Re-imagining Metabolism

RE-IMAGINING METABOLISM

Irwan Soetikno 1

Â

2

02.506 Imagined Cities: Urbanism as Projects 5 May 2019

introduction MetabolismMovement is the most radical modern architectural movement in Asia, led by the Japanese avant-garde architects: Kenzo Tange, Kiyonori Kikutake, Kisho Kurokawa, Fumihiko Maki, and Arata Isozaki. Other than Metabolism, there is no other big ideas and movement in Asia that attempt to solve society, urban and city’s issues through an architectural solution in such a large magnitude and intensity.

Few decades have gone since its inception in the 1960s, but Asia’s urbanisation has seen no promising remedies to tackle its complex issues.

Yes, the historical evidence has shown that architecture is not an effective prescription and architect is never a hero. But the current obsession with the smart city which is centred on technological development, as history has shown, would most likely, end no any further either in creating a utopian habitat for humanity.

Re-imagining Metabolism attempts to uncover some of the big urban/city

design proposals by Metabolism movement. It tries to rediscover the radical ideas and reflects on its relevance to the contemporary Asian Urbanism discourse today. What are the lessons learnt from Metabolism’s city ideas? What are the subsequent influences of this movement towards the (architecture) and urban development in Asia? Are there any relevant principles that we can adopt from Metabolism to re-imagine the future of Asian cities today?

3

Â

4

Â

contents

Introduction PART 01: THE METABOLISM Ruin and Tabula Rasa Metabolism and Modernism The Unbuilt and Built Projects

07 09 13 21

PART 02: RE-METABOLISM Re-imagining Metabolism Jakarta Metabolism Utopia and Insanity

49 51 55 65

Conclusion Bibliography

5

Â

6

Â

THEMETABOLISM

7

Â

Figure 01. Hiroshima after the atomic bombing.

8

Ruin and Tabula Rasa Ruin and Tabula Rasa are part of the important phenomena that arguably influenced the rise of the Metabolism movement in Japan. Natural disasters such as earthquake and tsunamis had caused a series of destructions which shaped the Japanese architect’s attitude towards ruin. One of the most impactful natural disasters was the Great Kanto Earthquake which devastated Tokyo in 1923. This disaster created a space of ruin and tabula rasa, a new opportunity to rebuild Tokyo and fix the messy and overcrowded capital with a new masterplan.

Japan was also ambitious to expand its territory with the imperialistic agenda. In 1932, Japan declared its “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere,” political propaganda to unite five Asian peoples—Japanese, Chinese, Korean, Manchurian, and Mongolian— under one peaceful union under Japan’s leadership. To achieve this dream, Japan set up a puppet state in Manchuria, called Manchukuo, which sat in a flat land of about 1,300,000 square kilometres. This was a real tabula rasa plan. One of the Metabolist architect, Kenzo Tange, a respected and progressive architect and urban planner at that time, was involved with Japan’s expansion plan into Manchukuo's tabula rasa (Koolhaas 2011, 79).

Unfortunately, after the territorial expansion, in 1945, post second world war, the American fire, and atomic bombing bring tabula rasa to Japan’s urban landscape. Its greatest cities were devastated; ruin and tabula rasa remained. Fifty percent of Tokyo was destroyed. Ninety-nine percent for Toyama. And the rest of the 17 cities were 6080 percent torn down.

On August 6, 1945, the American atomic bombing destroyed Hiroshima; and followed

by Nagasaki there days later. During that time Tange was 32 years old, and the youngest member of the Metabolist architect, Kisho Kurokawa, was 12. The apocalyptic event which flattens the city into ruin and tabula rasa had set the stage for the new thinking and idea for radical planning: The Metabolism.

9

Â

Figure 02. Hiroshima Ruined for the Second Time. The Artwork by Arata Isozaki.

10

“Right after the war, when we were asked by the Institute for War Recovery to make a reconstruction masterplan for various cities in japan, I volunteered to work on Hiroshima. That was a rumor that if you went there you might be radiated to death and that there was no grass growing anymore. But I wanted to go there anyway, even if I would die because I had a special bond with the city. In Hiroshima we (Asada, Otani, and Mitsuri Ishikawa) stayed in a hut with a corrugated sheet metal roof on the scorched earth. Our task was to make the masterplan based on what few materials we left in the basement of the burned city hall.” –Kenzo Tange (Koolhaas 2011, 103)

11

Figure 03. Kenzo Tange’s Hiroshima Memorial Park.

12

Metabolism and Modernism Metabolism is a Japanese interpretation of modernism which developed in parallel with the modern architecture under the influence of the Congrès Internationaux d'architecture moderne (CIAM), or International Congres of Modern Architecture. Led by the Le Corbusier, CIAM was born in 1928 and later declined in 1959. One significant change that the modern architecture movement brought the built environment is a philosophical idea that the architect is the agent for social engineering. With technological development, the architect is capable of creating an ideal living environment, establish order, and produce a holistic built environment that serves humanity as a collective society and individual.

The architecture of the 20th century, recognized as ‘the age of the machine,’ was characterised by LeCorbusier ideas published in his canonical work, “Toward an Architecture,” where he declared: “A house is a machine for living in” (1920). This principle is translated into his Maison Dom-Ino home concept, which embodied his following Five Points in Architecture:  Pilotis, a new structural element to replace a bearing wall  Free ground plan and interior space  Free façade design  Ribbon window  Roof garden.

The influence of modern architecture signified by these five points is apparent in the Kenzo Tange’s earlier work, such as the Hiroshima Memorial Peace Museum.

However, in contrast to the modernist view of ‘the age of the machine,’ the Metabolist, instead, advocated ‘the age of life.’ This idea was asserted by the prominent Metabolist architect, Kisho Kurokawa in his publication, “The Philosophy of Symbiosis” (1994).

It is evident in Kurokawa’s statement as follow: “In contrast to the age of the machine, I call the twenty-first century the age of life… Machines do not grow, change, or metabolize of their accord.

"Metabolism" was indeed an excellent choice for a key word to announce the beginning of the age of life.”

13

With this philosophical approach, Metabolism movement followed the trajectory or modern utopian architectural movements which believe in the role of the architects as the agent of social change. Architects could change the society and people through architectural intervention in built environment (Tamari 2014).

Metabolism architectural movement took a whole new precedent in mega-scale intervention with the holistic city plan. Instead of dealing with a singular architectural object, they promoted the social change through total city plan, through ‘megastructure.’ Through the megrastructure which relied on the high-tech vision, the Metabolists believe that it is possible to create an innovative living environment (Tamari 2014).

The definition of the megastructure, according to Rayner Banham, in his publication, “Megastructure: Urban Futures of the Recent Past” (1976), refers to a single structural framework with numerous modular units which are capable of changing and expanding as each unit can be renewed. This concept serves as the fundamental principle of the Metabolism architecture as the building, and its structure behaves like an organism which is capable of growing, replicating and renewing just like the metabolism process of an organism. Each individual component of the Metabolism architecture, for example, individual housing units, can be added or detached from the main structure and give flexibility to grow and decay—as they get old.

