Extended Essay Psychology by Andrew Brown

IB EXTENDED ESSAY Gender differences in laughter and smiling. DISCIPLINE OF ESSAY: PSYCHOLOGY

Table of Contents Contents

Abstract

Introduction

Function of Laughter

Essence of the gap

Women Across Culture

Cultural Stereotypes and Societal Expectations

The role of laughter in a romantic relationship

Laughter and social status

Neurological, Physiological, and Evolutionary Explanations

Conclusion

Bibliography

Abstract

This research essay investigates gender differences in laughter and smiling. Laughter’s primary function is to establish an emotional setting or ambient for conversation and to provide a milieu for non-verbal communication as a means of personal and social bonding. Empirical data suggests that laughter is gender-dependent and that there are profound differences in the way laughter is used, perceived, and interpreted by males versus females. Two approaches were taken. The majority of the essay was based on the review of empirical psychological literature, taking into account the socio-behavioral patterns of learning to interact with the opposite gender and considering environmental factors that may impact the disparity. Afterwards, a biological explanation is introduced, which includes neurological studies of brain imaging patterns associated with gender-specific behavior, thus giving anatomic background for a specific psychological response. Gender-specific disparity in laughter and smiling is largely due to environmental factors – cultural stereotypes and expectations, romantic interaction and flirtation, and power struggle. Furthermore, there is a hemispheric gap between the male and female brain. These variables will influence each other, presumably increasing the existing gender gap over time cross-culturally. Overtime, psychological factors have adapted to these biological factors, and have further modified the gender patterns. Thus, we see that the two variables – biological and environmental-learning – are dependent on one another and have contributed to create the ways in which males and females communicate non-verbally.

Introduction With the many variations and patterns of laughter, we begin to get a slight sense of its profound complexity. Laughter, with its various linguistic, social, and gender contexts, is a social signal and form of non-verbal communication, as is smiling, and may reflect the societal role of a particular individual, or the dynamics of a given relationship. It is interesting to investigate the gender differences in laughter and smiling and how various factors contribute to them. Gender is a critical player in any human interchange, and the recognition of gender differences is essential in comprehending patterns in conversational laughter and social smiling. Thus, this essay intends to address the following research question: What gender differences exist in laughter and smiling and why? Function of laughter According, to Robert Provine1, “laughter is the quintessential human social signal.” Provine had run a survey to determine the words that were pronounced by 1,200 people right before a laugh episode. Phrases like “I’ll see you guys later” or “I see your point” had induced the most laughter2. Only 10 percent of the laughs he recorded were activated by anything even remotely jocular, suggesting that laughter, rather than being a reaction to a Provine, Robert R. Laughter: A Scientific Investigation. New York: Viking, 2000. Print. Page 44. Robert R. Provine, a neuroscientist engaged in the studies of development, evolution, and neural mechanisms of behavior, has authored more than fifty research articles concerning developmental neuroscience and animal and human behavior. He is the world’s lead scientific expert on laughter; his findings on laughter have been featured in dozens of articles worldwide, appearing in The New York Times, Newsweek, The Daily Telegraph, New Scientist, The Observer, Discover and the Los Angeles Times. A great amount of this research investigation will be based on his findings. 2 Provine, 40 1

witticism, is an “involuntary response that functions as a social lubricant.”3 These findings support the common conjecture that laughter is, above all, a form of social communication. Essence of the gender gap Though limited literature exists in this field of study, numerous studies have established that there is a substantial gender gap in laughter and smiling. The study performed by Robert Provine, in which he had analyzed the laughter of speakers and audience members of both genders, gives great insight into the gender specificities of laughter. When a woman spoke to a female audience, she laughed 70 percent more often than her audience, and when she spoke to men, she laughed more than twice as often as her listeners. On the other hand, when a male spoke to a male audience, he laughed about 20 percent more; but, when addressing females, they did slightly more laughing of about 8 percent. Overall, males had received the most laughter from both genders. This also suggests that males are the more selective sex when it comes to laughter. To summarize, in male-female interactions, females laughed on a much larger scale than men, of about 126 percent more. Another study performed in England, noted by Provine, identifies the early onset of this outstanding disparity: “Among children viewing cartoons, girls laughed more with boys than with girls, and girls reciprocated boys’ laughter more often than boys reciprocated girls’ laughter.”4 These studies

