Communicare Vol 2 No 1, Jan - Jun 2013

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Principal Prita Kemal Gani Chief Editor Rendro Dhani Deputy Chief Editor Artini Secretary Khotimatus Sholikhati Board of Editor Andre Ikhsano Fiona Suwana Gracia Rachmi Adiarsi Hersinta Rino F Boer Cover Design by Fadlin Nur Ichwan Layout by Achmad Sultani Correspondence & Subscription: Professor Margono Research Centre Centre for Excellence in Communication Campus C, Sudirman Park London School of Public Relations - Jakarta Jl. K.H. Mas Mansyur Kav. 35 Jakarta Pusat 10220 INDONESIA

CONTENTS EXPLORING THE SOCIAL EXCLUSION OF WOMEN IN THE ICT PROFESSION Jude William Genilo ................................................ 1 TEXTUAL ANALYSIS ON DOCUMENTARY FILMS: COMPARISON STUDY OF “CAPITALISM: A LOVE STORY” AND “INSIDE JOB” Muhammad Ryan Fathoni ....................................... 13 PESANTREN STUDENTS: ADAPTATION AS RELIGIOUS MINORITY IN THE UNITED STATES Yenuarizki .............................................................. 37 SOCIAL SEMIOTICS ANALYSIS OF NORMATIVE BODY DISCOURSE IN ADVERTISEMENT: A STUDY OF FOUCAULT’S PANOPTICISM Sari Monik Agustin .................................................. 57 CIVIL SOCIETY: A STUDY OF JÜRGEN HABERMAS’S THEORY OF DELIBERATIVE DEMOCRACY Alexander Seran ..................................................... 73 GAYA RETORIKA PESERTA KONVENSI CALON PRESIDEN PARTAI DEMOKRAT DALAM MEMBANGUN PERSONAL BRANDING MELALUI FACEBOOK Rizky Kertanegara ................................................... 85 Book Review Komunikasi Naratif: Paradigma, Analisis dan Aplikasi Reviewer: Artini .............................................................. 99 Informing the News: The Need for Knowledge-Based Journalism Reviewer: Rendro Dhani ................................................ 102 Communicare Journal of Communication Studies (CJCS) is the new name of LSPR Journal, published since 2007. This national and international peer-reviewed scholarly journal concentrates on communication research, theory, and book review, bringing to its readers the latest and important findings in the field of communication studies.

Starting from Volume 1, Number 1, January-June 2012, CJCS following the standard of national and international scentific journal. CJCS welcomes contribution from various discipline and research approach.

Published by Prof. Margono Research Centre

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Editorial

ara peneliti dan pembaca yang budiman, Communicare, Journal of Communication Studies hadir kembali menjumpai Anda. Kali ini dengan wajah baru, semangat baru, dan tentu saja senantiasa menyajikan karyakarya tulis ilmiah yang bermutu. Dari waktu ke waktu, upaya peningkatan kualitas jurnal ini bukan saja untuk sekadar memenuhi standar penulisan karya ilmiah yang digariskan oleh Dikti, namun juga adanya tekad menjadikan Communicare mampu memberi kontribusi signifikan pada perkembangan ilmu komunikasi di taraf internasional. Sesungguhnya, jurnal ini sudah berevolusi dan berinovasi sejak lama, yaitu sejak terbit pada tahun 2006 dengan nama LSPR Journal hingga saat ini bernama Communicare. Adanya semangat untuk terus-menerus melakukan inovasi dan perbaikan inilah yang membuat Communicare terkadang kurang tepat waktu berada di tangan para pembaca.

Dengan tekad dan semangat baru ini, maka pada Volume 2, Nomor 1 ini Communicare mulai bertransisi – dengan membenahi berbagai hal baik secara teknis maupun non-teknis – untuk selanjutnya menjadi jurnal yang go global! Untuk itu dewan redaksi mengundang para peneliti mengirimkan karya tulis ilmiahnya ke Communicare untuk kami publikasikan secara internasional. Kami berharap para peneliti memperhatikan dengan seksama panduan teknis penulisan kami. Selain itu, dewan redaksi juga mengingatkan agar para peneliti mengedepankan kemutakhiran (state of the art) ilmu dan teknologi, kecanggihan sudut pandang dan/atau pendekatan, kebaruan temuan bagi ilmu (novelties, new to science), dan ketuntasan penggarapan alias tidak hanya mengulang penelitian sejenis sebelumnya.

Sebagai catatan penutup, mulai Volume 2, Nomor 1 ini dan selanjutnya, dewan redaksi telah mengambil kebijakan untuk tidak lagi menerbitkan Communicare dengan mengambil tema tertentu. Namun demikian, mulai saat ini dan selanjutnya dewan redaksi hanya akan menerima naskah dalam bahasa Inggris yang akan diterbitkan pada Volume 2, Nomor 2. Insya Allah dalam waktu dekat Communicare sudah bisa dibaca bukan hanya dalam bentuk cetak, tetapi juga dapat diakses melalui internet , yaitu pada alamat www.journal.lspr.edu. Saat ini kami juga sedang menyusun arsif, melakukan indeksasi dan sitasi pada bererapa layanan index yang tersedia, seperti Scorpus, EBSCO, GARUDA, dan Google Scholar, pada seluruh naskah yang pernah diterbitkan dan yang akan diterbitkan dalam Communicare.

Semoga karya tulis ilmiah dalam Communicare ini dapat memuaskan para peneliti dan pembaca sekalian. Selamat meneliti dan selamat membaca!

Rendro Dhani Chief Editor

Communicare Journal of Communication Studies Vol. 2 No. 1, January - June 2013 | 1 - 11

EXPLORING THE SOCIAL EXCLUSION OF WOMEN IN THE INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) PROFESSION Jude William Genilo1 Abstract The paper presented global data relating to the under-representation of women in the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) profession – whether at entry level or managerial level. It then surveyed various literatures in an effort to explore the reasons behind such under-representation. Using a life cycle perspective and guided by the social exclusion concept, it reported on the impediments women have in accessing/using ICT devices and services; selecting their fields of study at the secondary, vocational and tertiary levels; and working in ICT companies with cultures often described as macho and anti-women. It then cited recommendations for a reversal of the phenomenon, including the inclusion of gender issues in national ICT policies.

Keywords: women, social exclusion, ICT career, access, life cycle perspective Abstrak Paper ini mempresentasikan data global terkait dengan representasi yang tidak memadai akan wanita-wanita dalam profesi Teknologi Informasi Komunikasi (TIK), baik pada level awal atau level manager. Selanjutnya, mensurvei berbagai literatur dalam upaya untuk menelusuri permasalahan di balik ketidaksesuaian representasi itu. Dengan menggunakan perspektif siklus kehidupan dan disertai dengan konsep eksklusi sosial, penelitian ini melaporkan halangan para wanita dalam mengakses atau menggunakan peralatan dan layanan TIK; menyeleksi bidang studi mereka dari level sekunder, kursus, tingkat tinggi; dan bekerja di dalam perusahaanperusahaan TIK dengan budaya yang sering dijelaskan seperti macho dan anti wanita. Penelitian ini juga menyajikan rekomendasi untuk suatu kebalikan fenomena, termasuk dengan inklusi akan isu-isu gender dalam kebijakan-kebijakan TIK nasional.

Kata kunci: wanita, eksklusi sosial, karier TIK, akses, perspektif siklus kehidupan

Dr. Jude William Genilo is a Professor and Head of Media Studies and Journalism Department, University of Liberal Arts Bangladesh (ULAB).

Corresponding Author: Media Studies and Journalism Department, University of Liberal Arts Bangladesh House 719/A Satmasjid Rd (Road 7/A) Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1209 Bangladesh Office Tel. No.:8802-911524 Email: jude.genilo@ulab.edu.bd

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Introduction

Women are under-represented in the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector and this under-representation has been reported across the globe. In the Asia-Pacific region, Wangmo, Violina and Haque (2004: 12) reported that women find the Internet intimidating and believe that ICT jobs are best suited to males. Women who work in the sector hold the least secured positions as they are the first ones displaced by workplace automation and computerization (p. 10). For this reason among others, the authors asserted that “in the ICT sector, labor is highly sex segregated.” In South Africa, James (2006: 2) stated that in 2002 “only about 20 percent of the current ICT workforce is female.” Women also earn less than men in the ICT industry and comprised of only 18 to 20 percent of management positions. Apparently, the country has only a small base of highly-skilled predominantly white male ICT professionals.

In Organization and Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, women filled only 15 to 40 percent of ICT jobs in 2007. They likewise made up less than 25 percent of ICT specialists in the United States, 20 percent in northern Europe and 10 to 15 percent elsewhere (Castano and Webster 2011: 365). GrasVelazquez, Joyce and Debry (2009: 1) cited similar statistics. In 2010, fewer than one in five computer scientists in Europe were women. According to them, “We know that European women are significantly under-represented across the board in ICT – from education and training programmes right through to high level careers in the sector, whether in academic or industry.” The countries considered to have a high gender gap in ICT professions are the Netherlands and Sweden. In Belgium, the gender gap is wider among young professionals rather than among older professionals.

But, in the OECD countries, the concern does not end with under-representation.

The fact is that the number of women in the ICT sector has also been in decline.

Statistics from the OECD indicated that in the European Union, the percentage of women employed in the ICT sector remained stagnant from 2001 to 2006 while that of men increased. In the United States, women’s share in the science workforce has been decreasing since 2000 – even reaching below 25 percent in 2009. Such indicators raise the alarm that there may be a widening gender disparity in the sector over the long term in OECD countries.

In light of these developments, the World Congress on Information Technology (WCIT) held in Montreal in October 2012 focused on attracting women into the ICT sector and keeping them. WCIT CEO Francois Morin, in an October 23, 2012 interview with The Montreal Gazette, explained that “We are facing all around the world a decrease in IT enrolments and this is not only in Canada, it’s in every country.

Women represent nearly 50 per cent of the workforce, but make up only 25 per cent of the IT industry.” Morin found it ironic that more women graduate from university but less of them take up jobs in the ICT sector. He felt that the sector is losing out on women’s ability to manage projects and teams successfully.

With these in mind, this paper explores possible reasons why women are underrepresented in the ICT sector using a life cycle perspective. In addition, it questions whether such under-representation merely reflected a broader phenomenon, i.e., the social exclusion of women. The paper explains first the life cycle perspective and

Jude William Genilo, Exploring The Social Exclusion of Women in The Information and Communication Technology ...

later, elaborates on the social exclusion concept. It then interprets data from various secondary sources to shed light on various life trajectories – access to ICT, education, and employment (early and later stages).

Life Cycle Perspective Several researchers (Cohoon 2010, Palmen 2010, and Castano and Webster 2011) have expressed preference towards the life cycle perspective in analyzing the plight of women in the ICT profession. For them, the leaky pipeline approach (the traditional way of observing the phenomenon) is based on an erroneous assumption that women follow an orderly linear progression in their careers – from education to career development – and those women disappear as they move along this set progression.

The pipeline is considered to be a metaphor illustrating that women leak away from the profession at certain junctures in time. Since women continuously leak away, there are very few of them occupying managerial positions.

For Castano and Webster (2011: 368), the leaky pipeline approach “makes no provision for alternative educational and career pathways.” It also fails to recognize the social, political and cultural factors influencing women in making career decisions.

The life cycle perspective, on the other hand, brings forward the sequencing of stages in an individual’s life, which moves along differing pathways. A person experiences transitions, trajectories, life events and turning points in their life courses. Castano and Webster (2011: 370) explained that:

“’transitions’ are changes in roles and statuses experienced by individual women or men; ‘trajectories’ are long-term patterns of stability and change that involve multiple transitions in an individual’s life; ‘life events’ are significant occurrences involving relatively abrupt change that may produce serious long lasting events in an individual’s life; and ‘turning points’ are a substantial change or discontinuity in direction that is not temporary, but lasting.”

These transitions, trajectories, life events and turning points define, to a large extent, career decisions made by women and men. Castano and Webster (2011: 370-71) contended that life events such as “family relationships, educational choices and achievements, family formation, geographical mobility patterns, labour market participation patterns and decisions separately and in combination influence women’s ability to engage in this field.” In light of this, the life cycle of women and men differ from each other and its various stages impact on their careers in unlike ways.

For example, due to sex role differentiation and stereotyping, there are certain expectations from women when they marry or when they have children which are different from that of men. In many societies, married women who chose or are allowed to work are also expected to manage the household and take care of their husband. Women with children are expected to prioritize family over career. For this reason, they opt for jobs that require less pressure and they prefer positions that are not critical to the organization. Men, on the other hand, are expected to be breadwinners of the family. As such, they are somewhat freed from household management and child rearing responsibilities in order to focus on their job – thus being able to face the pressure and climb the organizational ladder.

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Social Exclusion of Women Sex role differentiation and stereotyping are major reasons for the exclusion of women in the ICT sector. Social exclusion relates to the deprivation of an individual to certain advancements in society due to the relative position of the group the said individual belongs to. To illustrate, an individual may be excluded from being employed, receiving education or from accessing digital technologies due to his/her membership to an ethnic/religious minority or gender group. Sometimes, an individual may be excluded due to his/her membership to many other disadvantaged societal groups – youth, aged, people with disabilities, people living in geographically disadvantaged areas, etc.

Mancinelli (2007: 7) identified digital exclusion as a manifestation of social exclusion.

For her, “the digital divide is basically about social access to digital technologies” as it “considers social relations around the uses of ICT.”

Mancinelli (2007: 7) described the three types of digital divides: (1) access divide (those with and without access to ICT); (2) usage divide (those who use and do not use ICT); and (3) quality of use divide (difference in usage by users). Keniston (2003: 1) earlier discussed the linguistic and cultural divide – those who can speak English or another West European language and those who do not. For Mancinelli (p.

8), the lack of access to digital technologies puts individuals at a disadvantage. They are excluded from benefiting from changes in social structure and relationships; new working methods; new ways of education and training; and communities of learners/ citizens.

Parsons and Hick (2008: 4) concurred stating that “the lack of Internet services increasingly threatens the chances of many people to find good jobs and participate in the affairs of the broader society.” They (p. 6) added that digital exclusion may have severe consequences such as academic failure, social isolation, increased unemployment, lower competitiveness and inability to participate in social and political spheres. In this way, since women are susceptible to digital exclusion, they are less likely to become attracted and/or aspire for careers in ICT sector.

The next sections of the paper explored the status of women and ICTs using a life cycle perspective – from having access to digital technologies, selecting a field for their education, and employment from early to later stages.

Women’s Access to ICTs Digital exclusion is perhaps the biggest barrier for women entering the ICT sector.

Women need to be habituated with digital technology first before they become attracted to it and contemplate pursuing careers in it. DiMaggio and Hargittai (2001: 1) spelled out five dimensions of digital inequality – in equipment, autonomy of use, skill, social support and the purposes for which the technology is employed. Various studies indicated digitally inequality in these five areas between men and women in different parts of the globe.

One very useful measurement of this inequality is the Digital Divide Index (DDIX). Husing and Selhofer (2002: 1277), after measuring social inequalities in European ICT adoption, concluded high risks groups for gender (women), age (50 years and older), education (low education group) and income (low income group).

Jude William Genilo, Exploring The Social Exclusion of Women in The Information and Communication Technology ...

The DDIX indicators considered the percentage of total computer users, percentage of computer users at home, percentage of total Internet users and percentage of Internet users at home. A major study finding is that the DDIX as the European average has not changed very much between early 1997 and late 2000. The gender and the income divides have slightly decreased, while the age divide has increased. The education divide remains nearly unchanged. That means that the digital divide on the European level has not decreased since 1997 (p. 1280).

Chen and Wellman (2004) examined the digital divide in terms of access and use of the Internet across eight developed and developing countries: the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, China and Mexico.

They found that, in these countries, men are more likely than women to have access and to use the Internet. Except for the US, the share of female Internet users is lower than 50 percent. Nevertheless, the gender digital divide showed signs of narrowing in many countries but not in Germany and Italy.

In the Asia Pacific region, Wangmo, Violina and Haque (2004: 10) observed that women’s connectivity “to ICT services is not equal to their male counterparts because of different social, economic and know-how related grounds.” For example, women cannot buy or use ICT machines and services due to their relatively more inferior socio-economic position – geographic location, literacy level and local customs.

Such a situation was well documented in Pakistan. Khan and Whalley (2012) surveyed the digital connectivity of Pakistanis living in the cities of Karachi, Lahore and Quetta. They discovered that, compared with men, women spend less time on the Internet. Only 28.6 percent of women considered themselves to be heavy Internet users – compared to 72.0 percent for the men. In addition, 71.4 percent of women described themselves as low Internet users – the figure for men is a measly 28.0 percent. (p. 41) In Indonesia, Wangmo, Violina and Haque (2004: 118) reported that only 24.14 percent of Internet users are women.

With less access and usage of the ICT devices and services, women may not be aware of the potentials of careers in the sector. Hence, when they select a field of study, they may be directed to take traditional or alternative routes. These will be discussed in the following section.

Women ICT Study and Career Decisions Between the ages of 13 to 17 years old, people make critical decisions about their careers. From this decision, they select what field to study – whether science, arts, engineering or technology. According to Gras-Velazquez, Joyce and Derby (2009: 1), “education data shows that at age 15, girls and boys have roughly the same preferences and ability in science and technology, but as they progress towards adulthood, girls generally drop out of science, engineering and technology to pursue other subjects.”

Researchers (Gras-Velazquez, Joyce and Derby, 2009; Castano and Webster, 2011; and Omamo, Abagi and Sifuna, 2005) generally point to socialization as the reason for this occurrence. Socialization may be defined as the learning of male and female roles from infancy. Many countries have clearly defined gender roles,

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which impact on career decisions. In Korea, for example, women are stereotypically characterized as sensitive and pliable. They should devote themselves solely to housework and childcare and stay complacent in a male-oriented atmosphere. In Bangladesh, women are expected to be family-oriented as they provide most of the unpaid family labour.

After secondary education, girls drop out of ICT studies due to gender stereotyping even though they enjoy ICT studies and are competent computer users.

Omamo, Abagi and Sifuna (2005: 3) mentioned several reasons why this occurs in Kenya. For one, parents discourage their daughters to pursue ICT courses as these are expensive. For another, negative attitudes such as fear of mathematics and sciences are instilled in girls at home and in school. “Girls shy away from subjects such as physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics as these fields belong to the male domain,” they stated.

In Europe, Gras-Velazquez, Joyce and Derby (2009: 2) reported that many teachers and parents are “poorly educated about what ICT really entails. They are told that ICT is suited for boys. As a result, we find girls in the Netherlands thinking that ICT is more difficult than other subjects and in the UK lacking confidence in ICT.

Castano and Webster (2011: 369) stated that role models shape the trajectory of women. The absence of female role models in ICT deters girls from taking up ICT studies. Existing role models may not be tech-savvy. Gras-Velazquez, Joyce and Derby (2009: 4) noted that girls are “actively discouraged by families, teachers and career advisors from pursuing further studies or careers in the field of math, science and technology.” They are also told that ICT careers do not offer travel opportunities or chances to help other people.

According to Servon (n.d.), for females in the US, the desire to give back to society is a powerful motivator to pursue a career (See table 1). Hence, when told that ICT careers do not offer a chance to help people, female students select another career.

Table 1: Prime Motivators of SET Talent in the US by Sex Motivator

Male

Female

Ability to Contribute to Society

40%

51%

Being Highly Compensated

54%

45%

Receiving Recognition from Company

38%

40%

Having a Powerful Position

17%

10%

Around the globe, there are more male than female students in science, engineering and technology. Palmen (2010) presented data showing more male students sitting in ICT-related examinations in the United Kingdom in 2005 and 2010. In 2005, the percentage of female students taking GCSE ICT was 43.22, A Level ICT was 35.46 and A Level Computing was 11.27. Not much changed in 2010 with the percentage of female students sitting for GCSE ICT was 44.4, A Level ICT was 38.1 and A Level Computing was 8.9.

Jude William Genilo, Exploring The Social Exclusion of Women in The Information and Communication Technology ...

Table 2: Students Sitting for ICT-related Examinations in the United Kingdom by Sex ICT-Related Examination

Year 2005

Year 2010

Male

Female

Male

Female

GCSE ICT

58,713 (56.78%)

44,687 33,922 (43.22%) (55.6%)

27,100 (44.4%)

A Level ICT

9,606 (64.54%)

5,277 7,543 (35.46%) (61.9%)

4,643 (38.1%)

A Level Computing

6,426 (88.73%)

816 3,704 (11.27%) (91.0%)

3,704 (91.0%)

Kirkup (n.d.), meanwhile, reported the under-representation of women in vocational training and academic programs leading to ICT careers. He explained that “women in the UK prefer to complete vocational training in retail, commercial enterprise, health care and public services. Men, as opposed, complete training in ICT, engineering, manufacturing and construction.” In Germany, women gravitate towards training in the areas of society and culture, health, management and commerce, natural sciences, food and hospitality, personal services, creative arts and education. Men move towards fields such as IT, agriculture, environment, engineering and architecture.

Some similarities can be observed in Japan. Men dominate in information technology and engineering. Women focus on communication.

In Bhutan, Wangmo, Violina and Haque (2004: 45) it was shown that only 22 percent of the graduates of the Royal Institute of Management (RIM) diploma course in Information Technology and Technology System were female. Similar data are reported regarding women students taking ICT tertiary courses. In the United States, Cohoon (2010) revealed that only13 percent of students in 2009 intended to take a computing major in college. Alarmingly, the number has been decreasing from a high of 28 percent in 1995. The share of women in computer science tertiary degrees was less than 20 percent in 2009.

“Engineering culture is a tough nut to crack, it’s very male. When I was an undergraduate, engineering courses were not just male they were overtly sexist and misogynist and anti-women,” said Don Tapscott in an interview with The Montreal Gazette in October 2012. Tapscott is the co-author of the bestselling book Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything. For this reason, low female enrolment was noted in other countries as well, including Bangladesh, Kenya and Indonesia.

Women and ICT Careers The types of ICT professions have been expanding over the years. These include the traditional core of informatics such as occupations in design and engineering of IT systems, software and networks. Also on the list are new and increasingly diversified web and multimedia occupations which combine technical skills with communication and creative skills. Emerging jobs in the sector are linked to specific application fields such as medical informatics, e-commerce platforms, customer relationship management systems, etc.

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In spite of this, the trend of being unable to keep women in the ICT profession continues. Servon (n.d.) explained that in the US, a significant portion of young Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) talent is female. The female SET talent aged 25 to 29 is 66% in science, 21% in engineering, 43% in technology or 41% overall.

However, most of these women leave the profession when they reach the ages of 35 to 40. Over half (52 percent) of highly credentialed women leave their private sector jobs in SET.

Castano and Webster (2011) made a list of factors that cause women to leave the profession. During early employment, women may find it difficult to adjust to employer practices, gender cultures and working time. During motherhood, women are expected to balance care for family and the job, if not leave the profession entirely.

As their careers progress, they meet difficulties in promotions. Older women become more vulnerable to attrition as well.

Servon (n.d.) characterized the SET work culture as a macho culture where women experience extreme work pressure, feelings of isolation, mysterious career paths and systems of risk and rewards. In the US, 63 percent of women report dealing with sexual harassment. More than a quarter of them feel that they are seen as less capable as compared to their male counterparts. In Spain, engineering is seen as traditionally masculine. The word “masculine” is associated with individualistic, competitive, authoritative, rationality, hard skill, toughness, total commitment and no private life. Macho culture is also characterized by quick feedback and high risk.

As women climb the ranks in this sector, their numbers dwindle. They feel extremely isolated at work. There is a lack of female role models, mentors and sponsors.

Then, there is extreme work pressure. The average female global tech worker logs 73 hours a week. The usual work week is 40 hours. In addition, more than half of these workers operate in multiple time zones. They need to be available 24/7. Wangmo, Violina and Haque (2004: 83) assessed that: “even being academically fit for posts, female applicants in many instances voluntarily give up their interest for application for the job because other non-academic requirements do not fit with them. For example, a professional woman engineer who has to spend many hours for household activities (for example, rearing children, caring households, etc.) cannot fulfill non-academic requirements like ability to work under pressure, ability to develop expertise within the shortest possible time and with minimum supervision. So, these kinds of requirements in effect, work as obstacles for entering women IT professional in IT related job market.”

Women are also confused about what it takes to get ahead, stated Servon (n.d.). Around 45% of SET women feel stalled in their careers while 83% are without sponsors. The macho work culture encourages a state of crisis. Risks are perceived as being greater for women. Since women do less to advertise their success, they are relegated as producers rather than as creators. In such condition, women are usually not promoted beyond project management. Social scientists have termed the phenomenon of not giving women higher positions in management as the glass ceiling

Jude William Genilo, Exploring The Social Exclusion of Women in The Information and Communication Technology ...

effect. As shown earlier, very few women get to upper management position in the ICT industry.

Wangmo, Violina and Haque (2004: 110) similarly pointed that in Indonesia, some ICT jobs require commitment to “work extra and long working hours with intensive field visits.” Some jobs are only open for male applicants while some set an age bar. These kinds of job application requirements in the ICT sector discourage potential female workers.

Conclusion and Recommendations The study, at the onset, presented data indicating the under-representation of women in the ICT sector – be it in entry level positions or top executive ones. It then explored the reasons for the under-representation of women in the sector. It first showed how women are digitally excluded from accessing and using digital technologies. Such exclusion has a bearing on women pursuing ICT careers as they need to overcome socio-cultural barriers in order to become familiar and adopt digital technologies.

When women make career decisions, their role models discourage them from studying math, science, engineering and technology. The reason is the gendering of professions. Women are told that by nature, they are poor in ICT. Hence, fewer women sit ICT examinations in secondary school and take up ICT-related vocational education. The same trend was shown at the tertiary level.

For women who entered the ICT profession, a macho work culture proved too difficult for them. Women experienced sexual harassment along with extreme work pressure, odd working hours, confusing career paths and the glass ceiling effect. In this light, many women leave the profession from the ages of 35 to 40 – no longer able to balance between work and family given responsibilities at the home and of motherhood. From all this data, it may be surmised that women are socially and systematically excluded from the ICT sector at different points in their life cycle. Women are a high risk group for digital exclusion, discouraged to study courses leading to ICT jobs and discriminated against once they start working or persevere in male-dominated ICT professions.

How to attract more women to the ICT sector and keep them there? Cohoon (2010) suggested active recruiting, mentoring, encouragement and appreciation, inclusive effective pedagogy, feedback for realistic assessment, flexible work arrangements, minimize and inoculate against stereotype threat, inhibit implicit bias, etc. Gras-Velazquez, Joyce and Derby (2011) mentioned several micro level initiatives by companies and organizations to attract women to the ICT sector. These include companies such as Pfizer, CISCO, Intel, General Electric, etc.

Omamo, Abagi and Sifuna (2005: 6) specified an enabling environment for success where there is freedom of choice. For them, empowerment is associated with acquisition of the right knowledge, skills and attitudes that would enhance one’s chances of excelling in their careers and leading a healthy and comfortable life – being able to access basic needs and services of life. They added that “unless Kenya adopts far more people-oriented education and development policies and strategies,

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it is likely not to be able to motivate and attract the majority of women to feel free to access and appropriate ICT for their own development and that of their communities.”

Wangmo, Violina and Haque (2004: 124) recommended the mainstreaming of gender in national ICT policy and in related policies and regulations. They likewise mentioned the need to provide the necessary support to enable wider access of women in ICTs through the expansion of ICT infrastructure. Women should also be taught ICT skills. The point being made, in the end, is that to improve this situation, every country, organization and person should do their part to address the issue of women underrepresentation in the ICT profession. There should be a concerted effort to end their social exclusion at every point of their life cycle.

In conclusion, it is essential to attract women to the ICT profession in various parts of their life cycle, particularly when they are studying in primary/secondary school and when selecting a course for a university degree. Then, when these women get married and have children, they should be provided the much needed support in terms of childcare and house care. To improve their chances of staying in the profession, it is essential that companies make it a policy to hire a lot of them – to avoid feelings of isolation, limit the pervasiveness of the macho culture and eliminate the class-ceiling effect in promotions.

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Bangladesh: Dhaka Ahsania Mission.

Castano, C., & Webster, J. (2010, November). Understanding women’s presence in ICT: Intersecting issues throughout the lifecycle, women and ICTs through the lifecycle: An International Conference, Spain: Barcelona.

Chen, W. & Wellman, B. (2004). The global digital divide – within and between countries. IT and society, Vol. 1, Issue 7, Spring/Summer. Accessed from: http:// groups.chass.utoronto.ca/netlab/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/The-GlobalDigital-Divide-Within-and-Between-Countries.pdf on February 22, 2013.

Cohoon, J. M. (2010). The path to full participation, understanding, intervening and assessing national center for women and IT. USA: University of Virginia.

DiMaggio, P. & Hargittai, E. (2001). From the ‘Digital Divide’ to ‘Digital Inequality’: Studying internet use as penetration increases. Working Paper 15. Summer 2001, Center for the Arts and Cultural Policy Studies. USA: Princeton University.