The concept of the megastructure is not an invention of the Metabolism movement. It was a general trend, part of the modern utopian architectural movement.

Megastructure also appeared in the work of, for example, ‘TeamX,’ an architectural movement which emerged from CIAM. In 1991, Georges Candilis, a member of Team X, designed a housing project in Morocco, where he introduced ‘mega form’ and ‘clusters’ as key concepts for the large-scale urban development.

The utopian megastructures were also a key utopian idea of Archigram, an avantgarde architectural movement which was born in the UK, in 1961, about the same time with the conception of the Metabolism. Archigram is often compared to Metabolism due to their similar futuristic and technological utopian vision with the use of the optimistic imaginary representation (Tamari 2014). Through the ‘Plug-in City Scheme,’ Peter Cook, an influential member of Archigram introduced a series of megastructure elements which can be plugged-in to form a larger city form consists of residences, access routes, and essential services for the inhabitants.

Despite the similarity between Metabolism megastructure idea with the rest of the modern architectural movement, there are some key characteristics that signify the unique features of Metabolist’s megastructure. First, it has a core (main framework) and individual units, such as capsules or cells which can be joint to form a collective unit. Second, the individual units can be plugged-in or clipped-on to the main core structure. Third, each individual unit is mass produced and standardised. And lastly, There is the unlimited capacity to extend and regenerate, as the building and city could continually evolve, grow, and metabolise.

14

Tange and Nation Building One of the key persons who are responsible for the birth of Metabolism is Kenzo Tange. The success of his national project, The Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park, escalated his figure and the nation builder and promoted his presence to the international modern architecture league such as CIAM. In 1951, Tange was invited to participate in the CIAM conference in Hoddesdon, England.

Tange’s connection to international network would subsequently open the door for the Japanese students (i.e., University of Tokyo) to gain a new perspective of the modern architectural movement in the West.

With his international reputation, Tange was able to invite the world’s leading modern architects such as American architect Louis Kahn, and Dutch architect Alison and Peter Smithson, to the World Design Conference in Tokyo in 1960. This event would subsequently lead to the birth of the Metabolism movement.

Tradition and Modernity Despite the influence of modern architecture, Japanese architects were striving in building and identifying their own architectural trajectory post second world war. As the leader of the Metabolism, Kenzo Tange’s work attempted to re-interpret Japanese tradition into modern architecture.

In his early house project in Tokyo (1953), Tange realised a modern house which was inspired by traditional Japanese house with wooden structure and tatami (grid) module. The pure rectangular form of the house resembled the geometry of the modern LeCorbusier’s Dom-ino house, with the pilotis of the traditional Japanese architecture (i.e., Katsura). The design principle and aesthetic of this house later reappeared in Tange’s iconic project, the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum.

Stood on concrete pilotis, the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum is a hybrid manifestation of tradition and modernity. The pure elongated geometric building form resembles the aesthetic of Corbusian modern architecture. It is a larger scale Domino house and a miniature of the brutalist Unite d’habitation. The concrete pilotis, though slenderer and more light-weight look than Corbusian’s pilotis, showcases a new aesthetic of modern Japanese architecture.

Tange’s work, a hybrid of tradition and modernity, has set a new precedent to the next generation Japanese architect to redefine modernism. Through the Metabolism movement, these young architects envisioned a specific solution to the postwar Japan development trajectory, which embraced the full spectrum of the technological development and modern utopian idea while grounded to its particular society.

15

Figure 04. Tange’s Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum.

Figure 05. Tange’s house in Tokyo.

16

Figure 06. Katsura, a Japanese traditional architecture.

Figure 07. LeCorbusier’s Unite d’habitation.

17

The Rise and Fall of the Metabolism The 1960 World Design Conference (WoDeCo) in Tokyo is the birth place of Metabolism.

The event was initiated by Kenzo Tange. His assistant, Takeshi Asada, led the preparation and selection of the committee and working group comprised of young architects and designers, including architectural critics. Under Asada’s leadership, this group grew into an avant-garde architectural movement named Metabolism.

The initial members of Metabolism movement were Asada, Noboru Kawazoe, Kisho Kurokawa, Kiyonori Kikutake, Masato Otaka, and Fumihiko Maki. These members came with a pamphlet, “Metabolism 1960: The Proposal for New Urbanism”, which was showcased during the WoDeCo. It includes the Kawazoe’s idea of artificial ground (jinko tochi)—a proposal based on the adaptation to the absence of tabula rasa—and Maki and Otaka’s plan for Tokyo Shinjuku station.

The WoDeCO was attended by the leading world architect such as Louis Kahn, Paul Rudolph, Jean Prouve, and Peter Smithson. Following the conference, Paul Rudolph recommended Kikutake and Kurokawa to curator Arthur Drexler for the “Visionary Architecture” exhibition which was held in New York City in 1960. Kurokawa’s Agricultural City and Kikutake’s Marine City were exhibited alongside with worldrenowned architects such as LeCorbusier, Frank Llyod Wright, and Buckminster Fuller. This opportunity would instantly boost Metabolism presence into the league of modern architectural avant-garde.

From 1960 to 1970 Metabolism had tremendous growth, and its members produced large numbers of utopian proposals and experimental built works. Among those, 1970 Osaka Expo, is one of the masterpieces of Metabolism display of its utopian future city.

The expo was master planned by Kenzo Tange and exhibited a series of the futuristic pavilion which employed the latest technological achievement in building materials and construction technology. However, Metabolism achievement at this event was criticised as they are perceived as being distorted from a utopian idea to commercialisation. During this time, their philosophical orientation was accused of being shifted from utopian modernism to neoliberal capitalism (Tamari 2014).

Since the 1970 Expo, the Metabolism started to decline. This is fundamentally triggered by economic condition, especially the 1973 oil crisis which for the first-time contracted Japan’s economy since 1945. This momentum struck Metabolism badly and suspend its utopia indefinitely.

The decline of the Metabolism signified the fragility and dependency of modern architecture utopia on the neoliberal economy. The megastructure utopian plan was suddenly had no support to be realized in Japan. But gradually the utopian ideas were exported to the other emerging independent countries in Africa and Singapore.

18

Figure 08. Tange’s master plan for Abuja Central, Nigeria (above).

Figure 09. People’s Park Complex by William Lim (Design Partnership), signified the emergence of the Metabolism’s idea in Singapore.

19

 Figure 10. Section for the Tokyo New City Hall, 1986, by Arata Isozaki

20

The Built and Unbuilt Projects The Metabolism from its inception to the following three decades has produced series or imaginary proposal of various magnitudes. Some of them are built, but most of them remain a utopia. Many of the built projects do not function according to its utopian vision, as a metabolic architecture, but rather preserve a statement of ‘Metabolism Aesthetics”.

The following section will briefly describe some of the Metabolism’s built and unbuilt key projects.

