What's in a Word

The Impact of the Russian Language on Kazakh Identity

by Azima Aidarov edited by Dora Betts

Originating from a novel written by one of the most well-known authors from Central Asia Chinghiz Aitmatov, mankurtism is a term that describes the Russification of the people from Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. 1 “Mankurtism” stems from the word “mankurt,” a slave who can no longer think for himself after his memory is completely wiped through intense physical torture. 2 Aitmatov explained this term as the loss of one’s sense of connectedness to their own culture and the loss of remembrance of the history that contributes to one’s sense of identity. Furthermore, this term also encapsulates the effects of standardization of language, culture, and more from Soviet times, where citizens of the region had no choice but to conform. 3 The Central Asian nation of Kazakhstan, is a country in which the remnants of mankurtism can be seen in the present day, especially in relation to language.

T he prevalence of the Russian language in Kazakhstan can partially be traced back to its roots in its Soviet history. Russian was the dominant language for all of the Soviet nationalities; language was a tool used to unite all of them as one and deepen their shared sense of identity. Because Russia was the most powerful country in the USSR, it imposed its language on other ethnic groups for the sake of homogeneity. 4 As a result, even upon the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, Russian was still the dominant language in the post-Soviet space. People continued to be educated in Russian, consumed media in Russian and communicated with each other in Russian, among many other facets of day-to-day life. Uplifting the native languages of post-Soviet nations has proven to be difficult, as Russia continues to play a massive role in the economic, political, and cultural spheres of life in these countries. In Kazakhstan, the Russian language is a critical tool of soft power for shaping public opinion and maintaining strong ties between the Kazakh and Russian governments. Article Seven of the Kazakh Constitution designates Kazakh as the official state language but places the Russian language “on equal grounds” with Kazakh. 5 When the Kazakh Constitution was created in 1995, there was a great deal of ambiguity over the issue of language. In the years prior to 1991, it was unclear which languages would be considered the “state language,” “the official language,” or the “language of cross-national communication.” 6 Kazakh was then designated as “the only state language,” but many concessions were made in favor of Russian because of the power imbalance between the states and it was declared the “language of cross-national communication.” 7 Ultimately, by 1997, the status of Russian as the language of cross-national communication was renounced but it was stated to be used “on par” with Kazakh. 8

Government stances on the Russian language for the post-Soviet republics have been far from uniform. This variation applies to Central Asian countries, as not all of them share ties with Russia to the same extent. Some, like Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, have kept Russia as a key ally, while others, like Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, have been more distant. Uzbekistan, in particular, underwent an extreme process of de-Russification after the breakup of the USSR. Article Four of Uzbekistan’s Constitution designates Uzbek as the official state language and makes no mention of Russian. 9 In Tashkent, the capital, more people speak Uzbek at home than Russian. Uzbekistan also has a relatively small Russian population, and most of the Russians that do live there are populated in urban areas, allowing for Uzbek to be widespread across most of the country. 10 When it comes to relations with its allies, Uzbekistan’s government has turned to Islamic states like Turkey instead of Russia, decreasing its need to maintain the usage of the Russian language. While Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan became states in 1991, Uzbekistan’s history is tied to the Khanates of Khiva, Kokand, and Bukhara, out of which came many notable Uzbek literary works and writers. Kazakhstan, on the other hand, lacks this level of “national consciousness,” due to its history as a territory settled by nomadic tribes and not an official state. 11 As such, it didn’t have pre-existing regional networks and ties, in turn resulting in a less defined sense of national unity. 12 The territory was then incorporated into the Russian Empire, the process of which began in the eighteenth century and then into the Soviet Union in 1936, after which its borders were drawn by Moscow. Even upon its emergence as an independent state in 1991, the systems engrained in it by Russia had stayed and left a lasting impact, as there were no previous Kazakh systems to use as historical models. This has been adverse to the process of ‘Kazakhization’ of the Kazakh people and the development of the usage of the Kazakh language among them. It is important for the people of a state to speak their own national language for them to feel connected to their culture, roots and ancestors, thus strengthening their sense of a unique national identity. Dr. Suleimenova, an expert on linguistics, has said, "Knowing another language helps you understand the heart and soul of people. Language is the medium of mutual understanding and a source of unity." 13 In addition, this fluency opens up more doors for the country to be viewed as an equal in the international community, rather than simply a subordinate to a great power. Making changes to the status of Kazakh as the national language is possible, but there are important obstacles to consider that stand in the way of this, given Kazakhstan’s long history with Russia. Economic reliance is one of the primary obstacles to decreasing the usage of the Russian language in Kazakhstan. Russia and Kazakhstan have strong economic ties — Since 1998, exports from Russia to Kazakhstan have been increasing at a rate of about eight percent per year. 14 Forty percent of Kazakhstan’s imports come from Russia and any economic changes that occur in Russia directly affect Kazakhstan. 15 This strong economic relationship is partially due to Kazakhstan’s membership in the Eurasian Economic Union, along with Russia, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, and Armenia. The goal of the union is to bring these countries closer together economically through the removal of trade barriers. 16 Kazakhstan, along with most of the post-Soviet republics, is also a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States