Gras-Velazquez, A., Joyce, M., & Debry, M. (2009, June). White Paper: Why are girls still not attracted to ICT studies and careers? Insight: Observatory for new technologies and education. Brussels: European Schoolnet.

Husing, T & Selhofer, H. (2002). The digital divide index – A measure of social inequalities in the adoption of ICT. Poland: ECIS. Keniston, K. (2003). Introduction. The four digital divides. Kenneth K. & Deepak K (Eds.). Delhi: Sage Publishers.

James, T. (2006). Women in the information and communication technology sector in South Africa. Icteum Consulting Meraka Institute, CSIR. Prestoria: Lynnwood Ridge.

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Khan, A., & Whalley, J. (2012). How connected are Pakistanis? ICT for Development Working Paper Series, Vol. 2 No.1, June. Dhaka: Institute of ICT for Development and University of Liberal Arts Bangladesh.

Kirkup, G. (n.d.). Vocational education and training for ICT employment: Preparing women for work. United Kingdom: The Open University.

Mancinelli, E. ( 2007, July). E- Inclusion in the Information Society. Retrieved

March 27, 2013 from

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Palmen, R. (2010, November). Factors which influence girls’ orientation to ICT subjects in schools: Evidence from the UK, women and ICTs through the lifecycle. An International Conference. Accessed from: http://www.gender-ict.net.

Paik, Y. (2002, November). ICT education for women: Case study of the Republic of Korea. Seoul: EN Division for the Advancement of Women.

Parsons, C. & Hick, S. (2008). Moving from digital divide to digital inclusion. New Scholarship in the Human Services. University of Calgary. Accessed from: http:// www.ucalgary.ca/currents/files/currents/Parsons_final_0.pdf.

Rubin, J. (2012). WCIT: Attracting tech women - and keeping them. The Montreal Gazette October 23, Montreal, Canada. Accessed from: www.montrealgazette. com/business/World...focus.../story.html.

Servon, L.J. (n.d.). Reversing the brain drain in science, engineering and technology.

USA: The New School.

Valenduc, G. (2011). Not a job for life? Women’s progression, conversion and dropout in ICT professions. International Journal of Gender, Science and Technology, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2011.

Wangmo, S., Violina, S., & Haque, M. (2004). Trends and status of gender perspectives in ICT sector: Case studies in Asia-Pacific countries, International Telecommunication Union (ITU). December 2004, Bangkok: Asia-Pacific Regional Office.

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TEXTUAL ANALYSIS ON DOCUMENTARY FILMS: COMPARISON STUDY OF “CAPITALISM: A LOVE STORY” AND “INSIDE JOB” Muhammad Ryan Fathoni1 Abstract Two American filmmakers, Michael Moore and Charles Ferguson tried to frame the financial crisis of 2008 through their documentary films called Capitalism: A Love Story (2009) and Inside Job (2010) respectively. In general, they adopted different approaches in discussing the topic. For instance, Moore adapted a performer-director role where he physically appeared throughout nearly the entire duration and conducted interviews. In contrast, Ferguson opted to use a large number of interviewees from diverse backgrounds. He also opted not to appear on-screen or through the film’s narration. This study adopts a qualitative approach with textual analysis as the specific method in conducting the analysis of the research subjects. It aims to explore the views and arguments of the two filmmakers to indicate the presentation of ‘voice’ within their respective films, as well as to analyse the two documentaries through their textual devices that can distinguish the filmmakers’ ‘voice’.

Keywords: Textual, documentary films, capitalism, voice Abstrak Dua sutradara film asal Amerika Serikat, Michael Moore dan Charles Ferguson, membingkai krisis finansial tahun 2008 lewat film dokumenter yang masing-masing berjudul Capitalism: A Love Story (2009) dan Inside Job (2010). Secara umum, kedua film membahas isu sama namun dengan pendekatan berbeda. Sebagai contoh, Moore mengadopsi peran sebagai performerdirector di mana ia tampil secara fisik hampir sepanjang film, dan melakukan wawancara.

Sementara itu Ferguson menghadirkan sejumlah wawancara dengan begitu banyak dengan latar belakang beragam tanpa tampil di layar atau sebagai narator. Studi ini menggunakan metode kualitatif dengan pendekatan analisis tekstual. Tujuan riset ini ialah untuk membahas pandangan dan argumentasi kedua sutradara, yang berpotensi mengindikasikan ‘suara’ lewat film garapan mereka masing-masing. Selain itu untuk menganalisis perangkat tekstual dalam film yang mampu membedakan ‘suara’ dari kedua pembuat film tersebut.

Kata kunci: Tekstual, film dokumenter, kapitalisme, suara

London Metropolitan University Alumnus Corresponding Author: Trans TV Translation Department, Jl. Kapt. Tendean, Kav. 12-14 A (2nd floor) Jakarta Selatan 12790.

Mobile: 081270900686.

Email: mryanfathoni@gmail.com

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Introduction The emergence of a new generation of documentary film from directors such as Errol Morris (The Fog of War [2003], Mr. Death [1999], and Fast, Cheap, and Out of Control [1997]), Michael Moore (Roger and Me [1988] and Fahrenheit 9/11 [2004]), and Morgan Spurlock (Super Size Me [2004]), have arguably contributed to the rise of documentary film popularity amongst mainstream audiences in recent years. The afore-mentioned films address a broad spectrum of subjects, from politics to the fast food industry (Pramaggiore and Wallis, 2008). Not only do they vary in subjects, documentary films are made with different assumptions about purpose, a different quality of relationship between the filmmakers and subjects are involved, and they trigger different sorts of expectations from viewers (Nichols, 2001).

According to Pramaggiore and Wallis (2008), there are also documentaries that deal with relatively similar subjects but adopted radically different stylistic approaches and still obtained popularity among audiences. For example, March of the Penguins (“Marche de l’empéreur’’, Luc Jacquet, 2005) documents the death-defying acts of emperor penguins as they undertake annual migration in order to mate. Whilst An Inconvenient Truth (David Guggenheim 2006), focuses on the devastating effects of global warming based on a public lecture by the former United States Vice-President Al Gore.

Both films essentially cover the same subject and focus audience attention on aspects of the natural world. However, they have an utterly different approach with the use of different effects. Among the differences, March of the Penguins presents the aspect of the natural world by offering a glimpse into a world that most people will never see – Antarctica – while An Inconvenient Truth – informs people about a reality they may witness everyday –the devastating effects on the environment caused by global warming. Also, March of the Penguins uses actor Morgan Freeman’s voice-over narration with spectacular images of the penguins’ struggle for survival whereas An Inconvenient Truth relies heavily on Al-Gore’s on-screen narration supplemented by photographs, scientific research, and statistics.

In this study, the researcher will textually analyse and compare two fairly recent documentaries which discuss similar subjects but present the filmmakers views in their own ‘voice’ – a term that shall be explained in further detail later on. The first film is Capitalism: A Love Story (2009), produced and directed by American filmmaker Michael Moore. On his official web site, the film is labelled as “an exploration of an issue that he Moore has been fascinated by throughout his career but the culprit is much bigger than General Motors and the crime scene is far wider than Flint, Michigan – referring to Roger and Me (1989).”

Capitalism: A Love Story examines the impact of corporate dominance on the everyday lives of Americans (and by default, the rest of the world). “The film explores the question: What is the price that America pays for its love of capitalism? Families pay the price with their jobs, homes and their savings’’ (IMDB, 2012). The film – mostly represented by Moore on-screen – moves from different cities in America to

Muhammad Ryan Fathoni, Textual Analysis on Documentary Films: Compasion Study of “Capitalism: A Love Story” and ...

the congressional hall in Washington, to the centre of global financial market in Wall Street, New York City. Along the way, Moore talked with middle-class Americans from various backgrounds, members of congress and even attempted to seal the New York Stock Exchange with a police line. Moore found that the love for capitalism has gone astray and the greed of the people in the financial market largely led to the financial crisis of 2008.

The second film is the Academy Award winner for Best Documentary, Inside Job (2010), produced, written, and directed by Charles Ferguson. One author in a Film Quarterly journal article wrote that “this documentary account of the colossal and coordinated act of financial malfeasance led to the present economic crisis’’ (Toscano, 2010: 72). In short, Inside Job provides a comprehensive analysis of the global financial crisis of 2008, which the film ‘claimed’ cost over $20 trillion, caused millions of people to lose their jobs and homes in the worst recession since the Great Depression, and nearly resulted in a global financial collapse. The documentary traces the rise of the financial market industry, which corrupted politics and regulation. Throughout the films, there are a significant number of interviews conducted with key thinkers in the financial market and members of the government as well as academics especially in the area of economic study.

Reader Review The Creative Treatment of Actuality Historically, most films made before 1907 were not narrative fiction films but short documentaries. These actualities, as they were known, were “shot around the world, nominally ‘un-staged’, although many were documents of performances, dances, processions, and parades’’ (Russell, 1999: 52). As non-fiction films based on real world events, these actualities were precursors to the documentary film (Pramagiorre and Wallis, 2008).

But the term ‘documentary’ itself seems to have been coined in 1926 by John Grierson - the man usually considered to be the founding father of British Documentary (Izod and Kilborn, 1998). Grierson not only outlined what he saw as the defining features of documentary but also reflected on the purposes to which documentary could be put.

For him, whilst every documentary is bound to present evidence or information about the social-historical world, it must be more than a scientific reconstruction of reality.

He added that the documentary filmmaker must deploy a whole range of creative skills to fashion the ‘fragments of reality’ into an artefact that has a specific social impact: that is educationally instructive or, in some measure, culturally enlightening.

This account must be, “in Grierson’s phase, ‘a creative treatment of actuality’, being aesthetically satisfying while also having a clearly defined social purpose’’ (Izod and Kilborn, 1998:426).

The ‘Voice’ of Documentary For Bernard, “documentaries bring viewers into new worlds and experiences through the presentation of factual information about real people, places, and events, generally portrayed through the use of actual images and artefacts’’ (2004:2). If that is the case, then it can be said that documentaries speak about this world through sound and

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visuals. According to Nichols, the question of how documentaries speak or give speech to audiences, “raises the question of ‘voice.’ Since documentaries are not lectures, question of speech and voice are not meant entirely literally’’ (2001: 42).

Initially, Nichols referred documentary voice to “something narrower than style: That which conveys us a sense of a text’s social point of view, of how it is speaking to us and how it is organizing the materials presented to us’’ (1984:248-49).

He further on explained that in this sense, voice moves beyond any code or feature such as dialogue or verbal commentary. “Voice perhaps akin to that intangible, moirélike pattern formed by the unique interaction of all a film’s codes, and it applies to all modes of documentary.’’ (Nichols, 1984: 249)

Nichols (2001) later viewed the voice of documentary as a means which a particular point of view or perspective of the film becomes known to us as the viewers.

It can also be a means for filmmakers to present their case as well as deliver their arguments regarding their views on the film’s subject. By presenting their arguments and views through their film’s voice, it can potentially allow filmmakers to persuade or appeal to the viewers by the strength of their arguments or power of their voice.

Therefore, it is perhaps relevant to say that voice of documentary is “the specific way in which an argument or perspective is expressed.’’ (Nichols, 2001: 43). “The idea of voice is also tied to the idea of an informing logic overseeing the organization of a documentary compared to the idea of a compelling story organizing a fiction’’ (Nichols, 2010: 69). In this respect, voice is then, a question of how the logic and perspective of documentary gets conveyed to the viewers. Furthermore, Nichols (2010) also believes that voice can be a way to determine how a filmmaker responds to and speaks about the subject the filmmaker shares with the audiences.

Nichols (2010) also mentioned that the voice of documentary serves as evidence of both a perspective and an encounter. Our recognition that such a voice addresses us in a distinct way is a key part of our recognition of a given film as a documentary. He then added, the most explicit form of voice is no doubt the one conveyed by spoken, or written, words. These are words that stand for the point of view of the film and are typically referred to as ‘voice-of-God’ or ‘voice-of-authority’ commentary.

Direct address simply refers to the idea that the film’s voice is addressed to the camera or audience. It gives the impression that the film is proposing to the viewers about something in the historical world. “Things are like this, aren’t they? Or even about how they might be altered: Things could be like this, couldn’t they?’’ (Nichols, 2010:76). On the other hand, indirect address means that the voice is not aimed at the audience directly which brings the sense that the film is offering a point of view on aspects or qualities of the historical world. “It offers less overt guidance than a proposal or argument would but nonetheless enlists our consent and involvement; this is one way to view the world; what do you make of it?’’ (Nichols, 2010: 77).

Textual Analysis One way to analyse a film is through its textual devices. The word ‘text’ comes from the same Latin root as the word ‘textile’ – that word is texere, meaning to weave.

Muhammad Ryan Fathoni, Textual Analysis on Documentary Films: Compasion Study of “Capitalism: A Love Story” and ...

The ‘weave’ of a film text is complex and requires much more of its audience than is often assumed – as audiences frequently receive and produce responses to various different sources of visual and aural information and patterning, an abundant amount of sensory stimulation (Phillips, 2000).

On its most basic form, McKee (2003) argues that textual analysis is a datagathering process for those researchers who want to understand the ways in which members of various cultures and subcultures make sense of, who they are, and how they fit in to the world in which they live. He further explained that when researchers perform textual analysis on a text (films, TV programmes, magazines, advertisements, and so on), they make an educated guess at some of the most likely interpretations that might be made of the text.

Like any other form of analysis, “textual analysis examines a given object – a text or a group of texts – as closely and as systematically as possible in order to answer specific research questions’’ (Larsen, 2002:117). These questions can lead to two basic types of textual analysis; one focused on generalities and the other on particulars. The first one describes recurrent, typical features in order to establish textual models or prototypes. The second examines the text in question as isolated occurrences with reference to their specifications.

Textual analysis in the tradition of literary criticism and art history are usually interpretive, aiming at what is sometimes termed latent meaning. The basic questions, consequently, are ‘qualitative’: “what does the text really mean and how its meanings are organized? The basic aim of most other media research – using textual analysis – has been to study prototypes, regularities, repeated patterns, and features which are shared by masses of text’’ (Larsen, 2002: 119-20). Accordingly, textual analyses of media have usually taken their inspiration from humanistic traditions which are oriented toward the study of generalities, particularly structural linguistics, and general semiotics.

In regard to film, “the emergence of the ‘film text’ was thus rooted in multiple problematic and inter-texts’’ (Stam, 2000: 185). The term transferred from literature to film, the respect traditionally accorded to the sacred word (first religious and then literary) and thus served to garner prestige for a maligned medium. “When films are texts rather than movies they become worthy of the same serious attention normally given to literature’’ (Stam, 2000: 185).

However, the term ‘film text’ is, perhaps, a misleading one. When thinking about film as texts, the screenplay might be the first thought that comes to mind. Even thinking about ‘text in performance’ tends to divert the attention more to the words that the actor or actress have breathed to life (Phillips, 2000). “To use the word ‘text’ at all seems to suggest a move towards emphasising what film has in common with literature and drama, rather than what is distinctive about it as a form of creative expression.’’ (Phillips, 2000: ix)

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One way to textually analyse a film is by focusing on the narrative aspects of it.

Cohan and Shires (2003) argued that the term “narrative’’ should not be restricted to only written formats; instead, the visual medium of storytelling should be considered as a type of narrative as well. Bordwell indicated in the area of film analysis that “a narrative film represents story events through the vision of any invisible or imaginary witness’’ (2008: 9).

In comparison with literature, film lacks the narrative voice to convey attitudes toward the action. Instead “film-making techniques such as camera angles and movement, editing, music, and unusual tricks like the shift to colour all function to guide viewer comprehension and emotional response to the story represented on screen’’ (Mittell, 2007: 160). The narrative perspective of a film may provide an “omniscient view of the world or one restricted to the point of view of a single character, while a film’s narration may organize the diegetic material of a film according to various plots and patterns of time and space.’’ (Corrigan and White, 2009: 268) Research Methods The method used in this research is qualitative approach. Flick believes that the essential features of this approach are “the correct choice of appropriate methods and theories; the recognition and analysis of different perspectives; the researchers’ reflections on their research as part of the process of knowledge production; and the variety of approaches and methods’’ (2009: 14).

Among the variety of method, textual analysis will be the main method applied in analysing the two research subjects – Capitalism: A Love Story (2009) and Inside Job (2010). Both documentaries shall be broken down into sequences in order to focus on relevant parts of each film that will be compared later on. The sequences will also become a useful reference to refer to one or many particular parts of the films that will be analysed textually. For the purpose of this research, only some parts of the films shall be explored textually in more detail. This is based in consideration that the parts chosen to be analysed are relevant and represent enough ‘voice’ of the filmmakers to be worth comparing between the two documentaries.

The researcher acknowledged that there seems to be limitation in terms of concrete method in conducting textual analysis, in this case, on documentary film.

However, Bordwell and Thompson (2008) provided a sample of critical analysis of Errol Morris’s 1988 documentary entitled The Thin Blue Line which is a very useful reference in conducting the textual analysis of the two documentaries in this research.

The Thin Blue Line examines an investigation into a murder case. In presenting the filmmakers’ argument, the film combined interviews and archival material in episodes performed by actors. “The sequences, far from being the jittery re-enactments of television true-crime shows, are shot with smooth camera work, dramatic lighting, and vibrant colour’’ (Bordwell and Thompson, 2008: 342).

In more detailed analysis of the film, Bordwell and Thompson (2008) broke down the film into a total of 31 sequences. They continued with a fairly thorough elaboration of how these sequences connect to one another and eventually made up the plot. The

Muhammad Ryan Fathoni, Textual Analysis on Documentary Films: Compasion Study of “Capitalism: A Love Story” and ...

sequences provided a reference for the analysis that followed. Throughout the analysis, Bordwell and Thompson (2008) managed to capture a variety of narrative aspects such as cause-and-effect, and time-and-space. In general, they also reassert what the film presented along with their own views and interpretation to the filmmaker’s voice. This type of analysis will largely be applied in this research although there will be limitation to the parts of the film that will be analysed. Those chosen are considered relevant to represent filmmakers’ ‘voice’.

In addition, it is relevant to briefly describe the profile of both filmmakers, Michael Moore and Charles Ferguson, in order to give the sense of what influenced them to create the ‘voice’ within their respective films. The former first came to prominence after his documentary, Roger and Me in 1989. In fact, on his official web site Capitalism: a Love Story (2009) is labelled as “an exploration of an issue that he Moore had been fascinated with throughout his career but the culprit being much bigger than General Motors and the crime scene is far wider than Flint, Michigan – referring to Roger and Me (1989).

Moore’s work was highlighted by British film scholar, Stella Bruzzi (2006).

Bruzzi categorized Moore as a “performer-director” in documentary – along with Molly Dineen and Nick Broomfield. In Bruzzi’s terms, the aforementioned filmmakers tend to take part and participate in their films, to varying degrees, because they have the interest to explore new possibilities with a less formally restrictive way to obtain what they viewed as the core of their subjects.

Ellis (2012) also mentioned Moore’s filmmaking technique in particular his interviewing method. According to Ellis, filmmakers tend to have their own approach and some adopt a more aggressive approach. Ellis view is that the most extreme example is perhaps Michael Moore. For Ellis, Moore is not a sympathetic listener.

“His [Moore’s] approach is to demand to be heard himself, leaving his ‘interviewee’ to negotiate a position in the exchange which often ends in refusal, or what, in other situations, would seem like a failed interview.’’ (Ellis, 2012: 57)

The second one, Charles Ferguson, is an Academy Award winning film producer and director whose work in the past includes No End in Sight (2007), and Between Earth and Sky (2009). In the former, Ferguson presented a comprehensive look at the Bush Administration’s conduct of the Iraq war and its occupation of the country. He utilised extensive amount of archive footage, interviews, as well as using actors as the narrator, Campbell Scott (IMDB, 2014).

In a similar approach, Ferguson managed to compile strings of interviews with an impressive array of interviewees in Inside Job. There are bankers, investors, lobbyists, journalists, economists, and ministers providing their partial, and sometimes self-incriminating, views on the crisis. However, according to Toscano (2010), “Ferguson excels in building a composite narrative of the crisis out of these individual perspectives. Though the true ‘villains’ of the piece all declined to appear, Ferguson corners some of their vassals and enablers, and this often makes for gripping viewing.”

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However, Toscano views were that Inside Job fell short in explaining the arduous economic situation. Nevertheless, Inside Job provides comprehensive elaboration by allowing us to have a sneak-peek of the tangled feet of finance, politics, and academia.

Sequence Breakdown for “Capitalism: A Love Story’’ 2009. A Dog Eat Dog Films production. Directed by Michael Moore, Screenplay by Michael Moore. Narrated by Michael Moore. Edited by John Walter. Sound designed

by Mark Roy. C. 1.

2.

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Opening Credits.

Archive footage of ‘’Life in Ancient Rome’’. Moore’s narration begins Amateur video of home foreclosure in Lexington, North Carolina.

Interview with the Hackers family of Peoria, Illinois as they prepare to abandon their house due to foreclosure.

Black and white videos explaining the basic concept of capitalism followed by various archive footage showing the early success of capitalism in America during the post World War period.

Moore describes Ronald Reagan’s presidency in the 1980’s which became the starting point for big corporations to heavily influence the American economy.

Actual scenes from Moore’s film Roger and Me (1989) with scenes of Moore’s interview with General Motors (GM) Chief lobbyist on job cuts.

Moore’s recent attempt to enter GM headquarters followed by footage of his recent visit with his father to the area where GM factories once existed.

Interviews with juveniles who were once detained at PA Child Care in WilkesBarre, Pennsylvania.

Interviews with an attorney and affected families on some companies’ policy to gain profit from employee’s death.

Interviews with a priest and bishop about their views on capitalism.

Moore’s explanation of the concept of ‘Plutonomy’ – quoted from a Citigroup memo to wealthy investors in 2005 shown by graphics on-screen. Discussion on capitalism versus democracy Moore visited the National Archives in Washington, D.C. Interviews with workers and owners of two different companies in Wisconsin and California that the film claimed operate in a ‘democratic’ environment.

Interview with Prof. William Black of University of Missouri, K.C and former bank regulator, on the recent trend that graduates in America are mostly trapped with tuition debt then ended up working for financial sectors after graduation.

Interview with a former vice-president of Lehman Brothers about derivatives – a financial instrument that allows Wall Street to bet on almost anything.

Interview with Prof. William Black about how financial deregulation has allowed Banks to force people out of their houses. Referring back to the Hacker’s family home foreclosure by Citibank Interview with a former employee of Countrywide – the biggest property company in America – on his experience in giving out mortgage discounts and low loans for some top political leaders.

Muhammad Ryan Fathoni, Textual Analysis on Documentary Films: Compasion Study of “Capitalism: A Love Story” and ...

18. Footage of President George W. Bush’s presidential address leading up to the beginning of the financial crisis in 2008. Comical background modified to make a parody of the speech 19. Moore’s interviews with members of congress for inside views regarding the weeks leading up to the propose bailout to save the big banks in 2008.

20. Footage describing the suspicious circumstances of how the $ 700 billion bailout was given to the big Banks after being initially rejected by congress.

21. Moore drove an armoured vehicle to various Bank headquarters to make a citizen’s arrest and ask them to return the bailout money to the American people.

22. Footage of Obama’s presidential campaign and the crowd’s reaction to his election victory that the film claimed can potentially become the turning point in the American way of life including the economy.

23. Interviews and news footage of Republic Factory workers in Chicago who stood up against the Bank of America for their right to receive compensation.

24. Archive footage of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s speech in the 1940’s when he proposed the ‘’Second Bill of Rights’’ which never materialized.

25. Actual scene when Moore spread out a police line in front of the New York Stock Exchange and various banks headquarters. Then appealing to the audience to ‘help’ and ‘act’ faster E. Closing Credits.

Sequence Breakdown for ‘’Inside Job’’ 2010. A Sony Pictures Classics production. Directed by Charles Ferguson. Screenplay

by Charles Ferguson. Narrated by Matt Damon. Edited by Chad Beck and Adam Bolt.

Music by Alex Heffes.

C. 1.

2.

Opening Credits.

Opening title.

Facts about Iceland and the impact of financial deregulation in Iceland. Matt Damon’s narration begins. Interviews with Gylfi Zoega (Professor of Economics, University of Iceland) and Andri Magnason (Writer, Filmmaker) 3. Introduction to the beginning of the financial crisis of 2008. Audiotapes and news clips from the day Lehman Brothers and Merrill Lynch declared bankrupt, followed by interview with Nouriel Rubini (Senior Economist – Council of Economic Advisors [1998-2000], Professor NYU Business School) 4. Part I: How we got here. Interviews with Samuel Hayes (Professor, Harvard Business School) and Paul Volcher (Chairman, Federal Reserve Board) 5. Claimed that in the 1980’s the financial industry exploded with public banks to go public. Interview with Charles Morris (Author), Robert Gnaizda (Former Director – Greenlining Institute) 6. The explosion of the financial industry continues during the 1990’s and early 2000’s. Interview with Willem Butler (Chief Economist, Citigroup), George Soros (Chairman, Soros Fund Management) 7. Big companies ‘criminal activity’; money laundering, customer fraud, and book ‘cooking’. Interviews with Eliot Spitzer (Governor, New York State [2007-2008], Attorney General, New York State [1999-2007]), Scott Talbott (Chief lobbyist, Financial Service Roundtable)

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8.

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E.

Discussions on the term Derivatives – began in the 1990’s when financial deregulation and advances in technology led to the explosion of these complex financial products. Interviews with Andrew Sheng (Chief Editor, China Regulatory Commission), Andrew Lo (Professor & Director MIT Laboratory for Financial Engineering), Michael Greenberger (Former Deputy Director [1997-2000] CFTC), Satyajit Das (Derivatives Consultant, Author) Various footage from congressional hearings held to prevent derivatives being regulated. Interview with Frank Partnoy (Professor of Law & Finance, University of California, San Diego) Comparison between the old and new system of mortgage payment. Interviews with Gillian Tett (U.S. Managing Editor, the Financial Times), Eric Halperin (Director, Centre for Responsible Lending, Washington, D.C) Part II: The Bubble (2001-2007). It started with the explosion of subprime loans for mortgages. Interviews with Martin Wolf (Chief Economies, Commentator, the Financial Times), David Alpert (Managing Director, Westwood Capital) Graphics on the process of Credit Default Swaps by AIG. Interview with Raghuram Rajan (Chief Economist [2003-2007], IMF) Focus on the issue of credit-rating agencies; Moody’s, Standard & Poor, and Fitch.

Interview with Jerome Fons (Former Managing Director, Moody’s) Part III: The Crisis. It mentioned numerous warnings by experts in the financial sector and by the FBI about the incoming ‘epidemic’ in the housing industry.

Interviews with Dominique Strauss-Kahn (Managing Director, IMF), Christine Lagarde (Finance Minister, France) Various clips of congressional hearings during the early part of the crisis.

Bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers triggered negative impacts in the global economy.

Graphics of the crisis timelines The $ 700 billion bailout for the big banks handedout in suspicious circumstances.

The effects of the crisis in China, Singapore and one tent-city in Florida.

Part IV: Accountability. Executives of big banks received a fortune from the bailout and compensation.

Narration on the influence that financial lobbyists have in shaping America’s economic policies.

Academic economists became an advocate for economic deregulation since 1980’s. Interviews with Martin Feldstein (Professor of Economic, Harvard), Glenn Hubbard (Chief Economic Advisor – Bush’s Administration, Dean of Columbia Business School), John Campbell (Chairman, Harvard Economics Department) Part V: Where we are now. Claimed that the U.S. has become more of an unequal society and its economic dominance has declined.

The rise of tuition fees and other effects of the economic situation for the middleclass who are the current generation Americans are less educated and prospered less than the previous generations.

Shift to Obama’s presidential campaign that was initially thought to bring changes.

Financial reforms were made but nothing significant with several ‘usual suspects’ being reappointed in key financial positions in the government.

Brief recap and summary on the whole issue using Narrator’s voice.

Closing statements along with suggestions followed by an appeal to the ‘viewers’ believe that change is still possible.

Closing Credits.

Muhammad Ryan Fathoni, Textual Analysis on Documentary Films: Compasion Study of “Capitalism: A Love Story” and ...

Discussion and Findings The first sequence (1) provides a rather odd introduction to the film because it is neither directly related to the subject of capitalism nor the economy in general. The archive footage of “Life in Ancient Rome’’ – courtesy of University of Michigan – was supplemented by cross-faded footage of various videos including some popular contemporary television programmes. Through the montage, perhaps Moore wanted to briefly show the cause of the decline of the ancient Roman dynasty, which to a large extent has similarities to the current situation in America. The insertion of the footage at such an early stage of the film may lead viewers to think that Moore makes the claim that America’s influence and superiority is in decline by referring to what happened to ancient Rome. The footage is followed by Moore’s voice-over which continues for most of the film, with numerous physical appearances plus some ‘performances’.

