Badenhorst, W - The Design of Adaptable Prefabricated Panels for Self-Built Dwellings in South Af... by jacques_23

THE DESIGN OF ADAPTABLE PREFABRICATED PANELS FOR SELF-BUILT DWELLINGS IN SOUTH AFRICAN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

BY: WIJAN BADENHORST 215 624 684

FIGURE 1: HDPE skin, image by Polimeer [Online]. Available at: , https://www.facebook.com/polimeer/ photos/a.685911671815944/1036685880071853 (Accessed: 02 June 2021), image edited by the Author (2021)

THE DESIGN OF ADAPTABLE PREFABRICATED PANELS FOR SELF-BUILT DWELLINGS IN SOUTH AFRICAN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS Wijan Badenhorst

INCREMENTAL /ɪŋkrɪˈmɛnt(ə)l/

Relating to or denoting an increase or addition, especially one of a series on a fixed scale.

ARCHITECTURE /ˈɑːkɪtɛktʃə/

The art or practice of designing and constructing buildings.

THE DESIGN OF ADAPTABLE PREFABRICATED PANELS FOR SELF-BUILT DWELLINGS IN SOUTH AFRICAN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS by Wijan Badenhorst 215624684 Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Architecture in Architectural Technology (Structured) in the Department of Architecture and Industrial Design at the FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT at the TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Supervisor: Prof. J. Laubscher Co-Supervisors: Mr SP. Steyn Ms T. Gaum Edited by: Ms M. Selmer-Olsen Ms Tanya Pretorius PRETORIA 2021

Acknowledgments

acknowledgments First and foremost, I am grateful for the opportunity to complete this dissertation. This completed dissertation is possible due to the perseverance that my Lord and Saviour, Almighty God has given me. "I can do all things through him who strengthens me" Philippians 4:13. To my study leader, Professor Jacques Laubscher, for your guidance throughout the process. Thank you. To my supervisors, Mr Stephen Steyn and Ms Tariene' Gaum, thank you for your wisdom and your continued support. Without your undivided dedication, this dissertation would not have been possible. To Mr Adriaan Louw, thank you for all your knowledge, wisdom, and assistance with this dissertation. You were always there when I required help, and your aid has helped the project evolve to where it is now. Thank you. To my best friend and life partner, Kazz, I am eternally grateful for all your assistance, motivation, and unending love throughout this dissertation, all the patience and words of affirmation when I felt like giving up. You have aided me in too many ways to put into words. Thank you. To my parents, Jan and Lize, words cannot descripe my gratitude for your support throughout architecture school. The 2am model building, the continued check-ins when projects are due, and last but not least, the unending love and support. I am so grateful for my loved ones, and the support you have given me has contributed to the person I have become and the knowledge I have acquired through this journey. To all my friends, thank you for always being there when I needed you. The friendly competition and motivation resulted in a stable and positive work environment. Thank you.

Plagiarism

Declaration of Plagiarism Department of Architecture and Industrial Design In accordance with Chapter 8 of the 2021 Prospectus (Rules and Regulations for Post Graduate students), I, Willem Jan Badenhorst 215624684, declare that this dissertation, which I hereby submit for the degree, Master of Architecture (Architectural Technology Structured) Qualification code: MAAT18 at the Tshwane University of Technology, is my own work and has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other tertiary institution. I further state that no part of my dissertation has already been, or is currently being, submitted for any such degree, diploma, or other qualification. I declare the following: 1. I understand what plagiarism entails and I am aware of the University’s policy in this regard. 2. I declare that this assignment is my own, original work. Where someone else’s work was used, it was acknowledged, and reference was made according to departmental requirements. 3. I did not copy and paste any information directly from an electronic source (e.g., a web page, electronic journal article or CD ROM) into this document. 4. I did not make use of another student’s previous work and submitted it as my own. 5. I did not allow and will not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of presenting it as his/her own work. I further declare that this dissertation is substantially my own work. Where references are made to the works of others, the extent to which the work has been used is indicated and fully acknowledged in the text and list of references.\ This dissertation is 22000 words long (excluding references and the bibliography).

Wijan Badenhorst 215 624 684

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1

CHAPTER ONE THE PROBLEM xi

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

xii

List of Definitions

xiii-xiv Abstract

1.1 Introduction 1.2 The problem and its main setting 1.3 Statement of the problem 1.4 Sub problems and related hypothesis 1.5 Delimitations 1.6 Limitations 1.7 Assumptions 1.8 Purpose of this study 1.9 Objective 1.10 Research context 1.11 Research paradigm 1.12 Research formation 1.13 Researcher styles 1.14 The triangulation research methodology 1.15 The importance and benefits of the study 1.16 The researchers existing expertise to comment on the subject 1.17 Chapter one summary

02 02 03 03 04 04 04 04 05 05 06 07 08 08 09 09 10

Chapter 2

CHAPTER TWO THE CONTEXT

Chapter 3

2.1 Introduction 2.2 The history of informal settlements in South Africa 2.3 The history of the reconstruction and development programme 2.4 Current concerns about the RDP programme 2.5 Plastic production and waste in South Africa 2.6 Current plastic pollution situation 2.7 Types of plastic we encounter daily 2.8 Plastic in the built environment 2.9 Plastic upcycling 2.10 Plastic properties 2.11 The ideal plastic

12 12 14 16 17 18 18 20 21 22 23

CHAPTER THREE THE CONCEPT

vii

3.1 Integrating prefabrication into informal settlements 3.2 The contextual project location 3.3 The art movement 3.4 The concept of incrementality 3.5 Design development 3.6 Response to existing structures 3.7 User friendliness

26 27 28 29 30 34 35

Contents

Chapter 4

CHAPTER FOUR THE PILOT

_01 Experiment 01 _02 Experiment 02 _03 Experiment 03 _04

Experiment 04

Chapter 5

4.1 Pilot study 4.2 Pilot study delimitations 4.3 Plastic preparation 4.4 First melt 4.5 Second melt 4.6 Third melt 4.7 Prototype 4.8 Preliminary changes

40 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

CHAPTER FIVE THE DESIGN

Chapter 6

5.1 Ground floor plan (version one) 5.2 Ground floor plan (version two) 5.3 Elevation 5.4 Section A 5.5 Detail D8 5.6 Detail D1 and D2 5.7 Detail D3 and D4 5.8 Detail D5 and D6 5.9 Axonometric explosion

50 51 52 53 53 54 55 56 57

CHAPTER SIX

THE RESOLUTION 6.1 The thermal efficiency 6.2 The environmental impact 6.3 Cost analysis

60 62 64

Chapter 7

CHAPTER SEVEN THE ANALYSES

7.1 Structure, cost and thermal comfort 7.2 Fire, smoke and toxicity

68 70

iix

Contents

Chapter 8

CHAPTER EIGHT THE CONCLUSION

8.1 The conclusion

Chapter 9

CHAPTER NINE THE POSTSCRIPT

9.1 Appendices 9.2 Examiners comments and remarks

78 82

Chapter 10

CHAPTER TEN

THE AFTERWORD

10.1 List of figures 10.2 List of tables 10.2 Bibliography

Project Video

THE VIDEO

84 85 85

POVERTY IS NOT AN ACCIDENT. LIKE SLAVERY AND APARTHEID, IT IS MAN-MADE AND CAN BE REMOVED BY THE ACTIONS OF HUMAN BEINGS Nelson Mandela

FIGURE 2: "Power", Photo by Oladimeji Odunsi, image [Online] Unsplash (2018). Available at: https://unsplash.com/photos/e-TuK4z2LhY (Accessed: 06 October 2021).

Acronyms and abbreviations

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ANC:

AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

CSIR:

COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

DHS:

DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

GNI:

GROSS NATIONAL INCOME

HDPE: HIGH-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE LDPE:

LOW-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE

PET:

POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE

PTFE:

POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE

PP:

POLYPROPYLENE

PVC:

POLYVINYL CHLORIDE

PS:

POLYSTYRENE

RDP:

RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

SA:

SOUTH AFRICA

SANS:

SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS

SAPRO: SOUTH AFRICAN PLASTIC RECYCLING ORGANISATION

Definitions

LIST OF DEFINITIONS AIR TEMPERATURE (° C) Commonly referred to as a dry-bulb temperature (DBT) or ambient temperature (Ta), and is the average temperature surrounding a person. INCREMENTAL ARCHITECTURE Process of small steps or additions implemented over a period that completes the main goal after a period of implementation. INFORMAL SETTLEMENT Area that consists of multiple erven that are not legally owned by the citizens who have constructed their dwellings on the site, these dwellings are not in compliance with building regulations. PREFABRICATION Method of constructing a structure off-site in a factory, then transporting the constructed systems or structure to the site and assembling the ready-made parts. PRESSURE INJECTION MOULDING Manufacturing process where molten materials are compressed under pressure into a mould, this manufacturing method is used to produce parts in large volumes. SANS 10400-XA SANS 10400-XA deals with energy use in buildings and provides guidelines on the maximum allowed energy consumption for buildings in each climatic zone are defined to achieve energy efficiency and are stated in this document. SELF-BUILT DWELLINGS Self-built dwellings that are small, self constructed, and simple and are usually constructed from materials found in the immediate environment, and do not comply with building regulations. THERMAL COMFORT International standard EN ISO 7730 (2005), “thermal comfort is defined as the condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment”, thermal comfort varies significantly depending on the characteristics of the particular person. U-VALUE (W/M²K) Heat flow coefficient of a surface, the U-value is measured as the rate of heat flow in Watts through 1 m² of a structure, when there is a temperature difference across the structure of 1° (K or C).

xii

Abstract

ABSTRACT Apartheid-era unemployment and disenfranchisement of some population subgroups of South Africa have led to an increase in informal settlements due to the lack of adequate housing. According to census estimates from 2011, between 1.1 and 1.4 million households (or between 2.9 and 3.6 million people) lived in informal settlements at the time. Makeshift basic shelter structures erected in these areas do not conform to any construction standard or method of construction aimed at protecting the user, instead they act solely as basic shelter from exposure to the elements. This study investigates the possible integration of prefabricated elements into informal settlements of South Africa. The prefabrication of wall panels and how these panels can adapt to sitespecific elements, whilst still being an effective and cost-efficient alternative to the current makeshift structures, are investigated. In return, this will improve the thermal properties and constructibility of informal dwellings as a feasible alternative to existing practice. The study will explore the prospect of utilising the large plastic waste reserves that South Africa currently owns to create a system that is constructed with recycled materials. The implementation of recycling into the design framework will result in a penetrative environmentally sustainable strategy that will aim to improve the carbon footprint of South Africa. Improving the quality of construction and the development of future phases of informal settlements might improve fire prevention, address risks currently present, and contribute to the prevention of death and destruction. The proposed prefabricated panels will be able to fix to three main materials and objects commonly found in informal settlements: corrugated steel sheeting, timber frames and masonry blocks.

xiii

The panels will tie into the existing structure, enabling incremental expansion and the improvement of the thermal, physical, and physiological properties of the structure. This study will use the experimental method to create an accurate model of the proposed structure to enable the systematic and accurate gathering of cost, thermal, and environmental impact data. Keywords: Prefabrication, incremental expansion, dwelling, self-built dwellings, cost effective, thermal comfort, alternative, constructability, recycling, experimental.1 FIGURE 3 (Below): "Cows at a garbage dump", Photo by Pop & Zebra, image [Online] Unsplash 1 (2019). Available at: https://unsplash.com/ photos/8DaZBwZz4vQ (Accessed: 11 July 2021).