They range from small, a singular tower by Kisho Kurokawa, to medium, 1970 Osaka Expo, to large, Agricultural City and Tokyo Bay Plan.

Each will set a unique precedent to Re-imagining Metabolism.

21

Â

Figure 11. Agricultural City model (above).

24

Figure 12. Agricultural City grid layout on farmland.

Â

01. AGRICULTURAL CITY The Agricultural City was Kisho Kurokawa proposal for an agricultural town in Aichi, Japan, which was devastated by the Ise bay typhoon. In his proposal, Kurokawa challenged the dichotomy between rural and urban. To him, the rural area should be seen in parallel, and they are not two polarities. He argued that rural communities are cities too, whose means of production is agriculture (ArchEyes 2016). He further elaborated that agricultural cities, industrial cities, consumption cities, and recreational cities should all together form a compact community, which is also known today as an urban system. Kurokawa thought that agricultural cities had a potential for the future cities, which therefore needed a plan for their future expansion.

The agricultural city was conceptualised on a grid system, of 500 x 500m which serve as a basic framework for roads, water services, electricity, monorail for working commuters and other facilities. These frameworks are planned to be built 4 meters above the ground to allow the agricultural work on the groud field. The 500-meter frame contains twenty-five smaller grid of 100 x 100m blocks which could accommodate 200 people.

On top of this grid framework, Kurokawa deigned a basic housing unit with a shape of a mushroom. The building contains a central structure to accommodate basic services such as water, electricity and gas provision which are connected to the main framework operated by the municipal government.

Agricultural City is a visionary proposal, which I think is relevant now for Jakarta, a city which experiences the rapid urbanisation, whereby the dichotomy between an urban and rural area reappears. Furthermore, the proposal also attempted to answer the underlying issue of urban transformation and growth. As the city changes from developing state—with traditional agricultural society—to a developed industrial state, how can we envision a community which embraces the best part of both urban and rural environment?

25

Â

Figure 13. Agricultural City section.

Figure 14. The mushroom house proposal.

26

Figure 15 & 16. A modern house in rural Ibaraki, Japan, by Makoto Takei and Chie Nabeshima /TNA. The design of the house resembles an aesthetic of Kurokawa’s Agricultural City. The front elevation with ‘floating’ white grid-form wall(above). Aeriel view showing a grid system similar to Kurokawa’s agricultural city grid (right).

27

Â

Figure 17. Kenzo Tange with his proposal for the Tokyo Bay plan (1960).

28

02. TOKYO BAY Tokyo’s urban population exploded after the second world war, from 3.5 million in 1945 to 9.5 million in 1960. The crowded urban land area was 622 square kilometer while the empty sea, the Tokyo Bay, was 922 square kilometer. This vast empty space was seen as an opportunity by the visionary artist, Taro Okamoto, and a housing developer, Hisaakira Kano. Their vision was turned into a competition which called for planning on artificial ground, Tokyo Bay, as a way to expand and build the city.

The planning for the Tokyo Bay soon became a utopian future, a ground for experimental planning ideas. The proposals explore various diverse ideas from bay reclamation into islands, floating and semi-floating megastructures, networks of highway and piers for housing, offices and industries, governmental buildings and other facilities.

Among the most popular submission for Tokyo Bay 1960’s plan is a proposal by Kenzo Tange. Tange made a rigorous demographic and economic research which was led and supported by Koji Kamiya (responsible for housing system), Arata Isozaki (for office building), and Kisho Kurokawa (for transport). Tange highlighted Tokyo’s three key urban issues which need remedy. They are population boom (10 million in 1960), housing and affordable land availability, and traffic. Interestingly, these three key issues apparently are also recurring issues that megacities like Jakarta face in today’s digital age.

To solve Tokyo’s challenges, Tange came with a radical plan for the linear city which stretches over 80km from (land) urban centres across Tokyo’s Bay. Within this linear grid lines, he built a ‘unit’ of nine-kilometer-long for ‘cycle transportation system’ with three decks of looping highways. This linear city project could accommodate five million population, who will dwell in the ‘A’ shape megastructures which rises to 138 metres tall. In addition to that, about 2.5 million would be able to work along the central axis in giant hovering slabs.

29

 Figure 18. Hovering giant slab for working spaces

30

Figure 19. ‘A’ shape megastructures for residential purposes.

31

Â

Figure 20 & 21. Kikutake’s Sketch for the Marine City proposal (above). Marine City model (below).

32

03. MARINE CITY Kikutake was obsessed with ‘water-based architecture’ even before the emergence of the Metabolism. He explored many ideas and techniques to build and live on the water, and even to produce a system that can grow food at sea. The utopian Marine City proposal is the pinnacle of his obsession with building on water.

In 1958, Kikutake conceptualized Marine City after seeing the massive reclamation work on Yokkaichi’s coastline to accommodate the sprawl of heavy industry. This reclamation project inspired him to produce an alternative proposal to protect the precious coastline and dependency on the land. Marine City concept came as the solution to accommodate the population in the techno-romantic megastructure which floats on the water. This megastructure was built on top of the circular steel ring foundation with a diameter of two miles. On top of this circular foundation, Kikutake envisioned a 1250 magnetized living unit, which can be attached and replaced from the foundation without causing damage to the circular structure. The circular structure itself will be floating on bottle-like tubes which contains aquaculture farming.

Kikutake also designed an iconic tubular tower which contain individual attachable living units.

From 1958 to 1983, Kikutake explored a various floating city concept which manifested as 1959 Ocean City in Unabara, 1963 Marine City, 1968 Ocean City, 1971 Marine City in Hawaii, Aquapolis for 1975 Okinawa Ocean Expo and IT Aquapolis in 1983.

Marine City proposal remains a radical idea today, especially in its fundamental exploratory quest to free urban population dependency on land. For overcrowded Jakarta, expansion to the sea—Jakarta Bay—is an alternative solution. However, traditional land reclamation often faces ecological and environmental issues, which trigger a contentious political debate on environmental protection over economic growth. In fact, Kikutake Marine City idea had envisioned a floating human-made environment, detached from the land with less intervention to the natural environment. A forgotten vision, worth re-imagining.

33

Â

Figure 22 & 23. Marine City tower model (above); and sketch by Kikutake (right).

34

Â

Figure 24 & 25. Marine City (1963).

35

Figure 26. Arata Isozaki’s City in the Air, 1962.

36

Â

04. CITY IN THE AIR "Tokyo is hopeless‌I am leaving everything below 30 meters to others. If they think they can unravel the mess in this city, let them try. I will think about architecture and the city above 30 meters. An empty lot of 10 square meters is all I need on the ground. I will erect a column there, and that column will be both a structural column and a channel for vertical circulation."

(Gonzalez 2019) City in the air is one of the utopian masterpieces by the 2019 Pritzker Architecture Prize winner, Arata Isozaki. When Hiroshima and Nagasaki were devastated by the atomic bomb in 1945, Isozaki was 14 years old. The imaginary experience of the ruin and atomic cloud over the devastated city later become one of the references for the City in the Air. The iconic clustered capsules suspended from the gigantic cylinders, hovering above the crowded Tokyo, is taking reference from the timber bracketing system from the traditional Japanese temple and the mushroom cloud of the atomic bomb (Jarzombek 2018).