The film then moves to the subject of home foreclosure as an introduction to one of the adverse effects of capitalism in middle-class American families. An actual amateur video of home foreclosure (2) gives a real sense to the viewers of such occurrences when local officers had to forcefully break-in to the family’s house. This is the first part of the film that shows how working class families in America tend to be the ‘victim’ of authoritarian arrogance and the system that fails to protect their rights to have a property to live in. It shows by what follows (3) how the Hacker family is forced to leave their house which has been owned by their family for generations. The family members gave testimonials and the camera also records the very day they moved their belongings out of the house, as well as the very moment when the local officers came to evict them. Then Moore’s voice appears by stating, “This is capitalism. A system of taking and giving, mostly taking. The only thing we didn’t know was when the revolt would begin.’’ This narration summarizes the whole ‘voice’ of the film that talks about the effects of capitalism and the word ‘revolt’ potentially indicates that there will be part of the film that shows how people will stand up against it.

In order to start the discussion and focus more on capitalism, the film uses black and white footage (4) presumably of students, professors and businessmen, doing a radio show discussing the basic concept of capitalism. So, instead of explaining with his own voice-over, Moore opts to use archive footage to make it more interesting and to condense the explanation by including several different parts of the archives. Then, Moore made his first physical appearance in the film when he was shown talking to Wally Shawn – an American comedian, actor, and play-writer – about the concept of free enterprise. It is not so much the topic that is the concern here; it is more of the participation and performance of Moore in his film that has been a trademark of these films.

The film’s plot then made another historical reference (4) about the early period after World War II when the U.S. economy and in effect most Americans enjoyed an early ‘success’ of capitalism implementation. This is shown by using various black and white footage along with voice-overs telling viewers that capitalism has enabled Americans to live “the American dream’’. One very interesting part of this sequence is the inclusion of Moore’s personal family video showing him and his family enjoying,

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what Moore called in the film, the good life. This personal approach allows the viewers to get the impression that Moore relates himself to the film very closely and viewers can also relate themselves to the situation that is being portrayed.

The next three sequences (5-7) cover the period of the 1980’s and mostly discusses the Ronald Reagan presidency and its contribution to the gradual downfall of the America’s economy. The film argued through Moore’s narration that Reagan’s presidency marked the beginning of the big corporations’ heavy influence in shaping the American economy with various footage, graphics, and statistics being shown to support the argument. Towards the end of the sixth sequence, Moore includes the scene from his earlier documentary that happened to be filmed at the end of Reagan’s era (1989) by taking examples of what happened in his town of Flint, Michigan where workers at General Motor (GM) lost their jobs because of the economic situation.

Moore then adds another personal point of view when he and his father walk together to the site where GM factories once existed in Michigan.

So far, the first seven sequences of Capitalism: A Love Story cover the basic theory of capitalism, its early implementation in America, and the Reagan era that marked the beginning of a major change in the American economy. Until this point, the film has used a relatively significant number of archive footage to give a historical point of view including Moore’s personal family video and a scene from his first documentary, Roger and Me (1989). There are few interviews presented so far. Moore’s involvement in terms of being the narrator and his appearances in the film, are heavily noticeable throughout these sequences. From a narrative point of view, these sequences are not presented in a straightforward chronological order because the historical flashback appears after two amateur videos and newly-shot footage of home foreclosures in North Carolina and Illinois.

The next three sequences (8-10) are described under the heading of justice. The reason for this comes down to the idea that these sequences discuss how the idea of ‘’freedom’’ in capitalism allows people to gain profit from others’ misfortune. There are two cases the film discusses under this heading. Firstly, sequence 8 tells viewers about how a juvenile hall in Pennsylvania was run by a businessman who in conducting his business made deals with a judge in order to put unjustly convicted juveniles in the hall. Both parties gained financial profit through this whilst the juveniles had to suffer. Interviews with the juveniles who were once convicted and stayed in the hall are shown whilst the judge and owner who was responsible are only shown by still photographs and news footage.

Under the same heading, the film then moves its focus on the case of big companies that gain profit from their employees’ deaths through insurance claims. In this case, interviews with members of families who experienced such cases are shown as well as an interview with one district attorney who had been looking at this type of case for some time. The emotional aspect of the story is highly noticeable here with part of the interviews showing the family members’ sadness and even tears as they retell their story. At the end of these sequences (10) there are interviews with priests

Muhammad Ryan Fathoni, Textual Analysis on Documentary Films: Compasion Study of “Capitalism: A Love Story” and ...

and bishops to give their views on capitalism. It is unclear why Moore includes this part, but although brief, it gives a point-of-view of “justice’’ through religious views.

One noticeable pattern here is that the interviews shown are only from one side of the story, without any testimonial or interview from the people responsible for the injustice that is being portrayed. Textually, the interviews and Moore’s voice-over both directly and indirectly address the situation with the help of still photographs and news footage concerning the issue. Moore’s narration here tends to lead viewers to think, that the people who suffer are the “victims’’ of freedom, in the concept of capitalism and free enterprise.

When the film moves from sequence 10 to 11, the viewers are directly addressed through Moore’s narration concerning a new heading or sub-topic to be discussed. The narration comes after interviews with priests and bishops, and the narration says, “Jesus would refuse to be part of it [capitalism] but he’d probably have a special place up there for whoever leaked the secret Citibank memo about their plan to rule the world’’.

The memo is shown through on-screen graphics with parts of it being highlighted and guided by Moore’s narration. Essentially, the argument here is that according to Citibank, America is no longer a democracy but more of a Plutonomy – economies controlled by the wealthy. However, the rest of the society are referred to by the film as the peasants, or the 99% who still have equal voting power, which means there is still room for democracy in America. Therefore, sequences 11 to 13 mainly discuss capitalism versus democracy.

In framing the heading, the film gives two actual cases about how democracy is being implemented at a workplace. One is a factory called Isthmus Engineering in Wisconsin and the other one is Alvarado Bakery in California. Both are portrayed as democratic workplaces, where employees earn equal shares, not through stock but through “real’’ work that they contributed, to the benefit of the company. The camera records the daily activities at the factories and interviews with staff of both companies.

These examples show that, according to Moore’s narration, people are not always motivated by money. On that note, the film then shows black and white footage of Dr. Jonas Salk, who dedicated his mind to inventing the cure for polio but decided not to gain financial profit from his invention - something that is lacking in contemporary American education. This illustration then becomes the starting point for the next subtopic of the film which is concerned with education.

The film states that the current education situation in America tends to produce graduates who end up working for the big banks from which they borrowed money to pay for their tuition. An interview with Prof. William Black (14) basically gives the argument that top medical and science students are being sent to work in finance rather than working on the “real science’’. Then, through his narration, Moore questions what top students from top Universities are working on these days.

That question leads to the next sequence (15) where Moore is searching for a definition of the term derivatives – the film claims it is a complex financial instrument that allows Wall Street to bet on almost anything. In his search, Moore is filmed in front

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of the New York Stock Exchange attempting to ambush interviews with random people who come out of the building, hoping he can find the answer but no one is willing to talk to him. Moore then interviews an Ivy-league graduate and former Vice-President of Lehman Brothers but Moore finds the explanation he gives confusing. At that point, the film shows the math equation of one derivative, which looks too confusing for most people. Moore wanted viewers to feel the same confusion that he felt when hearing the terms. Moore’s narration then is used to introduce the next sub-topic by saying, “we allow them [Wall Street] to bet on anything, including our family home.”

For the next sequences (16-17), the film focuses on the subject of mortgages. This part starts off by showing various archive footage, news footage, and still photographs of a prominent figure in finance, Alan Greenspan, who has been heavily involved in financial deregulation. Another interview with Prof. William Black demonstrates the consequence of financial deregulation when he states “...when you destroy financial regulation you produce a financial catastrophe”. Financial deregulation also affected the mortgage industry. In that regard, the film then jumps to a television advertisement

by Countrywide (17) showing how the company can give low property loans. In reality, the loans remain high for most Americans. The interview with a Countrywide former employee reveals that he used to give discounts to top politicians.

As part of these sequences (16-17), the film refers back to the Hacker family on the very day they were evicted from their house. This portrayal in the film of how middle-class Americans are becoming the victims of corporate greed is consistent with the earlier parts of the film. Interestingly, the interview with the former Countrywide employee gives the other side of the story which is different from the earlier case in the justice topic. Perhaps, Moore wants the employee to tell the story himself to add more credibility and more objectivity to the story. The interview then allows the film to question the role of authority in preventing such situations to arise. Through another interview with Prof. William Black, the film explains briefly about an FBI warning on the potential ‘epidemic’ of mortgage fraud perpetrated by the banks - the warning is illustrated by CNN.com news footage on-screen. This warning was taken very lightly by officials but had severe consequences because it helped trigger the financial crisis of 2008 which is the focus of the film’s next section.

Central to the film’s explanation on the crisis is the timeline. The Presidential election of 2008 played a key significance in the time window between the beginning of the crisis and the eventual handout of the bailout. It begins with the George W. Bush presidential address, sometime before the crisis started (18) which the film claims was unnecessary because the mainstream media had already sensed the crisis was coming.

Then the film shows various news footage from September 15th, 2008 showing that the financial market is facing a huge meltdown at Wall Street. With the use of dramatic violin music, Prof. William Black appears on screen again to provide a voice-over with a comparison of what happened in Wall Street that day, to the failure of a water dam. The focus then shifts to the period before the bailout was handed out, in Prof.

William Black’s term, Goldman Sachs and other favoured financial institutions. To show this, Moore combines his interviews (19) with members of congress and also

Muhammad Ryan Fathoni, Textual Analysis on Documentary Films: Compasion Study of “Capitalism: A Love Story” and ...

footage from congressional hearings leading up to the bailout voting. To show the result of the voting, the film again uses news footage that shows the bailout package was “defeated’’ by congress. Then it continues by explaining how the bailout was suspicious (20) through what Moore claimed as a “backroom deal’’ between interested parties, a situation that Moore called a “financial coup d’état’’. This notion is agreed to by one member of congress who is interviewed by Moore.

The timeline of the crisis then moves to what happened after the bailout was handed out to the favoured financial institutions. Here, Moore interviews Elizabeth Warren, Chair of Congressional Oversight Panel, on the Bailout, to ask how these institutions spent the bailout money. She appears to be unable to provide the answer but at the same time there is cross-fade of news footage showing how the corporations spent the money on mostly luxurious things and staff bonuses which gives an ironic sense. Feeling ‘unsatisfied’ by her answer, Moore then appears driving an armoured vehicle (21) to the bank’s headquarters to do, what he terms as, a citizen’s arrest and asks them to return the bailout money to the American public. In a typical style of an ambush approach, Moore appears to be asked to leave the building and only makes it to the lobby. Perhaps, it is another way for Moore to visually show the arrogance of these big companies.

The next two sequences (22-23) are segments that show the ‘revolt’ mentioned in Moore’s narration in the early part of the film. Here, Barack Obama’s presidential election victory is portrayed as a potential turning point for changes in America including the economy. There is also actual footage dated November 4th, 2008 showing crowd reactions in Detroit, Michigan as Obama won the election. Footage of Americans celebrating their victory then follows. Sequence number 23 gives one real example of the revolt, where the employees at Republic Factory in Chicago decided to strike in order to receive compensation from Bank of America. Their action was covered by national media that in the end pushed Bank of America to fulfil their demands. There is a sense of optimism the film wanted to spread out to viewers so that people will not just give in to greedy corporations. Towards the end of the film, there is archive footage of President Roosevelt’s state of the union in the 1940’s (24) as he proposed the “Second Bill of Rights’’. Moore’s narration explains that the President’s passing meant the bill never materialized. And in the final segment (25), Moore’s voice says “I refuse to live in a country [USA] like this and I am not leaving’’. Then he appears to be forming police lines outside bank headquarters as if they are crime scenes. In his final narration of the film he suggests that capitalism is evil and it is impossible to regulate, therefore it has to be replaced with democracy which will be better for all. To finish, he asks viewers to ‘join’ him in an effort to stop the ‘evil’ practice of capitalism and ‘act’.

Inside Job The first three segments (1-3) provide the introduction and build-up to the film. One interesting part of the opening sequence is the claim at the start of the film that Inside Job will tell viewers “how the financial crisis of 2008 happened.’’ This is interesting because to claim one film’s ability to explain and describe such complicated issues is to some extent very subjective and debatable. But on the other hand perhaps we can

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also argue that the reason for the claim being put at the start is to grab the viewer’s attention right from the beginning. We can link this to Bill Nichols’ expository mode of documentary which as mentioned earlier, films of this mode addresses the viewers directly, with titles or voices that convey arguments.

The opening sequences draw reference to the recent economic situation in Iceland which faced difficulties that are heavily contributed to by financial deregulation since early 2000’s. An interview with Gylfi Zoega (2) gave the impression that the adverse effects of financial deregulation are not only Iceland’s problem but also a global problem. The narrator’s voice, Matt Damon, begins in this early part and continues through a large portion of the film.

Inside Job explains the financial crisis of 2008 by categorizing it into five different parts and these parts are put into a relatively chronological order. The first part, which is the start of the film’s narrative, is called ‘Part I: How we got here’ (4-11). This part basically provides some historical background using black and white archive footage from the post World War II era, with voice-overs explaining how the U.S. enjoyed 40 years of economic growth without a single financial crisis. In short, the narration here explains that after the great depression, the financial industry was constantly under the supervision of the regulator. Most regular banks were local businesses which were not allowed to bet on depositor’s savings whilst investment banks, which deal with stock and bond trading, were small and private businesses. The use of black and white footage and some still photographs indicates the authenticity of the topic explained which is concerned with the state of the American financial industry after the war period. Also, a brief black and white sequence of the Wall Street sign in New York City suggests that the place has always been the central nerve of the American financial sector.

This sequence continues by shifting focus to the early presidency of Ronald Reagan in the 1980’s with some news footage of his speech and appearance on Wall Street. The point made here in the voice-over is that Reagan’s presidency marked the beginning of financial deregulation in the U.S financial sector, which was largely influenced by financial marketers and lobbyists in the Reagan administration. In 1982, the administration started to deregulate banking sectors allowing them to speculate on depositor’s money. This resulted in the failure of many savings and loans companies.

One central aspect of the first part is to illustrate the effects of financial deregulation in the U.S economy and the main individuals behind this concept and they are Alan Greenspan, Robert Rubin, and Larry Summer – all declined to be interviewed for this film. Various still photographs and footage of the three men along with presidents Reagan, Clinton, and Bush indicate the lengthy period in which financial deregulation had been taking place inside America’s banking industry. In order to give viewers the comparison between the old financial systems which were tightly regulated with the concept of financial deregulation, the filmmakers provide an interview with George Soros (6) who explains the comparison by making an analogy with a big oil tanker.

Muhammad Ryan Fathoni, Textual Analysis on Documentary Films: Compasion Study of “Capitalism: A Love Story” and ...

The implementation of financial deregulation had also allowed big financial institutions to conduct ‘criminal activity’ (7). This is shown by various news headlines, captions, and statistical figures. Then the film questions the connection between these misdemeanours and the information technology sector. An interview with Eliot Spitzer (7) opens the discussion on derivatives, which the film claims is a result of financial deregulation and advancement in information technology in the 1990’s. The film framed derivatives as an unregulated financial product that allows bankers to gamble on virtually anything such as the rise and fall of oil prices and the bankruptcy of a company. The discussion also involves an attempt by Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) to regulate derivatives in 1998. Various footage from congressional hearings is shown to give a picture of how the attempt was made which eventually failed and as a result, derivatives remain unregulated.

The long-term use of derivatives led to a concept that according to the film is called ‘Securitization Food Chain’ linking five investment banks (Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, and Bear Stearns), two financial conglomerates (Citigroup, and JP Morgan), three securities insurance companies (AIG, MBIA, and AMBAC), and three rating agencies (Moody’s, Standard & Poor’s, and Fitch).

This system connected trillions of dollars in mortgages and other loans with investors all over the globe. It is shown by an on-screen graphic.

The last segment (11) of the first sequences focuses more on the mortgage issue. Here, the voice-over guides a comparison through another on-screen graphic between the old and new mortgage payment systems. Essentially, the graphic shows the complexity of the new system that eventually leads to what the narrator calls a ‘ticking-time-bomb’ because lenders of the house recklessly give loans to borrowers regardless of whether they can repay or not. This situation over time created the explosion of ‘subprime loans’, the main aspect in the next part.

The second part is called ‘Part II: The Bubble (2001-2007)’. Throughout the sequences for the second part (11-13), the film tries to elaborate on the situations that led to the financial crisis in 2008. Similar to most of the first part, the second part also shows a lot of interviews with different individuals mostly with financial or economic backgrounds. The interviews to a large extent guide viewers to understand the problems and issues that are being portrayed. They also act as story-tellers because a lot of them give the historical background of different cases covered so far in the film. This second part mainly focuses on how the application of subprime loans for mortgage, credit default swaps, and issues related to credit-rating agencies, helped trigger the financial crisis in 2008. Essentially, this part explains the extended effects of the Securitization Food Chain. The loans for housing mortgages are being given recklessly by lenders which allow investment banks to gain huge profit. Through various interviews, the film builds an argument that these investment banks and property companies such as Countrywide, were mainly responsible for the housing bubble due to their activities of giving subprime and predatory loans to home buyers.

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One noticeable segment of the second part is the inclusion of an original audio-tape from a meeting with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) which the film claims never conducted a major investigation during the bubble. The audiotape is supplemented with still photographs of the people behind the voices which in this case is the SEC management. The originality of the audio-tape builds the case of authenticity and convinces viewers of the film’s credibility.

The next main discussion of the second part is the Credit Default Swap (12) – a type of derivatives sold by American International Group (AIG). To explain the term, the film combines a graphic on the screen with a narrator’s voice and several interviews.

Credit Default Swap is basically an AIG insurance product that enables speculators to bet on investors’ insurance through AIG. Similar to the last segment, there is also an audio-tape from an AIG conference call with investors in 2007 demonstrating one way they used to sell Credit Default Swap.

In sequence number 13, the film shows an interview with Raghuram Rajan about his paper in 2005 which was delivered at the Jackson Hole Symposium regarding the possibility of a financial crisis caused by the risky investments made by banks.

Some parts of his paper are shown on-screen with additional highlights being made to indicate some important parts. At this point, the film’s narrative slowly builds up to the idea of the upcoming financial crisis that can potentially occur due to the risky activities of dominant banks and insurance companies.

The last segment of the sequence (14) covers the issue relating to the credit rating agencies. The underlying argument given by the film here is that the credit rating agencies, the three names mentioned earlier, made profits by giving high ratings such as triple A (AAA), to risky securities. The interviews and graphics shown on screen in this segment illustrate that the credit rating agencies played a significant role in the development and prolonged life of risky security products. The irony of the issue portrayed here is that these ratings were given mainly based on the agencies’ ‘opinion’, which was shown by footage of agency official testimonials in congressional hearings.

The extent of the adverse effect of these three ‘ticking-time-bombs’ led to the financial crisis in 2008 which is the focus of the film’s next part.

The third part which is simply called ‘Part III: The Crisis’ begins by showing flashbacks of numerous warnings made by various parties prior to the crisis in 2008.

Four years earlier, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) issued a warning about the potential ‘epidemic’ of mortgage fraud in the housing industry. Their report is shown and some parts are highlighted using on-screen graphics. Then in 2005, as described earlier, Raghuram Rajan warned that the risky securities could lead to a crisis. One year later, Nouriel Roubini (3) published a warning in a paper entitled ‘Why Central Banks Should Burst Bubbles’. In 2007, Allan Sloan’s (12) article in Fortune Magazine issued another warning about ‘An Unsavoury Slice of Subprime’’ and repeated warnings from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as shown in sequence 14. In May of the same year, Bill Ackman (13) circulated a presentation called ‘Who is Holding the Bag?’ which described how The Bubble would unravel. And in early 2008, Charles Morris (5) published a book about the impending crisis.

Muhammad Ryan Fathoni, Textual Analysis on Documentary Films: Compasion Study of “Capitalism: A Love Story” and ...

These numerous warnings which the film suggests were ignored by authorities builds a very interesting narrative, because it manages to capture the time period prior to the crisis each year from 2004, since when there had been warnings about the oncoming crisis. Then the film’s narrative adds significant details on the timeline of the crisis which the film claims started as early as late 2007 when the housing foreclosure figures increased significantly and the Securitization Food Chain imploded.

The narration along with interviews guides the explanation on the most part of these sequences.

The crisis itself is framed in this part of the film as an accumulation of the negative impacts that financial deregulation has had on the financial industry. The voice-over explains that the complexity and scope of the activities inside the Security Food Chain are simply too big to stay unregulated. As a result, the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers produced a ‘domino effect’ in the U.S economy in particular and in the rest of the world as well. It started on September 12th, 2008 as Lehman Brothers ran out of cash, which made the entire investment banking world sink fast and the whole global economy was in jeopardy, as it is narrated.

Then the film mentions the $ 700 billion dollars bailout (17) to major banks by President Bush on October 4th, 2008. The film claimed the bailout money had little effect in helping the American economy to recover. There were fears that a global recession was underway. The last segment of the sequences (18) is a brief discussion about how the financial crisis affected global economy. China and Singapore are the two countries pictured here as being among those who had to suffer because of the crisis. The two interviews in this segment basically give the idea that although the crisis took place in America, everyone else had to bear the consequences because the global economy is tightly connected.

Then it shifts back to the issue of home foreclosure where one on-screen caption shows that by early 2010 the number of foreclosures in the United States reached 6 million. Two actual cases are presented here; one of them a Mexican couple who, according to another on-screen caption, don’t speak English and were defrauded by their mortgage broker. The second case is ‘’Tent City’’ in Florida where people who lost their homes or are jobless were being cared for by volunteers and living in outdoor tents. Newly-shot footage of the tents and interviews with volunteers shows one of the effects that the crisis created for the middle-class American.

When the explanation of the crisis is over, the film moves to ‘Part IV: Accountability’ (19) which covers a certain period after the crisis, particularly the post bailout allocation. It then shows facts and figures of how much personal financial profit the CEOs of big financial institutions made from tax-payer money. Still photographs of these CEOs are also visible on-screen. The main argument here is the odd situation of people who are responsible for creating the crisis who end up making more money out of it. Interviews here suggest that after the bailout, the major financial institutions became bigger than before and this is mostly thanks to the financial sector’s lobbying power in the government. For the last segment in this sequence (20), there are interviews

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with prominent economists from top Universities in the United States about the role that academics have in the financial sector. Through the voice-over, it is explained that many of these prominent economists made personal profit by either working for the government and/or working for the major financial institutions.

This is a view that the film claims has a conflict of interest, a view which all the interviewees here disagree with. The end of the segment shows a caption that both the presidents of Harvard and Columbia University declined to be interviewed, leaving viewers to wonder if these major Universities find these activities acceptable or not.

The final part of the film called ‘Part V: Where we are now’ (21) in general discusses through the use of voice-over, the current economic state that the United States is in at the present time. The two main arguments here claim that the United States is now becoming more of an unequal society and that its economic dominance has declined. Charles Morris (5) is quoted in an interview here saying that the middleclass American, referred to as the bottom 90%, lost ‘ground’ as the top 1% gets richer throughout the period of 1980 to 2007. The narration also claims that the current generation of Americans are less educated and less prosperous than their parents.

Towards the end of the film (23-24), there is footage from Obama’s speeches leading up to the 2008 Presidential election. In particular, the film wants to show that Obama promised to stop the ‘greed’ of Wall Street people in the economy. However, when he was finally elected as president, Obama and his administration failed to make a significant change to the financial sector. It is shown by voice-over explanation and footage of individuals who are heavily involved in financial deregulation, being reappointed by Obama to sit in key positions in government. This is a portrayal that suggests there will not be much difference in the future. As the film draws to an end, the narrator recaps the whole issue discussed throughout and suggests that we must fight for change, and it is worth fighting for.

Comparison and Discussions Firstly, we can compare them through the films’ introductory part. Both films adopt a historical reference for their introductions. However, they use a relatively different approach. Film 1 draws similarities between the decline of the Roman Empire and the current state of America, whereas film 2 refers to the economic situation in Iceland and the impact on the economy of financial deregulation since the early 2000’s. Film 2 gets to the subject right from the beginning - financial deregulation – whilst film 1 makes a more general introduction and does not really touch the surface of the subject at this point.

The researcher would like to argue that there are at least two main categories we can use to compare Capitalism: A Love Story (red. film 1) with Inside Job (red. film 2). Firstly, we can compare them through the films’ introductory part. Both films adopt a historical reference for their introductions. However, they use a relatively different approach. Film 1 draws similarities between the decline of the Roman Empire and the current state of America, whereas film 2 refers to the economic situation in Iceland and the impact on the economy of financial deregulation since the early 2000’s.

Muhammad Ryan Fathoni, Textual Analysis on Documentary Films: Compasion Study of “Capitalism: A Love Story” and ...

Film 2 gets to the subject right from the beginning - financial deregulation – whilst film 1 makes a more general introduction and does not really touch the surface of the subject at this point. Film 1 uses mostly archive footage including narration here but film 2 uses newly shot materials and interviews for the introduction.

The second category is through the framing of the crisis. Textually, film 1 approaches the issue of financial crisis through the point of view of capitalism and divides the film into six headings; justice, democracy, education, mortgage, the crisis, and the revolt. These headings are indirectly chronological except for the fact that the film’s narration connects them to appear in order. The film’s arguments are delivered through the use of a narrator’s voice, graphics on-screen, various footage, and interviews. There are numerous testimonials from middle-class Americans that are directly affected by corporate greed. There are also interviews with academics or people who work in the financial sector. Some of the interviews capture the emotional aspect of the interviewees whilst others just simply explain a topic. Moore’s appearances and performance on screen create a highly participatory sense in the film, in addition to some personal videos included in the film. Viewers can sense Moore’s tendency to be on the side of the middle-class, and his dislike towards financial institutions. Towards the end, Moore expresses his support of Obama and believes he could lead America to a better future which is very subjective.

On the contrary, film 2 is far more focused on the issue of the financial crisis of 2008. In framing it, the film categorizes the discussion through five parts that work like chapters which then we can argue are more chronological. The first two parts basically cover the historical background of America’s financial industry and the effect of financial deregulation since the 1980’s that resulted in the bubble. The third part explains the crisis which is framed using a timeline of significant events and warnings from 2004 to 2008. The film examines how the bailout money has been used and how American academics contributed to the economic discussion. It also examines the continuity of financial deregulation in the fourth part. The last part explains the current administration and possibility of change for the future. The film ‘tells’ the narrative through extremely high numbers of interviews, narration, footage and audiotape. Viewers can possibly get the impression that film 2 is a highly ‘academic’ and ‘scientific’ documentary because its presentation is based on research and testimonials from highly-credible individuals. Film 2 consistently discusses the financial crisis as a disaster caused by the people inside the financial sectors, which have a global effect which is consistent with its title, Inside Job.

These comparisons show “the fact that the voice of a documentary relies on all the means available to it, not just spoken words, means that the argument or point of view carried by a documentary can be more or less explicit’’ (Nichols, 2010:74).

However, we might agree in one thing, “Like many recent political documentaries, Inside Job sets out not only to inform but also to rouse viewers to indignation (Toscano, 2010). In turn this might raise the question regarding subjectivity in documentary.

Does this mean that documentary has transcended beyond “a creative treatment of actuality”? In this evidence alone, it just might.

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Conclusions The textual analysis and the comparisons between the two documentaries have illustrated that the filmmakers have adopted a significantly different approach to the issue of the financial crisis of 2008. Capitalism: a Love Story views the crisis from the point of view of how capitalism in America has enabled financial corporations to be more powerful than the government and gained profits at the expense of middleclass Americans. Inside Job presents the filmmakers argument in a more focused and concentrated method by consistently delivering facts and testimonials that support the argument that the financial crisis took place due to individuals inside the financial sector, but then affected the global economy.

These views lead to the researcher’s conclusion that the filmmakers in framing the financial crisis and speaking their argument and point of view through the film have used their own ‘voice’. This is through different audio and visual means available and visible for the viewers to see in the film. One very noticeable difference between the two documentaries is the appearance and performance of the filmmaker on-screen.

Whilst Michael Moore physically appears and performs in Capitalism: a Love Story along with his voice in the narration, Charles Ferguson only ‘appears’ in the Inside Job credit title. Therefore, there is the sense of a distinguishable level of subjectivity between the two documentaries.

Both documentaries use a wide range of textual devices to make claims, explain a story, and show a point of view. Interviews are one of the most noticeable parts of both films. This means they have both guided viewers to understand different terminologies throughout the films especially in Inside Job. Interviews are also a means to capture viewers’ emotions as shown in Capitalism: a Love Story. The two documentaries also use significant amounts of archive footage such as black and white footage, news footage, newspaper headlines, and so on. This is to build a ‘voice’ presented in the film that really exists and is authentic. To conclude, the researcher believes that the means of the filmmakers’ voice varies through different textual devices and this largely contributes to different and various views or understanding of the subjects discussed by both films.