Abstract

South Africans produce an estimated 54,2 million tons of general waste per year. Out of these 54,2 million tons of refuse, a maximum of 10% is recycled for reuse, whilst 90% is landfilled or dumped into the environment (McTaggart M, 2019).

This statement indicates that there is vast amounts of recyclable material already available. If the possibility of prefabrication and recycling is investigated, the integration into informal settlements could serve as a penetrative strategy to combat poor living standards as well as the environmental crisis with little lead time.

CHAPTER 01 INTRODUCTION • CHAPTER AIMS • INTRODUCTION -THE PROBLEM AND ITS MAIN SETTING -STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM -SUB PROBLEMS AND RELATED HYPOTHESIS -DELIMITATIONS -LIMITATIONS -ASSUMPTIONS -PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY -OBJECTIVE -THE RESEARCH CONTEXT -THE RESEARCH PARADIGM -THE RESEARCH FORMATION -THE RESEARCH STYLES -THE TRIANGULATION RESEARCH METHODOLOGY -THE IMPORTANCE AND BENEFITS OF THIS STUDY -THE RESEARCHERS EXPERTISE • SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1

This chapter provides a basic understanding of the current situation in informal settlements and issues that much of the South African population face daily. This chapter drives the research towards designing a prefabricated wall panel as a proposed solution.

Chapter 1 | Introduction

introduction 1.1 INTRODUCTION South Africa (SA) is known as a developing country. The factors that define a developing nation are, low living standards, trade markets that have not reached their full potential, and a low gross national income (GNI) (IGI Global, 2021). A significant problem typically seen in developing countries is that there is a lack of adequate housing and basic services, such as water and waste removal. This chapter provides a brief contextual background of the current problems experienced in South Africa and presents possible solutions to intervene and combat the poor living conditions.

1.2 THE PROBLEM AND ITS MAIN SETTING Over the past few years, South Africa has shown little economic growth, with 0.8% in 2018 and only 0.2% in 2019 (World Bank in South Africa, 2021). To further add to the alreadystrained economic system, the recent global COVID-19 pandemic shrunk the economy by a further 7% in 2020 (World Bank in South Africa, 2021). The current situation has a significant impact on the lifestyles of citizens, both rich and poor. Since the transition to democracy in the early 1990s, South Africa has performed numerous interventions to improve the wellbeing of its residents. However, the overall progress of development has slowed in the last decade (World Bank in South Africa, 2021).

One of the most important interventions was the founding of the highest law in South Africa, the Constitution. As preserved in the Constitution, the Bill of Rights states that every South African citizen has the right to life, equality, human dignity, and privacy (Constitution Hill, 2021). Chapter 2, Section 24 of the South African Constitution, states "everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or wellbeing" (The South African Government, 1996). This environmental stipulation can be defined by several necessities, including basic shelter, water, food, and other basic services. In response to the new rights, set out in the Constitution, the government implemented the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) in the 1990's to combat the poor living standards of citizens living below the poverty line. The primary purpose of the RDP programme was to provide disadvantaged persons with adequate housing (Settlements, 2020). It can take a significant amount of time to qualify for, and receive, a home before inhabitants can occupy the dwelling (Settlements, 2020). This time-consuming wait for housing contributes to low-income groups using inexpensive housing options as an interim solution until the possibility of an RDP home becomes available [Figure 4].

FIGURE 4: Orthographic sketch of an informal settlement. (Image created by the Author, 2021)

Chapter 1 | Introduction

These interim solutions provide basic shelter; however, they are thermally ineffective, dangerous, and result in inhumane living conditions. Consequently, additional expenses occur when citizens attempt to address problems independently, such as indoor thermal comfort. These settlements and their citizens lack the resources to create a better living standard for themselves, forcing the inhabitants to mend repairs without resolving the root issue. The absence of services such as waste removal, water management, and quality housing strains existing residents. A different approach could be taken to break this cycle, that benefits the citizens and housing crisis faster with little extra cost.

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Lack of adequate knowledge, materials, and funds have resulted many self-built dwellings in informal settlements in South Africa. The dwellings often lack thermal efficiency and fire prevention, using combustible materials and techniques. The integration and application of prefabricated interventions into informal settlements could gradually alter and improve the architecture and the lifestyle of citizens over time. This will reform the thermal efficiency, safety, physical, and psychological experience of spaces. To contribute to a possible solution for this problem, an investigation of two large subproblems could be integrated into the study. These sub-problems are an abundance of waste matter and a lack of construction materials in informal settlements. Investigating the possibility of how these two sub-problems could be integrated in a viable solution, could pave the way to create a sustainable and low-cost proposal. This could contribute to the housing crisis that will allow the citizens to have recycled materials as a construction medium.

1.4 SUB-PROBLEMS HYPOTHESES

AND

Table 1: Integrating the sub-problems, and hypotheses

Sub-Problems 1-4

Hypotheses 1-4

Sub-problem 1 Can the integration of prefabrication improve thermal efficiency?

Hypothesis 1 It is hypothesised that the integration of prefabrication improves the living conditions of space due to the improved thermal resistance of the panel.

Sub-problem 2 Will this construction system be easy to install in the existing framework of informal settlements?

Hypothesis 2 It is hypothesised that the proposed construction eases installation and matches the difficulty experienced in selfmade structures.

Sub-problem 3 Can an alternative insulation material replace conventional insulation?

Hypothesis 3 It is hypothesised that an alternative material can replace conventional insulation to save on costs and be readily available.

Sub-problem 4 How cost-effective is this proposed structure?

Hypothesis 4 It is hypothesised that the new model matches the cost of the current practice in informal settlements.

Chapter 1 | Methodology

METHODOLOGY 1.5 DELIMITATIONS The following delimitations apply to the study: •

This study focuses on vertical elements, such as walls and columns, and excludes other main construction elements, such as roof and floor planes.

•

Computer-aided thermal modelling will utilise the proposed solution to calculate critical thermal efficiency data in comparison to a standard self-built dwelling.

•

Although many materials achieve the minimum required thermal efficiency as set out by SANS 204, this study focuses on sustainable and recycled insulators readily available at a minimal cost.

•

This study does not include the use of mechanical thermal altering equipment such as fans or heating apparatuses.

•

Fire prevention will focus on sustainable methods without the use of mechanical or systematic interference .

•

Delimitations of the thermal modelling software are defined within the pilot study.

1.6 LIMITATIONS • The literature review will rely on secondary sources such as articles and reports in the public domain. •

•

Primary data consists of studio-based, workshop-based, laboratory-based experiments, and visits to similar structures or building typologies, site visits, fieldwork and photographic surveys. No interviews with residents will be conducted. Due to a lack of time, funding, and resources, a full-size panel will not be constructed, but an accurate and scale sensitive section of the wall will be constructed.

•

Personal data will not be acquired from the general public due to the lack of implementing the study into an existing informal settlement.

•

Services such as water and drainage are excluded from the study.

1.7 ASSUMPTIONS • The materials used are readily available and do not require clearance to obtain. •

The proposed design will be constructed on a plinth or level surface constructed before the installation of the proposed system.

•

SANS 204 (non-masonry construction) is accepted as the regulating standard for thermal efficiency.

•

An easy and quick installation process is required as it is assumed that the users do not have advanced construction knowledge.

1.8 PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY The purpose of this study is to investigate the possibility of prefabrication in informal settlements and contribute to the housing crisis currently experienced in South Africa. This study will determine the thermal and structural effectiveness of prefabrication and how it could possibly improve the urban landscape as seen in informal settlements. Additionally, this study analyses the waste crisis, and how this problematic situation could possibly aid the lack of construction materials seen in informal settlements. The utilisation of the waste crisis will not only make a contribution to the poor living conditions, but also to the lack of recycling and environmental awareness. The analysis will assist the researcher to make recommendations that will enlarge the possibility for a successful prefabricated wall panel design.

Chapter 1 | Methodology

1.9 OBJECTIVE alternative insulating The research objective is to design and create • Incorporate materials into a prefabricated system. a prefabricated wall panel system that ties into existing structures and is incrementally expanded upon to improve the quality of • Design a wall panel with increased fire resistance. life in informal settlements in South Africa. This prefabricated wall panel will generate • Make a contribution to the waste crisis of South Africa by utilising recycled matter the mass required to create a thermal to aid the lack of construction materials in and structurally effective replacement for informal settlements. the self-built dwellings; as these self-built dwellings lack building mass and rigidity. The main purpose of this prefabricated • Measure the cost and thermal effectiveness of the wall panels in comparison to the system is not to replace RDP housing, but current self-built dwellings. to aid the citizen's before an RDP structure has been constructed. The use of brick and mortar is a cost-effective and thermally • Explore the mass production and distribution strategies proposed for a efficient construction method, but due to penetrative alternative to immediately the citizens of an informal settlement not alleviate poor living conditions of the owning the erf that they construct dwellings citizens of informal settlements in South on, the option to utilise a prefabricated wall Africa. panel is a more attractive option. This study aims to produce a design for a prefabricated wall panel that possesses more mass, but 1.10 THE RESEARCHER'S CONTEXT will not require permanent site fixing. The researcher is attentive of the current problems experienced in South Africa, where the construction of self-built dwellings are 1.9.1 This study will: • Identify the effectiveness and possibility one of the main factors of safety and poor The researcher wants of prefabrication and incremental living standards. architecture in informal settlements of to positively contribute to improving the pollution levels and waste management South Africa. process of the South African environment. •

Propose a design for a prefabricated wall panel that has the ability to tie into existing structures [Figure 5].

FIGURE 5: Basic design concept for the prefabricated system. (Image created by Author, 2021)

Meta-theoretical assumptions

Content analysis through statistics Preferred research methods include laboratory experiments, field experiments, surveys, etc.

Statement = Truth→ Objective reality Establishing a direct relationship between the research statements and reality.

Research method

Theory of truth

Reliability

Validity

Separate The research object has inherent qualities that exist independently of the researcher.

Research object

Certainty: The data truly measures reality A direct relationship exists between measurements and phenomena. Replicability Research results can be reproduced by the researcher or other researchers to achieve a consistent result.

Objectivity Objective reality exists beyond the human mind.