Tierny, John. "But Seriously: Why Is There a Gender Gap in Laughter?" TierneyLab. The New York Times Company, 12 Mar. 2007. Web. 22 Feb. 2013. <http://tierneylab.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/03/12/but-seriously-why-is-there-agender-gap-in-laughter/>. 4 Provine 3

confirm that, while women are “the leading laughers”5, men are the instigators of laughter – a distinction that begins to spur early on in childhood.6

Women Across Cultures

Although laughter/smiling is a global form of communication, not all cultures express it in equal dosage. While in Western tradition, smiling is considered polite, in someAsian cultures it was suppressed for years, especially for women.7 In Japan, for example, they were encouraged to control their smile. Similarly, in Russia, it is oftentimes considered “in poor taste to smile without reason.”8 Interestingly, the greatest gap was found in Western cultures. In Asian and African countries, the disparity is less noticeable, which may be explained by the “social-role theory”.9 Ironically, the more egalitarian cultures produce greater divisions in the psychology of men and women – their values, personality, and emotion. In her meta-analysis, LaFrance hypothesized that it is dependent upon the “degree to which they accentuate

Provine, 28 Provine, Robert R. "The Science of Laughter." Psychology Today. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 July 2012. 7 "Smiles Across the World." Smiles Across the World. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Mar. 2013. <http://www.slideshare.net/aluthe/smiles-across-the-world-2506627>. 8 "Smiles Across the World." 9 Guimond, Serge. "Psychological Similarities and Differences between Women and Men across Cultures." Social and Personality Psychology Compass 2.1 (2008): 494510. Print. Abstract 5 6

sex differences in expressive behavior.”10 Thus cultural variability in smiling is considered from this broader context of typical male-female traits.

Cultural Stereotypes and Societal Expectations The gender gap in non-verbal forms of communication may be explained by the adaptation to cultural stereotypes. One will often subject to the gender rules that are imposed upon him or her by society – a natural human tendency. One may notice that “class clowns” are almost universally male, or have an image of the “giggling girl”. Men’s perceived superiority in this arena is largely due to social pressures. Christopher Hitchens, American humorist and columnist of Vanity Fair, discusses these divisions in his article Why Aren’t Women Funny? He notes the significance of the male’s role as a humorist in a romantic relationship, as well as in society: The chief task that a man has to perform is that of impressing the opposite sex… An average man has just one, outside chance: he had better be able to make the lady laugh. Making them laugh had been one of the crucial preoccupations of my life. If you can stimulate her to laugher- I am talking about that real, out-loud, head-back, mouth-open-to-expose-the-full-horseshoe-of-lovely-teeth, involuntary, full, and deep-throated mirth…-well, then, you have at least caused her to loosen up and to change her expression… Women have no corresponding need to appeal to men in this way.11

This gender pattern might also underlie why there is larger proportion of male comedians than female. Professor Provine demonstrates this difference by analyzing personal ads in newspapers, monitoring how often participants expressed the interest for a sense of humor in a partner, and how often they

LaFrance, 308 Hitchens, Christopher. "Why Women Aren't Funny." Vanity Fair. N.p., Jan. 2007. Web. 22 Feb. 2013.<http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2007/01/hitchens200701>. 10 11