Firstly, we can compare them through the films’ introductory part. Both films adopt a historical reference for their introductions. However, they use a relatively different approach. Film 1 draws similarities between the decline of the Roman Empire and the current state of America, whereas film 2 refers to the economic situation in Iceland and the impact on the economy of financial deregulation since the early 2000’s. Film 2 gets to the subject right from the beginning - financial deregulation – whilst film 1 makes a more general introduction and does not really touch the surface of the subject at this point.

The researcher would like to argue that there are at least two main categories we can use to compare Capitalism: A Love Story (red. film 1) with Inside Job (red. film 2). Firstly, we can compare them through the films’ introductory part. Both films adopt a historical reference for their introductions. However, they use a relatively different

Muhammad Ryan Fathoni, Textual Analysis on Documentary Films: Compasion Study of “Capitalism: A Love Story” and ...

approach. Film 1 draws similarities between the decline of the Roman Empire and the current state of America, whereas film 2 refers to the economic situation in Iceland and the impact on the economy of financial deregulation since the early 2000’s.

Film 2 gets to the subject right from the beginning - financial deregulation – whilst film 1 makes a more general introduction and does not really touch the surface of the subject at this point. Film 1 uses mostly archive footage including narration here but film 2 uses newly shot materials and interviews for the introduction.

The second category is through the framing of the crisis. Textually, film 1 approaches the issue of financial crisis through the point of view of capitalism and divides the film into six headings; justice, democracy, education, mortgage, the crisis, and the revolt. These headings are indirectly chronological except for the fact that the film’s narration connects them to appear in order. The film’s arguments are delivered through the use of a narrator’s voice, graphic on-screen, various footages, and interviews. There are numerous testimonials from middle-class Americans that are directly affected by corporate greed. There are also interviews with academics or people who work in financial sector. Some of the interviews capture the emotional aspect of the interviewees whilst others just simply explain a topic. Moore’s appearances and performance on screen create a highly participatory sense in the film, in addition to some personal videos included in the film. Viewers can sense Moore’s tendency to be on the side of the middle-class, and his dislike towards the financial institutions.

Towards the end, Moore expresses his support to Obama and believes he could lead America to a better future which is very subjective.

On the contrary, film 2 is far more focused on the issue of the financial crisis of 2008. In framing it, the film categorizes the discussion through five parts that work like chapters which we can then argue are more chronological. The first two parts basically cover the historical background of America’s financial industry and the effect of financial deregulation since 1980’s that resulted in the bubble. The third part explains the crisis which is framed using the timeline of significant events and warnings from 2004 to 2008. The film examines how the bailout money has been used and how American academics contributed to the economic discussion. It also examines the continuity of financial deregulation in the fourth part. The last part explains the current administration and possibility of change for the future. The film ‘tells’ the narrative through extremely high numbers of interviews, narration, footage and audiotape. Viewers can possibly get the impression that film 2 is a highly ‘academic’ and ‘scientific’ documentary because its presentation is based on research and testimonials from highly-credible individuals. Film 2 consistently discusses the financial crisis as a disaster caused by the people inside financial sectors, which has a global effect which is consistent with its title, Inside Job.

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References Bernard, S. (2004) Documentary storytelling for video and filmmakers. Boston: Focal Press.

Bordwell, D., & Thompson, K. (2008). Film art an introduction (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Bruzzi, S. (2006) New documentary (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.

Cohan, S., & Shires, L.M. (2003) Telling Stories. New York, NY: Routledge.

Corrigan, T., & White, P. (2009). The film experience an introduction. Boston: Bedford/ St.Martin’s.

Ellis, J. (2012) Documentary: Witness and self-revelation. London: Routledge.

Flick, U. (2009). An introduction to qualitative research (4th ed.). London: SAGE Publishing.

Izod, J. and Kilborn, R. (1998). The documentary. In Hill. J., and Gibson, P. (Eds.), The Oxford guide to film studies (pp. 426-435). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Larsen, P. (2002). Mediated fiction. In Jensen, K. (ed), A handbook of media and communication research (pp. 117-137). London: Routledge.

McKee, A. (2003). Textual analysis: A beginner’s guide. London: SAGE Publications.

Mittell, J. (2007). Film and television narrative. In Herman, D. (ed.). The Cambridge companion to narrative. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nichols, B. (1984). The voice of documentary. In Henderson, B., Martin, A., and Amazonas, L. (Eds.), Film quarterly forty years – A selection (pp. 247-267).

Berkeley: University of California Press.

Nichols, B. (2001). Introduction to documentary. Indiana: Indiana University Press.

Nichols, B. (2010). Introduction to documentary, Indiana: Indiana University Press.

No end in sight. (2007). Retrieved March 20, 2014, from

http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0912593/?ref_=nm_flmg_prd_4 Phillips, P. (2000). Understanding film Texts meaning and experience. London: British Film Institute.

Pramaggiore, M. and Wallis, T. (2008). Film a critical introduction (2nd ed.). London: Laurence King.

Russell, C. (1999). Experimental ethnography. Durham and London: Duke

University Press.

Stam, R. (2000). Film theory and introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Toscano, A. (2010). Disaster Movies. Film Quarterly, 64 (2), 72-73.

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PESANTREN STUDENTS: ADAPTATION AS RELIGIOUS MINORITY IN THE UNITED STATES Yenuarizki1 Abstract Kennedy Lugar YES Program, an exchange program sponsored by the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, aims to bridge understanding between the Muslim world and the American society. The program was established after the 9/11 tragedy which caused a bad reputation towards Muslims in America. Using descriptive qualitative-based, in-depth interview and utilizing Co-Cultural Theory by Mark Orbe, the researcher discovered a pattern of communication outcomes carried out by the students during their programs as part of their adaptation process. The students’ background in Islamic education supported by intercultural experience they went through, have successfully produced a great life changing perspective in religious diversity that the students never gained inside pesantren. The students, whose mindsets were taught not to celebrate other religions’ rituals and celebrations during their pesantren education, were able to alter their point of views in order to show respect and religious tolerance as part of their adaptation process. They realized their positions as a minority needed a bargaining position to make them part of the society.

Keywords: intercultural communication, co-cultural theory, pesantren, adaptation Abstrak Program Kennedy Lugar YES Program, sebuah beasiswa pertukaran pelajar yang disponsori oleh Biro Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Amerika Serikat, bertujuan untuk menciptakan pemahaman antara dunia Islam dan masyarakat Amerika, dimana siswa-siswi pesantren mampu berkontribusi secara maksimal dengan cara membagi pengetahuan mereka tentang Islam. Program KL-YES ini diinisiasi untuk menciptakan pemahaman lebih dalam tentang masyarakat Islam setelah tragedi 9/11. Menggunakan pendekatan deskriptif kualitatif dengan metode wawancara mendalam serta dilengkapi dengan aplikasi teori Co-Cultural oleh Mark Orbe, peneliti menemukan pola komunikasi yang tersusun berdasarkan pengalaman para siswa pesantren alumni Program KL-YES sebagai bentuk proses adaptasi mereka selama program berlangsung. Melalui pengalaman antarbudaya yang mereka dapatkan, para alumni ini mampu mematahkan dogma klasik untuk tidak berpartisipasi dalam perayaan hari besar agama lain. Namun sebagai kaum minoritas, mereka membutuhkan posisi tawar agar dapat diterima sebagai bagian dari masyarakat yang lebih dominan. Latar belakang pendidikan Islam serta pengalaman antarbudaya yang diperoleh siswa telah menciptakan pengalaman yang mengubah perspektif mereka tentang keberagaman dalam beragama.

Kata kunci: komunikasi antarbudaya, co-cultural theory, pesantren, adaptasi

STIKOM LSPR alumnus Corresponding Author: yeyenyenuarizki@gmail.com

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Introduction

“Study abroad a fast-growing phenomenon, urged on by the ease of travel, by political change, by economic need, by cultural interaction” (Byram & Feng, 2006) might be just the right reason for the increasing number of exchange programs.

The effectiveness of exchange programs in bringing out the most realistic impact to society has been issued by Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (ECA), a division responsible for many cultural exchange programs sponsored by the US Department of State. They issue the overall data on the impact of exchange programs to the States.

Economically, the program contributed $21.3 billion to the country in 2010 from housing and education expenses.

Yayasan Bina Antarbudaya (YBA) is a non-governmental and non-profit organization which focuses on intercultural learning. It is the official Indonesian partner of AFS International, headquartered in New York, which runs intercultural programs all over the world. One of its reputable programs managed by the organization is the Kennedy-Lugar YES Program, an exchange program for high school students or equivalent institutions sponsored by the US Department of State between America and majority Muslim populated countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, India, Ghana, Kenya, Turkey and the Philippines. The objective of the program is to accommodate a mutual relationship and understanding between American society and the Muslim world post 9/11 tragedy. According to Yayasan Bina Antarbudaya, they have established a strong affiliation with the program considering Indonesia hosts a massive number of traditional religious schools spread throughout the country, popularly known as pondok pesantren, which literally translated into English means Islamic boarding school.

Students from pondok pesantren, or simply shortened as pesantren, are considered to participate in the KL-YES Program as their schools are seen to give a distinctive education in Islamic knowledge. The students have grown up, been nurtured, and lived in a strong Islamic environment under the supervision of Ustadz, an Arabic word for teacher. Even though their general academic knowledge is mostly discussed as “lower” than public school standards in Indonesia, they have a deeper understanding in the giving of information regarding Islam. The participation of pesantren students has been an eminent point from Indonesia in its participation in the exchange program.

Indonesia’s pesantrens have also been noted by the international world as one distinctive institution for Islamic education (tempo interaktif.com, retrieved October 7, 2012 at 2.00 PM). Gamal Abdul Nasir Zakaria from Universiti Brunei Darussalam in his journal “Pondok Pesantren: Changes and Its Future” describes the present existence of pesantren in mostly Indonesia and Malaysia and the changes it has made to align with globalization.

Many of the pesantren nowadays are entitled “Pondok Pesantren Modern” as a commitment to show concern towards global circumstances. “The truth is that these modern values have universal characteristics that differ from Western values. In reality, the basis for modern culture refers to universal areas, namely, religion, knowledge and

Yenuarizki, Pesantren Students: Adaptation as Religious Minority in The United States

technology. (Zakaria, 2010)”. Knowledge about globalization itself cannot be attained only from books and preaching, but also through the great experience in an exchange program.

Pewforum.org proved that statistically 78.4% of the American population belongs to Christianity and 23.9% belongs to Catholicism based on the 2007 census poll. Out of a US population of 308,745,538 (taken from census.gov from census data per 2010), there is only a 0.6% Muslim population. This is one challenge that a Muslim student will face: he or she will live as a minority in a different country. Jane I. Smith, the author of Islam in America, stated that in some polls, there are indications that some Americans do not understand Islam and even expect Muslims to “go home” (Smith, 2010: 185). A great challenge lays ahead and calls pesantren students to minimize the sentiments against Islam in America. It aligns perfectly with the objective of the exchange program, to bridge understanding between the American society and Islam.

The depicted situation has triggered the researcher to put religious issues into the scheme of culture. Thus, this research describes the way pesantren’s students address religious diversity as part of their adaptation process in an exchange program to the US. The emerging constraints will be analyzed based on Co-cultural Theory by Mark Orbe, which will also be used to describe the significant factors of keys of success in the adaptation process by the students.

Literature Review Co-Cultural Theory Referring to religious affiliation statistics, the students became part of the 0.6% Muslim population in the US out of the 308,745,538 population. Mark Orbe, using phenomenological approach, developed Co-cultural theory which emphasizes that “co-cultural communication refers to interactions among underrepresented and dominant group members” (Gudykunst & Mody, 2002: 190). Furthermore, co-cultural theory provides a framework where “co-cultural group members negotiate attempts by others to render their voices muted within dominant societal structures.” (Gudykunst & Mody, 2002).

Gudykunst & Kim (2003) restated Orbe’s argument on the outcomes of Cocultural Theory application; 1.) Assimilation (become part of the dominant culture); 2.) Accommodation (try to make people from the dominant culture accept members of co-cultural groups); and 3.) Separation (rejection towards the predominant culture).

The three outcomes resulted from nine different communication orientations with practices to be used (Gudykunst & Mody, 2002: 191). The Researcher retracted two tables relevant to Co-Cultural Theory; they are the Co-Cultural Theory: Communication Approach and Outcomes table and the Co-Cultural Practices and Orientation Summary table to further explain the scientific-based analytical framework.

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Table 1.1 Co-cultural Theory: Communication Approach and Outcomes Approaches Separation

Accommodation

Assimilation

Outcomes Nonassertive

Avoiding Maintaining interpersonal barriers

Increasing visibility Emphasizing Dispelling commonalities stereotypes Developing positive face Censoring self Averting controversy

Assertive

Communicating self, Intragroup networking Exemplifying strengths Embracing stereotypes

Communicating self Intragroup networking Using liaisons Educating others

Extensive preparation Overcompensating Manipulating stereotypes Bargaining

Aggressive

Attacking Sabotaging others

Confronting

Dissociating Mirroring Strategic Distancing Ridiculing Self

Gaining advantage

Source: Orbe,1998, p.110.

Table 1.2 Co-cultural Practices and Orientation Summary Practice

Brief Description

Emphasizing Commonalities

Focusing on human similarities while downplaying or ignoring co-cultural differences

Developing positive face

Assuming a gracious communicator stance in which one is more considerate, polite, and attentive to dominant group members

Censoring self

Remaining silent when comment from dominant group members are inappropriate, indirectly insulting, or highly offensive

Yenuarizki, Pesantren Students: Adaptation as Religious Minority in The United States

Averting controversy

Averting communication away from controversial or potentially dangerous subject area

Extensive preparation

Engaging in an extensive amount of detailed (mental or concrete) groundwork prior to interactions with dominant group members

Overcompensating

Conscious attempts –consistently employed in response to a pervasive fear of discrimination –to become a “superstar”

Manipulating stereotypes

Conforming to commonly accepted beliefs about group members as a strategic means to exploit them for personal gain

Bargaining

Striking a covert or overt arrangement with dominant group members in which both parties agree to ignore co-cultural differences

Dissociating

Making a concerted effort to elude any connection with behaviors typically associated with one’s co-cultural group

Mirroring

Adopting dominant group codes in attempts to make one’s co-cultural identity less (or totally not) visible

Strategic distancing

Avoiding any association with other cocultural group members in attempts to be perceived as a distinct individual

Ridiculing self

Invoking or participating in discourse, either passively or actively, which is demeaning to co-cultural group members

Increasing visibility

Covertly, yet strategically, maintaining a co-cultural presence within dominant structures

Dispelling stereotypes

Myths of generalized group characteristics and behaviors are countered through the process of just being oneself

Communicating self

Interacting with dominant group members in an authentic, open and genuine manner; used by those with strong self-concepts

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Intragroup networking

Identifying and working with other co-cultural group members who share common philosophies, convictions, and goals

Using liaisons

Identifying specific dominant group members who can be trusted for support, guidance, and assistance

Educating others

Taking the role of teacher in co-cultural interactions; enlightening dominant group members of co-cultural norms, values, and so forth

Confronting

Using the necessary aggressive methods, including ones that seemingly violate the “rights” of others, to assert one’s voice

Gaining advantage

Inserting references to co-cultural oppression to provoke dominant group reactions and gain advantage

Avoiding

Maintaining a distance form dominant group members; refraining from activities and/or locations where interaction is likely

Maintaining interpersonal barriers

Imposing, through the use of verbal and nonverbal cues, a psychological distance from dominant group members

Exemplifying strengths

Promoting the recognition of co-cultural group strengths, past accomplishments, and contributions to the society

Embracing stereotypes

Applying a negotiated reading to dominant group perceptions and merging them into a positive co-cultural self-concept

Attacking

Inflicting psychological pain through personal attacks on dominant group members’ self-concept

Sabotaging others

Undermining the ability of dominant group members to take full advantage of their privilege inherent in dominant structures

Sources: Orbe, 2010, pp-293-311.

Yenuarizki, Pesantren Students: Adaptation as Religious Minority in The United States

Methods The adaptation process of students from pesantren in an exchange program to the United States of America is a phenomenon that needs in-depth exploration of more than one source. Interviewees were chosen based on random sampling system. Their availability and accessibility also affected the rationale behind their involvement.

Participants Four alumni of KL-YES Program provided experiences they had gained during the exchange program. The alumni came from four different pesantrens in different areas in Indonesia and were hosted in different states in America with different host family backgrounds. The alumni involved in this research were Waskito Jati (KL-YES 2008/2009) from Yogyakarta, Nurasiah Jamil (KL-YES 2007/2008) from Tasikmalaya, West Java, and Andi Apriansyah Nur (KL-YES 2006/2007) from Makassar, South Sulawesi and Nisa Huzaifa (KL-YES 2009/2010) from Bandung, West Java.

Research was not only conducted with the students that participated in the programs, interviews were also conducted with the host families the students stayed with throughout their exchange program. As the closest unit of community to the students, host families played important roles in assisting the adaptation process of the students. Host family cultural backgrounds, habits, as well as, intensity in communication were part of the influential aspects that might have occurred in the students’ adaptation process. Unfortunately, the researcher was not able to conduct interviews with Andi Apriansyah Nur’s host family due to the fact that Andi’s host family are already deceased, as well as Waskito Jati’s host family as they were unable to be contacted during the timeframe of interviews.

A supporting interview was conducted with the Program Director of Yayasan Bina Antarbudaya, Diar Andiani, to further explore the program’s vision and mission as well as Bina Antarbudaya’s expected outcome from the program. An interview guide was used to conduct the research which covered the topics of student background, host family background, self-concept and interactions that best described the students’ experience in adaptation. The focus of this research will be the adaptation process of pesantren students in an exchange program to the US. To limit the boundaries of the research, the researcher will only focus on the religious diversity the sources experienced.

Interviews were conducted in both Bahasa Indonesia and English through emails and phone calls. Each interview lasted between 30 to 90 minutes and was tape-recorded and later transcribed verbatim. Data took the form of 41 pages of singlespaced interview transcripts.

Results Pesantren Identity & Self-Concept In order to understand the exploration of Co-Cultural Theory, the researcher believes that, it is important to understand basic identity of pesantren students from the students’ point of view which in turn will affect the students’ self-concept about themselves

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and their religious affiliations. These aspects will simultaneously affect the students’ adaptation process as an underrepresented group.

The four alumni had a shared background of pesantren education in which they also shared what J.C. Turner (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003) believed as signature characteristics of pesantren students. Each respondent had different experiences within their pesantrens. Waskito Jati went to Pondok Pesantren Krapyak in Yogyakarta.

The pesantren provides a modern approach in education. Waskito admitted that his pesantren expected their students to be Islam scholars so they emphasized the importance of Islamic education balanced with public education such as Math, natural science and social science. Separately, NurasiahJamil went to Pondok Pesantren Cipasung, Tasikmalaya. Even though the pesantren she went to was considered to be a modern pesantren, Nurasiah admitted that the students in Pesantren Cipasung still learned Islam by implementing some local traditions such as translating the Qur’an into local languages. In Makassar, Andi Apriansyah Nur went to Pondok Pesantren Himmil Putra, a pesantren for boys only. Andi recognized the modern approach his pesantren had. He even named several activities and facilities in the pesantren such as a band studio, music, and the pesantren even allowed its students to wear shorts during their free time. While Nisa Huzaifa went to Pondok Pesantren Darul Arqom, Garut, West Java and spent six years of education in the school, she admitted that Darul Arqom was considered a modern pesantren. The school provided some modern facilities such as a public television and internet even though for a limited amount of time.

Nevertheless, as Islamic schools, pesantren implements the basic aspects of Islam as mentioned in the table below.

Table 1.3 Pesantren Students: Cultural and Islamic Aspects Cultural Aspects

Islamic Aspects

Well-adapted to live under strict rules and tight schedules

Perform prayer in jama’ah (collectively)

Accustomed to limited access of information

Maximum time allocation for Islamic studies

Diverse community

Gender separation (muhrim) where men are not allowed to be together with women who are not blood-related and vice versa

Accustomed to living under the culture of “acceptance” (do not articulate critical thinking)

Prohibition in Celebrating Other Religious Holidays

Limited circle of friends

Women to cover their head with scarf or veil all the time to cover their aurat (body parts that are restricted to be seen by people who are not blood-related)

Accustomed to start their activities at/ before dawn Sources: Constructed by Researcher, 2013

Yenuarizki, Pesantren Students: Adaptation as Religious Minority in The United States

The identity as pesantren students affected the self concepts of the four alumni towards religious diversity which can be analyzed using the principles of interpretation, interaction and inner conversation developed by Herbert Blumer. Blumer extracted his own thoughts after the Self-Concept Theory by George Herbert Mead (Griffin, 2011).

The roots of Blumers’ principles went back to his three core principles of SelfConcept Theory that deal with meaning, language, and thinking. The first premise conveyed the message that “humans act towards people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things” (Griffin, 2011: 55-58). In this matter, interpretation covers how the four KL-YES alumni interpreted religious diversity before they went to the United States of America which was mainly affected by the pesantren environment they previously lived in and how to adjust their understanding, considering their new position as a minority. The second premise conveyed that “the meaning arises out of the social interaction that people have with each other” (Griffin, 2011: 55-58). Related to the research topic, this principle would reveal how the four KL-YES alumni interacted with their new families, neighbours, communities as well as society, in order to get to know and learn more about the existing religious diversity.

Lastly, the third premise was “an individual interpretation of symbols is modified by his or her own thought process” (Griffin, 2011: 55-58) where the four alumni started to adapt to the religious diversity they experienced and adjust to it with their own understanding.

Below is a description of Blumers’ principles of interpretation, interaction and inner conversation for each source in regards of religious diversity in the United States of America laid out in the form of a table.

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Table 1.4 Analysis on Applied Self-Concept Theory Sources

Nurasiah Jamil

Andi Apriansyah Waskito Jati

Nisa Huzaifa

Interpretation

The celebration of other religions’ big holidays was restricted.

She hesitated to visit other religious houses due to the fact that Indonesians would consider it “terrorist or something”.

Apri considered any activities related to other religions’ such as holiday celebrations and visiting other religious houses to be against his religious belief

Waskito never really celebrated other religions’ big holidays

During other religions’ big holidays marked as national holidays by Indonesian government, Nisa’s pesantren did not hold any activities at all.

Interaction

Nura was hosted by the Clinthornes who were Orthodox Christians. Nura’s host parents exhibited a high level of enthusiasm in learning about other religions including Islam

Apri’s host family owned a dog that was considered part of the family.

Apri was hosted by a practicing Christian man who attended church regularly.

Waskito was hosted by the Friddles, practicing Southern Baptist Christians.

Nisa lived with the Pummels, a family of practicing Advent Christians, as well as their surrounding neighbours, families and relatives.

Inner Conversation

Nura believed Qur’an Surah Al-Kafiruun as her basic thought for religious tolerance. Hence she thought it would be acceptable to go to church, celebrate Christmas and visit other religious houses due to cultural reasons and curiosity.

Apri adjusted himself well with the family’s dog. He also went to church to socialize with society. He also helped his host father in the Christmas celebrations.

Waskito had no problems in experiencing religious diversity. He and his host family created harmony in understanding each others’ religions.

Nisa exhibited flexibility in adapting to religious diversity in the US. She went to church and she celebrated Christmas.

Self-Concept Stages

Sources: Constructed by Researcher, 2013

Yenuarizki, Pesantren Students: Adaptation as Religious Minority in The United States

Students Adaptation Supported by Family’s Adaptation Through interviews, the four alumni had a different experience of living with different host families with different cultural and religious backgrounds. As a minority, the students clearly had to position themselves in various ways so people in their surrounding area would accept their presence wholeheartedly.

Nurasiah Jamil, a YES Alumni who used to live in Ann Arbor, Michigan, with the Clinthorne family, realized the importance of exploring new experiences and cultures which also lead Nura to visit churches, temples and other religious places for the sake of curiosity and social good deeds. Nura believed that interacting and assimilating with people from different cultural and religious backgrounds had always been acceptable.

Nura even helped with the Christmas celebration with her host family.

Meanwhile in Munford, Alabama, Andi Apriansyah or Apri, faced the new culture of his host father who had been living with a dog, an animal whose saliva is considered ‘unholy’ in Apri’s religion. He thought that perhaps years ago there was no soap to keep things hygienic. However, Apri added, soap is considered sufficient to wash away a dog’s saliva due to technology improvement. Besides beings comfortable with dogs, Apri also faced another challenge when he had to make a decision whether or not he should go to church. Apri hesitated to go to church on Sunday due to his religious belief. However, he started to think that going to church did not necessarily mean he would perform Christian prayer. He could, however, start to socialize, make new friends and observe how Christians interact with each other in church.

Apri admitted that it was around this time he changed his way of thinking regarding religious diversity.

In Walla-Walla, Washington, Nisa Huzaifa faced a different challenge. She used to live with the Pummels who were practicing Advent Christians. During her stay with the Pummels, Nisa realized there were some similarities between her religion, Islam, and the religion that her host family belonged to, Seventh-Day Advent Christian, one of them being the prohibited pork consumption. Going through religious diversity at home, Nisa always felt the Pummels supported her and her religious rituals including the celebration of Eid Mubarak, fasting in the holy month of Ramadhan, and the wearing of a hijab.

In this family, the hijab had become an interesting topic throughout the year.

Estee Pummel-Poirot admitted that she was a little bit worried by the fact that Nisa had been wearing a veil. However, “After I got to know her, it helped me a lot to understand Muslim culture and belief and I’m no longer afraid of Muslims. I was afraid of Muslims before, yes. That’s mainly because of the 9/11 terrorist attack with not a lot of understanding.”

Nisa also confessed that in the very first few months, there were several misunderstanding and things to further explain between her and her family in regards of her hijab. Nisa had to explain several times regarding the wearing of a hijab until Nisa could not understand the reason why her host father kept asking the same

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questions. Eventually, her host father explained that he never meant to offend Islam in any way. He was just curious why Nisa wouldn’t take off her hijab at home in front of him considering his role as Nisa’s father. Nisa kept wearing the veil at home as her host father did not have family relations to her.

Not only did the students have to adjust themselves to their new homes, the host families’ role in adjusting their family’s culture upon the arrival of their new exchange students acted as equally important to support the adaptation process. Susan Clinthorne and her family made a little adjustment upon the arrival of Nura. “Just that we don’t eat pork anymore. And no, not really, we were just normal and lovely. We did not feel like it was hard to have Muslim students at all.”

Meanwhile the Pummels had different preparations regarding their exchange student, in this case Nisa. Rick said, “With all exchange students, I tried really hard to tell them in advance what it is going to be like when we’re about to go somewhere. So she knows what to expect and knows what people are going to be like so she could choose. She obviously had already made up her mind before she came that she will try everything and totally insert herself into our culture. Maybe because of that attitude, it really helped us a lot. So I really tried hard in advance to prepare her so she knew what she would face.”

Specifically on the matter of religious diversity, both host families actively engaged their exchange students in sharing Islamic knowledge and information. Vice versa, they also shared information about their religions.

By participating in the program, Susan Clinthorne envisioned her family would be able to help their community to understand more about Islam. “I learned about the YES Program which was very important because tensions were running very high in regards to Muslims and Christians in the US there was so much fear about Islamic people.”…“and more importantly, we wanted the opportunity to get to know Muslims ourselves because we didn’t know any personally, neither did our family, and we wanted to help our community to know more Muslims too.”

Besides sharing information, the host families engaged the alumni in all kinds of religious activities such as celebrating Christmas together, taking part in some church events and even visiting other religious houses, just like Susan did with Nura. Susan explained how Nura acted towards Christmas celebration, as follows.

“I never thought that she would think it would be inappropriate. She never acted like that because she was an exchange student. She wanted to experience our culture and everything that we did, I didn’t think that she couldn’t. She went to church one time but I don’t think that was comfortable for her, but she wanted to experience and see what it was like. Oh, and I know, when she was with us too, I took her to a mosque. And so that was very an interesting thing for me to go into the mosque. I felt very comfortable inside the mosque.

Although she didn’t want me to go near the prayer area, she kept it very private

Yenuarizki, Pesantren Students: Adaptation as Religious Minority in The United States

and respectful. But the holiday, I never thought it was uncomfortable for her.

We shared it with her and took her with us to hear the music. We took her to a family gathering it was such a festive time so I didn’t see why she wouldn’t enjoy it. I didn’t know that there are groups of Islam who forbid the celebration of other religions.”

Communication Patterns After the result of the comprehensive interview, the researcher believes there is a communication pattern occurring from all of the sources in applying a communication approach.

Waskito exhibited several cooperative attitudes throughout his stay with the Friddles during his exchange program in Charlotte, North Carolina. As a Muslim, and also a minority at the same time, Waskito participated in several activities related to the religion of his host family, Southern Baptist Church. Waskito participated in Christmas celebration as well as dinners or other parties held by the church.

Not only did Waskito try to adapt to Southern Baptist Church customs, he also educated his host family regarding Islam. Waskito informed the family regarding Ramadhan fasting, Eid Mubarak and the specific diet such as no pork. The Friddles were very open to the fact that there were two religions living under the same roof so they made several changes to respect Waskito. One example was the Friddles would move their dinner time a bit later during Ramadhan so Waskito could join them to have dinner together at around 8 pm.