Epistemology

Ontology

Alternative terms: Quantitative, scientific, experimental, hard, reductionist, prescriptive, psychometric, etc. Detached experience Person (researcher) and reality are separate.

Agree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly agree

Pre-disposition of the researcher on a continuum scale

- 11 -

Strongly agree

Positivism

A repeated study can be produced and deliver exact results because external conditions can be replicated.

stands

independent

the

Due to the researcher’s lack of experience, this study leans to the objective field.

Applicable data will be obtained by means of experimental construction of the proposed designs.

The researcher research.

The researcher leans more to the objective reality than the subjective, although lived experiences may have relevance.

The researcher believes there is a certain disconnection between the researcher and reality.

Interpretive awareness Researchers recognise and address the implications of their subjectivity.

Normative position of the researcher:

There will be a direct relationship between measurements and phenomena. The validity of the relationship will be supported by produced data, analysis, and experiments.

Interpretivism

Alternative terms: Qualitative, soft, non-traditional, holistic, descriptive, phenomenological, anthropological, naturalistic, illuminative, etc. Integrated experience Person (researcher) and reality are inseparable (life-world). Subjectivity Knowledge of the world is intentionally constituted through a person’s lived experience. Incorporated The research object is interpreted in the light of the meaning structure of the person’s (researcher’s) lived experience. Content analysis through interpretation Preferred research methods include case studies, ethnographic studies, phenomenon-graphic studies, ethnomethodological studies, etc. Initial interpretation = Truth → confirms a meaning (from researcher’s experience) Truth as intentional fulfilment: Interpretations of research object match lived experience of subject. The knowledge (claim) is defensible Evaluation criteria include credibility, transferability, dependability, and ability to confirm.

RESEARCHER’S PARADIGM

Table 6: The researcher’s paradigm indicated on the model developed by Laubscher (2011:15)

The researcher's paradigm describes how meta-theoretical hypotheses are used to determine a researcher's predisposition on a continuum scale. It is evident that the researcher believes there is some detachment between reality and the researcher, concluding that positivism focuses on the objectivistic approach to the study of social phenomena which gives importance to research methods used in the study.

1.11 THE RESEARCHER'S PARADIGM Table 2: The researcher’s paradigm indicated on the model developed by Laubscher (2011:15)

Chapter 1 | Methodology

1.12 THE RESEARCH FORMATION Table 3 (Research Formation) summarises the researcher's plans to achieve the research objectives, using specified milestones. The research formation table enables the researcher to plot a course of action. Table7: 3: The The research research formation formationadapted adapted from Laubscher (2011:15) Table from Laubscher (2011:15)

RESEARCH DESIGN: THE DESIGN OF ADAPTABLE PREFABRICATED PANELS FOR SELF-BUILT DWELLINGS IN SOUTH AFRICAN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS. PHASE 1: A REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE AND THE EXISTING PRACTICE MODEL. PHASE 1.1

Possible interventions. The lack of housing and possible interventions to solve the crisis before a RDP structure is Focus area: constructed. Data source: Selected literature. 1.1 Briefly explore the history of informal settlements. 1.1.1 History and current situation of the current housing crisis. 1.1.2 Reconstruction and Development Program policy. 1.1.3 Waste crises and waste materials of South Africa. 1.2 Identify thermal efficient materials required for the prefabricated wall panel. Theme:

PHASE 1.2

Theme: Alternative construction methods and/or materials Focus area: The design and detailing of a prefabricated system that will be able to tie into existing structures. Data source: Construction detailing. 1.2.1 Investigate prefabrication details and construction methods. 1.2.2 Develop a prefabricated wall panel that will be able to fix to existing structures and to be incrementally expanded upon. ▼

PHASE 2: PILOT STUDY. PHASE 2.1 Theme:

Material experimentation and analysis.

Focus area:

Construction simulation of prefabricated system with alternative materials.

Data source: Field experiments 2.1.1 Process and alter the properties of the recycled materials. 2.2.1 Compare the thermal efficiency of the proposed design to that of self-built dwellings.

PROGRESS REVIEW.

Focus area:

Theme:

Experimentation with the system.

Focus area:

Field model with the applied new construction tied in with existing materials, objects, and systems.

Data source:

Field experiments.

2.1.1 2.2.1

Construct a section of the proposed structure with the applied findings from Phases 1.2 and 2.1. Test the ease of construction in relation to that of the self-made dwellings in informal settlements.

▼

PHASE 2.2 Theme:

▼

PHASE 3: EXPLORATORY STUDY.

SANS 204. Comparison between data and SANS 204 to identify a best-suited design.

Data source: Simulated analysis. 2.2.1 Compare findings from the software-based simulations and calculations to that of SANS 204. 2.3.1 Alter the proposed construction until it adheres to the thermal comfort standards as set out by SANS 204. ▼ PROGRESS REVIEW .

▼

PHASE 4: RATIONALISATION . 4.1 4.2

Graphic presentation of the data. Interpretation of the data.

PHASE 5: FINDINGS .

▼

Recommendations based on the findings. ▼

PHASE 6: PROPOSAL (Addendum N). Propose a contribution to the housing crisis of South Africa, based on the findings and outcomes of the previous phases.

Chapter 1 | Research styles

1.13 THE RESEARCH STYLES Table 4 summarises the research styles that the researcher uses. Table 4 also gives a brief explanation of the possible methods of data procurement to create an accurate and meaningful explanation. Table 4: Summary of research styles developed by Laubscher (2011:15) Research Styles/Strategies Research styles as termed by Bell (1993) (as cited in Fellows & Liu, 2003:21-28)

Research strategies as termed by Yin (1994) (as cited in Fellows & Liu, 2003:21-28)

Action

Research intentionally attempts to affect change in the social system.

Ethnographic

Scientific study of races and cultures, involving the hermeneutic circle. Histories

Surveys

Case studies

Experimental

Shortened description as defined by Fellows and Liu (1997)(as cited in Fellows & Liu, 2003: 21-28)

Implementation in the proposed study

Yes

Not Applicable

The past is studied based on the research questions ‘How?' and ‘Why?’

Yes

Archival analysis

Present or past is studied; little control over independent variables is required

Yes

Surveys

Statistical sampling that represents a population and often employs questionnaires and interviews.

An in-depth investigation of certain aspects through interviews with key ‘actors’.

Partially

Experiments are usually conducted in laboratories to determine the relationship between variables.

Yes

Case studies

Experiments (including quasi-experiments)

1.14 THE TRIANGULATION RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A desk study is a general term for the collection of secondary data which has already been collected prior to the study (Hague & Wilcock, 2021). Information in the public domain has been subjected to scrutiny by the public; while this does not state that it is accurate, it does enable the researcher to evaluate the challenges against the findings brought forward through the public. This public review process will enable the researcher to judge the validity of the data. According to Hague and Wilcock (Hague & Wilcock, 2021), desk research can be successful, however, it has limitations in only being able to provide some of the information required. Therefore, a mix of primary and secondary research may be necessary. Commencing with desk research will result in a broad overview gained beforehand; the primary research is then only required to fill in the gaps. This method will assist the researcher in creating a meaningful and comprehensive investigation. This dissertation uses a research approach that includes both a qualitative and a quantitative approach. The desk study, or secondary research, provides specific ideas and applications for both approaches to ensure quality findings. This pragmatic approach ensures that the researcher will be able to acquire quality data findings that will complement the study and benefit the research.

Chapter 1 | Summary

Chapter one summary 1.15 THE IMPORTANCE AND BENEFITS OF THE STUDY Winner of the 2016 Pritzker Prize, Alejandro Aravena, suggests an alternative solution to the current approach to low-cost housing in Chile, South America. According to Aravena: “They can’t afford a large 'good' house, and are henceforth often left with smaller homes or building blocks; but why not give them half a 'good' house, instead of a finished small house?" (Zilliacus, 2016).

This chapter provides a brief contextual background, and identifies the main problems and possible solutions for the housing crisis experienced in South Africa.

It is suggested that this alternative solution can be utilised in South Africa as the informal settlement crisis relates to each other with regards to the existing self-built dwellings and RDP houses. This philosophy, in the context of this project, will be that of the panels acting as a prompt solution to poor living conditions by fitting into the existing immediate environment as well as being able to be incrementally expanded upon.

The delimitations, limitations and importance of the study are listed; these will guide the study in the correct direction to accomplish the objectives stated.

The concept of “half a good house” serves as a pragmatic approach to the housing shortage experienced in South Africa. By applying this philosophy, one can improve more dwellings in a shorter time span by adding to existing structures rather than fully and completely replacing the self-built dwellings with RDP homes. This will ultimately increase the quality of life as well as the architecture of informal settlements.

The identification of the main problem enables the researcher to determine subproblems and corresponding hypotheses. This will guide the researcher in formulating proposed solutions to potentially solve the issues.

Background about the researcher is given, and the possible research methods and methodology are explained. The research paradigm, formation, and styles are characterised to effectively communicate the researcher's position to the reader. By outlining the study in this chapter, the researcher is able to launch an investigation to identify possible solutions, test the validity of these solutions, and make appropriate recommendations in the following chapters.

1.16 THE RESEARCHER'S EXPERTISE TO COMMENT ON THE SUBJECT As the research continues to expand, and the findings grow to a substantial amount, the knowledge gained by the researcher enables feasible and accurate comments on the topic.

CHAPTER 02

LITERATURE REVIEW • CHAPTER AIMS • INTRODUCTION • THE HISTORY OF INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA • THE HISTORY OF THE RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (RDP) • CONCERNS ABOUT THE RDP PROGRAMME • PLASTIC PRODUCTION AND WASTE IN SOUTH AFRICA • THE CURRENT PLASTIC POLLUTION SITUATION • TYPES OF PLASTIC • STRATEGIC COMBINATIONS • PLASTIC IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT • PLASTIC UPCYCLING • PLASTIC PROPERTIES • THE IDEAL PLASTIC

This chapter aims to broaden the knowledge about the current situation of informal settlements in South Africa. This chapter also investigates the current waste crisis and how it can be incorporated into a total recyclable design. This will enable the researcher to formulate future outcomes from past initiatives while enabling the reader to gather more context around the decisions made and the possible reasons as to why the researcher's formulations were made.

Chapter 2 | Project Context

Project Context 2.1 INTRODUCTION Like time, position is relative to the hierarchy within which users and/or the situation is seated. The global economy, the manner in which we do things, and the processes from start to end is all categorised in a scale of practice that includes sub-events happening in between. When one knows something about everything, one knows little, but once the area of focus starts to narrow, the amount of knowledge grows exponentially, and a sense of a place starts to develop. This chapter narrows the context of the project to the most important influencing factors. This enables the researcher to gather appropriate knowledge and literature to further explore solutions in the following chapters. The project context is divided into two main sections: The housing crisis of South Africa, and the material exploration, which will include the country's recycling and plastic crisis.