As Isozaki described it, was a reaction to the mess of the Tokyo urban fabric which had a height limit of 30m during the time when City in the Air project proposed in 1962.

Isozaki frustration over the messy Tokyo is probably a common reaction which many architects and planner today may experience over the chaotic urban fabric of megacities such as Jakarta. It may be worthwhile to leave the complexity at the ground floor aside and start a new vision on a tabula rasa in the empty sky.

37

Â

Figure 27. The mushroom cloud of atomic bomb over Hiroshima

Figure 28. The model of City in the Air (1962).

38

 Figure 29. China Pavilion at Shanghai Expo 2010. The structure of the pavilion which was derived from the traditional wooden brecket of Chinese architecture resembles similarity with Isozaki’s structure which took reference from traditional bracketing system of Japanese temple.

39

Â

Figure 30. Aerial view of the Osaka Expo 1970.

40

05. OSAKA EXPO, 1970 Osaka Expo 1970 is the apotheosis of the Metabolism. After this event, the movement started to decline following the oil crisis in 1973. This event also marked Japan’s economic ‘miracle’ after the defeat in the second world war. It showcased Japan’s confident to predict the future of form of the city under the benevolent theme of “Progress and Harmony for Humankind.”

The expo site was master planned by Tange, who also commissioned Kikutake to design the Expo Tower. During this time, Kurokawa won the commission for two corporate pavilions: Takara Beautillion, which used the plug-in box-type apartment, and Toshiba IHI pavilion which employed a space frame with tetrahedron units.

The central piece of the Expo 1970 is the Festival Plaza. It was originally master planned and proposed by Uzo Nishimaya, a professor of Kyoto University, who work of the expo master planning before later took over by Tange. Working with Tange, Isozaki develop the Festival Plaza into a techno-utopia with stadium seating under one large roof—designed by Tange.

Despite its success in term of media coverage, popularity, and profitability, the Expo 1970 marked the turning point of the Metabolism, from the large-scale ambitious master planning to more modest ambitions. As Isozaki highlighted in the “Project Japan,” the declined was caused by the burgeoning neoliberalism under the Tanaka government and the oil-crisis which drain the state money for grand-scale planning and optimism (2011, 664).

41

Â

Figure 31 & 32. The site plan of the Expo 1970, master planned by Tange (above). The section of plug-in structure for Takara Beautillion by Kurokawa (below).

42

Â

Figure 33, 34 & 35. Large roof structure at the Festival Plaza by Tange (top). Toshiba IHI pavilion by Kurokawa (above left).

Expo Tower by Kikkutake (above right).

43

Â

Figure 36. The metabolist Nagakin Capsule in the midst of modern Tokyo.

44

06. NAGAKIN CAPSULE, TOKYO Nagakin capsule is an icon of the Metabolism architecture. The building is constructed by a series of the modular capsule—a living unit—that is attached to the structural core. The capsule was designed in such a way so that it can be added and detached in high flexibility as to when needed. This allows the building to grow with more population, and when capsules decay or deteriorate over time, they can be easily replaced. This growing mechanism serves as one of the key principles of Metabolism.

However, during implementation, instead of allowing the individual entity—the capsule—to grow, the entire structure with its components remain static and permanent. The architecture remains as an iconic representation of Metabolism aesthetic. Series of individual capsules—attached to the core and stacked together one over another—visually produces an imaginary vision of the growth. Together, they exhibit a collective form, an architecture that accommodates a collective society of unique individuals.

What fascinates me about this project is how each unique individual needs to adapt and assimilate his/herself to the homogenous modern interior with a distinctive circular window.

Figure 37. The assembly of prefabricated capsule into the structural core.

Figure 38. Series of Interior views of the capsules (next page).

45

Â

46

Â

47

Â

48

Â

RE-METABOLISM

49

Â

Figure 39. Land clearance in Luar Batang, Jakarta for the development of Port of Jakarta.

Over 500 buildings were bulldozed in 2016 with displacement of over 300 family.

50

Re-imagining Metabolism What is the purpose of learning history if not to gain inspiration and wisdom to approach the present and future? The same principle is also applicable in studying the Japanese Metabolism movement. The historical precedent from the conception, rise and fall, and series of Metabolism utopian project offer an alternative conceptual and philosophical thinking to address some of the contentious urbanism issues in South East Asia’s largest megacity, Jakarta.

Re-imagining Metabolism (Re-Metabolism) is relevant and applicable to Jakarta urbanism, with a hypothesis that there is a trend of ‘Unilineal Urbanism’ that occurs, at least, within Asian urbanism discourse. The term, unilineal urbanism, may not exist in the academic discourse. However, by using this term, I am referring to unilineal evolutionary theory—used in anthropology and sociology—which describes the linear social and 51

Â

cultural evolution from most primitive to the most advanced society. Today, the unilineal evolutionary theory is obsolete and rejected within the academic circle. Interestingly, based on my personal observation on developmental trend in Asian cities, there is a linear evolutionary progression in urbanism from the developing state, through industrialisation, to developed economy state.

Throughout the course of the linear developmental process, cities tend to experience a similar phenomenon and face similar issues. This situation is palpable, for example, by comparing the transformation of Tokyo and Jakarta.

There are similar recurring issues faced by Jakarta today which was faced by Tokyo earlier during its modernisation and industrialisation post second world war. The pattern of urban growth, population density, and land scarcity were some of the challenged faced by Tokyo in 1960 when its population reached 10 million people. Today, Jakarta, as one of the largest world megacities, with urban population beyond 10 million, also encounters the same challenges. How to organise the city with a high population density? How to create new land for economic growth and new industrial activities? And similar to Tokyo in the 1960s, Jakarta today also move towards similar 52

Â

development trajectory, by expanding the city into the ocean (Jakarta Bay), through reclamation program.

Other similarities between Japanese cities during the Metabolism era and Jakarta today is in how the cities face the natural disaster. Japanese cities are prone to earthquake. Jakarta is vulnerable to flood which is worsened by the rising sea level.

Lastly, the dichotomy between urban and rural, which was experienced by Japan in the 1960s, is reappearing in Jakarta’s urbanisation trajectory today, known as Peri-Urbanisation.

Re-Metabolism does not attempt to replicate the old conceptual Japanese model into the contemporary society of Jakarta today, which is obviously very different and would not be compatible. However, the key tenet here is to explore a new possibility in our digital revolution and AI era, whereby utopian idea in urbanism is dead and devoured by our fascination for technological development through the Smart Cities ideology. Just like many great ideas in the history of urban and city planning, Re-Metabolism, as a reflection of the past, could be either a Utopia or Insanity.