Waskito’s action was included in “Communicating Self” which means Waskito interacted with dominant group members, in this case his host family as well as the church society in an authentic, open and genuine manner. Waskito had always believed that adjusting himself to other religious customs was acceptable as long as he did not convert or follow any praying method of another religion. According to Mark Orbe, Waskito’s outcome is accommodation, where he tried to make people from the dominant culture accept him as an under represented group.

On the other hand, Nura’ host family, the Clinthornes, were not practicing Orthodox Christians. However Susan Clinthorne, Nura’s host mother, still attended church occasionally. Despite the fact that the Clinthornes were non-practicing Christians, they were willing to host Nura, who was a Muslim, in order to get a personal view on Islam and Muslims themselves.

There were several different occasions where Nura had to carry out different communication approaches. During Ramadhan, Nura taught her host mother how to read the Qur’an based upon her host mother’s request. Nura and her host family also liked to discuss religious issues. The discussion did not involve any disagreements from the parties involved since the Clinthornes had known and would like to know more about Islam which can be considered a learning case. In another opportunity, Nura had always been curious to get to know about other religions’ customs. Nura realized

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that in Indonesia, the intention to visit and get to know other religions’ customs would be considered rude and unusual by most of Indonesian society. Therefore, Nura was rather open in learning about the cultural aspects of religions during her exchange program in the States. Nura went to church, watched the ceremonies inside the church, and visited other houses of religions such as temple.

There were several communication approaches that Nura performed in order to get along with the dominant society. First of all, Nura took the role of “educating others” in which she taught and shared information about Islam to her host family and their surrounding communities. In a way, Nura also tried to get close to her community by “using liaisons”, in this case it was her host family who played the role of liaison.

Susan Clinthorne said during the interview that,

“We wanted the opportunity to get to know Muslims ourselves because we didn’t know any personally, neither did our family, and we wanted to help our community to know more Muslims too”

“My community and my friends were always very curious about her. And they were very happy that I would make them see the importance of it. Anyone who’d met her immediately liked her and I always explained to Nura that that it was her job to just smile and be nice so people would know that Muslims are nice and the thought was true. She had won manymany hearts.”

Both communication approaches indicated that Nura successfully embraced the community and eventually succeeded with accommodation as the outcome of her actions. Her actions could be basically covered as “communicating self” approach in which she interacted with the dominant culture. To some extent, Nura even performed “emphasizing commonalities” approach with her host mother when they went to visit some houses of religions together. “Emphasizing commonalities” is expected to produce assimilation effect from the minority group towards the dominant group, to which extent Nura was gradually considered part of American society. So the researcher discovered that Nura’s communication approach eventually resulted in accommodation as well as assimilation outcomes in the interactions.

Meanwhile, down in Munford, Alabama, Apri lived with a strong Christian host father during his exchange program. He went through several challenges regarding his belief about other religions’ holidays as well as the pet issue. Apri had never had a dog before he lived with his host father, his perspective on dogs was strongly influenced

by Islamic rules. Islam considers the dog haram, or forbidden, and people who touch a dog’s saliva must wash their hands seven times and one must be in soil to get rid of the saliva. Apri needed to adjust and be flexible in regards to his treatment of dogs considering the dog has become part of American families.

Yenuarizki, Pesantren Students: Adaptation as Religious Minority in The United States

In Apri’s first few weeks staying with his host father, he felt unsure whether to go to church as he felt it was against his religion to visit and participate in other religious rituals. However, Apri started to alter his perspective and discovered new thoughts based on cultural aspects: socialization. Apri went through gradual stages of adaptation, “increasing visibility”, “using liaisons” and “communicating self”. Apri decided to increase his visibility in his surrounding community such as the church community so he could interact more with the dominant culture. His host father became the liaison for him as the host father was part of the dominant culture. In the end, Apri got to communicate himself with the dominant culture about his religion, his belief, as well as his perspective. Apri had a slightly different communication approach to engage himself with society. While both Waskito and Nura did assertive accommodation in order to reach accommodation outcome, Apri did nonassertive accommodation at first due to his personal doubt on religious matters. He changed his mind after some time as he overviewed the disadvantages he earned by pulling himself back from society. Eventually, he was also on the same trail as Waskito and Nura in assertive accommodation that resulted in accommodation outcome.

Last but not least, Nisa had gone through some time of her exchange program by introducing Islam to her host family as well as being exposed to Advent Christians considering her host family were practicing Adventists. Similar to Nura, Nisa used the approach of “using liaisons” and “communicating self” to get attached to her new society.

Her host family, the Pummels, played the role of liaisons so Nisa could get attached quicker to her new society such as her extended host family and her neighbours. Not only that, she introduced her religion to her communities, she also showed her willingness and involved herself in participating in her host family’s religious activities. Analyzing her confession that she had attended a speech by Adventist missionaries as well as going on camp with Adventist youths, she did increase her visibility to the exposure of other religions. The interaction was considerable even as Nisa communicated her religion by praying during the camp and fasting during the camp. Nisa created a balanced mutual understanding and respect with her new community. Nisa, similarly to Apri, performed the communication approach nonassertive accommodation and assertive accommodation which lead to accommodation as the outcome.

The four alumni of KL-YES program produced the same adaptation outcome of accommodation using varied approaches in the adaptation process. As a minority, they were able to increase the visibility of themselves, as pesantren students, as well as their religion to the surface of the dominant culture. They could raise awareness of the dominant culture towards their religion and beliefs by not only lecturing their society about their religions but also by personal involvement in other religions’ big holidays such as Christmas celebrations.

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Researcher was able to depict the above situation in a table below.

Table 1.6 Alumni Adaptation Chart

 The adaptation process of the four alumni of KL-YES program was dominated by

accommodation outcome. Accommodation means that the students tried to make people from the dominant culture show acceptance towards members of co-cultural groups. Accommodation was just the right outcome expected from the program as stated by Diar Andiani, Yayasan Bina Antarbudaya’s National Program Director. She wanted to see how flexible the students would be when they were located in a faraway place with a specific task to be done, such as representing their religion, considering the vision of KL-YES Program was to bridge the understanding between Islam and American society. Hence, the students were neither expected to become Americans nor were they expected to ignore their surrounding by separating themselves. They were expected to be able to adapt, as well as deliver personal diplomacy to American society.

The significant element of success is laid on student selection as well as host family selection. Bina Antarbudaya annually has to select thousands of Indonesian students to be candidates for the program. The selection itself takes around a year before candidates are chosen. The selection does not only happen in Indonesia but also in the US for the host family selection. AFS USA wanted to ensure that the student experience will be worth doing not only for the cultural side but also personal insight gained about American society.

Yenuarizki, Pesantren Students: Adaptation as Religious Minority in The United States

Pesantren’s students were seen as a conservative unit of the community that common people see unfit to adjust to other religions considering their strong and deeper pursuit in Islamic education. Common people believe they have restricted themselves towards different cultures especially religions which has been proved not entirely true by several alumni of KL-YES program. The KL-YES Program has produced many young future leaders since it started in 2002. Until now, there have been hundreds of KL-YES alumni that have made an impact on the completion of their program not only for themselves but also for their society. Waskito, Nura, Apri and Nisa are only four alumni and they have proven themselves in the one-year experience of living far away from their families and home country which made them see a greater perspective in addressing religious diversity.

There were several keys of success in the adaptation process as admitted by the alumni: 1. Host family; the alumni believed, as long as the host family was supportive and understanding, it would be easier for them to adapt to the new community. Host family was the home for the alumni during the program thus they would guarantee that no matter what happened during the program, the host family would be the first layer of information source, shelter as well as the smallest representation of American community.

2. Open; being open towards a new society in order to receive new information as well as give any kind of information such as emergency language correction, cultural introduction or getting to know new people, lastly 3. Communication; as social beings, humans need to communicate their ideas not only about one self but also about other attributes that one person brings.

Recommendations There are two main recommendations suggested by the researcher upon the completion of this research.

1. Academic recommendation; throughout the research, the researcher discovered how pesantren students adapted well within American society during the students participation in KL-YES Program. Considering the fact that all high schools with both pesantren education and public school education could participate in the program, it would be academically beneficial to discover the adaptation process of students from public schools on religious diversity during the program.

2. Practical recommendation; the researcher specifically divided practical recommendation into three points: a. In order to provide greater impact especially on intercultural understanding, more conservative and traditional pesantrens need to be involved in the program. The students will gain a more insightful experience regarding intercultural understanding and adaptation which they can later share in their community. b. In order to give a stronger impression to pesantren students regarding religious diversity and cultural learning, the alumni suggested an idea of being hosted by a religious host family or a host family who possessed a very high interest in religious diversity.

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c. By utilizing the alumni’s extended experience on the issue of religious diversity and religious tolerance, they can empower their sources to create a greater awareness on relevant matters which can give both a short-term and long-term impact on Indonesian society. The alumni are encouraged to create #RamadhanUnite, an event to promote religious diversity and tolerance. The event is in the form of a conference where the alumni share their experience regarding religious diversity during their program. Also invite some prominent people to the event to provide deeper insights and a more impactful understanding regarding religious diversity and tolerance amongst Indonesian society. The event can be held during Ramadhan considering Islam is the dominant religion in Indonesia. Even though the event is held during Ramadhan, it symbolizes a Muslim’s willingness to share and engage with other religions to celebrate one of the most significant moments that every Muslim celebrates: Ramadhan. Throughout the event, social media buzzers are invited to disseminate the messages from the event so they reach a wider range of public. After the conference, all participants are to be involved in a charity to provide a stronger sense of sharing.

Yenuarizki, Pesantren Students: Adaptation as Religious Minority in The United States

References Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C., & Sorensen, C. (2010). Introduction to Research in Education.

Cengage Learning.

Bina Antar Budaya. (n.d). Retrieved June 26, 2013, from http://bina-antarbudaya.info Byram, M., & Feng, A. (2006). Living and studying abroad: Research and practice.

Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Find an Exchange Program: US Department of State. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// exchanges.state.gov/youth/programs/yes.html Griffin, E. (2012). A first look at communication theory (8th Ed.). New York: McGrawHill.

Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (2003). Communicating with strangers. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Gudykunst, W. B., & Mody, B. (2002). Handbook of International and Intercultural Communication, 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc. Hancock, B. (2002). Trent Focus in Research and Development in Primary Health Care: An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Trent Focus Group.

Huberman, A. M., & Miles, M. B. (2002). The Qualitative Researcher’s Companion.

Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Inc. Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K. A. (2008). Theories of Human Communication. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.

Miller, K. (2005). Communication Theories: Perspectives, Processes, and Contexts.

New York: McGraw-Hill.

Selusur, tempointeraktif. (n.d.). Pasang-Surut Pesantren Darul Islam. Retrieved from http://www.tempointeraktif.com/khusus/selusur/kartosoewirjo/page24.php Orbe, M. P. (1998). Constructing co-cultural theory: An explication of culture, power, and communication. Sage Publication.

Orbe, M.P. (2010). Co-Cultural Theorizing: Foundations, Applications and Extensions.

Howard Journal of Communication , 293-311.

PewResearch. (2007, August 13). PewResearch. Retrieved from www.pewresearch. org: http://religions.pewforum.org/reports Samovar, L. A., & Porter, R. E. (2003). Intercultural communication: A reader (10th ed.).

Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.

Smith, J. I. (2010). Islam in America. New York: Columbia University Press.

West, R., & Turner, L. H. (2010). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and application. New York: McGraw-Hill.

YES Program (n.d). Retrieved June 26, 2013, from http://yesprograms.org Zakaria, G. A. N. (2010). Pondok pesantren: Changes and its future. Journal of Islamic and Arabic Education 2(2) , 45-52.

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SOCIAL SEMIOTICS ANALYSIS OF NORMATIVE BODY DISCOURSE IN ADVERTISEMENT: A STUDY OF FOUCAULT’S PANOPTICISM Sari Monik Agustin1 Abstract This research offers the idea of adding one extremely successful discipline, panopticism. The main idea of this study was to show that, as a marketing communication tool, an advertisement, could become a ‘weapon’ to make the audiences do self-surveillance about their relationship to the issue (discourse) planted inside it. This research then, framed the issue of normative body discourse, which was indicated in the Weight Reduction Program (WRP) Diet Centre TV Commercial (TVC). The framework for this paper is Halliday’s Social Semiotics, Foucault’s discourse, power and knowledge, and also panopticism. This qualitative study uses discourse analysis as a strategy, and social semiotics as the data analysis method. Social semiotics has three-contexts of situations: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.

The conclusion showed panopticism occurred in the three-contexts of situations. Field of discourse of WRP Diet Centre TVC was a woman’s body. The tenor of discourse referred to the parties involved in constructing the normative body discourse such as, society, media, advertising agency, and advertiser. Mode of discourse occurred in TVC’s audio-visual. Finally, in the advertising functions, there occurred not only informing, persuading, reminding and adding value, but also the role of panopticising.

Keywords: social semiotics, panopticism, discourse analysis, advertising functions Abstrak Penelitian ini menawarkan ide penambahan fungsi iklan sebagai alat pendisiplinan, yaitu panoptisisme. Ide dasar dari tulisan ini menunjukkan bahwa iklan sebagai alat komunikasi pemasaran dapat pula menjadikan khalayaknya melakukan pengawasan diri berkaitan dengan hubungan mereka dengan isu-isu (wacana) yang ditanamkan dalam iklan. Isu yang dibahas dalam tulisan ini adalah isu mengenai tubuh normatif yang diindikasikan muncul dalam iklan televisi WRP Diet Center. Kerangka pemikiran yang digunakan dalam tulisan ini adalah Semiotika Sosial dari Halliday, pemikiran Foucault mengenai wacana, kuasa dan pengetahuan, serta panoptisisme. Metodologi yang dipakai menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dengan strategi analisis wacana, dan teknik analisis data yang dipilih adalah analisis semiotika sosial.

Semiotika sosial memiliki tiga konteks situasi, yaitu field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse. Simpulan menunjukkan bahwa panoptisisme hadir dalam ketiga konteks situasi. Field of discourse dari iklan televisi WRP Diet Center adalah tubuh perempuan itu sendiri. Tenor of discourse merujuk pada pihak-pihak yang terlibat dalam konstruksi wacana tubuh normatifnya, seperti masyarakat, media, agensi periklanan dan pengiklan. Mode of discourse muncul dalam audio visual dalam iklan. Pada akhirnya, fungsi iklan dapat dikatakan, tidak lagi hanya menginformasikan, mempersuasi, mengingat dan menambah nilai, namun juga memiliki peran panoptik.

Kata kunci: semiotika sosial, panoptisisme, analisis wacana, fungsi iklan

Postgraduate student of Universitas Indonesia, Lecturer of Universitas Al Azhar Indonesia.

Corresponding Author: Program Studi Ilmu Komunikasi FISIP Universitas Al Azhar Indonesia Kompleks Mesjid Al Azhar, Jl Sisingamangaraja, Kebayoran Baru Jakarta Selatan Telp.: 021-72792753, email: monik@uai.ac.id

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Introduction A Brazilian model, Ana Carolina Reston, 21 years old, died because of Anorexia Nervosa. Her death was followed by five other girls with the same cause of death, consuming diet pills to reach the ideal body size (Sunarto, 2009). Because of this issue, modelling agencies forbade their models to have a body mass index below 18%.

What was it all about?

Cash (1990) mentioned that physical appearance was the most important element in the social interaction process, because it contained information about a person and communicated basic information, such as gender, age, social status or even their occupations (Beardsworth & Keil, 1997: 173).

Early research on physical attraction took females as its subject. Male attractions were considered as uninteresting subjects to complete research on. This kind of research showed bias towards women indicating their appearances were much more interesting and important to be discussed than men’s. Appearance is the only accurate characteristic in predicting satisfaction degree for male and female, but is significantly related to appearance accomplishment in women than men. It means beauty is much more significant in the perception of femininity than masculinity (Melliana, 2006: 1314). Even though appearances play an important part for males and females, generally beauty is defined as a feminine attribute, and appearances’ preoccupation being seen as part of feminine stereotyping.

Women tend to look at their appearances because of what society thinks of them. On the other hand, appearance is a social-control form, which affects how a woman looks at herself and how she is looked at by others. Social background was the most influencing factor for women in looking at her appearances. People differentiate others when labelled socially as “beautiful”, “ugly”, “handsome”, “attractive”, “fat”, “obese”, “slim” and so on (Melliana, 2006: 16-17).

The focus of this research is one of the labels above, “fat”, or obese, plumb, overweight, and others. Fatness and obesity have often been accused as being social problems. The accusation does not stop at stereotyping and labelling fat people, but is also discriminating. The discrimination occurs because of the assumption that fat people are “not normal” because it is a social problem, fatness is wrong. Hence, fat people must face being labelled as “abnormal”.

Fat people often take the blame because of their body and the assumption they are lazy and self-careless (Watson, deBortali-Tregerthan & Frank, 1984: 406). People also tend to judge fat people as self-spoiled and lazy. Meanwhile Brehm (1999) said the slim people are seen as well-organised and disciplined (Melliana, 2006: 45).

According to Orbach (1993), slimness is seen as a desirable attribute for women in prosperous Western cultures, and is associated with self-control, elegance, social attractiveness, and youth (Grogan, 1999: 25).

Sari Monik Agustin, Social Semiotics Analysis of Normative Body Discourse in Advertisment: A Study of Foucault’s ...

The dissatisfaction of body image has been an ordinary situation for women and generates an overreaction about body weight and diet behaviour. It becomes “normative discontent” in society. This affects society socially and psychologically (Wolf, Nichols & Decelle, 1997: 5).

The attention of women on physical appearance is their proportion of body measurement and shape. Our culture respects slim women more than fat ones. Fat women are marginalized and must struggle to be slim.

The article Seks Orang Gemuk, Wimpie Pangkahila (2005) stated, there was a contrast in responses between men and women in dealing with an overweight problem.

He stated, most women saw that being overweight was a huge problem and must be resolved by consuming healthy food products and slimming potions. Not to mention, the promise of weight reduction and slimming centres was offered to attract women.

They even became drug addicts for the purpose.

Mass media, such as commercial, TV programs, radio, and alike had their own part to play in this issue. A study showed, picture analysis from mass media strengthened the evidence that a “slim” body type was very dominant and that positive social judgment always related to slimness. In contrast, negative social judgment was fatness. Women have been told that they could only be loved if they look slim. It seemed like there was apparently a “transparent link” between slimming and beauty and also a fact that a slim body was sexually wanted. Thus, obese/fat is equal to ugly and not erotic/sensual, or sexy (Melliana, 2006: 47).

Men, on the other hand, seemed to have a different perception about obesity.

Unlike women, men do not have a burden about their weight. Moreover, some men chose to be overweight rather than slim, because they thought that fat did not decrease their appeal. Fat men were identifies with prosperity, wisdom and being established (Pangkahila, 2005).

These judgements are called stereotypes. Fat people’s description in the mass media has created stereotypes and labelling by society. The stereotypes were many.

Besides being lazy and careless, fat people are also positively stereotyped as prosperous and happy (Daoren, 2006). Though, some research showed fatness/obesity generated depression and affected one’s mood. It constructed discourse that health issues are associated with fatness.

The same reality of fatness was also approved by World Health Organization (WHO). WHO categorized fatness as a health problem in society, which created a global epidemic called globesity (Sunarto, 2009: 2.12). What is obesity or fatness? The concrete measurement is Body Mass Index (BMI). BMI is a number that illustrates body weight divides by height in square metres or kgs/m². BMI is used to measure if a person is overweight or obese. Obesity means too much body fat because there is higher calorie intake than calorie out. WHO defined obesity as an abnormal fat accumulation that is a threat to health. Being overweight happens when the BMI number is higher than 25 (Sunarto, 2009: 4.5).

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One of the methods used to avoid being fat is controlling eating patterns or otherwise known as a diet. Pressure to be lightweight has spawned eating disorders. To avoid this, there has been a rise in diet products that claim to be able to help women avoid obesity without having eating disorders.

WRP (Weight Reduction Program) is a diet product produced by PT Nutrifood Indonesia. WRP is a different product replacement food, which ‘claimed’ is a substitute for diet foods that are nutritious and low in calories. There are 10 WRP types offered, divided into several types of programs. For weight loss programs, there are products, such as Day WRP, WRP Nutritious Drink, WRP New Mom, Cookies WRP, WRP Diet Tea, Skin 2 C WRP, WRP Diet to Go. In support of body building programs, there is WRP Body Shape. To keep the body slim, there are WRP Stay Slim, and WRP Vanilla Peach. Not only as a meal replacement, WRP also has a WRP Diet Centre and actively do promotions through television and social media, especially Facebook and Twitter.

This study will discuss WRP TV Commercial (TVC) as a form of communication of body discourse. Why WRP TVC? Since 2011, WRP no longer advertises on radio and in print ads, but only on television and non-periodic media, such as billboards.

In addition, the promotion of through Word of Mouth is also intensively carried out in social media, especially Facebook and Twitter (Fajar, 2011). WRP also has an official website www.wrp-diet.com which contains all the information regarding the products, programs, consultations and events. This is done, because WRP has gained Brand Top of Mind, so that advertising is no longer a primary objective and the promotion is only done with gimmicks in various activities (Rahayu, 2011).

In other words, the achievement of Brand Top of Mind as well as cessation to advertise in radio and print advertising proves that WRP believes that TVC and word of mouth activities in social media are considered sufficient to meet the promotional needs and to retain customers.

Advertising is a form of commercial and non-personal communication about an organization and its products which is transmitted to a target audience through a mass medium such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, direct mail, outdoor advertisement, or public transportation (Lee & Johnson, 1999: 5). Jefkins said that advertising is also one form of communication to meet the marketing function (Jefkins, 1997: 5).

Advertising itself is defined as a message that offers a product aimed at people through media. Advertising is a form of text, image, movie or a combination of these elements. Besides, advertising also challenges and attracts the audience to be persuaded to the offer that occurs through writing, visual or both (Kasali, 1992: 9).

This research was keen to focus on the function of this advertising. In the researcher’s point of view, when WRP decided to no longer advertise in the mass media beside television and social media, then there are functions of advertising that have tried to be fulfilled. Identification to be made is whether there is consumer control, so

Sari Monik Agustin, Social Semiotics Analysis of Normative Body Discourse in Advertisment: A Study of Foucault’s ...

that the function of advertising is no longer just as a reminder, but also as a consumer watchdog, especially watching them in treating the body by using their products.

Therefore, it would be interesting to discuss the function of advertising associated with the body that was presented in the WRP ads from time to time, especially in TV commercials.

Methods This writing used interpretive paradigm. For interpretive researchers, the goal of social research is to develop an understanding of social life and discover how people construct meaning in a natural setting. It acquires meaning among people who share a meaning system that permits them to interpret it as a socially relevant sign or action.

The interpretive approach sees human social life as an accomplishment (Neuman, 1997: 69).

The perspective of this paper is postmodernism. Postmodernism sees knowledge as dependent on socio-cultural contexts, unacknowledged values, tacit discourse and interpretive traditions, and it recognizes the significance of language, discourse and power in any knowledge claim. Seeing research as a social construction highlights not only text and discourse, but language itself, recognizing both its mediating and its formative power (Usher in Punch, 1998: 146).

The type of research in this paper is descriptive. Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting, or relationship. The goals of descriptive research are: provide an accurate profile of a group, describe a process, mechanism, or relationship, give a verbal or numerical picture, find information to stimulate new explanations, present basic background information or a context, create a set of categories or classify types, clarify a sequence, set of stages, or steps, document information that contradicts prior beliefs about a subject (Neuman, 1997: 20).

The data analysis technique used is social semiotic analysis technique proposed

by MAK Halliday. By using this analysis technique, the data interpretation is done by identifying the context of the situation that consists of; field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse (Halliday, et.al, 1989: 10) on research data. Field of discourse refers to what is happening, where activities and social action occurred and the actors involved in the discourse. Tenor of discourse refers to anyone who is involved, what is their status and roles, relationships among them. Mode of discourse refers to language that is being played in the situation, what is the status and function of the text itself, the shape of the text, through what channels.

To facilitate data analysis techniques, the researcher divided the data into five sections, namely: 1. Narration 2. Early Screen shot No. 1 – 6 3. Screen shot slender body and smooth body no. 7 – 14 4. Screen shot toned body no. 15 – 21 5. Screen shot WRP Diet Centre, The Diet Specialist

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Result Ad Narration of WRP Diet Centre: Tubuh Idealku, kutemukan kembali di sini (My ideal body, I refine it here) Badan yang fit, kukembalikan di sini (My fit body, I return it here) Di sini, aku merasa cantik (Here, I feel pretty) Di sini rahasia kita (Here is our secret) 1. Field of Discourse Identification The field of discourse in the Narrative WRP Diet Centre TVC refers to a “spot” where the ideal body and fit body could be recovered. WRP Diet Centre is also an area in which a woman feels beautiful and this is the secret of a woman (who may or may not be known by men).

Here, it can be identified that the field of discourse lies in the discourse regarding the ideal body and a fit body, which become a symbol of beauty and the secret of the woman. The use of the word “tubuh” (body) and “badan” (flesh) are ambiguous, where the body and the flesh are seen as two different things, as Merleau-Ponty expressed his thoughts on the ambiguity of the body.

The core of Merleau-Ponty’s thinking is that man, through his body, is united with the world “outside the body”. Body becomes the centre of human existence. Humans become “There” because of their body presence. Human bodies are always located in 2 atmospheres, the atmosphere “There” – etre and the atmosphere “Having” – avoir.

The atmosphere “Having” occurs when a woman feels detached from her body, when she feels her body is not a fit body, not the body she wants. Her body is not the ideal body, she wanted. It is desirable that the body in an atmosphere of “There” in which the body becomes one with her, the ideal body emits meaning, I’m proud of my body, my body reflects self control, I can be desired as, a fit and beautiful body.

2. Tenor of Discourse identification Tenor of discourse that can be identified is a woman who feels her body is not ideal.

The other tenor is public. Based on previous studies of Agustin (2009), it is said that the socialization agents of normative body that play a role in constructing a normative body discourse are the family, peer group, educational institutions and the mass media. In the WRP ad narration, the tenor of discourse identified individuals (women/ endorser Susan Bachtiar), WRP Diet Centre (PT Nutrifood Indonesia), the advertising agency, and society.

3. Mode of Discourse Identification Mode of discourse in the WRP Centre ad is identified as the television commercials themself. According to Terence A. Shimp (2003), functions of advertising can be described as follows.

Sari Monik Agustin, Social Semiotics Analysis of Normative Body Discourse in Advertisment: A Study of Foucault’s ...

a. Advertising runs an information function, which communicates information about products, features, and location of sales. b. Advertising runs a persuading function, effective advertising, that can persuade consumers to buy certain brands or change consumer attitudes towards the product. c. Advertising runs a reminding function, means ads remind consumers about a product so that consumers will continue to buy the advertised product regardless of brand competitors. d. Advertising runs a value adding value where advertising adds value to the brand by influencing consumer perception.

The narration of WRP ad ran an informing function because it provides information about WRP Diet Centre as a place where the ideal body, fit body and beauty can be found. This ad also effectively invites audiences to discover their ideal body, fit body and beauty. Plainly, this ad also reminded the audience to remember ideal body discourses, fit body and beauty prevailing in society, and also at the same time add value by mentioning this is a woman’s secret who “should have” known by all women.

Figure 1: Interpretation of early screen shots No. 1–6

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Field of Discourse Identification Field of discourse which can be identified from screen shots no. 1-6 is a condition indicated in WRP Diet Centre whereby women will obtain fun treatment. Screen Shot nos. 1-6 also refer to WRP Diet Centre in Pacific Place, which ensures where the ideal body, fit body and beauty are found.

Screen shots no 1-2 shows the Lily flower, which blooms and symbolizes a woman’s softness, showing a calm face because she is in the right place to gain her will. Screen Shot no. 3, clearly shows the ideal slim body that fits the normative body discourse in society. Screen Shot no. 4 shows the satisfaction and desire to tell the audience about the treatment. Screen Shot no. 5 shows that here is the secret she has in achieving her ideal body; fit body and beauty which is desired. The secret is WRP Diet Centre product, a milk substitute (nutritious drink). Hence, screen shot no. 6, is to convince audiences, such activity has been done.

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Tenor of Discourse identification Tenor of discourse can be identified in the screen shots no. 1-6 woman who want to have an ideal body, fit body and beauty, WRP Diet Centre (PT Nutrifood Indonesia), the advertising agency, and the society.

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Mode of Discourse Identification Mode of discourse identified as the display of a Lily, which reveals softness, a close up of the ideal body that refers to the normative body that applies and is normal in society.

Substitute milk (nutritious drink) became a means to achieve a normative body which is targeted and WRP Diet Centre Pacific Place became the right place to be to achieve the ideal body, fit body and beauty.

Sari Monik Agustin, Social Semiotics Analysis of Normative Body Discourse in Advertisment: A Study of Foucault’s ...

Figure 2: Interpretation of screen shots slender body and smooth body no. 7–14

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Field of Discourse Identification Field of discourse in the screen shots No. 7-14, is a linking/transition discourse.