(CIS), which is an association that was formed in 1991 and covers issues including economics, immigration, and environmental policies. 17 Talks at economic forums, negotiations and agreements are settled in Russian. At a CIS summit in October 2021, President Vladimir Putin of Russia, said, “As a minimum, knowing the Russian language is a must. You need to understand what Russia is.” 18 Putin also emphasized that Kazakhstan is “a Russian-speaking country in the full sense of the word.” 19 This demonstrates how, in the words of William Fierman, a professor on Central Eurasian Studies, “it is as difficult to separate Kazakhstan from Russia in language as it is in terms of politics or economics.” 20

A nother obstacle is the significant lack of resources available in Kazakh — in order to boost the prevalence of the Kazakh language, it needs to be supported through education, especially from an early age. After the breakup of the USSR, textbooks in the native languages of Central Asia often didn’t have “standardized terminology” and students usually took classes in their native language only during their first two years of education. 21 Afterwards, Russian was the dominant language in their education. Even as late as 20052006, fifteen years after the Soviet split, nineteen percent of Kazakhs studying in secondary schools were still being educated in the Russian language. 22 In urban areas of Kazakhstan, schools have been more equipped to teach Russian due to previous curriculum planning, in addition to a shortage of textbooks written in Kazakh. 23 This impacted citizens’ ability to speak their native language as they progressed through their education and then their career. Those working in high-level positions, including in government, could only speak Russian which further helped facilitate the widespread usage of Russian. 24 After a lifetime of education in Russian, it is difficult to expect a sudden switch to Kazakh. Finding a solution to this is crucial for laying a foundation for Kazakhs to develop and maintain proficiency in their own language.

Perhaps the most prominent sphere in which the division over language is seen is in governmental affairs. Nursultan Nazarbayev, who was president of Kazakhstan for nearly thirty years and resigned in 2019, used both Kazakh and Russian when giving speeches. During his presidency, members of the cabinet and parliament used both languages interchangeably in their meetings. In 2017, there was even a statement issued by Nazarbayev’s office that called for the use of only Kazakh in conversations among members of the government. 25 The severity of this statement was quickly retracted, however, and the word “only” was removed. 26 The Pravda newspaper referred to the statement as “silent de-Russification,” a phenomenon that explains the distancing of postSoviet countries from Russia through various policies. 27

Aside from government, the continued dominance of the Russian language in Kazakhstan is largely a social issue, with the degree of fluency in Russian being associated with one’s social status. Russian fluency signifies elite status, due to the advantages it provides for both educational and job opportunities. It is seen by most in Kazakhstan as “a language of progress, prestige, and urbanity.” 28 In contrast, Kazakhs with limited or no proficiency in Russian are looked down upon and considered uneducated and even “backward.” 29 In comparison to other Central Asian states, Kazakhstan has the greatest number of students who are educated in the Russian language, the number being 800,000 as of 2018. 30 In regards to language usage among ethnic Russians, almost four million Russians live in Kazakhstan and most of them don’t speak Kazakh. 31 As of 2018, only two percent of Russians living in Kazakhstan spoke Kazakh fluently. 32 A large part of this can be explained by the condescension that Russians feel towards Central Asians. Essentially, the question reflective of their views is, “Why should we study this language if we, the Russians, gave them civilization?” 33 Russians also fear “soft assimilation,” a term that, in this case, would describe the assimilation of Russians into a society outside of Russia. 34 Because Russian nationalism is exceptionally strong, most ethnic Russians are likely to oppose signs of soft assimilation. According to William Fierman, “change in attention to one language often has implications for the other.” 35 If more people speak Kazakh, the popularity of Russian will decline and ethnic Russians are likely to view this as a threat, potentially bringing them one step closer to soft assimilation.

