonomous realm. With the scarcity of water and energy, the desert becomes a testing agent for possible redistribution of the concept of nature to restore earth through the articulation of technology and infrastructure. It is a place for fantasy, where nothing official exists and the thinkable can consequently happen.

Strikes that led to the environmental alliance of CONOMA and Patricio Azocar

There is no easy solution for architecture and design to coexist in such hostile Artificial Human Environments. Since 1990 under new government systems, Chile began building resilience through ecosophy alliances, a new extreme relationship between human and the environment. This new harmonic environmental discourse aimed to envisage architecture leaving no trace behind and embodying new life cycles. In the often-vital effort to capture and contain water resources, the majority of company town conflicts have arisen over the delegation of water ownership. Case scenarios in Chile are particularly special due to radical laws that privatized water in 1981 under the Pinochet regime. It turned over large amounts of displaced indigenous in surrounding communities and left mass devastation on pristine national park and oceanic shores. Strikes became imperative to the shift for renewal. As a reaction to environmental concerns to energy use, land disruption and water scarcity, leading power heads and public citizens take on new social responsibilities for renewal of production. Under the election of democratic president Patricio Azocar, environmental alliances with CONOMA began to focus on the harmonious integration of company and public alliance. It began the uphill battle for resource stabilisation using environmental waste management strategies and alternative energies.

Sebastian Pinera’s declaration for chilean company towns to have a closing plan, 2012

Michelle Bachelet for research and financial investment into renewable energies and welfare programs

El Salvador

Water laws began to soften but socioeconomic conflicts continued. Workers used architectural space to fight back by damaging infrastructure and forcing production to a halt in 2007 & 2008. Production renewal found its targeting roots when president Sebastián Piñera passed the ‘closing plan’ law in 2012, which entailed all mining towns to provide a closed loop cycle of production begins with new forms of production. In El Salvador, these new productive assets take part in renewable energies through continued expansions of concentrated solar power plants provide, providing work and clean energy to 70,000 homes. Additionally, water management paved new grounds for agriculture to close the loop of production providing food support for town in the heart of the desert.

El Salvador

Chapter Five Fly-In Fly-Out, Outsourced Domesticity for Remote Locations

Introduction

The regional centres in WA have become increasingly concerned about the effects of FIFO. A review of regional strategy documents, media reports and other materials indicate that criticisms fall into three overlapping areas: 1. The health and well-being of the individual and the family 2. The economic impacts of FIFO on local businesses; and 3.The economic and social vitality of regional communities FIFO has negative social consequences for individuals, families, and the communities where they live, contributing to greater abuses of alcohol and drugs, family violence and break-ups, parenting problems, and reduced community involvement. Mining companies benefit from resources in the regions, however, due to the location of their remote centres based in Perth, they give little back to those regions. Businesses in the regions fail to benefit from FIFO, as most of the benefits go to service and supply companies in Perth. FIFO arrangements harm the regions by contributing to population decline and associated federal grant decreases, and negative business decisions such as the closure of bank branches.

Fly-In-Fly-Out Western Australia

Emotional Symptoms Associated to Alternative Life Schedules

Fly-in fly-out (FIFO) work practices are an integral and growing part of the mining, oil and gas industries in Australia. Companies transport workers long distances to remote work sites on set number of rosters typically 14/7 denoting 14 days on roster and 7 days off roster. FIFO work schedules inherently involve constraints and recurrent transitions for families that differ from typical non-FIFO work. "By the 1980s, FIFO and compressed work rosters were well-established in Western Australia" (Luck, Race, and Black, 2011). With access restrictions to and from a site or camp, workers were restricted to leave their site during their roster period. In such isolation and limited communication with their families, FIFO workers suffer from depression that lead into suicidal attempts. Among the twelve miners attempting suicide in a 12 month period in the Pilbara region, was Rhys Connor, a 25 year old father who took his own life in July 2013. Rhys Connor was the father of a four-year-old boy living with his mum, Rhys had broken up with his fiancé not long before he committed suicide. In his interview with Perth Now 2014, he mentioned he had suffered from a lack of communication, no one to talk to while on-site as most of his colleagues were under the influence of alcohol and suffering from depression. During the interview he repeated, "I miss my family" and suggested his son to avoid FIFO unless he is single. Not long after the interview, he took his life.

Fly-In-Fly-Out Western Australia

Testing Social Organisation

Social organization is a pattern of relationships between and among individuals and groups. FIFO in this case highlights organisational qualities such as, sexual composition, spatiotemporal cohesion, leadership, structure, division of labour, communication systems, and so on. Social and political powers are used to influence or control the behaviour of people. The term "authority" is often used for power perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as natural to humans as social beings. Recent sociological debates about power revolves around the issue of its means to enable and make social actions possible as much as it may constrain or prevent them. The philosopher Michel Foucault saw power as a structural expression of "a complex strategic situation in a given social setting", (1980) that requires both constraint and enablement. FIFO is a means of organising the bodies across the territory, providing all the necessities including accomodation, food, leisure, provision of FIFO prostitution together with a set daily routine which will provide the workers and their familys income. Today, with advanced technological improvements, power is instinctively held by the operating companies or employers in order to keep the miners on site for longer rosters, this means less travel costs and more production. Fly-In-Fly-Out Western Australia

Testing Social Organisation

FIFO is a temporary use of territory in which very diverse social groups are involved. Residents and weekend visitors, eventual consumers and floating and occasional populations like exchange students, temporary workers or tourists. Territoriants are inhabitants of a place, simultaneous users of the territory and visitors of others. In other words, they are part time inhabitants. They use territory in different ways depending on the date and time. Francesc Muñoz says “Territoriants generate metropolitan settlements that, due to the change in scale of transports and telecommunications, can develop different activities within diverse areas of a territory every day”. FIFO as Munoz puts in Manifesto of Territoriants, sets a relation with metropolitan (Perth) space based on a mobility factor rather than based on density factor, a prototype of inhabitant of post industrial city. The extent of this research will be applied to the ongoing exploration in Chile. The existing contemporary models of company towns such as Gina Reinhart’s Handcock Prospecting in Western Australia are designed to use space efficiently and economically to minimise costs. EL Salvador in Chile will be compared and further examined to identify ideal cities created by companies for its inhabitants.