2.2 THE HISTORY OF INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA South Africa has a population of approximately 61,14 million people (Worldometer, 2021), with 26% living in informal settlements (World Bank in South Africa, 2021). The country faces a sizable ongoing crisis that has seen little improvement since the inauguration of a democratic government in the early 1990s. Informal settlements are defined as residential areas that are often illegally constructedandhavenoproofofrealownership or official methods of erf procurement. South Africa has approximately 2700 informal settlements, and the number has steadily increased each year since 1995. This increase indicates that South Africa can greatly benefit from a penetrative strategy to reduce the poor living standards witnessed in these areas (Parliamentary Monitoring Group, 2021).

One of the primary reasons for the existence of informal settlements is due to the apartheid era between 1948 and 1994. Informal settlements in South Africa directly correlate to the policies and laws introduced by the apartheid government (Cape Town Project Centre, 2021). These laws divided and segregated people based on their race, allocating them to a specific region, education, and means of living [Figure 6]. These laws led to the migration of large groups of citizens as they were evicted from the capital cities and moved to surrounding township settlements. Fortunately, the apartheid era was eradicated in 1994 and led to the rise of a democratic republic. Unfortunately this divide is still present today due to the development gap created, even though apartheid ended 27 years ago (Cape Town Project Centre, 2021). According to StatsSA, statistics indicate that the housing crisis of South Africa has seen little shift between 2002 and 2014. The percentage of households living in informal settlements has only declined by 0.5%, from 13.6% to 13.1% (StatsSA, 2016). Since 2016, the number of households, without adequate housing is still high at 1.25 million (Royston & Ebrahim, 2019). This indicates that this sector of informal settlers has a small chance of breaking the poverty line and acquiring a formal dwelling, either through the RDP programme or through personal funds. Many cities still exhibit a clear divide between the wealthy and poor. Cape Town is a prime example, with the Langrug settlement still classified as a severely destitute area in South Africa (Cape Town Project Centre, 2021). Another example is the informal settlement of Mamelodi, in Pretoria, Gauteng. This settlement consists of people that were relocated from areas such as Riverside, Eersterust, Marabastad and Meyerspark (South African History Online, 2019).

Chapter 2 | Project Context

This settlement was founded on 30 October 1945, when the Pretoria City Council purchased a farm, Vlakfontein 329 JR, and classified this area as a “black-only” urban area (Walker & Van Der Waal, 1991). Interestingly, the government subdivided the areas in Mamelodi based on race and ethnicity, creating barriers between neighbourhoods that are still present today (South African History Online, 2019).

Some of the most significant issues present in these settlements are the lack of services, healthcare, education, and wellbeing. These settlements also lack adequate government funding, resulting in a lack of resources for residents to create their dwellings. This study will focus on the current housing crisis in South Africa [Figure 7]. The study will utilise statistics and data gathered from South Africa and will attempt to comply with the country's legislature and regulations, such as SANS 204. To further narrow the area of data gathering, Gauteng, and one of the capital cities, Tshwane [Figure 8], will be chosen to explore the possibility of prefabrication and the validity of recycled plastic as a substitute for standard construction materials. There are a few reasons that support the chosen locality, as a market entry would meet the possibilities exhibited by this area. Some of these include, but are not limited to: 1. There are four large informal settlements in a 30km radius to the central business district. These include, Mamelodi, Soshanguve, Atteridgeville, and Thembisa, as indicated in [Figure 9]. 2. The general income per household is less than R3 920, indicating extremely poor locations and that these areas can greatly benefit from the proposed design (Frith, 2021). FIGURE 6 (Above): Previously "white area" that has flourished into "area".(Image created by the Author, 2021)

Focus Area

FIGURE 7 (Left): World map with the identified locality, by Wallpaper Cave, available at https:// wallpapercave.com/world-mapblack-wallpaper-hd Accessed 19 July 2021 (Image edited by the Author)

South Africa

Chapter 2 | Project Context

3. Heatherley Municipal Dumping Site, Bon Accord Landfill, and Mooiplaats Landfill are in close proximity to Tshwane. 4. There are approximately eight plastic recyclers in and around Pretoria's central business district. 5. Pretoria has an active informal wastegathering trend, where post-consumer plastic is located directly from residences and taken to plastic recycling plants.

2.3 THE HISTORY OF THE RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (RDP) In 1994, the African National Congress (ANC) introduced the RDP programme to address the imbalances created by past laws and policies, and redirect economic growth, but the large gap between wealthy and poor still persists. The RDP programme was created to assist ethnic people who were segregated along racial lines and moved to densely populated areas on the outskirts of large cities during the apartheid era(Bailey, 2017). These areas often have poor or no formal infrastructure such as sewage, water management, and housing. Thousands of self-built dwellings are present in and around cities and towns, with an occasional portion of small basic uniform structures, formally known as RDP houses. Although the RDP programme has met targets and improved the conditions of some citizens, there are still a large number of citizens that require aid. FIGURE 8: South African map with the identified province, available at https:/NicePng, https://www.nicepng.com/ ourpic/u2w7e6a9e6u2a9r5_contact-us-south-africa-mapvector/ Accessed 19 July 2021 (Image edited by the Author)

Focus Area

Gauteng

The RDP programme consists of six basic principles: 1. An integrated and sustainable programme 2. A people-driven process 3. Peace and security for all 4. Nation-building 5. Linking reconstruction and development 6. Democratisation of society These principles guided the government to develop a programme to create as many houses for the less fortunate as quickly as possible (Bailey, 2017).

Chapter 2 | Project Context

FIGURE 9: Dot map of Pretoria based on monthly household income (Dot map by Adrian Frith, available at https://dotmap. adrianf rith.com/?bg=street&dots=hhinc&lat=25.7244&lon=28.4022&zoom=8.99 , Accessed 3 June 2021 (Image by Author).

Chapter 2 | The RDP programme

2.4 CONCERNS ABOUT THE RDP PROGRAMME Over the years, issues regarding RDP housing have become controversial. There are a few concerns about the RDP housing programme that are still prevalent (Bailey, 2017): 1. Location of housing projects 2. Quality of houses 3. Tenant maintenance 4. Illegal occupation of houses 5. Maladministration 6. Title deeds 7. Sale of RDP houses In response to poorly built RDP homes, the government launched a rectification programme that aimed to correct defects due to poor workmanship and construction work that did not comply with the South African National Bureau of Standards (SANBS) and the National Home Builder Registration Council (NHBRC). Between 2011 and 2014, the South African government spent R2,13 billion on 341 625 RDP homes that required rectification (Bailey, 2017). SANS-10400 states that an RDP house is 50m2, and it costs R1500 per m2 to construct (Janek, 2013). In 2013, the Eastern Cape government set aside R500 million to rectify 5 461 houses as a direct result of poor workmanship (Bailey, 2017). Of these 5 461 houses, 2 200 had major construction defects.

The figure indicates rectification at R75 000 per RDP house. Taking the amount used for rectification into consideration, the government could have built 28 399 more RDP houses over the span of three years. This rectification cost figure indicates maladministration in the programme. Therefore the programme has errors and fault factors that hinder the process for those in need of alternative housing. Another apparent crisis is the industrial actions against the programme. Movements such as the "Abahlali baseMjondolo Movement SA" [Figure 10] were formed to fight for the rights of shack dwellers and ensure that constitutional rights to basic housing are honored. These movements exist because the RDP programme is ineffective; if it were implemented correctly, movements such as these would not be necessary. The following section evaluates the recycling and plastic crisis in South Africa. This evaluation enables the researcher to identify the bestsuited recyclable material for the proposed solution by evaluating the availability and material aspects of the various plastics.

FIGURE 10 (Below): Abahlali baseMjondolo Movement SA fighting for people's rights by Abahlali baseMjondolo, available at https://abahlali.org/, Accessed 27 July (Image edited by the Author, 2021).

Chapter 2 | Plastic waste in SA.

2.5 PLASTIC PRODUCTION AND WASTE IN SOUTH AFRICA Society has grown accustomed to a "singleuse" way of living. The process of purchasing a product, using it, and discarding the packaging has become a normal process. To effectively change this, one must evaluate the pre-consumer and the post-consumer cycle. The pre-consumer cycle includes the type of packaging, and the transportation, value, and use of the products. This dissertation evaluates the process of post-consumer waste and how we can positively impact this cycle. Plastic pollution has become one of the world's most significant environmental concerns and is one of the biggest factors contributing to the greenhouse effect and pollution of oceans. Today, approximately 40% of all the plastic produced each year is for single use only; this 40% includes products such as bottles and caps that have a short time use of minutes to a few hours, and takes approximately 450 years to decompose naturally (ThoughtCo., n.d.). Thus, a bottle of water from yesterday will take approximately 18 generations to decompose. This extended decomposition period has a snowball effect, indicating that if one adopts a completely altered approach to packaging and manufactured materials, there will still be a large amount of plastic waste in the environment. Approximately 1.3 billion tons of municipal waste is produced each year, and that statistic is expected to increase to 2.2 billion tons by 2025.

Unfortunately, according to McTaggart, South Africa is one of the largest generators of waste, averaging a total of around 2.5kg of general waste per person per day, depending on their level of income [Figure 11]. This amounts to around 54.2 million tons of waste annually, with a maximum of only 10% of this being recycled (Award, 2019). Over the past two decades, the Gauteng Metropolitan Municipalities have not licensed a single new landfill (McTaggart , 2019). The lack of new landfills has led society to fall under the illusion that 70% of the waste is recycled and can continue to be recycled. However, the landfills are almost at full capacity and are approaching closure at an increasing rate. One can create new, sustainable methods of recycling or open new landfills to counter this problem. Landfills however only fix the symptoms and are not a solution for the root problem.

FIGURE 11 (Above): Municipal Waste Production per country, by Jambeck J.R, available at (Jambeck, 2019), Accessed 27 July 2021 (Image edited by the Author, 2021).

Chapter 2 | Plastic waste in S.A

2.6 CURRENT SITUATION

PLASTIC

POLLUTION

Plastic and plastic products have altered the modern world to a point where a reality without it would be unrecognised. Plastics have enabled space travel, revolutionised medicine, saved on fuel and pollution in transportation, and resulted in micro-plastics and plastic products in the environment. Since World War II, plastic production has accelerated and grown exponentially. Half of all plastics ever produced were produced between 2006 and 2021. Estimated plastic production was 2,3 million tons in 1950 and in 2015 it was estimated to be 448 million tons (Parker, 2019). According to Plastic Oceans (2021) and illustrated in [Figure 12]: • Ten million tons of plastic are dumped in the oceans annually, which translates to a truckload every minute. • One million marine animals are killed annually due to plastic consumption. • Humans eat an average of 18kg of plastic throughout their lifetime [Figure 12]. • All mussels tested for plastic debris contained micro-plastics. • By 2050, there will be more plastic in the oceans than fish. Thus, a programme must be designed to keep the amount of plastic distributed to various dumpsites in check, and create a strategic plan to diminish the backlog created by uncontrolled and unregulated dumping over previous decades.