In the past, economic and political constraints have prevented former president Nursultan Nazarbayev’s from making investments in the promotion of Kazakh — constraints included his “nation-building project” and the need to maintain good relations with the elites of Russia, who would’ve preferred to see the status quo. 36 Over time, however — with 2007 being a turning point — interests changed and the focus shifted to build towards a more “Kazakhocentric nationbuilding project.” 37 Materials were distributed to assist workers in gaining fluency in Kazakh and the improvement in the economic conditions in the country led to higher disposable income, allowing more people to buy products that were developed in Kazakh. This demonstrates the convergence of economic and political interests and the importance of both in the development of a nation establishing its own national identity. 38 Though a complete transition to the Kazakh language is unlikely in the near future, what is possible is focusing on how to make Kazakh have more of an equal status with Russian and providing citizens resources to gain fluency. 39 Kazakhstan is making progress towards this and is currently set to switch from the Cyrillic script to the Latin script by 2025, potentially as a way of distancing itself from the Kremlin. 40 Nazarbayev explained this declaration by stating, “The youth must know that without the knowledge of the state language [Kazakh] it will be impossible to work in the state structures, law- enforcement agencies, service sector and in the judicial system.” 41 Though not a complete rejection of the Russian language, it is an important move towards lessening its influence.

In light of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February of 2022, there has been a greater emphasis among residents of Kazakhstan on the need to know the language of their home country. A project started by Aleksei Skalozubov, an ethnic Russian living in Kazakhstan, has been spreading across the cities of Kazakhstan. Its goal is to promote knowledge of the Kazakh language and give people the opportunity to practice speaking in an “informal setting.” 42 The project is called “Batyl Bol!” which translates to “Be Courageous!” and is one of the major catalysts that is changing the dynamic in Kazakhstan in relation to language. 43 Skalozubov has been using social media to amplify his message and has gotten many positive reactions from both ethnic Russians and Kazakhs who haven’t been able to learn Kazakh to the fullest extent. One of the members of the project has said that the Ukraine war has changed her view of the importance of knowing Kazah, sharing, “Before, we probably regarded Kazakh as a somewhat secondary language that you didn’t have to learn. Now, I realize that Kazakh is important.” 44 Another member, who is ethnically Azerbaijani, has shared,

“It’s important for me to be able to speak with the locals in their own language”. 45

The status of the Kazakh language is everchanging, but the changes in peoples’ attitudes that are starting to shift represent recognition of one’s connectedness to their native language and home country. As the situation evolves and more people become involved in pursuing greater fluency in Kazakh, one day, after a lot of time and energy invested into this venture, Kazakh, rather than Russian, may very well be the primary language spoken in Kazakhstan. Knowledge of one’s titular language has enormous geopolitical consequences and a strong sense of national consciousness through language is necessary for the future of Kazakhstan.

References

1 Pavlenko, Aneta, and Анета Павленко. 2008. “Russian in Post-Soviet Countries (Русский язык в пост-советских странах).” Russian Linguistics 32 (1): 59–80. https://www.jstor. org/stable/40297130.

2 Rouland, Michael. n.d. “Untitled Document.” Sites.pitt.edu. https://sites.pitt.edu/~filmst/events/TurkmenFilmSeries/ mankurt.htm.

3 Doraiswamy, Rashmi. 2005. The Post-Soviet Condition: Chingiz Aitmatov in the ’90s. Google Books. Aakar Books.

4 Ornstein, Jacob. 1959. “Soviet Language Policy: Theory and Practice.” The Slavic and East European Journal 3 (1): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.2307/305536.

5 “The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan — Official Site of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan.” 2020. Akorda.kz. 2020. https://www.akorda.kz/en/official_ documents/constitution.