53

Figure 40. The charm of city’s neon light of Jakarta

54

Jakarta Metabolism Jakarta, despite the charm of its city’s neon light, is, in fact, a city of disease. Like many other modern metropolises, it has complex and problematic issues. The disease is first characterised by the carnivals, such as one that celebrated the freedom of speech and democracy manifested into a student protest in 1998 which was successfully torn down the old rulership regime under president Suharto.

Right after that moment, another carnival broke in Jakarta, chaos, riot, and pillage. Second, the disease is characterised by a natural disaster such as perennial flood, due to the rising sea level and polluted river. And third is social issues. With its sprawling urban villages and poverty, Jakarta emerges into the league of ‘planet of slum,’ ranked at the fifth position as the third world largest megacities by population (Davis 2006, 4).

55

A City of Disease

development,’ which let the city remains in its ‘broken’ state.

Nevertheless, Jakarta today is continuously flowing and in motion. The motion, for example, is the flow of people and migration which bring constant anxiety of housing provision to government. It also includes the flow of water at its thirteen major rivers which gives fear of flood to residents, and the traffic which often is in a jam— not to mention the flow of polluted air, the discordant city noises, the crime, the hysteria, the beauty of chaos.

As the capital city of Indonesia with an agglomeration of wealth, opportunities and power, it is not always a bad place to be. Some may hate it, and some may love it. For a social scientist, who are enthusiastic in investigating the behaviour of modern megacities, periurbanisation, environmental justice, urban social movement, and that kind, Jakarta will be a perfect ground. Foran urban planner, who is obsessed with Jane Jacob’s idea of preserving the local community and neighbourhood through promoting the participatory planning, this is the laboratory! There are about over 267 local communities at the smallest administrative unit, which is also known as kelurahan (Ministry of Home Affairs 2019). Among those local communities, there are at least 220 identified as a slum (Ayuwuragil 2018). This situation simply means that there is plenty of work to do for planners, designer, architect and the like.

Today, Jakarta is the second largest world’s urban agglomeration after Tokyo, with a total population of over 30 million (Citypopulation 2019). With its current rate of growth, it is predicted that Jakarta will overtake Tokyo as the most populated city by 2030 (GIV 2018).

Jakarta needs a remedy! Metabolism growth is one of the ways to envision how the city should change. The concept of ‘Re-imagining Metabolism’ (hereafter Re-Metabolism) is promising as it deals with the different types and magnitudes of Jakarta’s issues. As a continuous growth mechanism, in a constant in-motion state, Re-Metabolism offers an incremental recuperation without trying to operate in total-combat mode against holistic urban diseases. It does not attempt to give a perfect solution to the issue, nor pretend to possess the answer. What it does is to provide an alternative development: how may we

Unfortunately, things do not work that easily. The slums, which most of them are occupying the illegal land, cannot be eradicated and bulldozed—like modern Singapore planning which was built from tabula rasa; or LeCorbusier visionary ‘Plan Voisin’ for Paris in 1925.

There are just too many of them scattered around the city. Most importantly, this demolition and transformation—will mean injustice to the poor. This act will certainly work against the human right: what David Harvey popularly publicised as ‘The Right to the City’ (2018). The thing is, the theoretical idea of justice and ‘right to the city’ could be misinterpreted and misused and translated as ‘anti-

live?

How may we live with ruin and disasters, tabula rasa, and periurbanisation?

56

Ruin and Disasters

modern aesthetic: a brutalist concrete form. Similarly, Japanese Metabolism architects were also expanding aggressively outside Japan to find an opportunistic tabula rasa after the nation’s declining economic condition in the 1970s.

The success of Singapore’s modern urban planning is arguably due to its pragmatic effort on building from a tabula rasa, with its dystopian programs, what Koolhaas called: ‘displace, destroy, replace’ (1998, 1035).

Jakarta has dealt with a series of ruins and disaster in various events. One of the most significant sites of ruin is the Glodok ghost town. It is a commercial district which was violently burnt during the May 1998 riot, signified the beginning of Indonesia’s reform era post-Suharto’s rulership.

Ever since the incident, the place is left abandoned with the ruin of structural building elements which are now occupied by nature. None of the previous occupants dare to return to this place, due to the bitter memory of the past. As a place, which Abidin Kusno—director of the Centre for South East Asia at the University of British Columbia—called a ‘wounded landscape,’ it traces the memory and recollection of the past and uncertainty of the future.

With similar percent in mind, Jakarta’s government effortlessly attempted to ‘displace, destroy and replace’ many problematic sites od slums and prone flooded area for redevelopment. Most of which didn’t go smoothly as the cases faced resistance from local residents and urban social movement.

Since 2013, over 60,000 residents of slums have been removed (Nursalikah 2016).

Contrast to the violence caused by human, natural disasters also contributed to the change of the Jakarta urban landscape. Flood is the greatest enemy. It is Jakarta’s perennial disease. From the last two most devastating flood in 2007 and 2013 alone, the recorded casualty is 100 dead victims, relocation of over 350,000 residents, and total loss of almost US$ 1.5 billion (Puspasari 2017).

Peri-urbanisation The rapid and uncontrolled Jakarta’s urban sprawl has created a new trend known as Peri-urbanisation. It is a transformation of the rural area at the periphery of the city into space which adopts an urban character (Yap, 2019).

Within this area, tall urban towers and industrial buildings often sit adjacent to the flat farmland. For Jakarta specifically, this area is also known as desakota. Coined by urban geographer Terry McGee (1991), desakota refers to the fragmented spaces at the urban edge which is not rural (Desa) nor urban (Kota) but features both characteristics.

Tabula Rasa Evidently, in the modern architecture and city history, modernist architects and planner cannot execute their utopian vision without a clean slate of land, a Tabula Rasa. LeCorbusier was hungry for a new site, a development, a piece of a good site to produce his 57

Reclamation

Although the main occupation of the resident within the peri-urban area is categorised as agricultural, the actual characteristic is rather unclear due to the continuous change of intensive mix between urban and rural. Often cases, the dichotomy of rural and urban become less visible. Furthermore, the highest rate of the population growth is happening within the peri-urban area (Hudalah 2007).

The Indonesian government initiated the Jakarta Bay reclamation project under President Soeharto rulership in 1995 to provide Jakarta with new land for growth and development. Similar to Tokyo Bay utopian plan by Tange in 1960, which was driven by industrialisation, urban sprawl and population booming—at that time Tokyo’s population had reached 10 million people—Jakarta’s plan was to accommodate the continuous urban growth with today’s urban population of 10 million people.

The rapid growth of the peri-urban area is challenging for the planner in determining the spatial planning characteristic and in directing future growth. For example, the diverse mixed and the rapid transformation of the area cannot be approached with conventional spatial land use planning and design.

Due to the Asian financial crisis in 1997, the project was postponed and only resumed later in 2012. The project master plan envisions a series of 17 islands with a total built-up area of 5170 Ha—about 3% of the total area of Tokyo Bay.

In the 1960s, the visionary metabolist Kisho Kurokawa had attempted to dissolve the dichotomy of urban and rural, city versus village concept.