FIGURE 12: "The plastic we eat" (Image created by the Author, 2021)

2.7 TYPES OF PLASTIC ENCOUNTERED DAILY Plastic may sound like a single type of material, but there are over a hundred types of plastics that exist with similar or dissimilar attributes and characteristics, although one only encounters a few types daily. Therefore, to ensure that the correct plastic is utilised for the required task, it is important to know each plastic's attributes and characteristics. This knowledge could ensure successful recycling and processing to create an effective, durable, and sustainable material in the built environment (Hardin, 2021). There are seven main types of plastic: 1. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET or PETE) PET is one of the most used plastics. It is lightweight, solid, typically transparent, and is regularly used in food packaging and clothing material (polyester) (Hardin, 2021). Examples: Beverage and food containers.

Chapter 2 | Types of plastic

2. High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Collectively, Polyethylene is the most common plastic in the world. It is divided into three sorts: High-Density, Low-Density, and Straight Low-Density. High-Density Polyethylene is solid and impervious to moisture and chemicals, making it perfect for containers and other building materials (Hardin, 2021). Examples: Milk jugs, powdered beverage bottles, detergent bottles, and plastic benches. 3. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC or Vinyl) PVC plastic is hard, strong, and resistant to chemicals and exposure. Due to this rigidness, PVC is an excellent construction material. An interesting property of this plastic is that it is non-conductive, making it ideal for the protective casing around wires and electric cables. PVC is notably the most dangerous to the health and wellbeing of humans; emitting dangerous toxins such as lead, dioxins, and vinyl chloride throughout its life cycle (Hardin, 2021). Examples: Plumbing pipes, credit cards, and gutters. 4. Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) LDPE plastic is more commonly known as a "single-use" type of plastic. LDPE is clear, flexible, soft, and is more commonly used for packaging liner to protect food (Hardin, 2021). Examples: Sandwich and bread bags, bubble wrap, garbage bags, and grocery bags. 5. Polypropylene (PP) PP is heat resistant and relatively pliable. PP can resist breakage when heated or exposed to heated products and is ideal for food packaging and storage. Although this plastic is more resistant to heat, it remains bendable and retains its shape for a long time (Hardin, 2021). Examples: Bottle caps, food containers, and DVD/CD boxes.

6. Polystyrene (PS or Styrofoam) Styrofoam is inexpensive and a good insulator, making it ideal for food packaging and construction. Styrofoam is, however, dangerous to one's health and emits Styrene into food (Hardin, 2021). Examples: Food containers, product packaging, and building insulation. 7. Other These "other" plastics are the ones one do not come across regularly. The plastics are normally featured with a number 7 on the bottom of the product. These plastics are not typically recyclable (Hardin, 2021). Examples: Eyeglasses, electronics, and CD/DVDs.

STRATEGIC COMBINATIONS Each plastic exhibits properties that could be useful and positively contribute to the prefabricated wall panel system. The properties must be evaluated to determine the most effective materials for the panels requirements. The two main requirements of the panel, are: • •

Structural rigidity and strength; Thermal efficiency

By integrating a combination of plastic materials into the panel, the collaboration of materials could aid where the other material lacks. This strategic combination of materials will amplify the possibility of a successful prefabricated panel design.

Chapter 2 | Plastic in the built-environment

2.8 PLASTIC IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT Despite the many uses of plastic in various industries, it is still a new and rather inconspicuous material in the built environment. It has become evident that the use of plastic in architecture has become more popular as various plastics possess various material aspects such as flexibility, efficiency, and adaptability. These aspects make this material ideal for designers to integrate into the built environment. When looking at Figure 13, it is evident that the largest consumer of plastic is packaging, with 42% of all plastic being utilised in this sector. The built environment consumes 19% of plastic and this is indicative of construction being a large consumer of virgin plastic.

FIGURE 13: Primary plastic production, Photo by Geyer et al, image [Online], Available at: https://ourworldindata.org/ plastic-pollution (Accessed: 09 November 2021).

When referring to waste emissions, the built environment is a significant contributor to the global waste generation crisis [Figure 14]. This excess of waste emissions indicate that structures should be designed so that less maintenance is required and fewer carbon emissions are produced during construction. Structures should have longevity in mind to withstand degradation for the longest possible timespan. A possible switch of the types of plastics in the built environment could occur when the use of virgin plastic is exchanged with recycled post-consumer scrap. This use of recycled plastic in built structures could positively impact the large amount of carbon emission produced in this sector as the materials have been previously used and will now be reused for a different purpose. These materials exude characteristics that require little maintenance and could increase the longevity of a structure as the plastics have increasingly strong polymers that resist deterioration.

FIGURE 14: Plastic waste generation, Photo by Geyer et al, image [Online], Available at: https://ourworldindata.org/ plastic-pollution (Accessed: 09 November 2021). FIGURE 15(Right): ByFusion brick wall, Photo by BrickFusion, image [Online]. Available at: https://www.byfusion.com/ (Accessed: 09 November 2021).

Chapter 2 | Plastic upcycling

2.9 PLASTIC UPCYCLING The process of upcycling materials refers to the transformation of a used product, that is no longer sought after, into a new product that can be utilised for a new purpose. A good example, and the main precedent for the proposed prefabricated wall panel, is the ByFusion Brick produced by ByFusion [Figure 15]. This brick is entirely constructed from postconsumer scrap and has zero wastage per single brick [Figure 17]. It serves as a replacement for masonry bricks and walling systems (ByFusion, 2021). This brick is constructed into a wall by means of place rods running from the bottom to the top of the structure [Figure 16]. These rods replace mortar or glue as a fixing method. The plastic bricks are then capped with a metal plate and tightened, pulling the bricks closer to each other and closing any air gaps. In the construction process of a ByFusion brick, the plastic is: 1. Collected from dumpsites 2. Shredded into smaller pieces 3. Washed in a washing tumbler 4. Dried 5. Compressed under heat and pressure into the moulds

FIGURE 16: ByFusion brick section, Photo by ByFusion, image [Online]. Available at: https://www.byfusion. com/#data-sheet-overlay(Accessed: 09 November 2021).

These bricks exhibit the following properties [Appendix B]: - Water resistance - Insect resistance - High compression strength of 408 psi. These bricks can be covered by plaster render or coated with paint. This enables users to have the same freedom as with conventional masonry construction (ByFusion, 2021).

FIGURE 17 (Above): ByFusion brick, Photo by ByFusion, image [Online]. Available at: https:// www.byfusion.com/#datasheet-overlay(Accessed: 09 November 2021).

Chapter 2 | Plastic properties

2.10 PLASTIC PROPERTIES Table 5 summarises the properties, uses, and recycling ability of the various plastics. This will aid in the elimination process and identify the plastics that are not the best equipped for the proposed project, enabling the researcher to select the ideal plastic.

[PP]

[LDPE]

[PVC]

[HDPE]

[PET]

Symbol

Table 5: Plastics and their properties. Type of Plastic

Properties

Common Uses

Recycled into

PET Polyethylene Terephthalate

Clear, tough, solvent, resistant, a barrier to gas and moisture, softens at 80° C

Soft drink and water bottles, salad domes, biscuit trays, salad dressing and containers

Pillow and sleeping bag filling, clothing, soft drink bottles, carpeting, building insulation

HDPE High-Density Polyethylene

Hard to semi-flexible, resistant to chemical moisture, waxy surface, opaque, softens at 80° C, easily coloured, processed and formed

Shopping bags, freezer bags, milk bottles, ice cream containers, juice bottles, shampoo, chemical and detergent bottles

Recycling bins, compost bins, buckets, detergent containers, posts, fencing, pipes, plastic timber

PVC Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride PVC-U

Strong, tough, can be clear, can be solvent welded, softens at 80° C

Cosmetic containers, electrical conduct, plumbing pipes and fittings, blister packs

Flooring, film and sheets, cables, speed bumps, packaging, binders, mud flaps and mats, new gumboots, and shoes

Plasticised Polyvinyl Chloride PVC-P

Flexible, clear, elastic, can be solvent welded

Garden hose, shoe soles, cable sheathing, blood bags

LDPE Low-Density Polyethylene

Soft, flexible, waxy surface, translucent, softens at 70° C, scratches easily

Cling wrap, garbage bags, squeeze bottles, mulch film, refuse bags

Bin liners, pallet sheets

PP Polypropylene

Hard but still flexible, waxy surface, softens at 140° C, translucent, withstands solvents, versatile

Bottles and ice cream tubs, potato chip bags, straws, microwave dishes, kettles, lunch boxes

Pegs, bins, pipes, pallet sheets, oil funnels, car battery cases, trays

PS Polystyrene

Clear, glassy, rigid, opaque, semi-tough, softens at 95° C. Affected by fat, acids, and solvents but resistant to alkalines, salt solutions. Low water absorption, when not pigmented is clear, is odour and taste-free

Plastic cutlery, imitation glassware, low-cost brittle toys, foamed polystyrene cups, foamed meat trays, protective packaging and building and food insulation

Coat hangers, coasters, white ware components, stationery trays and accessories, picture frames, seed trays, building products

Automotive and appliance components, computers, electronics, cooler bottles, packaging

Plastic timber sleepers – looks like wood, used for beach walkways, benches etc.

[PS-E]

PS-E Expanded Polystyrene

[OTHER]

Special types of PS are available for special applications. In packaging, it could be multi-layer materials, for example, PP + PE

Includes all resins and multi-materials (e.g., laminates). Properties dependent on plastic or a combination of plastics

Chapter 2 | The ideal plastic

2.11 THE IDEAL PLASTIC When choosing the ideal plastic for the proposed project, the following aspects are required: - Rigidity, to withstand structural stress and exposure - Higher melting point - Scratch and dent resistance. Table 6: Positive and negative aspects of various plastics POSITIVE

Type of Plastic

Strength

Toxicity

Melting Point

NEGATIVE

Easy Recyclable

Strength

Toxicity

Melting Point

Easy Recyclable

PET HDPE PVC LDPE PP PS OTHER

By assessing the above qualities, uses, and recycling properties of various types of plastics, it is possible to eliminate the types of plastics that are not ideal for this study: • PVC is not ideal for the prefabricated wall panel due to the toxins emitted and the low melting point of 80° C. • Polystyrene as a structural element is eliminated due to the lack of rigidity and low strength against exposure. Polystyrene could be integrated into the interior of the panel to aid the thermal efficiency of the system due to the insulative value of polystyrene and polystyrene's abundance in landfills. • LDPE is typically encountered in a thin sheet form. However, it is a tedious and timeconsuming process to transform it into the desired shape and size. • Other plastics are less common and do not make up the majority of pollution as seen in the environment and landfills. • PP cannot withstand everyday use and damage due to the low strength against impact. PP also has poor paint adhesion, eliminating future possibilities for the alteration of appearance. Three possible plastics are left, HDPE, POLYSTYRENE, AND PET: • HDPE is the most commonly-recycled plastic, is safe to work with, and has a relatively simple and cost-effective recycling process. HDPE is water-resistant, insect-resistant, and sustains immense pressure. • HPDE is resistant to the elements and chemicals and does not break down due to exposure to sunlight. • Polystyrene was chosen to be integrated with HDPE due to polystyrene's high insulative properties. High-Density Polyethylene was chosen to be paired strategically with polystyrene, due to polyethylene's density.