promoted themselves as being able to produce it. He discovered that women were more likely to seek laughter than to promise it, while men more commonly emphasized their capacity for humor. “The evidence is clear,” writes Robert Provine in Laughter: A Scientific Investigation, “women seek men who make them laugh, and men are anxious to comply with this request.” The norm of which gender is supposed to be funnier is likely another contributor to the minority of female comedians: “they have to be especially funny because the men [as well] as the women in their audiences aren’t as ready to laugh at them.”12 A study performed in 2009 by Ph.D. student Kim Edwards at the University of Western Ontario, in which both genders created humorous captions, proved that men are actually not more talented at creating humor; all captions had received equal ratings. Though both genders have equal humor capacity, men are assumed to be funny, as a result of cultural pressures, and females to chuckle in response. Another explanation may include women’s desire to conform to the typical image: the kind, encouraging, and emotional female. Dodd et al. linked the differences “to cultural stereotypes, such as the expectation that females will be (and should be) friendlier and more emotionally expressive than males.”13 Hall, Halberstadt, and Clancy noted that the disparity is largely the result of pressure that is being placed on woman to play the role of emotional caregiver.14 A smile is a positive signal, expressing empathy, support, and friendliness15. Thus, as proven in this study, women laugh and "The Laugh Gap Explained." TierneyLab. The New York Times Company, 2012. Web. 22 Feb. 2013. <http://tierneylab.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/the-laughgap-explained/>. 13 Ellis, Lee and Shyamal Das. "Sex Differences in Smiling and Other Photographed Traits: A Theoretical Assessment." J. Biosoc. Sci. 43 (2010): 345-51. Print. 303 14 Ellis, 304 15 Ellis, 303 12

smile more in the presence of others, especially men, when they are aware that they are being observed. Furthermore, a study conducted by Lee Ellis and Shymal Das showed that women who laugh or smile more frequently are considered to be more attractive to the opposite sex. Morse hypothesized that smiling is a key element of female attractiveness, and that females are even encouraged to emphasize their beauty.16 Females have likely evolved the must to succumb to the display of joyous forms of self-expression. The Role of Laughter in a Romantic Relationship Laughter plays an intrinsic role in the beginning stages of a romantic or social encounter. According to Provine’s study at University of Maryland in 1996, women had desired a partner who makes them laugh twice as often as they proposed to be its provider. Men, on the other hand, proposed to be the source of humor a third more than they desired it in a woman. Provine notes that laughter is not only important in “meeting, matching, and mating”, but is also “a sign of intellect and strong genes.”17 A sense of humor may signal creativity, intelligence, playfulness, and openness, all highly valuable characteristics in a mate. Women, “the sexual selectors”18, are attracted to funny males due to the genetic predisposition that may be passed onto offspring. Laughter and smiling may signal femininity, thus are critical in malefemale bonding. According to a study, males had rated the photos of Ibid, 304 Provine, 18 Glasow, Arnold. "Why Do Women Laugh More than Men?" Noorali Bharwani Professional Corporation. N.p., 29 June 2010. Web. 22 Feb. 2013. <http://nbharwani.com/2010/medicine-hat-news/why-do-women-laugh-morethan-men>. 16 17

femalesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; with longer hair as more attractive than those with shorter hair, as well as females who smiled more than those who did not. Interestingly, females with longer hair were more likely to smile more than females with shorter hair. Also, women were more likely than men to choose a photo of themselves in which they were smiling over a non-smiling one.19 Overall, the study displayed a correlation between smiling with long hair, femininity, and level of attractiveness. Humor has a unique ability to provide a milieu for conversation and create a comfortable environment; it is a tool, and if used properly, may allow the relationship to flourish. According to anthropologist Gil Grenngross, the most appealing type of humor is self-deprecating humor, as it diverts attention and lowers social tension. On the other hand, the most unattractive type of humor is ridicule or sarcasm, which signals poor qualities, and consequently separates rather than connects. Females are able to identify what they are attracted to, and avoid what they dislike. It is also interesting to note the gender differences in humor. Men seemed to favor slapstick, physical, and active humor. Women, on the other hand, favor wordplay, puns, and were more likely to engage in funny stories.20 A study performed by psychologist Jennifer Hay at Northwestern University showed that men are also more inclined to tease. Laughter is not only important in the initial flirtation, but also in the maintenance of a long-term healthy relationship and familial vitality. As the relationship progresses, humor turns into a means of comfort, rather than Ellis, 303 "How and Why Humor Differs Between the Sexes | Psych Central." Psych Central.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Mar. 2013. <http://psychcentral.com/lib/2011/howand-why-humor-differs-between-thesexes/all/1/>. 19 20

seduction.21 Over time roles are reversed: females become the leading source of humor. Studies have shown that relationships where females are the main humor instigators are more likely to last; psychologists Catherine Cohan of Pennsylvania State University and Thomas Bradbury of University of California, Los Angeles found that male humor can actually be damaging to the relation.22 While male humor is more successful at wining affection, the femaleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s better at preserving the bond. Thus, laughter is a key player from the first reconnaissance up until long-term bonding, and understanding the differences in how humor is used and processed is essential.