Through his Agricultural City for towns in Aichi which was destroyed by the Ise Bay Typhoon, Kurokawa envisioned a rural community as a city whose means of production is agriculture. To him, agricultural cities, industrial cities, consumption cities, and recreation cities should all form an integral part of the compact urban system (Archeyes 2016). This vision seems appropriate to describe the peri-urban condition of Jakarta today. The solution should come from a new developmental model which improves the productive growth of agricultural land while remains connected, integrated and relevant to the urban area. Re-Metabolism within peri-urbanisation offers a new paradigm of imagining Jakarta’s Desakota.

In 2017, SHAU Architect planned a visionary master plan for another additional island which won the Smart City Prize at the World Architecture Festival (see page 65). Due to the environmental issues concern, the project was aborted by the Jakarta government in June 2018 (BBC News Indonesia 2018). Today, four completed reclaimed islands will continue, while the remaining thirteen will be history.

Exodus Due to the disease that it carries, President Joko Widodo on 29 April 2019 announced the plan to relocate the capital Jakarta to Kalimantan island during the cabinet meeting (CBNC Indonesia 2019). The relocation plan of the capital city has been envisioned 58

 long ago since Sukarno (first president) rulership in the 1950s. And recently due to the longstanding issues related to flood, traffic jam, population growth, internal migration, land scarcity, etc., the government brings the plan again to the discussion table as a resort to solve all the complexity and contradiction of Jakarta’s disease. Jakarta needs an exodus and starts with a new tabula rasa in order to progress and prosper.

The relocation plan is strongly supported by the fact that among five major islands in Indonesia, only Kalimantan is free from the threat of natural disaster such as an earthquake.

Furthermore, Kalimantan is centrally located within Indonesia’s archipelagos, which nominates it as the best strategic location to run the political administration with easy equal access to the entire maritime regions.

Figure 41. The contrast between urban hire-rise and urban village in Jakarta

59

Â

Figure 42. The Ghost Town of Glodok, Jakarta Figure 43. The abandoned buildings after the 1998 riot (below).

60

Â

Figure 44, 45 & 46. The ruins at Glodok, Jakarta.

61

 you

Figure 47. Ruin after the fire in Krukut, West Jakarta, 2019.

Figure 48. Land Clearance at the urban village in Jakarta (below).

62

Â

Figure 49. Map of earthquake distribution across Indonesia’s archipelago. Kalimantan is the only island free of threat from earthquake.

Figure 50. Plan to relocate capital Jakarta to Kalimantan was announced by President Joko Widodo on May 1, 2019.

63

Figure 51. Visionary master  plan for Jakarta Bay by SHAU Architects.

Figure 52. The Green Manhattan on Jakarta’s reclaimed island

64

Utopia and Insanity: Green Manhattan on Jakarta’s reclaimed island “Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results.” (Albert Einstein)

Utopia and Insanity is either a dichotomy or a harmony. In 1887, when Gustav Eiffel was commissioned to execute his utopian vision for the tallest structure in the world: The Eiffel Tower, many people perceived it as insanity. The idea was protested by a group of artists—led by architect Charles Garnier. The utopian Eiffel Tower—with a proposed height of 324m—was ridiculed because during that time there was no structure ever built taller than 300m. Today, after 130 years of its completion and inauguration at the 1889 World’s Fair, it has held a record as the most visited paid monument in the world (Normand 2007), with total estimated visitors of 250 million since completion (Toureiffel 2019).

Utopian visions are often perceived as insanity by society due to their lack of imagination. To appreciate a utopia, we need to detach ourselves from the current state of the world. It means the current limitation of technology and the ways thing work and operates. It also means that to produce a utopian idea, one must act upon an unconventional way of doing things. That explains why, to the world’s genius scientist, Albert Einstein, an insanity is an act of repeating the same thing and expecting a different outcome. This suggests that to be a creative thinker and innovator, one must ‘do a different thing.’ In the case of the Eiffel tower, utopia and insanity is a harmony. A utopia is at the same time insanity.

65

to bring the best of Europe; Ipanema grid for the best beach layout city. And the central idea of the proposal is the Manhattan Green: The Central Park.

However, insanity can also have a different paradoxical meaning. To me, on the contrary, insanity is: doing the same thing in a different context and expecting the same result. This is my personal reading on the proposal of the “Jakarta Jaya: The Green Manhattan” by SHAU Architects1 . The utopian proposal which is also called Visionary Master Plan won the Smart City Prize Award at the World Architecture Festival (WAF) 2017 (Leardi 2017). The proposal was to build a city on an ecological reclaimed island at the Jakarta Bay, by imposing multiple grid layouts, copied from the world’s iconic cities such as New York City, Barcelona, Venice, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, L.A., and Shanghai. The rationale of eclectic replication of various grid systems is to achieve a collective optimum outcome from each city. For example, Manhattan grid system is expected to bring the best model for ‘green living’ into the 5,800 Hectares reclaimed island; Copenhagen grid to provide the best pedestrian-friendly city; Barcelona grid

1

It seems unknown to many people that the secret to the success of the Manhattan grid is, according to David Owen in his “Green Metropolis,” a lucky accident! It was created by merchants who were more interested in economic efficiency, and presumably knew nothing much about the ‘urban planning theory’ (Owen 2009, 33).

“Jakarta Jaya: Green Manhattan” is a case whereby “Utopia and Insanity is a Dichotomy.” In another word, it is either a utopia or insanity. The act of copying the same grid pattern of the different cities into a different context, a new tabula rasa, and expecting the same (best) result, to me, is total insanity! To expect the second lucky accident to repeat in Jakarta is either utopia or insanity…

66

Â

Figure 53. Master Plan of the reclaimed island (left).

Figure 54. Reference of multiple city’s grid for the reclaimed island (above).

Figure 55. Figure ground of the reclaimed island (below).

67

Â

68

Figure 57 & 58. Four built reclaimed islands on Jakarta Bay (left). Re-imagining Marine City on Jakarta Bay (right).

Jakarta’s Marine City Kikutake’s ‘Marine City’ offers a solution to the four reclaimed island which are ready for development.

The imaginary Jakarta’s Marine City illustration adopted Kikutake’s Marine City sketch, which is characterised by seductive nature (e.g. moon, mountain and sea). The island will be occupied by series of metabolistic tubular Marine Towers. They provide a new alternative development to the crowded, congested, and sparwling urban centre by providing new economic development that centre on marine life trade and industry.

Each tower represents a collective form of unique individuals with personal vision and memory.

Through the homogenous capsule apartment’s window, each resident may encounter a different city view. It ie either a progress of the metropolis, the disaster at the bay, or constant emergence of ruin and tabula rasa.

69

Â

Figure 59. Interior of individual capsule at the Marine City cylindrical tower, with view towards the natural disaster at the ocean front.

Figure 60. View towards the Jakarta’s modern urban centre (right above).

Figure 61. View towards the ruin of disaster (right below).