CHAPTER 03

CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT • INTEGRATING PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS • THE CONTEXTUAL PROJECT LOCATION • THE ART MOVEMENT • DESIGN DEVELOPMENT • EARLY CONEPTUAL EXPLORATIONS • RESPONSE TO EXISTING STRUCTURES • USER FRIENDLINESS

This chapter aims to create thought-provoking ideas to generate design drivers to develop the concept further, and conceptualise the proposed design's impact on informal settlements. This chapter also examines the crucial aspects of the proposed design to eliminate the possibility of significant problems surfacing at the documentation phase.

Chapter 3 | The concept

THE Concept 3.1 INTEGRATING PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS The conceptual approach to resolving the main problem in its setting is to introduce prefabrication as an alternative construction technique into an environment where resources, funding, and health are at play. Prefabricated elements form the main piece of any structure, which is the walls. This prefabrication enables users to improve their dwellings incrementally by utilising single pieces that form a plug-and-play system with the existing structure [Figure 18]. This process removes the waiting period for a readybuilt home and instead steers the future of architecture in informal settlements to selfempowerment and immediate response.

PHASE 1

PHASE 2

Unfortunately, prefabrication is not a widely implemented construction system in South Africa, resulting in ignorance and a lack of materials for lower-cost projects. The main design driver for this proposal is availability, followed by ease of use. The researcher proposes that these panels be made freely available at local hardware suppliers. This prefabricated wall panel system challenges the thought process and common approach of brick and mortar and increasingly challenges conventional materials for structures.

PHASE 3

The into

PHASE 5

• • •

PHASE 4

prefabricated system is divided the following narrative structure:

Exposition Instalment period Resolution.

With each incremental stage of instalment, factors such as comfort, health, and structural stability will improve until a climax or resolution is reached. This process contrasts that of RDP housing as each consecutive step of waiting for the structure to materialise, health, comfort, and structural factors decline until it has reached a climax or resolution.

FUTURE EXPANSION

FIGURE 18: Incremental expansion (image created by author, 2021)

Chapter 3 | The Contextual project location

3.2 THE CONTEXTUAL PROJECT LOCATION

Figure 19 illustrates the position of the proposed design in the housing environment of informal settlements. This contextual location summarises the aspects of the proposed design in relation to the self-built dwellings and RDP housing. Figure 19 illustrates the philosophy of Aravena in this study context, where the prefabricated wall panel is situated between formal housing and informal housing and is "half of a good house". This prefabrication could be incrementally expanded upon in future phases. FIGURE 19: The contextual project location (Image created by the Author, 2021)

Chapter 3 | The art movement

3.3 THE ART MOVEMENT This wall panel is designed with humanity in mind. In South Africa, the saying "Ubuntu" can be translated to "I am, because you are". Ubuntu refers to humanity and how we as a society treat each other. With the vibrant colours and patterns produced by melting plastic and combining them to create a composite panel, an art movement and environmentally sustainable trend can be introduced to encourage preserving the environment. The prefabricated wall panel art movement does not solve South Africa's current housing crisis, but might increase the speed of market entry, and ultimately increase the possibility of a positive contribution to the housing crisis, and protecting the environment. With the gradual improvement and integration into settlements, the colours might stand out over the material exposition currently seen [Figure 20]. Over time, it will create a more vibrant and lively expansion of towns and settlements that colourfully exhibit humanity.

Current self constructed dwellings

A more aesthetically pleasing environment for informal settlement inhabitants will be created. In addition, the familiarity with the highly visible panel will increase the possibility that the residents are more likely to accept the new construction method, and ease their minds when purchasing wall panels for their homes, as a sense of trust may develope [Figure 21].

The prefabricated wall integrated into the urban framework

FIGURE 20: An informal settlement (Image created by the Author, 2021)

FIGURE 21: An informal settlement with prefabricated elements (Image created by the Author, 2021)

Chapter 3 | The concept of incrementality

3.4 THE CONCEPT OF INCREMENTALITY To create an effective design that could possibly solve the identified problems, the design and planning stages of the project could not happen in a single phase. The design development takes place throughout the project and is a crucial stage of any document, project, or system. Gaining a better understanding of the design development stage within the total project context results in more informed decisions made regarding project budget and timeline. In the development stage, key areas are identified where improvements and alterations are required before the project is expedited in the construction and documentation process. The first stage of the development phase was to create an initial line diagram that outlines the project, the current position of citizen's, and the proposed contribution of the panels to guide users before an RDP house is constructed.

Prefabricated system

RDP waiting period

FIGURE 22: The main concept (Image created by the Author, 2021)

Figure 22 illustrates the main concept of the proposed design, where the exposition is the project start point. The timeline is divided into two main streams of processes. The first is the application of prefabrication into the urban framework of an informal settlement. The second is when citizens gradually improve their dwellings while waiting for an RDP home. This incremental approach improves living standards as each installation happens. When the climax is achieved, the citizens could feel a sense of completion as the structure has reached its peak improvement. The second stage represents the current process of obtaining an RDP structure, and in each consecutive stage, the citizens lifestyle declines as time goes on and the elements take their toll on self-made structures. The third stage expands on the prefabricated wall panel concept in various media and planes. Figures 23 and 24 represent the initial design of the proposed alternative prefabricated construction.

3.5 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

FIGURE 23: The first concept, (image created by author, 2021)

90º Fixing Method of Concrete Block Version

Standard concrete blocks to act as existing structure or fixing edge 102x35mm Galvanised steel wall stud with predrilled holes and M9 washers and bolts T.B.D External and internal skin (currently fibre cement panels)

90x50mm Cast recycled high density poly ethylene frame member

Stacked recycled plastic bottles fille with approx. 25% water

90x50mm Cast recycled high density poly ethylene web member

102x35mm Galvanised steel wall stud with pre-drilled holes and M9 washers and bolts

Pre-drilled holes at allocated placement with M9 washers and bolts

Department of Architecture M.Arch

RESEARCH REPORT

Name

WJ BADENHORST student number

215624684 Project description

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

Drawing number & description

INITIAL CONCEPT GROUND FLOOR PLAN Date OUT

01/01/2021 Scale:

Date IN

Sheet No./No.

12/31/2021 /8

1:10

rsion 0.0.100.100

GSPublisherVersion 0.21.100.100

FIGURE 24: The first concept, (image created by author, 2021)

The first concept in plan form

444

444 482

Ts of hw Te an ch e no Un lo ive gy rs ity Ar ch ite ct ur al Te ch no lo gy

Pre-drilled holes at allocated placement with M9 washers and bolts

B. Te ch .

51x51mm Cast recycled high density poly ethylene frame member

964

D ep ar tm en to fA rc hi te ct ur e

25 51x25mm Cast recycled high density poly ethylene frame member

51x51mm Galvanised steel wall stud with pre-drilled holes and M9 washers and bolts 51 51

Stacked recycled plastic bottles fille with approx. 25% water/self-extinguishing fluid.

Interior Skin fixed to recycled HDPE frame

63x63mm Galvanised steel wall stud with pre-drilled holes and M9 washers and bolts

51 51 18 146

444

Exterior 482

Interior Standard masonry wall to act as existing structure or fixing edge

444 482

51 51 77

2,080 Name

WIJAN BADENHORST student number

215 624 684 Project description

Design and Development of prefabricated wall panel

Drawing number & description

Ground Floor Plan

Scale 1:10

Date IN

Date OUT

01/01/2021

Sheet No./No.

31/12/2021

1 /2

Scale:

1:10 GSPublisherVersion 0.0.100.100

FIGURE 25: Second revision in plan form, (image created by author, 2021)

Rough Cost Estimate Channels - GALV-TECH 63MM STUD 2100MM | 2.1M 63MM WXSE21 =R14.52 x 2 - GALV-TECH 51MM STUD 2100MM | 2.1M 51MM WYSE21 =R14.08 x 2 Ironmongery - Self drilling screws and bolts (8 x 16mm) = 25 pack : R12

Ts of hw Te an ch e no Un lo ive gy rs ity

Materials - Recycled PET, HDPE collected from recyclers and landfills Est ....

B. Te ch .

Ar ch ite ct ur al Te ch no lo gy

D ep ar tm en to fA rc hi te ct ur e

Total: -Channels, ironmongery and materials R69.2 Room for increase: R430.8 per panel

Name

WIJAN BADENHORST student number

215 624 684 Project description

Design and Development of prefabricated wall panel

Drawing number & description

Elevation and Cost

North Elevation

Date OUT

Scale 1:10

01/01/2021 Scale:

1:10 GSPublisherVersion 0.0.100.100

FIGURE 26: Second revision in elevation form, (image created by author, 2021)

Second revision in plan form

Second revision in elevation form

Date IN

Sheet No./No.

31/12/2021

2 /2

90º Fixing Method of Concrete Block Version

102x35mm Galvanised steel wall stud with predrilled holes and M9 washers and bolts Standard concrete blocks to act as existing structure or fixing edge

90x50mm Cast recycled high density poly ethylene frame member 102x35mm Galvanised steel wall stud with pre-drilled holes and M9 washers and bolts 90x50mm Cast recycled high density poly ethylene web member Pre-drilled holes at allocated placement with M9 washers and bolts Stacked recycled plastic bottles fille with approx. 25% water

Department of Architecture T.B.D External and internal skin (currently fibre cement panels)

M.Arch

RESEARCH REPORT

Name

WJ BADENHORST student number

215624684 Project description

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

Drawing number & description

INITIAL CONCEPT 3D PERSPECTIVE Date OUT

01/01/2021

Date IN

Sheet No./No.

12/31/2021 /8

Scale:

1:10

FIGURE 27: First conceptual perspective, concrete block version, (image created by author, 2021)

GSPublisherVersion 0.21.100.100

GSPublisherVersion 0.0.100.100

90º Fixing Method of Corrugated Steel Version 102x35mm Galvanised steel wall stud with predrilled holes and M9 washers and bolts Foam insert Corrugated sheeting to act as existing structure or fixing edge

Department of Architecture T.B.D External and internal skin (currently fibre cement panels)

M.Arch

RESEARCH REPORT

Name

WJ BADENHORST student number

215624684 Project description

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

Drawing number & description

32 GSPublisherVersion 0.21.100.100

GSPublisherVersion 0.0.100.100

INITIAL CONCEPT 3D PERSPECTIVE Date OUT

01/01/2021 Scale:

1:10

FIGURE 28: First conceptual perspective, corrugated steel version, (image created by author, 2021)

The first concept perspective form

Date IN

Sheet No./No.