Laughter and Social Status Laughter, as well as humor, serve as conversational paralinguistic devices, and may be used to express a wide spectrum of sentiments. Though usually associated with joy and amusement, they also communicate embarrassment, deception, suspicion, and nervousness, and thus serve as a coping mechanism. Laughter: May subtly mark the relative discomfort associated with each topic. It may function to minimize the emotional pain associated with a topic by creating a collective identity that allows speakers to address, discuss, and then manage the magnitude of the concern. Laughter may also serve as an act of troubles resistance. 23

Thus, laughter oftentimes underlies hidden emotions; as concluded in the meta-analysis, sex differences are prominent in the presence of â&#x20AC;&#x153;marked social tension.â&#x20AC;?24 Various perspectives suggest that laughter is associated Ibid Ibid 23 Allen, Myria W., Margaret Reid, and Cynthia Riemenschneider. "The Role of Laughter When Discussing Workplace Barriers: Women in Information Technology Jobs." Sex Roles 50.3/4 (2004): 177-89. Print. 186 24 LaFrance, 309 21 22

with discussion of taboo subjects, a means of indicating superiority, and a strategy to handle incongruities. Laughter can be an expression of submissiveness, while humor production is linked to authority or high social status. Provine says that laughter “[is] performed by a subservient individual, most often a female, as a vocal display of compliance, subordination, or solidarity with a more dominate group member.”25 Sociologist Rose Coser conducted a study that outlines the liaison between humor production, the humor target, and the professional status among employees at a psychiatric hospital26. While the physicians (senior staff) had instigated the most humor, making the residents (junior staff) the matter of the joke, the residents, had usually joked on behalf of patients if not themselves – a very typical pattern for subservient individuals. At the lower end of the social spectrum, the paramedical staff (psychologists, social workers, sociologists) had not joked even once about the senior or junior staff. Also, regardless of equal female representation in the workplace, male staff had produced 96 percent of the jokes. Females, though, had laughed most frequently. According to Provine, “humor had high social costs only senior staff could afford.”27 This study thus depicts the social dynamics of a hierarchical workplace and the position-specific behavioral patterns. With the huge disparity in social roles between genders, the traditional social spectrum may explain the laugh gap. With more women in subordinate positions, lower status suggests why women laugh in the

Provine, 29 Ibid, 29-30 27 Ibid, 29 25 26

presence of a male boss or men in general.28 For women, laughter’s primary role in the workplace is to cope with stressful working conditions or unease in the presence of more powerful individuals. Submissiveness vis-à-vis man is a learned behavior (it has been encouraged for centuries)29, and, according to Reincke, laughter is used to counter male superiority and gain equal footing.30 A study performed by Myria W. Allen, Margaret Reid, and Cynthia Riemenschneider in 2004, The Role of Laughter When Discussing Workplace Barriers: Women in Information Technology Jobs, gives insight into the two primary theories that explain the laughter gap in working environments. When discussing “workplace barriers”, professional woman will often exhibit certain forms of non-verbal communication. The study was done on women in Information Technology; they face various forms of discrimination and challenges that male workers do not. According to Igbaria and Baroudi, “barriers may include male-biased educational programs, and a male-dominated computer "culture".31 They also tend do have lower salaries, are in fewer management positions, and have less promotion opportunities than men.32

"The Laugh Gap Explained." TierneyLab. The New York Times Company, 2012. Web.22 Feb. 2013. <http://tierneylab.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/the-laughgap explained/>. 29 Ellis, 304 30 Reincke, Nancy. "Antidote to Dominance: Women's Laughter as Counteraction." The Journal of Popular Culture 24.4 (1991): 27-37. Print. 31 Baroudi, Jack J., and Magid Igbaria. "An Examination of Gender Effects on the Career Success of Information Systems Employees." Stern School of Business, June 1993. Web. 03 Mar. 2013. <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1284874>. 2 32 Ibid, 3 28