Fly-In-Fly-Out Western Australia

Perth - Western Australia

Perth

Western Australia has benefited from the growing Indian and Chinese economies and their demand for mineral resources. The energy and mining sector has been important to the Australian economy since 1960s particularly in WA. Due to gold and Tin discoveries, many towns and communities were established around mining activities, and since then mining has unified its position as the major generator of export income for WA with approx. 70% of total exports revenue. The majority of mining activities are at significant distances from the State’s capital city, Perth. With increased returns from mining and diminishing profit margins from agriculture, communities have been challenged by land-use changes and therefore mining has become the driver to substantial in-migration of miners in Perth. This significant growth presents challenges and opportunities, it injects new ideas and energy, introduces new skills, demands education services, legal businesses and increases revenue for local communities. Unemployment rate dropped and there has been a high demand for labour at all skill and experience levels. Many of the new jobs created by the mining boom are full –time, male positions, in regional mining areas and Perth based as administrative and fly-in fly-out (FIFO) positions have increased. Fly-In-Fly-Out Western Australia

Perth

Perth - Western Australia

Since the 1970s, FIFO has become common practice for new resource developments located in remote locations. Traditional mining towns of Western Australia, such as Kalgoorlie-Boulder, Karratha and Newman were originally designed to be live-in communities, providing a wide range of services and amenities to their resident populations. However, in the recent years, there has been a shift away from this type of operation with corporate interests focusing on a ‘lean and flexible’ mode of production, leading to single industries in remote communities and less construction of community infrastructure. This ‘lean and flexible’ mode of production has meant the role of fly-in/fly-out has increased dramatically and will continue to increase. Fly-In-Fly-Out Western Australia

Chapter Six Transferring Ownership / Valparaiso

City Infrastructure Heritage

Valparaiso

City Infrastructure Heritage

Valparaiso

City Infrastructure Housing

Valparaiso

City Infrastructure Housing

Valparaiso

City Infrastructure Funicular

Valparaiso

City Infrastructure Funicular

Valparaiso

City Infrastructure Termal 2

Valparaiso

City Infrastructure Termal 2

Valparaiso

City Infrastructure Termal 2

Valparaiso

City Infrastructure Termal 2

Valparaiso

INDEX A Abandonment Agriculture Allende, Salvador Anaconda Copper Company Anglo-Saxon Antafagasta Astoreca Atacama Desert Artificial Environments Avenida Alemania Azocar, Patricio B Bachelet, Michele Baron Mall BHP Biliton Bolivia Bovalpo Building Typologies Bulga C Californian Gold Rush Cape Horn Celis, Raul Cerro Alegre Cerro Concepcion Cerro Esperanza Cerro Playa Ancha Chacabuco Chanaral China Chuqicamata CMN Codelco Colonial Style Conama Concentrated Solar Power Concentration Camp Constitution (Chile) Copper CSAV Cultural Identity D Decentralisation Deindustrialisation Democracy Desalination Desierto de Atacama Airport Displacement Dormitories E Earthquake Education El Almendral El Mercurio El Salvador El Teniente (Sewell) EMPORCHI Entrapment Environmental waste management Empresa Portuaria ValparaĂso Esperanza European Exploitation F Fatigue Financial Capitalism Fires

Floods Fly-In Fly-Out Fordism Frei, Eduardo Funiculars G Garden City Gentrification Globalisation H Healthcare Heritage hershey Housing Reform Humberstone I ICCROM ICOMOS Identification card Ideology Independence of Chile Indigenous Industrial Capitalism Iron Ore Isolation K Kennecott Copper Company L La Esmeralda Lagos, Ricardo La Matriz Local Regulation Plan M Maria Elena Military Dictatorship Mining Hotel Ministry of Public Works Minmetals Mono-Cultural Systems Montaiva, Eduardo Muelle Fiscal N National Congress (Chilean) National Elevator Company Nationalisation of Copper National Monuments Council Natural Resources NCCA Nitrate Cities O Obsolescence Occupational Communities OHL Concessions Chile Outsourcing Outstanding Universal Value P Palacio Polanco Panama Canal Paseo Wheelwright Paternalism Pedro de Valdiva Perth Pilbara Pinera, Sebastian Pinochet, Augusto Playa San Mateo Plaza Sotomayor

Potrerillos Police Production Renewal Port Headland Port Modernization Act Psychological Satisfaction Public Alliance Pullman Q Queensland R Red Hill Regionalisation Renewable Energies Republican Style Repurpose Restoration Rio Tinto Robeling Rockefeller Centre Rodriguez, Jorge Roy Hill S Santa Laura Santiago Saltpetre SEREMI-MINVU SERNATUR Severin, Santiago Sewell (El Teniente) Scognamiglio, David Scotia Social Organisation Socio-Economic Conflicts Social Division Socialism Steinway Village Strikes Subprime Crisis Suicide Roster Surveillance Sydney T Tarapaca Terminal 2 Tourism Transportation Trolley Cars U University Town Unnatural environments Unplanned Communities UNESCO V Valparaiso Vina del Mar Vivaceta, Fermin W Water Privatisation Water Scarcity Welfare Capitalism Western Australia Women Participation World Heritage Law WW2 Y Yolanda Baron