12/31/2021 /8

Parallel Fixing Method of Timber Version

102x35mm Galvanised steel track with pre-drilled holes and M9 washers and bolts

90x50mm Cast recycled high density poly ethylene web member 90x50mm Cast recycled high density poly ethylene frame member 102x35mm Galvanised steel wall stud with pre-drilled holes and M9 washers and bolts

Timber wall to act as existing structure or fixing edge

Stacked recycled plastic bottles fille with approx. 25% water Pre-drilled holes at allocated placement with M9 washers and bolts

102x35mm Galvanised steel track with pre-drilled holes and M9 washers and bolts

T.B.D External and internal skin (currently fibre cement panels)

Department of Architecture M.Arch

RESEARCH REPORT

Name

WJ BADENHORST student number

215624684 Project description

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

Drawing number & description

INITIAL CONCEPT 3D PERSPECTIVE Date IN

Date OUT

01/01/2021

Sheet No./No.

12/31/2021 /8

Scale:

1:10

GSPublisherVersion 0.21.100.100

FIGURE 29: First conceptual perspective, parallel fixing version, (image created by author, 2021)

00.100

erVersion 0.0.100.100

Corner of Corrugated Steel Version 102x35mm Galvanised steel wall stud with predrilled holes and M9 washers and bolts Foam insert Corrugated sheeting to act as existing structure or fixing edge

Pre-drilled holes at allocated placement with M9 washers and bolts 102x35mm Galvanised steel wall stud with pre-drilled holes and M9 washers and bolts

90x50mm Cast recycled high density poly ethylene frame member

T.B.D External and internal skin (currently fibre cement panels)

Department of Architecture M.Arch

RESEARCH REPORT

Name

WJ BADENHORST student number

215624684 Project description

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

Drawing number & description

INITIAL CONCEPT 3D PERSPECTIVE

Date OUT

01/01/2021 Scale:

1:10

GSPublisherVersion 0.21.100.100

FIGURE 30: First conceptual perspective, corner version, (image created by author, 2021)

Date IN

Sheet No./No.

12/31/2021

Chapter 3 | Response to Existing Structures

3.5 RESPONSE TO EXISTING STRUCTURES The prefabricated wall panel is mainly designed to improve the existing structures in informal settlements. This improvement occurs by gradually adding panels to an existing structure, allowing future expansion by incremental architecture. The design conceptualises the panel as an addition to an existing structure rather than a complete replacement at a single time. The response of existing structural elements to the panels, should be carefully anticipated to reduce the risk of unprecedented failure. The initial instalment of the panels into existing structures transitions the structures to a new and more refined construction type. This transition becomes evident as people improve their own dwellings in an informal settlement at their discretion. Observations indicated three main materials found in informal settlements used to construct self-made structures. These include, but are not limited to: • • •

Corrugated steel sheets Timber panelling Masonry elements, such as concrete blocks.

The two main connections should be carefully designed to allow maintenance, ease of installation, waterproofing, and services, like electricity. The connections would then tie into the existing framework and would be able to be incrementally expanded upon, Addressing the most crucial and susceptible location for failure requires a degree of leeway to account for the discrepancies anticipated on-site due to uneven and unregulated workmanship.

The panels will be installed onto the existing structure as follows: 1. Screws will be fixed through the existing structure and the galvanised channel. A closed-cell foam closure strip will be placed between the channel and the existing structure. This strip will prevent air leakage, moisture penetration, and a gap for insect intrusion. 2. The prefabricated wall panel will be inserted into the above-mentioned channel. 3. Screws will be inserted from both sides at pre-allocated holes. These screws will fix the cover plates, the panel, and the column to the channel. 4. The panels will be structurally sound and be able to be incrementally expanded upon. To attenuate the newly-created threshold between existing structures and the new prefabricated wall panel; cover plates will create a seamless edge resulting in the effect of a floating wall. In the interior, elements create a more practical and userfriendly experience. A hidden electrical cable system allows the user to use a standard SANBS approved extension cord plugged into the existing structure's electrical grid to supply electricity throughout the new panel to a new location, without the cables being exposed and posing a threat. A pre-made groove with a sliding hanger allows users to hang wall decorations throughout the length of the panel which prevents these users from using a hammer and nail to hang their decorations.

Chapter 3 | User Friendliness

3.6 USER FRIENDLINESS One of the most significant influencing factors of a user-friendly design is the determination of the audience and the users predispositions in terms of available resources and knowledge. This predisposition guides the level of experience required to expedite a successful installation. People have grown accustomed to a culture of instant gratification. This fulfilment without delay creates a society that desires and completes tasks quickly. This speed could be seen as problematic, and it can be in specific fields and specific contexts, such as the housing sector. However, speed can be used successfully. The demand for instantaneous feedback can be advantageous to enforce the idea of immediate intervention in an informal settlement, and to speed the expansion of incremental architecture in lower-income areas. It is vital to ease construction and that the panel is 'plug-and-play'. If the panel construction is difficult, users will not be able to install the panel, or if they are somewhat able to install it, the degree of accuracy will result in an ineffective installation. This panel will be pre-manufactured to eliminate discrepancies and provide the users with all the required materials and tools in a single purchase. The panel and its accompanying components will be distributed as a flat pack available at local hardware suppliers. Users will only require a basic knowledge of construction, which will be provided by the instruction manual accompanying the panel. This instruction manual will display the parts included with the prefabricated wall panel, as well as the correct sequence to install the panel. This instruction manual is adapted from and inspired by those created by ready-made furniture giant, IKEA. An example of this instruction manual can be seen on the following page [Figure 31].

The panel assembly should be easy, userfriendly, easily available, and accessible. For this reason, the design of the panel is such that it can be purchased from a local hardware supplier without having to place an order first. The immediate availability of resources enable citizens to purchase the panels based on their needs quickly, and without fearing external factors, such as fraud by a thirdparty supplier. Many consumers prefer to see and feel the products that they are in the process of purchasing. This purchasing engagement creates a sense of trust in the product, and the reliability of the product, as purchasers can evaluate the quality and materiality before purchase. Various options will be available to fill the demand for scenarios that users may require of the panelling system. Differences may include: • Alternative systems (such as a preallocated hole for a water closet) • Different aperture points • Different thresholds and access points • Different colours • Different sizes. Users will be able to choose these systems from a catalogue [Figure 32], thus giving users the freedom to choose the panels based on their desires.

FIGURE 31: The installation manual, (image created by author, 2021)

FIGURE 32: The catalogue (image created by author, 2021)

CHAPTER 04 THE PILOT • INTRODUCTION • PILOT STUDY DELIMITATIONS • PREPARATION • FIRST MELT • SECOND MELT • THIRD MELT • PELIMINARY PROTOTYPE • PRELIMINARY CHANGES -PROCESSING RAW MATERIALS -THE ALTERATION PHASE -FINAL CONSTRUCTION AND COMPONENT DESIGN

This chapter aims to test the concept and adapt it to the chosen materials and construction method. It also serves as a preliminary feasibility study to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed design and its adaption, and to test solutions to problems that arose in the previous chapter.

Chapter 4 | Pilot Study

PILOT STUDY A pilot study must be carried out based on the methodology and construction viability to evaluate, determine, and plan for the documentation phase of the proposed solution.

General aspects that required attention in the preparation of the pilot study is the collection of materials, the evaluation of material properties, and the evaluation of construction methodology.

A pilot study is a smallerscale version of the project and determines the effectiveness of various aspects of the project, including the methodology, constructability, and effectiveness.

PILOT STUDY DELIMITATIONS:

According to Nancy K. Lowe (Lowe, 2019), a pilot study is designed and executed to answer the questions identified by the main problem, enabling the researcher to be certain that the chosen methodology can be carried out to prevent a defect arising at a later stage of the study (Lowe, 2019). The pilot study consists of four phases to evaluate the viability of research and procedures. This includes: • • • •

Experimentation with materiality and methodology Preliminary calculations of the thermal effectiveness Preliminary calculations of the cost effectiveness Creating a scaleaccurate preliminary prototype

1. Materials were 100% recycled and reused from the immediate environment surrounding the researcher (neighbours, family members, and friends). 2. Materials were chosen based on various aspects, such as availability, cost, thermal effectiveness, and slow combustible properties. 3. Material modification and conversion are reliant on the available machinery and manufacturing processes. This small-scale pilot study enables the researcher to identify the most effective smelting, and altering methods and adjust the material properties into the required solid and strong wall panel to solve the main problem and sub-problems. This material properties adjustment enables the researcher to identify in advance the comparative aspects and effectiveness of the proposed solution in relation to the existing model as seen in informal settlements in South Africa.

Chapter 4 | Pilot Study

FIGURE 33: Preperation phase one, (image created by author, 2021)

FIGURE 35: Preperation phase three, (image created by author, 2021)

FIGURE 36: Preperation phase four, (image created by author, 2021)

EXPERIMENT

FIGURE 34: Preperation phase two, (image created by author, 2021)

PREPARATION Due to the variable sizes and shapes of post-consumer scrap, it is important to transform the recycled units into a more workable and uniform shape for processing and smelting. Various trimming methods were experimented with, resulting in a streamlined process for production that does not require an industrial shredder as infrastructure. HDPE plastic is available in many forms, for instance sheets, pellets, and postproduction shapes such as bottles and liquid containers. To conform to the main idea of using completely recycled materials, the researcher chose to adopt a method that turns post-consumer scrap (in this instance, used milk jugs) into a workable and more user-friendly version [Figure 33]. Post-consumer scrap preparation [Figure 36]: 1. Polyethylene bottles were cut into ten main pieces with larger sections and smaller, less user friendly sections [Figure 34]. 2. Sections were cut into long strips of similar length and width [Figure 35]. 3. Strips were cut into three or four smaller pieces of approximately 10mm x 10mm in size [Figure 36]. The post-consumer scrap was altered into a workable medium, ready for the smelting process.

Chapter 4 | First Melt

FIGURE 37: First melt phase one, (image created by author, 2021) FIGURE 39: First melt phase three, (image created by author, 2021) FIGURE 40: First melt phase four, (image created by author, 2021)

A cold mould and hot vessel method were used for this phase [Figure 38]. The plastic was melted in a mould in a conventional household oven at 150°C for 30 minutes [Figure 39]. The result was undesirable, with the top layer melting and roasting due to the continuous heat transfer from the oven with the lower and middle sections not reaching melting point [Figure 40]. A timber box mould was constructed with screws and timber glue. A timber lid enclosed the box and enabled the compression of the materials after melting. The mould was prepared by filling all holes and crevices with a sealant and being sanded smooth to create a smooth and uniform formwork. The mould was then coated with petroleum jelly to prevent the material from sticking to the mould. The semi-melted plastic was transferred to the cold mould and compressed via industrial clamps [Figure 37]. Due to the lack of sufficient melting and consistency of the material, the final product exhibited delamination and uneven spread throughout the mould, requiring a rework of the smelting process.