They show that the treatment received not only includes body treatments with a milk substitute to obtain ideal body but also a fit body. Other treatments such as facial care, skin treatment and relaxation are given to women who come to the WRP Diet Centre.

So in addition to ideal body, a fit body is obtained. Text shown is a slender body, smooth body, as well as information about WRP Diet Centre at Grand Indonesia and Mall Taman Anggrek. It can be said, other field of discourse is, that screen shots no 7-14 show WRP Diet Centre as a place to achieve a slender body (slim), and smooth body (soft body). Camera angles, on certain parts such as the form of treatment and curves, show the effects which will be accepted by women. Not only that, the colour was originally dominated by white, this field of discourse began with a little shade of red.

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Tenor of Discourse identification Tenor of discourse can be identified in the screen shots no. 7-14 are women who want to have an ideal body, fit body and beauty, WRP Diet Centre (PT Nutrifood Indonesia), the advertising agency, and the society.

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Mode of Discourse Identification Mode of discourse used is the display of body curves and body treatments besides milk substitute, which will be received if the women come to the WRP Diet Centre. Display of the words “Slender Body” and “Body Smooth”, as if WRP Diet Centre promises that they will find satisfaction with a slender and smooth body, as expected.

Figure 3: Interpretation of screen shots tone body no. 15–21

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Field of Discourse Identification Field of discourse in screen shots 15-21, is the women body discourse after receiving full treatment. Describing the treatment has been completed, symbolized by the colour red which has replaced white and then become dominant on the screen. White lilies are replaced by beautiful and gorgeous red roses. Women who attended and received treatment at WRP Diet Centre are guaranteed to get satisfaction and gain a toned body (quality body). Screen shot no. 20 showed the women’s satisfaction of maximum result of her body and in screen shot no. 21, the woman exited WRP Diet Centre with a happy feeling. In addition, the field of discourse shows that the final information, WRP Diet Centre can also be found in Mal Kelapa Gading.

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Tenor of Discourse identification Tenor of discourse can be identified in screen shots no. 15-21 a woman who wants to have an ideal body, fit body and beauty, WRP Diet Centre (PT Nutrifood Indonesia), the advertising agency, and the society.

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Mode of Discourse Identification Mode of discourse in screen shots 15-21 can be identified by the colours used in the screen shots that were completely dominated by red. This means that the transformation of the body that has not fully united with themselves changes into a united body and radiates self satisfaction meaning in women.

In addition, the use of the word “toned body” shows body quality has already fitted, so the body is no longer in the atmosphere “having” but already in the atmosphere of “There”, so that the meaning beaming out of the body is the meaning of happiness.

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Figure 4: Interpretation of screen shot WRP Diet Centre, The Diet Specialist 1.

Field of Discourse Identification Field of discourse on screen shot no. 22 shows the integrity of WRP Diet Centre. The success of WRP Diet Centre as a place to achieve the desired body has made WRP Diet Centre the Diet Specialist.

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Tenor of Discourse identification Tenor of discourse that can be identified is WRP Diet Centre and advertising agencies.

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Mode of Discourse Identification Mode of discourse in screen shot no. 22 is shown by the logo that dominates the screen not only that, at the bottom of the logo, there is the tagline ‘WRP Diet Centre, The Diet Specialist’. Style of language used is very convincing in that WRP Diet Centre is undoubtedly a place that can be visited in order to find lasting happiness through the ideal, fit and beautiful body.

Discussion In Halliday’s point of view, it is clearly stated that in a very concrete level, the language does not contain sentences but contains text or discourse, namely the exchange of meaning. Assessing language essentially is reviewing a text or discourse. In this research, the exchange of meaning that occurs is at the level of the existing language in the ad. It is clear that this is the study of discourse. Discourse that is being studied is the ad itself.

Broadly speaking, using Halliday’s context of situation trilogy, there are fields of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse. Field of discourse refers to what is happening, where activities and social action occurred and actors involved in the discourse. Based on these explanations, the field of discourse in WRP Diet Centre ad is the female body. Tenor of discourse refers to anyone who is involved, what is their status and roles, the relationships among them, then mode of discourse in the discussion refers to anyone involved in the construction of the female body as a normative body (read: ideal and desired), such as people, ad agencies and WRP Diet Centre (PT Nutrifood Indonesia). Mode of discourse refers to language that is being played in the situation, what is the status and function of the text itself, the shape of the text, and through what channels. In this case, the channel is oral or in writing, not in

Sari Monik Agustin, Social Semiotics Analysis of Normative Body Discourse in Advertisment: A Study of Foucault’s ...

the form of news, but television commercials. Therefore, the discourse lies in moving images, spoken and written in the commercial.

Based on the identification of the context of the situation, it is identified a discourse that can be discussed is the normalization of women’s bodies. This refers to Foucault’s thinking about how power is being put into practice through knowledge and truth and how the truth is established through practice. As seen from WRP Diet Centre TVC, the truth game played is the truth of women’s ideal bodies. Women are asked to always ‘restore’ their body to an ideal body condition, fit body and look gorgeous in accordance with a standardized normalization for the body itself.

This is a game of truth (truth games) that Foucault meant. Foucault was concerned on how power was applied in knowledge and truth and how the truth was formed through practices in society. His interest of truth was not in abstract or philosophy, but more to analyze what he called the truth games or the games of truth (Allan, 2006: 291). The word “games” did not mean truth we saw in earlier history as false or only a language construction. Something defined as “false” when “true” had been assumed previously. Due to this, Foucault examined how the truth is assumed.

The truth mentioned in truth games, includes rules, sources and practices in “the truth of human creation”2.

Normative body (ideal, fit and gorgeous) is true to the prevailing discourse, so that the body out of normative body is wrong. Herein lays the role of power. For women who do not have a normative body, although no one told them to suppress or adjust, they felt forced and should focus on that goal. This is because of the power which is hiding in normative body discourse, which is then perpetuated and appeared in a variety of discourse agents, such as family chat, peer group, educational system, or in the mass media, such as WRP Diet Centre TVC. The power was so productive that for women who did not follow the ‘truth’ of the discourse, they will always feel abnormal and wrong. This is what Foucault referred to as a power strategy. Although power is not owned, the power can be strategized in discourse, hiding in the discourse.

Discourse strategy appeared in the production of power in order to perpetuate the so-called ‘true’ and ‘normal’. One frequent power production discourse strategy is advertising. According to Foucault, advertising is a show that spreads the power (strategy) of the media on women’s body normalization. This power production is a strategy to continue to spread the discourse of slim, white skin, long straight hair, aquiline nose, and so on. Power production, relentlessly and continuously hits people so they consciously or unconsciously assume that normal women’s bodies are shaped slim, fair-skinned, long straight hair, long noses, and so forth.

More about this at : Sari Monik Agustin. (2009). Foucault dan Komunikasi: Telaah Konstruksi Wacana dan Kuasa Foucault dalam Lingkup Ilmu Komunikasi. Yogyakarta: Jurnal Ilmu Komunikasi UPN “Veteran” Yogyakarta (terakreditasi B). p. 199 - 211 2

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In the end, the discourse that took place in the power production creates categories of the rules of women’s bodies, rules that control society’s behaviour.

Finally, the power of the women’s body discourse is no longer touching the physical body, but the soul, the mind, consciousness and individual will. In the end, the ads ‘normalize’ the individual to behave in accordance with the desires of the ad-makers, thus increasing product sales targets.

WRP Diet Centre TVC is not much different. Based on previous research, admakers realized that their thoughts were directed at the ‘normal’ body that people believed to be slim and healthy. This has implications for the production of these ads that are perpetuating normative women’s body discourse that is suited to people’s belief.

Based on Foucault’s thought, the WRP Diet Centre TVC can be said to have become a power strategy, where the power is invisible and hidden. The power was found in the discourse in the TVC. The discourse is perpetuated as ‘true’ then carried to the TVC audience, and occurs in audience’s bodies. Not only that, the normative body discourse then settles and dwells in the mind and individual subjectivity of WRP Diet Centre TVC audiences.

The categories of the rules of women’s bodies as ‘true’ and ‘normal’, creates discipline and punishment for the ones who violate it. Therefore, discourse that is already present in the body, mind and individual subjectivity had to be watched.

Therefore, monitoring is needed. For the imperishable of the power, monitoring should take place continuously so that the effect is also continuous. This makes Foucault’s thoughts about panopticon very appropriately applied.

In previous studies, it is known that the family, peer group, school and mass media become agents of normative body discourse socialization. But often, social interaction is directly carried out in the family, peer group and school, producing physical punishment, such as insults and innuendo. In contrast to control, panoptic system is a form that is no longer shown by physical violence on the body. Panoptic system hides as power, not owned but public perceived and cannot be recognized. As a result, we always feel like we are being watched and there are always inspections and discipline enforcement on the matter.

There are three objectives of the establishment of a disciplinary society through this panoptic system. First, making the power operational economically cheaper, and second, politically, it is a form of invisible control. Third, maximizing the utility of pedagogy, military, industry thereby, increases compliance and usefulness of all system elements. Panoptic discipline has become an effective technique that reaches into the most intimate part of life without being able to know where it comes from.

Sari Monik Agustin, Social Semiotics Analysis of Normative Body Discourse in Advertisment: A Study of Foucault’s ...

WRP Diet Centre TVC may be included in this category. WRP Diet Centre TVC occurs as surveillance operated without having to impose sanctions. This ad perpetuates normative body power, and therefore a form of discipline against women who do not have a normative body, becoming very easy and cheap. This is a form of control that is invisible. For example, with the aim of reducing obesity rates in women, the ads can be panopticized for that purpose. This ad can also improve adherence in women who have a body either normative or not, so that normative body discourse can continue to be perpetuated and powerful.

Panoptic disciplines are different to regular surveillance, because this system is an effective technique that reaches the most intimate part of life without being able to know where it comes from. For example, there is a woman who eats secretly in her room. Later, she was eating in front of the television that showed WRP Diet Centre TVC, she later felt guilty and stopped eating; this then shows that the WRP Diet Centre TVC has successfully become panoptic in the women’s lives.

Conclusion The conclusion showed panopticism occurred in the three-context of situations. Field of discourse of WRP Diet Centre TVC was a woman’s body. The tenor of discourse referred to the parties involved in constructing the normative body discourse such as, society, media, advertising agency, and advertiser. Mode of discourse occurred in the TVC’s audio-visual. This research also identified truth games in normative (ideal) body discourse, and appeared as the power strategy to perpetuate the discourse. Eventually, it is interesting to see that advertising functions such as informing, persuading, reminding and value adding, may have to be considered in panoptic discipline as another way to participate in perpetuating discourses in society.

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References Agustin, Sari Monik. (2009). Foucault dan Komunikasi: Telaah Konstruksi Wacana dan Kuasa Foucault dalam Lingkup Ilmu Komunikasi. Yogyakarta: Jurnal Ilmu Komunikasi UPN “Veteran” Yogyakarta (terakreditasi B).

Allan, Kenneth. (2006). Contemporary Social and Sociological Theory. California: Pine Forge Press, Sage Publications, Inc. Beardsworth, A. & Keil, T. (1997). Sociology on the menu. London: Routledge.

Daoren. (2006). “Orang Gemuk Lebih Gampang Depresi”, dalam http://community. siutao.com/archive/index.php/t-1794.html, Aug 7, 2006, 21:51, accessed on 03/10/2012, 06:25 Fajar, A. (2011). Unik, WRP ‘Tinggalkan’ Promo Radio dan Cetak. Retrieved 03 Oct. 2012, from http://swa.co.id/updates/unik-wrp-tinggalkan-promo-radio-dancetak Pangkahila, W. (2005). Seks orang gemuk, KOMPAS Cyber Media, Kamis, Dec 8, 2005, 12:12 WIB, accessed on 03/10/2012, 06:10.

Gamble, S. (2004). Feminisme dan Postfeminisme. Yogyakarta: Jalasutra Halliday, M.A.K, Ruqaiya Hasan & Frances Christie. (1989). Language, Context, and Text: Aspects of Language in Social Semiotic Perspective. USA: Oxford University Press Jefkins, F. (1997). Periklanan. Ed 3. Jakarta: Erlangga.

Kasali, R. (1992). Manajemen periklanan konsep dan aplikasi di Indonesia. Jakarta: PT Pustaka Utama Grafiti.

Lee, M. & Johnson, C. (1999). Prinsip-prinsip pokok periklanan dalam perspektif global.

Jakarta: Kencana Prenade Media Group Melliana, A. S. (2006). Menjelajah tubuh: Perempuan dan mitos kecantikan. Yogyakarta: LkiS Neuman, W. Lawrence. (1997). Social Research Methods. 3rd ed. USA: Allyn and Bacon.

Punch, Keith F. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Great Britain: Sage Publications, Inc. Rahayu, E. M. (2011). WOM memberikan efek besar. Retrieved 03 Oct. 2012 from http://swa.co.id/updates/wom-memberikan-efek-besar Shimp, T. A. (2003). Periklanan promosi (Jilid 1). Jakarta: Penerbit Erlangga.

Sunarto, K. (2009). Sosiologi kesehatan. Jakarta: Penerbit Universitas Terbuka.

Watson, D. L., deBortali-Tregerthan, G. & Frank, J. (1984). Social Psychology. USA: Scott, Foresman, and Company.

Wolf, M. A., Nichols, S., & Decelle, D. F. (1997). Mass media, body, self: How women of different sexual orientations relates to mass media’s construction of body.

Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Western States Communication Association, Monterey, CA.

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CIVIL SOCIETY: A STUDY OF JÜRGEN HABERMAS’S THEORY OF DELIBERATIVE DEMOCRACY Alexander Seran1 Abstract The concept of civil society has gained common acceptance in recent years, not just within adult education in universities to enable and prepare young people as moral persons but also in organizational management, industrial training, and political decision-making to empower citizens as moral agents and social actors. It is about the notion of enabling people to take control of their own lives and to free themselves from the structures which dominate and constrain. But in the debate about people becoming empowered there has been an absence of a discussion about the nature of inter-subjective relationship and solidarity as it is rooted in communicative practice of everyday life-world. This paper attempts to clarify the nature of inter-subjectivity and solidarity within existing social subsystems and struggling for mutual recognition by re-coupling independent social subsystems within the communicative structure of the life-world. Jürgen Habermas’s work on civil society highlights an essential tension in modern democracy. It is the tension between the normative and the real, morality and law, life-world and system or administered world, communicative action and strategic action, or discourse and systematically distorted communication. Understanding this tension is crucial to understanding modern democracy, what it is and what it ought to be.

Keywords: Habermas, civil society, communicative action, liberal political culture Abstrak Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir konsep masyarakat madani telah memperoleh penerimaan umum, tidak hanya dalam pendidikan orang dewasa di perguruan tinggi dalam mengaktifkan dan mempersiapkan kaum muda sebagai pribadi yang bermoral, tetapi juga dalam manajemen organisasi , pelatihan industri , dan politik pengambilan keputusan untuk memberdayakan warga sebagai agen moral dan aktor sosial. Ini adalah gagasan yang memungkinkan orang untuk mengambil kendali atas kehidupan mereka sendiri dan untuk membebaskan diri dari struktur yang mendominasi dan membatasi. Namun dalam perdebatan tentang orang-orang yang diberdayakan, tidak adanya suatu diskusi tentang sifat hubungan antar - subyektif dan solidaritas seperti yang berakar dalam praktek komunikatif dari dunia kehidupan sehari-hari.

Tulisan ini mencoba untuk menjelaskan sifat antar subjektivitas dan solidaritas dalam subsistem sosial yang ada dan berjuang untuk adanya saling pengakuan dengan memasangkan kembali subsistem sosial yang mandiri dalam struktur komunikatif dari dunia kehidupan. Karya Jürgen Habermas pada masyarakat madani menyoroti ketegangan penting dalam demokrasi modern . Ini adalah ketegangan antara normatif dan nyata, moralitas dan hukum, dunia-kehidupan dan sistem atau yang diberikan dunia, tindakan komunikatif dan tindakan strategis, atau wacana dan komunikasi sistematis yang terdistorsi . Memahami ketegangan ini sangat penting untuk memahami apa dan bagaimana seharusnya demokrasi modern itu.

Kata kunci : Habermas , masyarakat sipil, tindakan komunikatif, budaya politik liberal

Associate Professor at Atma Jaya Center for Philosophy and Ethics, Universitas Katolik Indonesia Atma Jaya Corresponding Author : Universitas Katolik Indonesia Atma Jaya Jl. Jend. Sudirman 51, Jakarta 12930 Tel./Fax 021-5708808, email: katipunanku@yahoo.com 1

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Introduction Jürgen Habermas was born on 18 June 1929 in Düsserdorf, Germany. He received his doctoral degree in philosophy at the University of Heidelberg in 1956 under the supervisory of E. Rothacker (Apel, 1994, p.xii). He joined the well-known intellectual circle of Critical Theory in 1964 and became an assistant of M. Horkheimer at the Institute for Social Research (Institut für Sozialforschung) which is today known as Frankfurt School (der frankfurter Schule). He succeeded T.W.Adorno as the chairperson at the Frankfurt School in 1964 as the most deserving and capable critical social theorist in the second generation of the School (Kelner, 1989, p.207). Habermas commenced to intensify an inquiry on a Critical Social Theory to replace Critical Theory from its entrenchment in the misunderstanding of modern rationality as only an expression of instrumental reason (Adorno and Horkheimer, 1979, p.120). Habermas’s concern is to defend modern rationality as various forms of rationality according to communities, economic and political institutions. His Theory of Communicative Action (1994) aims to rearticulate the emancipatory potential of a universal claim rooted in various forms of rationality to be attained through communicative action.

Theory of Communicative Action takes into account that differentiation processes in the life-world into various social subsystems indicate a crisis situation which is both danger and opportunity. In the Legitimation Crisis (1973) Habermas defends such crisis situation as legitimate. For him, a crisis is legitimate to deal with as the modern condition of the plurality of social subsystems which is on the one hand dangerous because crisis is possible of disorienting social action to narrow egocentric calculations of success through the strategic motives of political and economic powers. But on the other hand, crisis becomes an opportunity for a society to exist as whole through social action because a non-social action cannot last any social subsystem apart from co-operation and communication with others. Co-operation, inter-subjectivity, and solidarity express the pre-existence of language that makes social differentiation into various forms of social subsystem possible. Thus, the role of language is to communicate and communication is by nature to reach understanding.

The pre-existence of language is therefore “always-already” (immer schon) within society. It is ahead of and expressed by social action (soziale Aktion) when people seek a definition about a situation that they may accept on the basis of better argument (besser Argument) not best argument. This argument is developed into a procedure that Habermas calls discourse ethics (Diskurzethik) which is a practical discourse that involves civil society, economy, and politics in seeking consensus by generalization of good reasons. Agreement through exchange of good reasons is what deliberative democracy is all about.

Method This article is written in a hermeneutical style. Following Habermas’s method of Discourse Ethics (DE), deliberative democracy is treated as rational reconstruction of good reasons exchanged by civil society, economic, and political institutions before they come to political decision-making in modern constitutional states. Political decision-making has the force of normative claim only if it is attained by agreement in public discourse. Such agreement is coterminous with communicative imperative and

Alexander Seran, Civil Society: A Study of Jßrgen Habermas’s Theory of Deliberative Democracy

therefore holding the validity of political imperative in the formulation of the rule of law as the legal system that reflects the morality of the private spheres in the life-world.

The existence of law and morality is interrelated in the sense that law cannot exist without morality vice versa. This co-existence explains an equiprimordial relationship between the validity claim of norms and the objectivity of rules and regulations. This means that the imperative of the rule of law (Sollen) is validated by the better argument of a communicative reason (Geltung). In other words, good laws are laws that reflect morality (Sollgeltung). Based on this logic, Habermas develops a procedure of making validity claims of law on the basis of communicative reason as universalized perspectives of all concerned. For Habermas, the claim of validity of law cannot be based solely on prescriptions of universal principle (U) rather on achievement of universalized principle through discourse (D). In Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action (1991), Habermas elaborates that every valid norm has to fulfill the following condition:

(U) All affected can accept the consequences and the side effects its general observance can be anticipated to have for the satisfaction of everyone’s (and these consequences are preferred to those of known alternative possibilities for regulation.

Universal principle (U) is distinguished from discourse principle (D) which stipulates the basic idea of moral theory (theoretical discourse) but does not form part of a logic of argumentation (practical discourse).

(D) Only those norms can claim to be valid that meet or could meet with the approval of all affected in their capacity as participants in a practical discourse.

Figure 1. The rational reconstruction of the equiprimordial or co-original relationship between law and morality Discourse (D) Principle CS SN

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Universal (U) Principle

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Deliberative Democracy (DD) is a Constitutional System (CS) that places a high premium on positive laws to be legitimized by opinions and will formation involving the State, civil society, and the economy. Traditional Western constitutionalism in both Liberal Democracy (LD) and Republican Democracy (RD) is developed under utilitarian and pragmatic considerations in such a way that they are no longer able to promote the popular sovereignty. DD aims to promote the popular sovereignty in which the self-legislation society can be realized through participation of citizens in discourse. Discourse takes place in the public sphere in which private spheres of ethical worldviews in the Life-world (LW) and the System-world (SW) are given opportunity to make their claims in exchange with one another to arrive at Social Norms (SN) by a consensus that is agreed by arguments. This is what discourse ethics is all about.

Communicative Structures of the Life world The life-world is a universe of what is self-evident or given in everyday life experience of communication through the use of language. This experience is “always-already” pre-existing individual actors. In other word, it is a common world that subjects may experience together. It is the “we” in phenomenological accounts.

1. E. Husserl referred to it as a collective inter-subjective pool of perceiving (Lebenswelt).

2. H. Gadamer referred to it as everyday experience of commonsense (Erlebnis).

3. W. Dilthey referred to it as the “life-nexus” (Lebensuzammenhang).

4. M. Heidegger referred to it as Being-in-the-world (in der Welt-Sein).

In sociology, the life-world is understood as the horizon of all our experiences or the background on which all things appear as themselves and meaningful. The life-world is a dynamic background in which we live, and which “lives with us” in the sense that nothing can appear in our life-world except as lived.

1. G. Shültz understood it as an actual circumstance of life conditions (Lebenslage).

2. P. Bourdieu understood it as habitus (which is basically involving the meaning of everyday life experience within communities).

3. G.H. Mead understood it as a universal exchange based on the idea of the “generalized other” or “ideal role-taking”.

4. Habermas understood it as communicative action that involves both subjective construct about a personal world and external influences from an objective world.

In short, communicative structure of the life-world pre-exists and thus determines the nature of human being as the subject who is capable of speaking and acting. By speaking, one is capable to unveil his/her personal construct of the world before a public whereas by acting one expresses his/her capability through coordination of actions and exchange of ideas that may generalize mutual understanding (Verstehen).

This is the speech-act situation that may bring social actors into solidarity of action. In Communication and the Evolution of Society (1979) Habermas says, ….anyone acting communicatively must, in performing any speech-action, raise universal validity claims and suppose that they can be vindicated. Insofar as he

Alexander Seran, Civil Society: A Study of Jürgen Habermas’s Theory of Deliberative Democracy

wants to participate in a process of reaching understanding, he cannot avoid raising the following—and indeed precisely the following—validity claim. He claims to be uttering something understandably; giving the hearer something to understand; making himself thereby understandable; and coming to an understanding with one another.

Systemic Structures of Power and Money The system-worlds come to existence through the mediation of strategic actions that orient to form a systemic integration established by objective standards in political administration and economic management. For Habermas, the establishment of system integration through the objective power of economic and political administration is considered as partly effective within each societal subsystem but when it comes to the problem of social integration of the whole society then the mediation through communicative power is the privilege.

Habermas refers communicative power to a concept of rationality that shapes knowledge in a speech-act situation to guide social actions. This kind of rationality is generalized from the “many” (not the one) in their position as participants who interact with one another oriented to reach mutual understanding. In the Theory of Communicative Action (1984), Habermas says: …the concept of communicative action refers to the interaction of at least two subjects capable of speech and action who establish interpersonal relations (whether by verbal or by extra verbal means). The actors seek to reach an understanding about the action situation and their plans of action in order to coordinate their actions by way of agreement. The central concept of interpretation refers in the first instance to negotiating definitions of the situation which admit of consensus.

Habermas assures that if a state is intended to be constitutional then laws are required to meet democratic principles which are thoroughly set by discursive willformation and involving all societal subsystems. The attainment of this goal requests norms that are free from any form of domination and participants that are “rationally motivated” individuals. The only force involves in exchanging of ideas is the “unforced force of the better argument”. It means participants are engaged in the “cooperative search for mutual understanding”.

The idea of deliberative democracy refers to a constitutional system which is beyond liberal and republican democracy established in the aftermath of both the American Revolution (1775-1786) and French Revolution (1780-1789). Both liberal and republican forms of democracy gradually gained acceptance in a growing number of modern States from the end of seventies to the present.

In Between Facts and Norms (1996) Habermas works out the legal and political implications of discourse ethics. According to Habermas, liberal democracy places a high premium on individual liberties to enjoy economic interests whereas republican

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democracy places a high premium to a welfare State. As a consequence, liberal democracy strengthens individual liberties over society while republican democracy strengthens social liberties over individual actors. By reformulating Kant’s idea of the self-legislation in liberal democracy and Rousseau’s concept of the general will in republican democracy, Habermas tries a make a reconstructive approach to the idea of constitutionalism in which individual rights and public rights are place equal and presupposed each other. This is made to shed light to what deliberative democracy is. It is a democratic procedures that place a high premium on individual rights while treating individual rights only as the reverse side of the public rights. Habermas thinks about deliberative democracy is not well developed in the liberal and republican democracies shown in contemporary political and legal discourses. For examples: 1. Republican democracy gives emphasis on the separation of power in which for example N. Luhmann’s concept of autopoietic system articulates law as an operative closure. As the results, Luhman’s theory of law becomes an exclusive environment controlled solely by the administration of justice and free from the intervention of political power and ordinary citizens (Luhmann, 1993).

Autopoiesis means that law describes its own components and produces legal acts by its own means independent of democratic assessment. Legal norms and legal acts thereby cut all connections between legal authorities and citizens. By this, Luhmann drops the notion of legitimacy of law from the process of opinion and will formation, and radicalizes it through a closed system in the strict sense of positivism.

2. Legal systems become privileged actions by the judges and the effectiveness of law to achieve certainty and impartiality only if legal systems operate without the intervention of the outside world. Liberal democracy too gives emphasis on the right to equal liberties. In his book Law’s Empire (1995) R. Dworkin explains the concept of law. According Dworkin, law aims at formulating a system of rights.

Dworkin’s theory of law is based on the system of rights embodies valid laws in general. Dworkin then refers to his theory as a government by law rather than the rule of law. A government by law does not take the position of citizens as its basic standard of validity. Lawmaking is confined to the implementation of regulations, with no questions on how such regulations were set.

In deliberative democracy, Habermas develops a constitutional paradigm determines how basic rights and constitutional principles are to be understood and how they can be realized in the context of contemporary society. Deliberative democracy unlike liberal and republican democracies is developed in the life-world shared by legal authorities and ordinary citizens. Only in the communicative lifeworld, laws are legitimized to place individual and public rights in a constitutional system. Deliberative democracy deals constitutionalism of political system in which civil society becomes the central power of legitimacy of positive laws. Habermas says that the concept of law in modern constitutional states is enacted law, which claims to be legitimate in terms of its possible justification as well as binding in its interpretation and enforcement. Unlike post-conventional morality, law does not just represent type of cultural knowledge but constitutes at the same time an important core of institutional orders. Law is two things: a system of knowledge and a system

Alexander Seran, Civil Society: A Study of Jürgen Habermas’s Theory of Deliberative Democracy

of action. The aim of deliberative democracy is to expand citizens’ participation in political decision-making. Therefore the structural element in deliberative democracy is the rise of robust civil society.

Civil Society and Deliberative Democracy What civil society is?

The concept of civil society was first brought into rational discourses through T. Hobbes’ theory of social contract as the theory about civitas.

1. In his book Leviathan (1651), Hobbes explained that civitas is the civil state by which the passions that incline men to peace and self-conservation can be attained. Civitas is the result of social contract by individuals to end the state of nature in which each individual is dependent for his security on his own strength and his own wits (Coplestone, 1994). Civitas is the state of civil law by which the organization of society and the establishment of the commonwealth can be attained.

2. I. Kant develops the idea of civitas in his political philosophy as the idea of a macro subject. Civitas is considered persona civitatis and therefore the interest of the State is beyond individuals’ interests. In this sense, Kant did not allow a revolutionary act to happen in a State in order to prevent chaos.

3. W.F. Hegel distinguished civil society from the corporations and the state. Civil society consists of private and particular ethical life-worlds of the people. The state is beyond civil society and corporations and therefore the state becomes an absolute ethical life (Sittlichkeit). As an absolute ethical life, the State acts become the sole arbiter of laws and the voice of the whole society (Hegel, 1952, p.68).