70

Â

71

Jakarta’s City in the Air Jakarta is a city with high density and low-rise urban forms. With about 80% of population lives in landed houses with over 200 slums, the city appears as a flat terrain with organic collective forms of urban fabric containing individual housing-unit.

To eradicate the slum and clear the land for new urban development is not an easy task. Relocation and displacement for the houndreds of thousand of residents is such a nighmare for the government— not to mention, the resistance from urban social movements and local residents.

Arata Isozaki’s visionary ‘City in the Air’ seems like a utopian alternative development for Jakarta. The structure allows an incremental vertical growth and relocation of the urban villagers and provide a flexibility for the future organic growth which is unpredictable.

72

‘City in the Air’ retains the ruin of Jakarta’s wounded urban landscape.

The collective memory of the past, the patches of disease, becomes an integral part of everyday-life urban experience.

73

Â

Riot and Carnival The ruin after the May 1998 riot.

The carnival of violence and destruction is a part of metabolistic process of the city.

Some people torn it apart and others will rebuild it.

74

Thamrin Roundabout and Marine City Tower The circular pond at the Thamrin round about is large enough. With the diameter of about 50 meters it could raise a Kikutake’s utopian Marine City tower. With up to 2,000 sqm floor plate, each floor can house six families. If each tower has, say, a moderate high of 30 floors, then with about 20,000 towers the 10 millions Jakarta’s urban population can be accommodated. To build this 20,000 towers, Jakarta government needs a land of 16,000 hectares, which is equal to about ONLY 2.5% of Jakarta total land area (6,000 km2); or also equivalent to 10% of Tokyo Bay total area.

The only question is where to get this empty land?

Where is the next Tabula Rasa?

The other concern is, assuming that the circular pond can be converted into a residential land use for Marine City tower, where will the protesters exercise their freedom of democracy?

75

Â

76

Jakarta’s Agricultural City Unlike Kisho Kurokawa’s Agricultural City which was designed in 1960 to replace the agricultural towns in Aichi after devastation caused by the Ise Bay Typhoon, Jakarta’s Agricultural City is built to mitigate the growth of Peri-urbanisation and to privode a solution to Desakota which is constantly ‘in motion’.

It is a danger, in a city of ten million population and growing, the rural farmlands are constantly transformed into a high value space for production. Industrial lands for factories, low-end landed houses, and commercial spaces are sporadically scattered between the blurred border of urban and rural. Within this territory, people of different origins and with different economic and social interest are flowing in a dynamic interchange.

Some will stay here permanently, dwell and make it their home; some will move elsewhere. For those who decided to stay, they have an option to keep the land productive and build their town above the ground. Rural area is no longer an urban backyard, it can be a dreamland too.

77

Â

78

conclusions

Until today, no one has a unified answer on how to build a good city for humanity. The fall of Metabolism avant-garde movement—and the rest of modernist avant-garde movement—left a series of proposals as a utopia or even dystopian, abandoned, forgotten and buried under the progress of the new digital era. Next, how should we build, live and envision the future city? Are utopian and visionary ideas still a relevant discourse for planner and architect?

The history of Metabolism has shown that visions and grand ideas cannot survive without a stable and flourish economic condition. Technological development is also instrumental in the implementation and execution of grand ideas. And lastly, planning is political business. To realise a utopia, a strong power is needed.

To re-imagining Metabolism in Jakarta, at least those three key components are needed. The disease of Jakarta can be recuperated, only if, at least, a strong political power supports the stable economic condition and technological development. Otherwise, we will remain live in the next utopia or insanity (such as smart city?).

It is up to you to decide and imagine…

79

Bibliography Archeyes. “Agricultural City, 1960 / Kisho Kurokawa”. May 7, 2016. Accessed May 03, 2019. http://archeyes.com/agricultural-city-kurokawa-kisho/ Ayuwuragil, Kustin. “Ada 220 Kampung Kumuh di Jakarta, Anies Janji Bawa Perbaikan”. CNN Indonesia. 8 January 2018. Assessed April 24, 2019. https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20180107174149-20267276/ada-220-kampung-kumuh-di-jakarta-anies-janji-bawa-perbaikan Banham, Reyner. Megastructure: Urban Futures of the Recent Past. Harper & Row.1976.

BBC News Indonesia. “Reklamasi 13 pulau di Teluk Jakarta dibatalkan Gubernur Anies Baswedan: Yang harus Anda ketahui.” 27 September 2018. Accessed April 24, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/indonesia-45662194 Davis, Mike. Planet of Slums. Verso. 2006. http://rebels-library.org/files/planet_of_slums.pdf Global Indonesian Voices. “Jakarta to Overtake Tokyo as Most Populated Megacity by 2030”. 09 Oct 2018.

Accessed April 24, 2019. https://www.globalindonesianvoices.com/33429/jakarta-to-overtake-tokyo-asmost-populated-megacity-by-2030/ González, María Francisca. The City in the Air by Arata Isozaki. 8 March 2019. Accessed May 04, 2019. https://www.archdaily.com/912738/the-city-in-the-air-by-arata-isozaki City Population. Indonesia: Java. "Regencies, Cities and Districts – Population Statistics, Charts and Map". Accessed April 24, 2019. www.citypopulation.de.

Ministry of Home Affairs Indonesia. "Peraturan Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor 137 Tahun 2017 tentang Kode dan Data Wilayah Administrasi Pemerintahan". Accessed April 24, 2019. https://www.kemendagri.go.id/pages/detail/108-permendagri-no137-tahun-2017 Harvey, David. "The Right to the City." New Left Review 53 (2008): 23-40.

Hudalah, Delik, Haryo Winarso, and Johan Woltjer. “Peri-urbanisation in East Asia. A new challenge for planning?” July 2007. Accessed April 24, 2019. https://www.academia.edu/1880342/periurbanisation_in_East_Asia_a_new_challenge_for_planning Ito, Toyo. “What was Metabolism? Reflections on the Life of Kiyonori Kikutake.” Harvard GSD. 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=20rYUAeiL10&t=3093s Koolhaas, Rem, Hans Ulrich Obrist, Kayoko Ota, James Westcott. Project Japan: Metabolism Talks. Taschen.

2011.

Kurokawa, Kisho. The Philosophy of Symbiosis. Academy Pr. 1994.

Leardi, Lindsey . “Visionary Master Plan Wins Smart City Prize At World Architecture Festival.” Archdaily. 9 December 2017. Accessed April 26, 2019. https://www.archdaily.com/885037/visionary-master-plan-winssmart-city-prize-at-world-architecture-festival

80

LeCorbusier. Towards A New Architecture. Dover Publications. 1985.

Maki, Fumihiko, Mark Mulligan. Nurturing Dreams: Collected Essays on Architecture and the City. MIT Press.

2008.

McGee, T.G. (1971). The Emergence of Desa-kota Regions in Asia: Expanding a Hypothesis the Extended Metropolis: Settlement Transition in Asia. University of Hawai’i Press .1971. pp.3-25.