The first theory that was investigated in this study and may explain the relationship between laughter and power is the incongruity theory. 33 It focuses on how laughter may be the product of a stressed state that occurs with the unity of two incongruities within a humorous statement or situation. Incongruity is defined having a st as constructed of “discordant parts, consisting of the illogical, uncustomary, or incorrect” 34. With incongruity, listeners have in mind an ordered belief of what is customary under the circumstances, which is then disrupted by another perspective that denounces this structure. The study reported that most laughter had occurred when discussing “barriers”, such as organizational politics, discrimination, problems with clients, lack of respect, and limited promotions.35 Thus, according to this theory, laughter may arise, in non-humorous contexts, when women address the incongruities faced at the workplace. The second theory that was investigated was the superiority theory,36 which explains how individuals in lower ranks use humor as a means of increasing self-esteem and degrading another. Grunner had emphasized the “playful nature of wit and humor” as well as the notion that “humor is a game”37. According to Allen, Reid, and Riemenscneider, “superiority theory suggests that there should be an edge of competition and derision in the comments that stimulate laughter.”38 This was validated in their study;

33Katz,

Bruce F. "A Neural Resolution of the Incongruity-resolution and Incongruity Theories of Humour." Connection Science 5.1 (1993): 59-75. Print. 59 34 Dictionary 35 Allen,185 36 Gruner, Charles R. The Game of Humor: A Comprehensive Theory of Why We Laugh. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1997. Print. 37 Ibid, 22 38 Allen, 180 14

laugher was often elicited when women insulted men or addressed men’s insults towards women. An example of this includes the following: “I have overhead men saying it’s the men haters club. Yeah.” (laughter) “How egocentric is that?” (much laughter) “It must be about us (men).” (much laughter)39

Such phrases clearly exemplify the theory for they demonstrate the ways in which members of one group attempt to diminish the status of another. Generally, female laughter in workplaces may be categorized into these two groups – superiority and incongruity – but all episodes are the product of low status. These individuals adopt the expected behaviors when the play the role of an inferior.40 On a separate note, similar questions may be brought up when considering men in subordinate positions. Would men laugh equally when conversing about workplace impediments? As women are seldom in control, if roles were swapped, would laugh patterns reverse as well? Though extensive research has not been conducted to test these ideas, Apte (1985) hypothesized that laugher would still remain less likely for men under similar circumstances. LaFrancis argues that some studies have found the rule only to be applicable in some cases if at all.41 We may advance, as to what factors, other than environmental, may influence the laughter patterns of males and females.

Neurological, Physiological, and Evolutionary Explanations Studies suggest that the laughter gap, though largely influenced by cultural factors, is to an extent rooted in hormonal and genetic traits. The gap Allen, 183 LaFrance, 309 41 LaFrance, 309 39 40

is expected to expand over time.42 The male sex hormone testosterone is a principal agent of smiling and laughter. A study was conducted by Mark Desantis that analyzed the photographs of children and then later as adults. It showed that prior to the onset of puberty, boy and girls had smiled equally, but after puberty, females had smiled much more often. Additionally, females with low to average levels of circulating testosterone were more likely to smile than those with high or above average levels. The highest differences between males and females were observed during adolescence and early adulthood. The lowest was during pre-puberty and elderly, as these are the age periods when sex hormones are relatively low and constant. The elderly period was interesting as the typical pattern was reversed: 21.4 % of woman did not smile, while only 13 % of men did not smile.43 Thus, according to this study there is an inverse correlation between circulating levels of testosterone and social smiling. The gender gap is also due to evolutionary forces. To understand the differences, we must first consider the innate roles of males and females. The female is the child-bearer and emotional supplier, while the male has a primary role as the hunter-gatherer. The male provisioning skills encompass challenging other men for limited resources, navigating, bluffing, and engaging in acts of dominance and aggression. Evolution has lead the male and female to acquire two very different roles. To advance, the evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory gives a basis for the gender gap. The theory proposes that the maleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s brain has developed a tendency to smiles less in social circumstances as a result of exposure to Desantis, Mark. "Women Smiled More Often and Openly Than Men When Photographed for a Pleasant, Public Occasion in 20th Century United States Society." 37.3-4 (2000): 21-31. Print. 21 43 Desantis, 24 42