4. K. Marx advocates the liberation of civil society from the State by abolishing the class structures perpetuated by the ruling class (Marx, 1932:. For Marx, laws must be based on considerations of the working class in order to nurture a condition that is humane for the socially and politically deprived masses. For him, the masses must acquire class consciousness in order to have access to the technologies needed to transcend the bureaucracy.

Habermas develops a concept of civil society to be grounded in the communicative structure of the life-world. But the conditions lie in life-world contexts limit from within the capacity of associated citizens to organize their common life for themselves. This means that what ultimately enables a legal community’s discursive mode of coming to an agreement is not simply at the disposition of the members’ will. Civil society as the non-government and non-economic voluntary associations of citizen needs to enter public discussion with the government and economic institutions in determining laws for society as a whole. Therefore understanding of civil society means empowerment of citizens to be able to participate in the political public sphere (politische Öffentlichkeit). This is the struggle for recognition of communicative power in political decision-making that necessitates participation of citizens, economic and political institutions. The concept political public sphere is not restricted to a public place rather a condition that allows people to talk. The concept of political public sphere refers more to a description of a sounding board for problems that must be

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processed by democratic system of a constitutional state. In Bettween Facts and Norms (1996) Habermas restates the notion of the political public sphere not as a place or an institution but a concept of social order. It is a network of communicating information and points of view that is the social space generated in communicative action. Civil society is the structural element in deliberative democracy when the legal system must take into consideration the picture of a complex society like ours.

The goal of civil society The goal of civil society is to expand people’s participation in political decision-making through the public and other inclusive processes of opinion and will formation. As an associational network, civil society reflects the communicative structure of the lifeworld to speak up the social ills in society through solidarity, social movements, and mass media. .

1. Solidarity is characterized by the unreflective attitude of the life-world of communities that brings together subjects as members of a community (Gemeinschaft). This is the primary form of solidarity can be represented (vertretbaren Solidarität) by any other member in the life-world of communities.

As society changes, the primary form of solidarity also changes into a higher level of solidarity as the reflective attitude of solidarity in various forms of social subsystems (Gesellschaft).This kind of solidarity cannot be represented (unvertretbaren Solidarität) by anyone because everyone has his/her own right to free associations. Habermas speaks of solidarity in the level of secondary form of solidarity. Civil society as a social subsystem deals with the secondary form of solidarity that calls for non-governmental and non-economic associations of citizens NGOs) or non-governmental individuals (NGIs) to engage in a cooperative project of legitimizing valid claims with economic and political institutions through discourse in the public domain.

2. Social movement is part of civil society’s expression of solidarity in the secondary form of solidarity as social action. Through social movements civil society can influence the political public sphere in two respects through programs that rearrange the political system (offensive influence) and through the protection of personal identities from the ill effects of laws that are enacted through the steering media of power and money (defensive influence). a. The influence of civil society on the political public sphere is considered as offensive if the social movement is conducted through well-arranged programs aimed at influencing the lawmaking process in the public domain.

The participation of ordinary citizens in offensive movements underscores the need to shift the locus of lawmaking, from the system-world to the political public sphere. The State, the economy, and civil society have to share a deliberative lawmaking paradigm that requires each of them to serve as a cooriginal author of law. b. The influence of civil society on the public sphere is of a defensive orientation if ordinary citizens react to the mechanistic integration of political power and economy that tend to intervene in their personal identities, and to manipulate them easily into accepting laws which are inimical to their interests. Defensive movements of civil society therefore constitute an operative mechanism that

Alexander Seran, Civil Society: A Study of Jürgen Habermas’s Theory of Deliberative Democracy

ensures citizens’ participation in political decision-making. They remind the State of its responsibility to consider the reflections of private individuals in the lawmaking process. In their triadic engagement, the State, the economy, and ordinary citizens have the opportunity to accept one another as respectable co-equals in formulating and legitimizing laws.

Through its offensive and defensive movements, civil society shows itself as composed of voluntary associations that participate in political and economic discourses not to seize power or gain economic interests but to enlarge their participation in ensuring that political and economic affairs will fulfill their goals for the general interest. It is important to note, however, that not all noneconomic and nongovernment organizations can be considered as part of civil society, since some of them may be noneconomic and nongovernmental in structure but aim to seize power and gain economic interests.

In Post-National Constellation (2001), Habermas develops the concept of solidarity in modern societies. Form him, solidarity has two primary concrete forms: the civic and the political. Civic solidarity takes place in the life-world of civil society, while political solidarity operates in the public sphere. Public discussions can lead to the formation of public opinion in aid of lawmaking in the political public sphere.

Habermas adds another concrete form of solidarity, which he calls cosmopolitan solidarity in the post-national constellation. This refers to the need for international communities to mutually interact in regulating benefits based on international standards of human rights. i. Social solidarity movements were formed as initial responses to natural calamities as well as to socio-ecological man-made problems, to mention a few. Social solidarity movements then are not organized to seize power and satisfy economic interests but to express love, care, and help to the least advantaged. In this sense, social solidarity is an expression of a collective consciousness of those who are affected by the misery of their fellow human beings. ii. The academe and political educators can best contribute to the empowerment of ordinary citizens with critical reflection. Developing competence in speaking, reading, and writing, citizens are equipped to argue for their interests and, in the process, differentiate and rationalize the life-world. Civil society, given its resources, can serve as an effective mediating agent in political solidarity-building. Together with the State and the economy, it can fulfill an empowering role in realigning law and democracy.

3. Mass media becomes the focal point in Habermas’s work The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (1989) in bringing society into the secondary form of solidarity to transform modern liberal and republican democratic forms into deliberative form of democracy to take place in modern constitutional states. Today, the term “public” is understood with a renewed meaning and is referred to as a general accessibility that engages the State and private citizens in decision-making processes. “Public” means, in principle, open to all.

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Challenges of civil society In practice, the ability to access and engage in what is public requires awareness through reading, listening, and viewing what is happening in the public domain. The use of mass media has scaled up and expanded further to facilitate public opinion and will formation in decision-making processes. Habermas sees that the mass media has become the core means of public opinion and will formation. Through publicity agents, electronic mass communication, and various forms of gathering information, a sophisticated reading public has emerged, upholding a wide range of local, national, regional, and international perspectives that allows for the sharing of realities and development of bonds between and across cultural communities. The easy access to various forms of mass media has weakened the power of censorship by the State over the citizens’ right to free speech and free press. Media has become a powerful tool of the community of readers, writers, and listeners for influencing the actions of the State. In effect, it has become an equalizing agent in the political public domains, empowering ordinary citizens to engage the State as a co-equal party in a rational discourse in aid of lawmaking.

For Habermas, the mass media is the rational and democratic means to obtain a liberal political culture where ordinary citizens are organized to engage with the State and economy in deliberative lawmaking. It propels the formation of social movements in the public domain to present the interests of ordinary citizens to the State and the economy. Civil society movements provide opportunities for ordinary citizens to use the media as a means of communicative exchange that defines the generalized interest.

The use of media in formulating the concerns of civil society vis-Ă -vis the State and the economy helps in articulating social movements, both offensive and defensive.

Conclusion The democratic process of lawmaking through discourse strengthens solidarity among the state, the economy, and civil society as interconnected social subsystems in communicative action in making validity claims of laws to embody the common interests. Mass media becomes a medium for the development of a liberal-political culture. Through mass media civil society meets its primary goal, which is neither to seize political power from the State nor to gain economic interests but to bring ordinary citizens as a co-equal party of the state and economy into the mainstream of political decision-making.

Alexander Seran, Civil Society: A Study of Jürgen Habermas’s Theory of Deliberative Democracy

References Adorno, T. and Horkheimer, M. (1979). Dialectic of Enlightenment, translated from German text Dialektik der Aufklärung by John Cumming (Verso Editions).

Coplestone, F. (1994). A History of Philosophy: The British Philosophers from Hobbes to Hume, vol. 5, Image Books.

Dworkin, R. (1995). Law’s Empire. Harvard University Press.

Habermas, J. (1973).Legitimation Crisis, translated from German text Legitimationsprobleme im Spätkapitalismus Legitimationsprobleme im Spätkapitalismus by Thomas MacCarthy. Boston: Beacon Press.

Habermas, J. (1979). Communication and the Evolution of Society, translated from German text Sprachpragmatik und Philosophie und Zur Rekonstruktion des Historischen Materialismus by Thomas McCarthy. Boston: Beacon Press.

Habermas, J. (1987). The Theory of Communicative Action: Life-world and System, a Critique of Functionalist Reason, vol. 2, translated from German text Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns, Band 2, Zur Kritik der funktionalistischen Vernunft

by Thomas MacCarthy. Boston: Beacon Press.

Habermas, J. (1989). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, translated from German text Strukturwandel der Öffentlicheit by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1989.

Habermas, J. (1991). Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action, translated from German text Moralbewusstsein und kommunikatives Handeln by Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.

(1996) Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy, translated from German text Faktizität und Geltung: Beträge zur Diskurstheorie des rechts und des demokratischen Rechtsstaats by William Rehg.

Cambridge: Polity Press.

Habermas, J. (2001). The Postnational Constallation:Political Essays, translated from German text Die posnationale Konstellation: Politische Essays by Max Pensky.

Cambridge: MIT Press.

Hegel, G.W.F. (1952). Philosophy of Right . Chicago: The University of Chicago.

Hobbes, T (1994). Leviathan. London: Everyman (New edition).

Ibana, R.R.A. (1993). Solidarity and Social Analysis (A Dissertation on Max Scheler’s Social Philosophy) Quezon City: Cardinal Bea Institute.

Ibana, R.R.A. (1997). Civil Society and the Principle of Solidarity edited by Wang Miaoyang et al., Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change 5 (3).

Ibana, R.R.A. (2001). Solidarity, Information Technology, and People Power. Humanitas Asiatica, 1 (2).

Apel, K.O. (1994). Selected Essays, vol. I, edited by Eduardo Mendieta (New Jersey: Humanities Press.

Kelner, D. (1989). Critical Theory, Marxism and Modernity. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Pres.

Luhmann, N. (2000). Art as A Social System. Stanford University Press.

Mendieta, E. (Ed.) (1994) Selectected Esaays, vol. I, New Jersey: Humanities Press.

Marx, K. (1932.) Capital: The Communist Manifesto. New York: The Modern Library.

Ibana, Rainer R. A (1993) Solidarity and Social Analysis (A Dissertation on Max Scheler’s Social Philosophy) Quezon City: Cardinal Bea Institute.See also Ibana, Rainer R. A (1997) “Civil Society and the Principle of Solidarity,” edited by Wang Miaoyang et al., Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change 5 (3); Ibana, Rainier R. A (2001). “Solidarity, Information Technology, and People Power,” in Humanitas Asiatica, 1 (2).

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GAYA RETORIKA PESERTA KONVENSI CALON PRESIDEN PARTAI DEMOKRAT DALAM MEMBANGUN PERSONAL BRANDING MELALUI FACEBOOK Rizky Kertanegara1 Abstract In order to face presidential election 2014, Partai Demokrat (Democrat Party) has organized a national convention to elect their president’s candidate. This study researches how the rhetorical style of political communication is among convention participants who come from different backgrounds (civilian and military). The object of this research is the Facebook Pages of Anies Baswedan, Gita Wirjawan, and Pramono Edhie Wibowo using qualitative content analysis. The results showed that each candidate’s rhetorical style still uses background experience, mastery, and insights as their personal branding. This still makes the nuance of civil and military as personal branding among the candidates’ of convention.

Keywords: political communication, rhetorical style, personal branding, facebook Abstrak Dalam menghadapi pemilihan presiden 2014, Partai Demokrat melaksanakan suatu konvensi nasional untuk memilih kandidat calon presidennya. Penelitian ini ingin melihat bagaimana gaya retorika komunikasi politik para peserta konvensi dari latar belakang sipil dan militer dalam membangun personal branding. Objek penelitiannya adalah Facebook Page dari Anies Baswedan, Gita Wirjawan, dan Pramono Edhie Wibowo dengan menggunakan metode penelitian studi kasus. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa masing-masing gaya retorika kandidat masih berdasarkan pengalaman, penguasaan, dan wawasan profesi mereka. Hal ini membuat personal branding diantara para kandidat konvensi calon presiden Partai Demokrat masih bernuansa sipil (akademik, birokrat) dan militer.

Kata kunci: komunikasi politik, gaya retorika, personal branding, facebook

Program Studi Ilmu Komunikasi, Universitas Paramadina, Jakarta.

Korespondensi Penulis: Email: rizkykertanegara@lecturer.paramadina.ac.id

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Pendahuluan Pemilihan Umum Legislatif baru saja selesai dilaksanakan pada 9 April 2014 yang lalu. Komisi Pemilihan Umum (KPU) telah menetapkan PDIP sebagai pemenang, disusul Golkar, dan Gerindra. Partai Demokrat sebagai partai incumbent mengalami penurunan perolehan suara yang sangat drastis, hanya memperoleh sekitar 10 persen suara. Penurunan perolehan suara ini mencapai 50 persen dari perolehan suara pada pemilu 2009 yang mencapai 20,85 persen. Hal ini tentu berpengaruh pada penyelengaraan konvensi calon presiden yang diselenggarakan partai Demokat.

Selain memilih calon presiden, mekanisme konvensi yang hanya dilakukan oleh partai Demokrat ini sebenarnya juga ditujukan untuk menarik perhatian pemilih pada pemilihan umum legislatif lalu. Meskipun ada beberapa desakan dari internal partai untuk membatalkan konvensi, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono selaku ketua Majelis Tinggi partai Demokrat tetap melanjutkannya (Afrido, 2014). Skenario lain bisa terjadi jika partai Demokrat berhasil menggandeng beberapa partai menengah untuk mengajukan alternatif calon presiden ke-4, selain Joko Widodo, Aburizal Bakrie, dan Prabowo Subianto.

Konvensi calon presiden partai Demokrat ini diikuti oleh sebelas peserta yang berasal dari berbagai latar belakang. Mereka adalah Ali Masykur Musa (Anggota BPK), Anies Baswedan (Rektor Universitas Paramadina), Dahlan Iskan (Menteri BUMN), Dino Patti Djalal (Dubes RI untuk AS), Endriartono Sutarto (mantan Panglima TNI), Gita Wirjawan (Menteri Perdagangan), Hayono Isman (anggota DPR), Irman Gusman (Ketua DPD RI), Marzuki Allie (Ketua DPR), Pramono Edhie Wibowo (mantan KASAD), dan Sinyo Sarundajang (Gubernur Sulawesi Utara).

Menarik untuk melihat peta kompetisi diantara para kandidat konvensi ini, karena sejak diumumkan sebagai peserta konvensi pada 15 September 2013, para kandidat mulai melakukan komunikasi politik dengan citra yang mereka miliki melalui berbagai media. Salah satu media yang digunakan oleh para kandidat ini adalah media sosial Facebook. Penggunaan media sosial semacam Facebook ini menjadi penting di era internet karena menjadi sebuah cara baru yang mudah dan praktis bagi para politisi untuk berinteraksi sosial dalam kehidupan berpolitik.

Meskipun sebelumnya telah memiliki akun Facebook Page, para peserta konvensi mulai melakukan berbagai perubahan dengan menampilkan foto profil dan foto sampul yang berhubungan dengan konvensi. Lini massa (time line) para kandidat pun mulai berisikan gaya retorika yang terkait dengan pemilihan konvensi calon presiden ini.

Rizky Kertanegara, Gaya Retorika Peserta Konvensi Calon Presiden Partai Demokrat Dalam Membangun Personal ...

Gambar 1: Halaman Facebook Anis Baswedan

Sumber: Facebook.com

Gambar 2: Halaman Facebook Gita Wiryawan

Sumber: Facebook.com

Gambar 3: Halaman Facebook Pramono Edhie WIbowo

Sumber: Facebook.com

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Gaya retorika merupakan bagian tak terpisahkan dari komunikasi politik agar masyarakat tertarik dan merasa dekat. Gaya retorika para peserta konvensi ini tentu berbeda-beda karena mereka datang dari berbagai latar belakang. Maka, penelitian ini berfokus pada gaya retorika peserta konvensi berdasarkan pada latar belakang profesi atau pekerjaan mereka masing-masing. Hal ini menjadi menarik karena para peserta konvensi ini dapat digolongkan ke dalam dua kelompok besar, yakni kelompok sipil (yang terdiri atas akademisi dan birokrat), dan militer.

Seperti diketahui, dikotomi sipil dan militer dalam menentukan calon presiden yang pantas memimpin masih terjadi hingga saat ini, baik di kalangan internal partai politik, pengamat politik, sampai rakyat pemegang langsung hak suara pemilihan presiden. Vermonte (2004) menyatakan tentang dikotomi sipil dan militer: “Ada tiga hal mengapa dikotomi sipil dan militer masih relevan. Pertama, militer hanyalah instrumen yang diciptakan oleh negara dan hanya digunakan oleh negara, bukan sebaliknya. Kedua, karakter keduanya bertentangan secara diametral. Anggota militer dilatih untuk dapat membunuh secara efektif (trained to kill), dikembangkan dalam struktur dan disiplin komando yang tegas, serta hierarki yang ketat. Sebaliknya, kelompok sipil, termasuk di dalamnya birokrasi sebagai civil servant, harus terus-menerus dilatih untuk menjadi pelayan masyarakat (trained to serve). Selain itu, sipil juga didorong untuk berkarakter egalitarian, plural, menghargai perbedaan, dan menghindari uniformitas. Ketiga, yang paling penting, bahwa Indonesia belum memiliki sebuah undang-undang yang mengatur TNI sebagai institusi, untuk menghindarkan TNI sebagai instrumen negara terseret dalam kepentingan dan permainan politik jangka pendek pihak tertentu, baik politikus murni sipil maupun politikus berlatar belakang militer (purnawirawan)� (Vermonte, 2013).

Beberapa peserta konvensi calon presiden Partai Demokrat menyatakan bahwa dikotomi sipil dan militer sebenarnya sudah tidak relevan lagi. Para peserta konvensi pun punya pendapat yang sama. Pramono Edhie Wibowo menyatakan bahwa tidak boleh ada dikotomi sipil dan militer dalam memilih pemimpin karena yang lebih penting adalah kecakapannya untuk menuju Indonesia yang lebih baik (Suwanti, 2013). Irman Gusman yang berasal dari kalangan sipil juga menyatakan bahwa saat ini masyarakat Indonesia yang majemuk sudah dapat menerima perbedaan setelah lima belas tahun reformasi bergulir dan komite konvensi pun ia anggap independen dan kredibel dalam menentukan pemenang calon presiden Partai Demokrat (Amrullah, 2013).

Untuk melihat apakah dikotomi sipil-militer masih menjadi pertimbangan bagi pemilihan calon presiden, tentu bisa dilihat dari bagaimana para peserta mencoba menghilangkan stigma tersebut. Para peserta konvensi ini tentu berkeinginan menampilkan citra diri pemimpin yang lengkap, yang tidak identik dengan orang militer atau orang sipil. Namun, bisa terjadi karakter yang berseberangan, di mana kandidat dari kelompok sipil ingin menampilkan citra yang tegas, disiplin, dan taat aturan hierarki juga. Sedangkan, kandidat yang berasal dari kalangan militer ingin menampilkan citra yang lembut dan egalitarian.

Rizky Kertanegara, Gaya Retorika Peserta Konvensi Calon Presiden Partai Demokrat Dalam Membangun Personal ...

Penelitian ini kemudian ingin melihat citra ini berdasarkan gaya retorika komunikasi politik pada Facebook Page. Gaya retorika ini juga terkait erat dengan merek diri (personal brand). Menurut Montoya, personal brand adalah proyeksi publik dari beberapa aspek kepribadian, skill, atau nilai seseorang. Selain itu, personal brand adalah proses mempertahankan persepsi atas seseorang, dan bukan identitas seseorang sebenarnya. Hal ini yang membedakan personal brand dengan personal image (Montoya, 2002, hal. 9). Dengan demikian, rumusan masalah penelitian ini adalah 1) Bagaimanakah peserta konvensi calon presiden partai Demokat menggunakan gaya retorika dalam membangun personal brand pada Facebook Page? 2) Adakah nuansa karakter sipil dan militer yang masih dibawa dalam gaya retorika peserta konvensi calon presiden partai Demokrat?

Tinjauan Pustaka

Jika mengacu pada model tindakan komunikasi Harold Laswell, maka fokus penelitian ini adalah pada komunikator (who), dan pesan (says what). Komunikator adalah para peserta konvensi calon presiden Partai Demokrat yang berlatar belakang sipil (akademisi, birokrat), dan militer. Sedangkan pesannya adalah gaya retorika politik yang mereka sampaikan pada Facebook Page sebagai bentuk membangun personal branding.

Gaya Retorika, Komunikasi Politik, dan Persuasi Politik

Retorika sendiri merupakan salah satu dari tujuh tradisi dalam teori komunikasi yang dikemukakan oleh Robert T. Craig. Menurut Craig, daya tarik logis dan emosional menjadi ciri dalam teori-teori retorika. Tradisi ini memandang bahwa aktivitas komunikator diatur oleh seni dan metode. Hal ini didasarkan pada anggapan bahwa kata-kata itu memiliki kekuatan. Karena itulah, informasi menjadi penting dalam pengambilan keputusan sehingga komunikasi dapat dievaluasi dan diperbaiki (Littlejohn & Fross, 2002, hal. 13).

Gaya retorika merupakan bagian tak terpisahkan dari komunikasi politik.

Hakikat komunikasi politik itu sendiri adalah upaya kelompok manusia yang memiliki orientasi pemikiran politik atau ideologi tertentu dalam rangka menguasai atau memperoleh kekuasaan, dan dengan kekuasaan mana tujuan pemikiran politik dan ideologi tersebut dapat diwujudkan (Nasrun & Rauf, 1993, hal. 10).

Gaya retorika juga erat kaitannya dengan persuasi politik. Persuasi politik adalah suatu ajakan, bujukan, rayuan tanpa kekerasan yang dilakukan oleh para politikus sebagai komunikator kepada masyarakat khalayak sebagai komunikan dengan tujuan mendapatkan dukungan, respon, dan simpati. Menurut West dan Turner, persuasi adalah inti dari komunikasi publik atau retorika. Retorika adalah kemampuan yang dimiliki oleh pembicara untuk memengaruhi khalayaknya (Turner & West, 2007, hal.

39).

Nimmo menyatakan bahwa kampanye persuasi dalam politik kontemporer bergantung pada tiga teknik yang membentuk komunikasi politik yang relevan dengan opini publik. Pertama, persuader harus mengakomodasi penampilannya pada sudut pandang audiens karena audiens memilih komunikasi yang sehaluan. Kedua,

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persuader menggunakan teknologi yang sesuai untuk menyebarluaskan pesan pada anggota kelompok (pada kasus propaganda), individu (pada kasus periklanan), atau kolaborator potensial (pada kasus retorika), yang melibatkan teknologi oral, cetak, dan elektronik. Terakhir, persuader memilih perangkat linguistik dan gaya yang sesuai untuk menerapkan propaganda, periklanan, dan retorika mereka (Nimmo, 1978, hal. 123). Dalam hal ini, peneliti memfokuskan pada poin terakhir yakni perangkat linguistik berupa gaya retorika para kandidat konvensi calon presiden Partai Demokrat di Facebook Page.

Gaya Retorika dan Personal Branding

Gaya retorika ini secara langsung juga terkait dengan branding khususnya personal branding. Menurut Rampersad, branding merupakan hal memengaruhi orang lain dengan menciptakan brand identity yang mengasosiasikan persepsi dan perasaan yang terkait dengan identitas tersebut. Sedangkan personal branding berfokus pada otentisitas dimana harus merepresentasikan karakter dan dibangun atas dasar citacita, tujuan, nilai, keunikan, hasrat, spesialisasi dan hal-hal yang dicintai (Rampersad, 2009, hal. xi).

Menurut Montoya dan Vendehey, personal branding merepresentasikan nilai-nilai, kepribadian, keahlian, dan kualitas yang membuat seseorang unik dibandingkan dengan kompetitor (Montoya & Vendehey, 2009, hal. 4). Sedangkan dalam kaitannya dengan internet, Montoya dan Vandehey menyatakan ada tiga alasan utama mengapa website dibutuhkan dalam membentuk personal branding, di mana peneliti menganggap Facebook Page juga relevan dengan alasan ini. Pertama, dapat membangun kredibilitas, yakni sebuah alat hubungan masyarakat. Kedua, membantu menjaga hubungan dengan klien dalam hal ini calon pemilih. Terakhir, dapat menghasilkan leads yang ideal bagi klien (Montoya & Vendehey, 2009, hal. 145).

Untuk membangun personal branding yang kuat, Montoya menyatakan perlunya menelisik tiga faktor kunci pada seseorang sebagai brand. Pertama, melakukan identifikasi terhadap karakteristik, lalu menyulingnya ke dalam atribut-atribut, dan terakhir menentukan atribut kunci (leading attribute) yang menggabungkan semua atribut tersebut ke dalam penciptaan brand (Montoya, 2002, hal. 19). Pada penelitian ini, gaya retorika yang dipakai oleh masing-masing kandidat dapat menjadi atribut kunci membangun personal branding.

Metode Penelitian Penelitian ini menggunakan desain penelitian kualitatif verifikatif. Desain penelitian ini mengkonstruksi format penelitian dan strategi untuk lebih awal memperoleh data sebanyak-banyaknya dengan mengesampingkan peran teori, walaupun demikian teori bukanlah sesuatu yang tidak penting dalam format ini (Bungin, 2011, hal. 151). Hal ini juga sesuai dengan teknik analisis yang akan digunakan yakni analisis isi. Maka, peneliti melakukan verifikasi atas data gaya retorika yang digunakan dengan atribut kunci (leading attribute) yang dimunculkan dalam membangun personal brand para kandidat konvensi yang berlatarbelakang sipil dan militer.

Rizky Kertanegara, Gaya Retorika Peserta Konvensi Calon Presiden Partai Demokrat Dalam Membangun Personal ...

Proses penarikan sampel pada penelitian ini terjadi pada dua level yakni unit analisis kasus dan waktu. Untuk analisis kasus, peneliti menggunakan teknik purposeful sampling dengan memilih Facebook Page dari Anies Baswedan yang berlatar belakang akademisi, Gita Wirjawan yang berlatar belakang birokrat, dan Pramono Edhie Wibowo yang berlatar belakang militer. Peneliti juga menggunakan teknik purposeful sampling dalam menentukan periode waktu, yakni selama bulan Januari 2014 atau karena pada bulan inilah para peserta konvensi mulai diperbolehkan berkampanye oleh komite konvensi partai Demokrat dalam membangun personal brand mereka.

Peneliti kemudian menggunakan teknik analisis isi (content analysis) dalam mengumpulkan dan mengolah data. Langkah awal analisis data adalah mengumpulkan seluruh lini massa dari setiap Facebook Page. Kemudian, peneliti memberikan label, kategori, dan tema menggunakan teknik koding penyifatan (attributions) yang menggambarkan frekuensi seberapa sering karakterisasi tertentu dirujuk (Bungin, 2011, hal. 165). Total jumlah lini massa Facebook Page Anies Baswedan adalah 47 item, Gita Wirjawan 54 item, dan Pramono Edhie Wibowo 25 item.

Diskusi dan Temuan Setelah mengumpulkan dan menganalisis data, peneliti melihat adanya nuansa gaya retorika latar belakang sipil dan militer pada masing-masing timeline Facebook Page.

Peneliti melihat gaya retorika inilah yang menjadi atribut kunci dalam pembentukan personal branding masing-masing kandidat. Meskipun begitu beberapa kandidat berusaha untuk melepaskan stigma karakter sipil dan militer ini. Berikut penjelasan pembentukan personal branding melalui gaya retorika Anies Baswedan, Gita Wirjawan, dan Pramono Edhie Wibowo

Gambar 4: Lini masa (timeline) Anies Baswedan

Sumber: Facebook.com

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Gambar 5: Lini masa (timeline) Gita Wirjawan

Sumber: Facebook.com

Gambar 6: Lini masa (timeline) Pramono Edhie Wibowo

Sumber: Facebook.com

Anies Baswedan, Sipil yang pemberani

Secara garis besar, Anies Baswedan ingin membangun personal brand dirinya sebagai pemimpin muda yang pemberani. Sebagai seorang akademisi, Anies banyak menggunakan retorika terkait keberanian untuk melakukan pembaharuan yang disertai dengan tindakan nyata. Selain itu, ia berkomitmen untuk menjaga demokratisasi dan juga pemberantasan korupsi.

Rizky Kertanegara, Gaya Retorika Peserta Konvensi Calon Presiden Partai Demokrat Dalam Membangun Personal ...