Normand, Jean-Michel. “Tour Eiffel et souvenirs de Paris, par Jean-Michel Normand.” 23 July 2007.

Accessed April 26, 2019. https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2007/07/23/tour-eiffel-et-souvenirs-deparis-par-jean-michel-normand_938349_3232.html Nursalikah, Ani. “60 Ribu Warga Miskin Jakarta Digusur Sejak 2013”. Replubika 12 Apr 2016. Accessed April 24, 2019. https://nasional.republika.co.id/berita/nasional/jabodetabek-nasional/o5i93l366/60-ribu-wargamiskin-jakarta-digusur-sejak-2013 Owen, David. Green Metropolis: Why Living Smaller, Living Closer, and Driving Less Are the Keys to Sustainability. Riverhead Books. 2009.

Puspasari, Aisyah Minerva. “5 Banjir Terbesar yang Pernah Terjadi di Ibu Kota Jakarta”. Okenews.

04December 2017. Accessed April 24, 2019. https://news.okezone.com/read/2017/12/04/338/1824900/5banjir-terbesar-yang-pernah-terjadi-di-ibu-kota-jakarta Tamari, Tomoko. “Metabolism: Utopian Urbanism and the Japanese Modern Architecture Movement.”

Theory, Culture & Society 2014, Vol. 31(7/8) 201–225. SAGE. 2014. DOI: 10.1177/0263276414547777.

Tan, Weizhen. “Indonesia plans to move its capital from Jakarta. Here’s why.” CNBC News May 1, 2019.

Accessed May 2, 2019. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/02/indonesias-joko-widodo-decides-to-movecapital-from-jakarta.html Toureiffel. Accessed April 26, 2019. https://www.toureiffel.paris/en/the-monument/key-figures Yap, K.S. Peri-Urban Transformations in Southeast Asia Routledge Handbook of Urbanization in Southeast Asia. Routledge. 2019.

81

 Image sources: Figure 01. http://www.trbimg.com/img-5b7f1988/turbine/ct-perspec-hanson-bombs-hiroshima-nagasakijapan-0824-20180823 Figure 02. http://www.moma.org/media/W1siZiIsIjIzMjMyMiJdLFsicCIsImNvbnZlcnQiLCItcmVzaXplIDIwMDB4MjAwMFx 1MDAzZSJdXQ.jpg?sha=2a0b420064767625 Figure 03. https://i.pinimg.com/originals/30/f4/1b/30f41b1bca756564ae76598ad2600c8e.jpg Figure 04. https://farm5.static.flickr.com/4414/36861702101_b07431da90_b.jpg Figure 05. https://en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/kenzo-tange-house/ Figure 06. https://static.wixstatic.com/media/c22288_0247d20b306243a8ab61b594656a118c~mv2.jpg/v1/fill/w_630,h_ 335,al_c,q_80,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01/c22288_0247d20b306243a8ab61b594656a118c~mv2.jpg Figure 07. https://aplust.net/imagenes_blog/gO1PmSiS_unite-habitation-lecorbusier.jpg Figure 08. https://archnet.org/authorities/15/sites/1080 Figure 09. https://www.dpa.com.sg/insight/theopeningofpeoplesparkcomplex/ Figure 10. https://www.cca.qc.ca/en/issues/4/origins-of-the-digital/40596/arata-isozaki-and-theinvisible-technicians Figure 11-14. http://archeyes.com/agricultural-city-kurokawa-kisho/ Figure 15-16. https://images.ecosia.org/ZGnIOwsVkinGW5ySqBdGsC6djg0=/0x390/smart/https%3A%2F%2Fdozodomo.co m%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F02%2F02.jpg Figure 17-19. http://archeyes.com/plan-tokyo-1960-kenzo-tange/ Figure 20. http://www.uncubemagazine.com/sixcms/media.php/1323/thumbnails/TraeumevomAnderenAbb.jpeg.832907.jpeg Figure 21. https://www.google.com/search?q=kikutake+marine+city+archeyes&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0 ahUKEwjcu7fBj4TiAhUTFHIKHTBoABsQ_AUIDigB&biw=1280&bih=578#imgrc=9AY4gqPy9u6YmM: Figure 22. https://www.artstation.com/artwork/0qWe Figure 23. http://polinice.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Kikutake_186-187.jpg Figure 24 & 25. http://www.uncubemagazine.com/sixcms/media.php/1323/thumbnails/kkikutake1963ss.jpeg.832903.jpeg Figure 26. https://i.pinimg.com/originals/a9/75/2f/a9752f781b0df7690eddddff8cb3cbe3.jpg

82

 Figure 27. https://ciberia.com.br/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/9fcbfb587cd2db666d9fd6b3ed26b8c8.jpg Figure 28. https://i.pinimg.com/originals/a9/75/2f/a9752f781b0df7690eddddff8cb3cbe3.jpg Figure 29. https://static.dezeen.com/uploads/2010/04/dzn_The-Pavilions-Shanghai-45.jpg Figure 30. http://coinjapan.io/news_item/osaka-expo-2025-we-are-ready/ Figure 31. http://1.bp.blogspot.com/Tq5Hai2Pg0c/To787La8EcI/AAAAAAAANO4/VSzuLKxqNog/s1600/expo2.JPG Figure32. https://i.pinimg.com/originals/5a/0d/c8/5a0dc878271851eea7e96d54a661084e.jpg Figure 33. https://wharferj.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/teaser_va_koolhaas_project_japan_top_1204231556_id_5227 53.jpg Figure34. https://www.grainedit.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/expo-70-1.jpg Figure 35. http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-faoMsmotBHU/To7865jdk0I/AAAAAAAANOg/IY25pzZdH7g/s1600/09bexpo_tower.jpg Figure 36. https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/5037/ff5f/28ba/0d59/9b00/0815/newsletter/stringio.jpg?141420 6942 Figure 37. http://www.iromegane.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/building-800x480.jpeg Figure 38. https://www.opumo.com Figure 39. https://pinterpolitik.com/revitalisasi-pesisir-jakarta-menunggu-nasib/ Figure 40. https://asialink.unimelb.edu.au/arts/about-us/publications/country-resources/indonesia-forarts-professionals/further-reading/jakarta Figure 41. https://www.100resilientcities.org/cities/jakarta/ Figure 42-46. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/nov/22/glodok-jakarta-recover-indonesia-1998riots-chinatown Figure 47. https://www.antaranews.com/berita/812151/polisi-periksa-empat-saksi-dalam-kebakaran-dikrukut-jakarta-barat Figure 48. https://www.insidejakarta.com/ketahuilah/dampak-penggusuran/ Figure 49. https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bab-iii-pembagian-jalur-gempa-di-indonesia-rekayasagempa1-130509092533-phpapp01/95/bab-iiipembagianjalurgempadiindonesiarekayasagempa1-7638.jpg?cb=1368091757 Figure 51-55. https://www.archdaily.com/885037/visionary-master-plan-wins-smart-city-prize-atworld-architecture-festival?ad_medium=gallery

83