6 Fierman, William. 1998. “Language and Identity in Kazakhstan: Formulations in Policy Documents 1987–1997.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 31 (2): 171–86. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48609353?seq=5#metadata_info_ tab_contents.

7 Ibid.

8 Ibid.

9 Pavlenko, Aneta, and Анета Павленко, 59–80.

10 Ibid.

11 Ibid.

12 Pavlenko, Aneta, and Анета Павленко, 59–80.

13 American Councils Editorial Staff. 2015. “The State of Language in Kazakhstan.” American Councils. 2015. https:// www.americancouncils.org/news/across-globe/state-languagekazakhstan.

14 American Councils Editorial Staff. 2015. “The State of Language in Kazakhstan.” American Councils. 2015. https:// www.americancouncils.org/news/across-globe/state-languagekazakhstan.

15 The World Bank in Kazakhstan. 2022. “An Overview of the World Bank’s Work in Kazakhstan.” Http://Www.worldbank. org/Kazakhstan. April 2022. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/ doc/0422edb5f0972729406365facd126cce-0080012022/original/ KAZAKHSTAN-Snapshot-SM2022-en.pdf.

16 Fierman, William, 1077–1100.

17 Britannica. 2022. “Commonwealth of Independent States | Facts, Members, & History.” Encyclopedia Britannica. September 20, 2022. https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Commonwealth-of-Independent-States.

18 Hashimova, Umida. 2022. “2021: Another Year of the Russian Language in Central Asia.” Thediplomat.com. January 3, 2022. https://thediplomat.com/2022/01/2021-another-year-of-therussian-language-in-central-asia/.

19 Ibid.

20 Fierman, William, 1998, 171–86.

21 Fierman, William. 2012. “Russian in Post-Soviet Central Asia: A Comparison with the States of the Baltic and South Caucasus.” Europe-Asia Studies 64 (6): 1077–1100. https:// www.jstor.org/stable/23258311?seq=20#metadata_info_tab_ contents.

22 Ibid.

23Pavlenko, Aneta, and Анета Павленко, 59–80.

24 Fierman, William. 2012, 1077–1100.

25 Reuters Staff. 2018. “Kazakhstan Says Russian Not Banned from Government after All.” Reuters, March 1, 2018, sec. APAC. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-language/ kazakhstan-says-russian-not-banned-from-government-afterall-idUSKCN1GD5HP.

26 Ibid.

27 Ibid.

28 Pavlenko, Aneta, and Анета Павленко, 59–80.

29 Dotton, Zura. 2016. “Language Policy and Language Planning in Kazakhstan: About the Proposed Shift from the Cyrillic Alphabet to the Latin Alphabet Item Type Text; Electronic Dissertation.” https://repository.arizona.edu/ bitstream/handle/10150/621896/azu_etd_15169_sip1_m. pdf?sequence=1.

30 Bekmurzaev, Nurbek. 2019. “Russian Language Status in Central Asian Countries.” CABAR.asia. February 28, 2019. https://cabar.asia/en/russian-language-status-in-central-asiancountries.

31 The International Crisis Group. 2015. “Russian Speakers of the Kazakh Steppe.” Www.crisisgroup.org. April 7, 2015. https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/central-asia/ kazakhstan/russian-speakers-kazakh-steppe.

32 Sharip, Farkhad. 2018. “Language-Motivated Emigration of Russians Causes Shortage of Qualified Workers in Kazakhstan.” Jamestown. November 1, 2018. https://jamestown.org/ program/language-motivated-emigration-of-russians-causesshortage-of-qualified-workers-in-kazakhstan/.

33 The International Crisis Group.

34 Ibid.

35 Fierman, William, 2012, 1077–1100.

36 Ibid.

37 Ibid.

38 Ibid.

39 Pavlenko, Aneta, and Анета Павленко, 59–80.

40 Bekmurzaev, Nurbek. 41 Ibid.

42 Najibullah, Farangis. 2022. “Kazakh-Language Club a Hit with Russian Speakers in Kazakhstan, amid Ukraine War.” RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. October 28, 2022. https:// www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-language-club-russia-ukraineinvasion/32105411.html.

43 Ibid.

44 Ibid. 45 Ibid.