high levels of testosterone throughout a lifetime.44 Varying hormonal levels create a difference in the hemispheric functioning of males and females. While the female’s “left and right hemisphere are more co-functional and more left dominant, the male’s hemisphere functions with greater independence and task-specificity”.45 According to the theory, the female mating predilection for these abilities in males has had a neurohormonal influence on men. The primary way to attract a mate is by stimulating testosterone production, encouraging the promotion of competitive and antisocial behaviors in males.46 Thus, since smiling represents happiness, nervousness, and shyness, it is reproductively deleterious for males, whereas for females it is just the opposite. The laughing pattern clearly exhibits the Darwinian framework and laws of natural selection; reproduction is one of the driving forces that establish the disparity. This cranial organization for the male also promotes efficiency at their job as a resource provider. The hormonal effects include “less emotional sensitivity during interaction, focused attention on specific task-related objectives, enhanced spatial reasoning, and efficient tracking of prey”.47 In modern times, benefits are outlined by participation in fields such as physics, mathematics, astronomy, economics and technological sciences48 - which may explain the lack of female employees in these areas. The hemispheric difference between males and females explains why women have evolved the tendency to elicit more empathy. The left hemisphere is responsible for emotional sensitivity, both negative and Ellis, 303 Ibid, 305 46 Ellis 47 Ellis 48 Ellis, 305 44 45

positive emotions. Thus, with their left dominant co-functioning hemispheres, females succeed at interpreting social signals and are more likely to be kind towards others. The presence of various hormones, such as oxytocin, which “has been found to be a potent modulator in the processing of social stimuli” 49, is likely to improve emotional connection. Provine had suggested an idea to support this: females will often laugh not because something is funny, but because they sensed that the person wishes to come off as funny. Thus, a natural inclination of females is to encourage and support others, building stronger bonds and relationships, by means of social smiling and laughing. Additionally, brain scanning has showed that women maintain more activity in the inferior pre-frontal cortex, the area responsible for rewards processing (also language and executive processing). In turn, this finding suggests that females process rewards differently than males.50 Reviewing how males and females watch cartoons tested this; the finding showed that females had expected less from the punch line, and were able to better process the reward and as a result laughed. 51 According to Dr. Allan Reiss, the author of the report, “women were quicker at identifying the material they considered unfunny.” Women are more sensitive to any emotional impulse – this could explain why depression is twice as common in woman than in men.52

Proverbio, Alice M., Alberto Zani, and Roberta Adorni. "Neural Markers of a Greater Female Responsiveness to Social Stimuli." BMC Neuroscience 9.1 (2008): 56. Print. 50 Reiss, Allan. MD, the Howard C. Robbins Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and director of the Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Science Research 49

Reiss 18

Conclusion Differences in laughter and smiling are gender, age, culture, and individual specific. There are slight variations of the pattern depending on the individual and his or her environment. However, overall there is a pretty consistent pattern of laughter and smiling: while males are the laugh-getters, females are the leading laughers. This is explained by female’s subordinate role in society, her duty in a romantic relationship and desire to attract the opposite gender, as well as the natural tendency to conform to the image that society acclaims to each group – a common phenomenon in psychology. We may notice that, though stereotypes and cultural expectations widen the gender gap, biology is largely responsible. Thus, the laugh gap is dependent on psychological, socioeconomic, evolutionary patterns, as well as neurological, hormonal, and other natural variables. It is difficult to establish whether the gap is more an issue of biological or cultural differences. The initial gap is essentially due to the ways in which evolution has made males and females, creating a genetic predisposition towards certain social behaviors – i.e. the various degrees of laughing and smiling.

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