Tabel 2: Atribut-atribut yang mendukung personal brand Gita Wirjawan Karakteristik • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Muda Pembaharu Legowo Apresiatif Demokratis Bertindak Pancasilais Semangat Religius No money politics Humanis Pantang menyerah Akademisi Anti korupsi Pemberani Integritas

Atribut • Akademisi muda yang anti korupsi (15 item) • Demokratis (3 item) • Pembaharu yang berani bertindak (16 item) • Pancasilais religius (3 item) • Humanis dan apresiatif (10 item)

Leading Atribut Pemimpin muda yang pemberani

Selain itu, Anies yang datang dari kalangan sipil juga ingin menegaskan karakter pemberani sama halnya dengan yang dimiliki militer. Tercatat 16 item timeline (34,04%) Facebook Page Anies Baswedan ini ingin memperlihatkan bahwa karakter sipil sama dengan militer terkait keberanian. Jika militer identik dengan keberanian di medan perang, maka sipil juga memiliki keberanian. Setidaknya ada beberapa atribut yang mendukung atribut kunci tersebut, yakni berani menjadi pembaharu atau melakukan perubahan, dan berani untuk turun langsung atau ‘turun tangan’, sebuah imej yang dibangun oleh Anies.

Anies, yang berada di luar lingkaran birokrasi, banyak berbicara tentang perlunya perubahan yang hanya bisa diwujudkan oleh figur yang baru dan muda. Salah satu yang menjadi perhatiannya adalah perlunya mengkaji ulang Ujian Nasional (UN).

Anies juga berani melakukan terobosan untuk membuat program ‘turun tangan’ di mana ia mencoba menghilangkan stigma politik uang dengan menawarkan gagasan relawan tanpa bayaran. Beberapa retorikanya adalah sebagai berikut.

“Anak muda memang minim pengalaman, karena itu ia tak tawarkan masa lalu, anak muda menawarkan masa depan!” (14 Januari 2014) “Saat ini UN sudah menjadi suatu momok. Kita harus benar-benar mempertimbangkannya lagi” (21 Januari 2014) “Relawan tak dibayar bukan karena tak bernilai, tetapi karena tidak ternilai.

Karena suara tulus seorang relawan lebih berharga daripada baligo sebesar apapun” (20 Januari 2014).

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Selain itu, sebagai seorang sipil yang berlatarbelakang akademisi, karakter demokratis, religius, humanis, dan apresiatif juga menjadi atribut dalam pembentukan personal branding Anies Baswedan (65,96%). Beberapa retorikanya adalah: “Pemilihan calon presiden melalui konvensi adalah cara yang paling demokratis.

Cara ini harusnya dilakukan oleh semua partai” (29 Januari 2014).

“Jangan katakan pada Tuhan bahwa aku punya masalah, tapi katakan pada masalah bahwa aku punya Tuhan” (24 Januari 2014).

Gita Wirjawan, Sipil yang tegas Sebagai mantan menteri perdagangan, Gita Wirjawan sangat jelas membangun personal branding sebagai pemimpin birokrat handal yang tegas. Ia tahu persis apa permasalahan yang sedang dihadapi berikut solusi pemecahannya.

Tabel 2: Atribut-atribut yang mendukung personal brand Gita Wirjawan Karakteristik

Atribut

Leading Atribut

• Memajukan perekonomian melalui pertanian, industri, wirausaha, pariwisata, dan industri kreatif (12 item) • Menjamin akses pendidikan, kesehatan, dan lapangan kerja (10 item) • Bertindak dengan koordinasi (8 item) • Pembaharu dengan semangat pluralis, amanah, dan anti korupsi (16 item) • Demokratis dan apresiatif (8 item

Pemimpin birokrat handal yang tegas

• Memajukan perekonomian • Pro pendidikan • Bertindak • Koordinatif • Bekerja keras • Memajukan pertanian • Maju • Pembaharu • Semangat • Pluralis • Memajukan industri • Memajukan infrastruktur dan lapangan kerja • Memajukan pariwisata • Memajukan seni dan industri kreatif • Wirausaha • Anti korupsi • Apresiatif • Amanah • Demokratis • Memajukan kesehatan

Rizky Kertanegara, Gaya Retorika Peserta Konvensi Calon Presiden Partai Demokrat Dalam Membangun Personal ...

Namun, Gita mempertegas bahwa perekonomian, pendidikan, dan kesehatan akan maju jika dilakukan dengan koordinasi dan arahan yang tepat. Gita melihat selama ini arah kebijakan tidak berjalan dari atas sampai ke bawah. Ketegasan inilah yang ingin dibangun sebagai personal brand Gita Wirjawan. Pada Facebook Page Gita Wirjawan ini, terdapat 30 item timeline (55,56%) yang menunjukkan personal brand dirinya yang tegas terhadap birokrasi dan pelayanan publik. Beberapa retorikanya adalah sebagai berikut.

“Koordinasi antara pemerintah pusat dan daerah mutlak diperlukan dalam penanggulangan bencana di Indonesia” (29 Januari 2014).

“Negara rugi 100 triliun dalam 5 tahun karena peredaran “gadget” ilegal.

Ekonomi kerakyatan yang sesungguhnya adalah kemampuan memproduksi sebanyak-banyaknya kebutuhan kita di negeri sendiri” (23 Januari 2014).

“Bisakah guru honorer diangkat jadi pegawai negeri? Bisa. Asal memenuhi syarat kompetensi yang telah ditentukan dalam Undang-Undang. Persaingan memang ketat namun semua ini demi perbaikan kualitas pendidikan negara kita” (15 Januari 2014).

Selain itu, Gita juga membangun personal branding yang identik dengan karakter sipil.

Beberapa atribut yang membentuknya adalah pluralis, apresiatif, dan demokratis (24 item atau 44,44%). Beberapa retorikanya adalah sebagai berikut.

“Pemeliharaan pluralisme inti penting demokratisasi. Tak ada bangsa yang besar di planet ini bila tidak memelihara dan mendukung pluralisme yang ada di masyarakatnya” (24 Januari 2014) “Demokrasi merupakan jalan terbaik untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan lahir dan batin seluruh rakyat Indonesia, terutama bagi mereka yang tertanggal dan terpinggirkan. Ini adalah poin penting bagi visi misi Gita Wirjawan” (7 Januari 2014).

Pramono Edhie Wibowo, Mantan militer yang egaliter Pramono Edhie Wibowo merupakan salah satu kandidat konvensi yang berlatarbelakang militer (mantan KSAD). Pada timeline Facebook Page-nya, Pramono berusaha membangun personal brand yang berhubungan dengan karakter sipil seperti humanis dan egaliter.

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Tabel 3: Atribut-atribut yang mendukung personal brand Pramono Edhie Wibowo Karakteristik

Atribut

Leading Atribut

• Egalitarian • Taat aturan • Integritas terhadap UUD 1945 • Pro rakyat • berintegritas • Mengembangkan sdm • Pro energi terbarukan • humanis • menghargai perjuangan pendiri bangsa • pro minoritas • nasionalis • optimis

• humanis dan egalitarian Nasionalis yang egaliter (4 item) • pro rakyat dan kaum minoritas (5 item) • nasionalis dan integritas (8 item) • optimis dengan sdm (5 item) • pro energi terbarukan (3 item)

Pramono Edhie Wibowo juga berusaha meyakinkan bahwa sosok militer juga mampu menangani permasalahan birokrasi dan kebijakan pemerintahan. Setidaknya terdapat 17 item (68 %) yang berhubungan dengan personal brand karakter sipil dan birokrat ini. Beberapa retorikanya adalah sebagai berikut.

“Saya rasa, begitulah seharusnya persaingan yang sehat. Selain saling unjuk kemampuan, kita harus bisa menjaga sikap saling menghormati dan saling menghargai” (25 Januari 2014).

“Karena itu, saya menyarankan agar kita mencatat kelahiran semua manusia di Indonesia. Gratiskan pencatatan kelahiran. Lalu, ikuti perkembangan manusiamanusia Indonesia tersebut. Tempa kualitas mereka dengan peningkatan kemampuan otak. Otak manusia adalah potensi yang luar biasa dan bisa dikembangkan tanpa batas” (16 Januari 2014) “Subsidi membuat kita boros BBM, yang sebagian harus kita impor. Ketergantungan masyarakat pada BBM bersubsidi memakan anggaran belanja negara hingga ratusan triliun. Uang sebanyak itu mestinya bisa dialokasikan untuk pembangunan yang lebih bermanfaat bagi rakyat banyak” (15 Januari 2014).

Namun, Pramono Edhie Wibowo juga tak lepas dari karakter militer dalam membangun personal branding seperti menggunakan retorika yang terkait dengan nasionalisme seperti kedaulatan wilayah, pertahanan dan keamanan negara, serta persatuan dan kesatuan bangsa (8 item atau 32 %). Hal ini memperlihatkan bahwa doktrin militer masih jelas melekat dalam dirinya. Beberapa retorikanya adalah sebagai berikut.

Rizky Kertanegara, Gaya Retorika Peserta Konvensi Calon Presiden Partai Demokrat Dalam Membangun Personal ...

“Kita seyogyanya mensyukuri persatuan bangsa kita, yang sudah berjalan hampir seratus tahun. Persatuan Indonesia dipekikan dalam Sumpah Pemuda pada 1928.

Berkat semangat persatuan tersebut, negara kita bisa merdeka, 17 tahun setelah komitmen Sumpah Pemuda tersebut dikumandangkan. Tanpa Sumpah Pemuda, tanpa semangat Persatuan Indonesia, mungkin negara tidak akan pernah lahir�

(11 Januari 2014). “Dari situ, saya menyadari betapa penting kita memiliki tentara dan polisi yang kuat, untuk menjaga kedaulatan wilayah yang demikian luas dan kayatersebut, serta melindungi seluruh bangsa Indonesia� (11 Januari 2014).

Simpulan Hasil analisis pada Facebook Page Anies Baswedan, Gita Wirjawan, Pramono Edhie Wibowo memperlihatkan bahwa dalam membangun personal branding, masingmasing kandidat menggunakan gaya retorika yang masih terkait dengan latar belakang pekerjaan mereka. Hal ini membuat nuansa sipil dan militer masih terlihat di antara para kandidat konvensi calon presiden Partai Demokrat. Meskipun begitu, ada upaya masing-masing kandidat untuk melepaskan diri dari dikotomi sipil dan militer, bahwa karakter militer juga dapat dimiliki oleh sipil, begitupun sebaliknya.

Anies Baswedan yang berlatar belakang sipil-akademisi menggunakan gaya retorika untuk menyampaikan personal branding seorang pemimpin yang pemberani.

Gita Wirjawan yang berlatar belakang sipil-birokrat menggunakan gaya retorika untuk menyampaikan personal branding sebagai pemimpin yang tegas. Sedangkan Pramono Edhie Wibowo yang berlatar belakang militer menggunakan gaya retorika untuk menyampaikan personal branding sebagai pemimpin nasionalis yang egaliter.

Pembentukan personal branding masing-masing kandidat ini tentu tak lepas atas pengalaman, penguasaan, dan wawasan. Hal ini menjadi sesuatu yang wajar terlepas dari keinginan mereka untuk lepas dari stigma dikotomi pemimpin sipil dan militer.

Para kandidat tentu dituntut mampu mempersuasi audiens dengan leading attributes yang mereka miliki agar dapat memnbangun personal branding yang kuat.

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Referensi Afrido, R. (2014, April 16). Diakses pada April 25, 2014, dari http://m.sindonews. com/read/2014/04/16/113/854708/konvensi-capres-demokrat-tetap-dilanjutkan Amrullah, A. (2013, Agustus 24). Irman Yakin tak ada Dikotomi di Konvensi Capres Demokrat. Diakses pada Februari 4, 2014, dari http://www.republika.co.id/ berita/nasional/politik/13/08/24/ms17kw-irman-yakin-tak-ada-dikotomi-di-konvensicapres-demokrat Bungin, B. (2011). Penelitian Kualitatif: Komunikasi, Ekonomi, Kebijakan Publik, dan Ilmu Sosial lainnya (2 ed.). Jakarta: Kencana.

Littlejohn, S. W., & Fross, K. A. (2002). Theories of Human Communication (7th ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth.

Montoya, P. (2002). The Personal Branding Phenomenon: Realize Greater Influence, Explosive Income Growth and Rapid Career Advancement by Applying the Branding Techniques of Michael, Martha and Oprah. Createspace Independent.

Montoya, P., & Vendehey, T. (2009). The Brand Called You: Create a Personal Brand that Wins Attention and Grows Your Business. New York: McGrawHill.

Nasrun, M., & Rauf, M. (1993). Indonesia dan Komunikasi Politik. Jakarta: Gramedia.

Nimmo, D. (1978). Political Communication and Public Opinion in America.

California: Good Year Publishing Company.

Rampersad, H. (2009). Authentic Personal Branding. USA: Information Age Publishing Incorporation.

Suwanti, N. (2013, Oktober 5). Dikotomi Pemimpin Sipil-Militer Tak Penting.

Dipetik Februari 4, 2014, dari Sinar Harapan News: http://www.shnews.co/detile26019-dikotomi-pemimpin-sipilmiliter-tak-penting.html Turner, L., & West, R. (2007). Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application. Third Edition International. New York: McGrawHill.

Vermonte, P. J. (2013, maret 19). Dua Jenderal, HAM, dan Dikotomi Sipil-Militer.

Diakses pada januari 23, 2014, dari CSIS: www.csis.or.id/post/dua-jenderal-ham-dandikotomi-sipil-militer

BOOK REVIEW Alex Sobur Komunikasi Naratif: Paradigma, Analisis dan Aplikasi Jakarta: PT Remaja Rosdakarya 2014, 361 pp

H

idup ini penuh dengan cerita.

Suatu hari seseorang bisa terpingkal-pingkal, namun di lain waktu dia berurai air mata ketika menonton sinetron, atau membaca berita mengenaskan di media. Dia juga bisa larut dalam kisah romantis meski hanya di dalam sebuah cerpen atau novel.

Apa sebenarnya yang membuat orang menjadi kecanduan dengan buku Kho Ping Ho, ibuibu pemirsa tenggelam oleh tayangan sinetron televisi atau anak remaja yang terus menggoyangkan badannya ketika menyimak acara musik di radio, atau penumpang Transjakarta yang senyumsenyum sendiri ketika melihat sebuah situs? Itulah daya pikat sebuah narasi.

Narasi adalah cerita, bisa disebut sebagai fakta, tapi juga bisa fiksi yang direka-reka atau dikhalayalkan oleh pengarangnya saja.

Inilah bentuk komunikasi yang unik, karena lewat penceritaan yang khas dengan upaya memikat perhatian khalayak mengenai berbagai peristiwa, maka siapa pun akan hanyut di dalamnya sehingga pesan dapat tersampaikan dengan mudah.

Alex Sobur, penulis buku Komunikasi Naratif (2014) menunjukkan bahwa penulisan narasi pada hakikatnya merupakan rekonstruksi suatu peristiwa dan menempatkan pembaca ke dalam suasana kejadian, sehingga mereka merasakan sendiri pada apa yang terjadi. Buku karyanya ini merujuk pada daftar pustaka yang terdiri dari sekitar 327 buku antara lain ilmu komunikasi, narasi, novel, metodolologi, filsafat bahasa, media massa, seolah-olah mengajak pembaca untuk juga hanyut dalam lautan bahasa yang sangat luas, apalagi pelbagai peristiwa terus terjadi di berbagai belahan dunia yang tentu saja dapat diketahui masyarakat melalui bahasa.

Peristiwa itu berlangsung tidak saja di dalam ruang, tapi juga dalam waktu. Dengan demikian, setiap peristiwa yang terjadi juga adalah narasi.

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Teks sebagai narasi telah lama menjadi objek penelitian dan konsep naratif telah terbukti berguna dalam memahami beragam konten media. Jurnalisme naratif adalah bentuk atau gaya penyampaian laporan peristiwa yang lebih bermakna yakni dengan cara bertutur atau bercerita, bukan hanya dengan rumus baku 5W dan 1H atau bentuk piramida terbalik. Penulisan jurnalistik di media massa dengan gaya naratif, perlu mempertimbangkan tujuh faktor yakni fakta, konflik, karakter, akses, emosi, perjalanan waktu dan kebaruan.

Di tengah-tengah terpaan industri media massa yang terus berkembang, maka persaingan awak media dalam liputan peristiwa bukan lagi pada kecepatan atau kedalaman dalam laporan jurnalistik, tapi juga bagaimana dapat menarik khalayak terlibat atau ikut peduli dalam peristiwa itu. Inilah kekuatan sebuah narasi teks yang tidak mungkin tergantikan oleh medium elektronik, sekaligus juga menjadi jawaban terhadap serbuan televisi, radio, dan Internet. Cerita mengenai jurnalisme naratif ini hanyalah salah satu bab saja dari enam bab di dalam buku dengan ketebalan 361 halaman ini.

Daya pikat narasi juga tampak pada permainan bahasa dalam sebuah humor dengan bahasa pelesetannya, dan di sisi lain ia justru menjadi kekuatan tersendiri ketika digunakan dalam iklan, judul berita, lagu pop dan slogan-slogan. Selain itu, daya pikat narasi ini akan terasa kuat dalam percakapan sehari-hari, karena ternyata “kita tidak bisa lagi hanya asal ngomong�. Kekuatan narasi dalam konteks percakapan ini adalah prinsip kerjasama (Cooperatives Principle-Paul Grice). Ada empat syarat untuk menjalin percakapan berkualitas, yakni maksim kuantitas yang artinya kalau bercakap-cakap jangan berlebihan dan berilah kontribusi secukupnya pada mitra tutur; maksim kualitas yang maksudnya adalah peserta percakapan harus mengatakan hal yang benar; maksim relevansi yang masudnya berilah informasi yang sesuai dengan sutuasi dan kondisi yang ada dalam percakapan, dan maksim cara atau manner yang maksudnya bahwa peserta percakapan jangan sampai menyakiti yang lain. Keempat maksim ini menunjukkan betapa narasi dalam komunikasi percakapan merupakan prasyarat agar setiap percakapan dapat saling memberi kontribusi yang bermanfaat.

Dalam konteks metode penelitian, maka penelitian naratif masuk dalam varian kualitatif dimana peneliti menyelidiki kehidupan individu dan meminta seseorang atau sekelompok orang untuk menceritakan kehidupan mereka. Sebagai paradigma, maka penelitian narafif terikat pada tiga hal pokok yaitu manusia, ruang atau tempat dan waktu, karena prinsipnya adalah bahwa manusia sebagai makhluk pencerita. Teks-teks yang paling sering menjadi sasaran penelitian naratif di bidang komunikasi adalah film dan program televisi, novel, puisi, drama, dengan mencari pesan tersembunyi di balik teks. Bagaimana langkah-langkah riset naratif? Yang penting adalah pilih teks dengan cermat, lalu akrabi dan buatlah kerangka plot, definisikan karakter sesuai fungsi objek lalu kaitkan temuan dengan hipotesis.

Book Review

Lautan bahasa yang digambarkan dalam buku ini menunjukkan bahwa para pembaca perlu memiliki kemampuan berbahasa juga karena isinya sangat sarat dengan teori-teori linguistik dari para pakar. Terutama juga, ketika pembaca ingin memaknai setiap uraian seorang pakar, maka diperlukan juga kemampuan interpretasi, seperti ketika mencari keterkaitan antara implikatur percakapan dengan konsep narasi. Atau ketika memahami konsep narasi sebagai fakta tapi di sisi lain juga fiksi, maka argumentasi yang muncul bisa jadi apakah kita juga bisa berbohong dalam penyampaian sebuah peristiwa demi menambah daya pikat sebuah cerita. Disinilah pentingnya sebuah bridging atau jembatan paragraf ketika menyampaikan bahasa para pakar linguistik dengan kekuatan narasi yang tidak terburu-buru untuk meloncat ke paragraf berikutnya.

Bagaimana pun juga, bahasa adalah instrumen kehidupan manusia, dan melalui bahasa pulalah, kita berusaha menyampaikan kebenaran sesuai dengan fungsi hakiki bahasa dalam setiap peristiwa komunikasi yakni kebersamaan. Buku Komunikasi Naratif yang dicetak sederhana ini menunjukkan bahwa narasi adalah cara atau bentuk komunikasi untuk mewujudkan fungsi hakiki bahasa.

Reviewed by Artini London School of Public Relations, Jakarta artini@lspr.edu

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BOOK REVIEW Thomas E. Patterson Informing the News: The Need for Knowledge-Based Journalism New York: Vintage Books 2013, 258 pp.

N

apoleon Bonaparte, French military commander, once expressed his concern on the news media: “Four hostile newspapers are more to be feared than a thousand bayonets”. Why should the great leader and many other head of states fear to the news media? Should they be afraid to journalist? Well, maybe they should, because dedicated and committed journalists who are able to reveal the truths will eventually uphold the justice. Two young investigative journalists on The Washington Post, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, for example, did much and were effortless in their work to gather facts in Watergate scandal. This scandal led to numerous government investigations and the eventual resignation of the US President Richard Nixon.

Contrasting with the above example, Thomas E. Patterson depicted failure stories of the US journalist from the last decade. He narrated how the news media, including the mainstream media such as CNN, Fox News, ABC, CBS, and NBC misled the American and worldwide citizens on terrorism and weapon of mass destruction (WMD) issues. Since the 9/11 incident, when terrorists crashed air planes into the twin towers of the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on 11 September 2001, most Americans thought Iraq was aligned with al-Qaeda. Some Americans even believed Iraqi pilots had flown the planes that slammed into the WTC towers and the Pentagon.

They might also have had other reasons for wanting to rid the world of Saddam Hussein, as other Americans in favor of an invasion of Iraq. Moreover Patterson quoted from a source that “Fox News viewers were the most misinformed. Two-thirds of them perceived a ‘clear link’ between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda, a research finding that journalists at rival news outlets found amusing.”

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Let us check some essential facts on Iraq war. The journalists were embedded with the coalition troops. The troops captured and hung President Saddam Hussein.

The WMD was never found, but the war was prolonged. The war affected hundred of thousands if not millions casualties, and so on. With all these facts that happened during Iraq war, people could simply ask questions: Why should the media orchestrate the war that caused so many victims? What was the role of journalists on Iraq war?

Why was the media continuously reporting false information? Should journalists be responsible for what they have done? Should we trust the news media?

Thomas Patterson, Bradlee Professor of Government and the Press at the Harvard Kennedy School, expressed his concern related to the journalists’ failures in his book, as Walter Lippmann noted nearly a century ago: “Democracy falters if there is no steady supply of trustworthy and relevant news”. In his book’s preview Patterson contends that today’s journalists are not providing what was Lippmann’s noted. The excerpt said: too often, reporters give equal weight to facts and biased opinion, stir up small controversies, and substitute infotainment for real news. Even when they get the facts rights, they often misjudge the context in which they belong. Information is the lifeblood of a healthy democracy. Public opinion and debate suffer when citizens are misinformed about current affairs, as is increasingly the case. Though the failures of today’s communication system cannot be blamed solely on the news media, they are part of the problem, and the best hope for something better. Patterson proposes “knowledge-based journalism” as a corrective. Unless journalists are more deeply informed about the subjects they cover, they will continue to misinterpret them and to be vulnerable to manipulation by their sources.

“Informing the News: The Need for Knowledge-Based Journalism” is a book that is more focused on the practice of journalism than journalism education. The book is a frank look at the failings of journalism lately and what needs to be done to fix the problem. Patterson proposes six problems area in journalism, namely the information problem, the source problem, the knowledge problem, the education problem, the audience problem, and the democracy problem. Indeed, the knowledge and the education problems are the focus in this book. As Patterson noted in the educational problem: “Knowledge is a key to strengthening story context. For almost any development of even modest complexity, journalists cannot be counted upon to construct ‘a comprehensive and intelligent account’ unless they are knowledgeable of the underlying factors.”

However, Patterson did not include media owners factor as one of the main issues in his book. Though in theory and reality, the tendency of biased media in democratic countries has been mounting as the concentration of media ownership becomes trending. This becomes a problem if the owners of the media began to be actively involved in the political practices, as is also the case in Indonesia. Subjectivity in news media seems clear visible, especially when entering the general election campaign seasons, both the legislative and presidential elections. Besides, the reporter

Book Review

clearly has the capacity and opportunity in shaping the news as specified in framing and agenda setting theories. The presence of these theories clearly indicates that objectivity in the media is something like a mirage or absurd. Depth of knowledge and breadth of education does not guarantee a journalist to become what Patterson’s expected in his book. A journalist sometimes stumbles on his work when it was associated with the issue of media ownership’s interest. So when a fresh graduate would like to become a journalist, one thing that should be considered is to adjust its ideology with the media owner’s ideology and political standpoint. If the journalist wannabe does not fit and proper with the media owner’s ideology, then do not ever think to work at the media.

Otherwise, soon or later he/she will experience an inner conflict.

Reviewed by Rendro Dhani STIKOM – The London School of Public Relations, Jakarta rendro.d@lspr.edu

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Guidelines for Writing General 1. Articles should be the result of original work and has never been published in journals or any other media.

2. The author should list the full name, college name and address, email address, telephone number, and mobile phone number for corresponding.

3. The manuscript must be written in English. The length of writing about 7000-8000 words for research articles and about 1000-1500 words for book reviews.

4. Manuscripts and correspondence can be sent via editor’s email: cjcs@lspr.edu 5. Editorial team reserves the right to restore the manuscript to be revised or materially deepened, or directly edit the script to suit the format of the journal without changing the meaning.

6. Manuscript, after editor edits, will be sent to a blind peer-reviewers for review.

Furthermore, the author should revise his writing, the advice and input from the reviewer.

7. The author should make a statement about the originality of his/her writing and signed on paper stamped.

Format and Systematics 1. Manuscript typed by using A4 paper size, margins top and the left 4cm, 3cm bottom and right margins, single space, and use the font Optima or Arial.

2. The title should be brief (12-15 words), specific and reflecting the content.

3. Abstract written in two languages (English and Indonesia), each a maximum of 200 words. Abstract is the essence of the content of all articles which generally contains the research objectives, approaches or methods employed, findings and conclusions.
 4. Keyword abstracts are listed below with the number between 3 to 10 words, adapted to the language used.

5. Introduction presented by loading the background and scope of the problem, formulation of the problems, hypotheses (if any) and research objectives.

Introduction usually not too long or not more than 2 pages.

6. Reader Review presents a number of previous studies obtained from journals and textbooks, including concepts and theories relevant to the topic of research.

7. Research methods used are described in detail and clearly, including operational concept.

8. Discussion and Findings is the discussion of issues raised in a systematic, showing the findings and discuss/analyze research purposes. A description and explanation can refer to the diagrams, tables, graphs, or photographs are included, a maximum of 6 units.

9. Conclusions made and should be a concise answer to the problem formulation.

The writer can also express the suggestions as a solution to the problems discussed, but not just suggest conducting further research.

10. Endnotes can be written before the bibliography if needed in addition to strengthening the information or discussion of substantive, important and relevant in the text.

11. Quotations and References should be adjusted to international standards of writing. The technique of writing citations and bibliography of this journal refers to APA style.

Example of Reference List 1. Book with one author Bernstein, T.M. (1965). The careful writer: A modern guide to English usage (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Atheneum.

2. Book with two authors Beck, C.A.J., & Sales, B.D. (2001). Family mediation: Facts, myths, and future prospects. Washington, DC: APA. 3. Two or more books by the same author Arrange by the year of publication, the earliest first.

Postman, N. (1979). Teaching as a conserving activity. New York, NY: Delacorte Press.

Postman, N. (1985). Amusing ourselves to death: Public discourse in the age of show business. New York, NY: Viking.

If works by the same author are published in the same year McLuhan, M. (1970a). Culture is our business. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

McLuhan, M. (1970b). From cliche to archetype. New York: Viking Press.

4. Book by a corporate author American Psychological Association. (1972). Ethical standards of psychologists.

Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

5. Article in reference book or encyclopedia Guignon, C.B. (1998). Existentialism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge encyclopedia of philosophy (Vol. 3, pp. 493-502). London: Routledge.

6. Article in journal Mellers, B. (2000). Choice and the relative pleasure of consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 910-924.

Klimoski, R., & Palmer, S. (1993). The ADA and the hiring process in organizations.

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 45(2), 10-36.

7. Article from electronic sources (online sources) Digital Object Identifier (DOI) A DOI is an alphanumeric string used to identify journal articles and other documents published electronically. Always include the DOI when it is available instead of the URL or the database name.

Zhao, S., Grasmuck, S., & Martin, J. (2008). Identity construction on Facebook: Digital empowerment in anchored relationships. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5), 1816-1836. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.02.012 URL for periodical online
Cooper, A. & Humphreys, K. (2008). The uncertainty is killing me: Self-triage decision making and information availability. E-Journal of Applied Psychology, 4(1). Retrieved October 10, 2010, from http://ojs.lib. swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap/article/view/124/129 8. Article in newspaper or magazine Semenak, S. (1995, December 28). Feeling right at home: Government residence eschews traditional rules. Montreal Gazette, p. A4.

Driedger, S.D.(1998, April 20). After divorce. Maclean’s, 111(16), 38-43.

9. Television or radio program MacIntyre, L. (Reporter). (2002, January 23). Scandal of the Century [Television series episode]. In H. Cashore (Producer), The fifth estate. Toronto: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.

10. Film, video recording or DVD Kubrick, S. (Director). (1980). The Shining [Movie picture]. California: Warner Brothers

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