EXPERIMENT

Collecting and cutting the HDPE into smaller aggregates, followed by melting and compressing the plastic into the required form.

FIGURE 38: First melt phase two, (image created by author, 2021)

FIRST MELT

Chapter 4 | Second melt

FIGURE 42: Second melt phase two, (image created by author, 2021) FIGURE 43: Second melt phase three, (image created by author, 2021)

EXPERIMENT

FIGURE 44: Second melt phase four, (image created by author, 2021)

FIGURE 41: Second melt phase one, (image created by author, 2021)

SECOND MELT After the failure of the first experiment, a different approach was taken to ensure the plastic would be thoroughly melted. Instead of a hot vessel, such as a pan, the material was compressed while being heated to increase heat transfer and uniform melting. A conventional household sandwich press ,with two layers of wax paper to prevent the material from sticking to the heated steel, melted the plastic [Figure 42]. This sandwich press melted the plastic throughout its thickness and created a putty-like texture. This putty was then transferred to a cold mould in the form of a timber box. Industrial clamps tightened the plastic, and the plastic was forced to spread throughout the mould [Figure 43]. Due to the amount of plastic that could be melted in one instance, this process had to be repeated until the mould was full. This incremental moulding resulted in delamination between the layers of each melting process. The plastic set between each melt, which prevented the molecules from tying into each other and creating a strong solid block. As each layer cooled and was compressed by another layer above, the pressure at the mould joints gave away, and a critical failure occured.

Chapter 4 | Third melt

The process of melting is streamlined to an easy and effective method that ensures the result is reproduced every time [Figure 48].

FIGURE 45: Third melt phase one, (image created by author, 2021) FIGURE 47: Third melt phase three, (image created by author, 2021)

As the plastic melted, the clamps were tightened, ensuring that the plastic seeped into all corners of the mould simultaneously, creating a solid and smooth block of plastic [Figure 47]. The plastic could not be removed from the mould due to the mould being compressed into the box. A hole was drilled into the base plate and a clamp fed through the hole to push the plastic from the mould.

FIGURE 48: Third melt phase four, (image created by author, 2021)

To prevent mould failure, delamination, and uneven spread, an idea that came forward, based on the previous experiments, was to compress the plastic in its mould while all the material was simultaneously heated. A mild steel box with a steel lid that enabled the clamps to be tightened in the oven was constructed. The mould could heat the plastic throughout due to the high conductivity of the metal. The metal mould heated the plastic at the same temperature without the plastic being burned by the oven.

EXPERIMENT

The first two experimental melt processes failed at various stages of the process. The third melt altered the design of the experiment to use a hot mould and hot vessel instead of a cold mould and a hot vessel [Figure 45].

FIGURE 46: Third melt phase two, (image created by author, 2021)

THIRD MELT

Chapter 4 | Prototype

FIGURE 49: The prototype image one, (image created by author, 2021)

FIGURE 51: The prototype image three, (image created by author, 2021)

FIGURE 52: The prototype image four, (image created by author, 2021)

PRELIMINARY PROTOTYPE

FIGURE 50: The prototype image two, (image created by author, 2021)

PROTOTYPE A 1:1 scale model of the connection of the panelto- wall was constructed based on the findings of the previous experiments. This prototype consisted of a solid recycled HDPE column that acted as the panel's structural binding element. A galvanised wall stud was fixed to the existing structure with screws and a foam strip sandwiching the two materials. The foam strip acts as waterproofing and aids with air leakage of the structure [Figure 49]. Two 10mm thick HDPE panels were fixed on either side of the column and enclosed the cavity. An adjustment was made during the process. The column was too small during the melting process and required a thicker piece of HDPE to be fixed to the block. An opportunity to test HDPE welding was evident and expedited. The two plastic parts were melted using a blowtorch and pressed to each other, fixing the two parts together and making a single column [Figure 50]. This welding experiment determined the maintenance possibilities of the panel in future. While constructing the prototype, it was evident that fixing the various components together was an easy and logical task as the panel is prefabricated , and no advanced machinery or knowledge a r e required for construction.

Chapter 4 | Preliminary changes

preliminary changes Once the pilot study was completed and a more in-depth comprehension developed, a review of the findings guided the study into its next phase, where alterations, additions, and omissions were required. When starting the pilot study, little was known about the processing and recycling of plastic, nor how it could be incorporated into a design in the built environment. To broaden this knowledge and enable the researcher to create critical alterations for future design development phases, a more in-depth analysis of the process must take place. Further in-depth analysis is crucial to include in the design process, as this aids in proposing a component-based prefabricated system constructed from recycled materials. Critical changes of the design process are structured in three sub-sections: • • •

Processing of raw materials The alteration phase The final construction and component design.

These three sections are designed to replicate results across experimentations and applications.

4.1 PROCESSING RAW MATERIALS Initially, the plastic collection process relied on informal recycling collectors, who collect post-consumer plastic products at their discretion and on their own time. This recyling method is effective because the collectors can collect specific plastics, such as HDPE, and even specific packaging, such as milk jugs. They collectively complete two of the three stages of plastic recycling: collection/sorting, and transportation to the plastic recycling plant.

Due to the number of times collectors are required to deliver the plastic and the cycling period between deliveries, the second procurement source is selected. This source relies on landfill site collection and aids South Africa's current waste crisis. Landfill site collection also has the advantage of larger quantities collected per cycle and even offers the opportunity to collect tonnes per load. Combining post-consumer and landfill collection will result in a steady stream of raw materials for the production and fabrication phase of the whole process. After the plastic is collected, it must undergo a few basic steps to prepare the material for fabrication. Firstly, the plastic must be washed and cleaned by removing all packaging material on the exterior and completely drying it. Secondly, the plastic must be cut into smaller, uniform sizes, replicating the pelletising process, where the material is changed into various sizes to allow for melting and processing.

4.2 THE ALTERATION PHASE The alteration phase required the most development of all three phases. The process of recycling can have many versions, and the pilot study experimented with three of these: • • •

Oven heat transfer with a cold mould Heat press with a cold mould Oven heat transfer with a hot mould.

Two elements must be present to effectively conform the plastic into a new and desired shape: heat and pressure. Due to the low viscosity of high-density polyethylene plastic, if only heat and no pressure is applied, it does not flow effectively into the mould. This low flow prevents an even spread and creates a honeycombing effect.

Chapter 4 | Preliminary changes

When the plastic is put under pressure and exposed to heat, the polymers blend and create a strong and uniform shape replicable in further experiments. The first method of plastic alteration used a conventional household oven to transfer heat from an electrical source to the material. Due to the lack of heat absorbed from below and the sides, the plastic had uneven viscosity and heat capacity. After the melting process, the material was transferred to a cold mould. Due to this, the plastic had an uneven spread that resulted in delamination as the plastic did not melt throughout the batch. The second method used a heat press to transfer heat throughout the batch of materials. Due to the pressure and equal heat transfer from all sides, the material has an equal viscosity. The material was then transferred to a cold mould. As the heat press had limited space, a small amount of plastic was melted, and this process had to be repeated numerous times. Each consecutive batch had to be pressed above the previous one in a mould. Thus, the polymers could not intersect and create a single strong piece of material. This problem sparked the idea to create a hot mould where the material could be heated and pressed into shape once, similiar to a pressure-injected mould. The mould was constructed out of 4mm thick mild steel mitre welded to create a solid square block. This block was then filled with material and placed in an oven. The pressure was applied while the material was melted, creating a strong and solid material in the desired shape. A problem that arose with this melting method was that the ability to create a specific block size accurately as the mould was closed, making it difficult to see the level of the plastic.

4.3 FINAL CONSTRUCTION AND COMPONENT DESIGN After the plastic was processed into the desired shape, the components could be constructed into an accurate 1:1 scale wall section model. Once the pieces could be placed together, experimentation with fixing methods could occur. It was evident that screws were an effective and low-cost method of fixing the plastic parts to each other and affixing the steel channel. The plastic reacts like timber being fixed with screws, and like timber uses wood glue, the plastic could uses welding. Plastic welding prevents air leakage and uneven gaps between components. Due to the problem stated in the previous section, the HDPE column did not melt into the correct size and had to be expanded using another piece of HDPE. This section piece of HDPE was fixed to the first piece by melting both edges with a blowtorch and compressing the melted sides together. The panel was constructed on an accurate scale, making it easier to determine the connections at points of interest, such as the sidewall, floor, and roof. Due to the panel sliding in the steel section, the same size steel section could be used at the roof and floor connection. These sections can fix the various components to the wall panel in a "click-and-play" way. With the component assembly tested, the location and type of screws changed to be more appropriate for their function. With this "click-and-play" approach, the sequence for assembly could be streamlined. This streamlining includes the components fitted into the steel section and the cover plates encasing the channel and column. With the preliminary experimentation and exploration, the panel could be constructed to allow for repeated results and to ensure that users will follow the required steps as easy as possible

CHAPTER 05

DESIGN RESOLUTION • GROUND FLOOR PLANS TYPE ONE • GROUND FLOOR PLAN TYPE TWO • ELEVATION • SECTION • DETAIL D1 AND D2 • DETAIL D3 AND D4 • DETAIL D5 AND D6 • AXONOMETRIC EXPLOSION

This chapter documents the technical drawings (plans, sections, details, and axonometrics projections) of the design and how the prefabricated wall panel will be constructed and assembled. This chapter accurately documents the prefabricated wall panel installation process for a more accurate and predictable final assembly.

51 125

584

GSPublisherVersion 0.23.100.100

Scale 1:100

Interior

Exterior

584

M9 bolt washer and nut to be fixed through foam and corrugated steel

649

125

649

525

649

525

Polysulphide sealent bead

Standard 4mm clear float glass

Standard PVC window frame fixed to HDPE member PVC window sill

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting to later detail

649

Exterior

525

M9 bolt washer and nut to be fixed through foam and corrugated steel

10mm Thick High Density closed cell foam strip sandwiched between corrugated sheet and galvanised channel

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

Exterior

584

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

75x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced verticle at 350mm

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

75x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced verticle at 350mm

D-02

10mm Thick compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic wall plate fixed to column and web members Access Panel below

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer Interior

584

30x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm Vertically stacked recycled plastic Steel sliding hanger with bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, tightening screw to be filled with recycled post consumer placed in groove polystyrene and greywater Interior 58x36mm pressure injected molded, 15mm Groove cut in recycled high density polyethylene panel at 1,8m height 6 x 40mm zinc plated Access Panel below Access Panel below mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

Access Panel below

Interior skin to be attached with screws to HDPE frame

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

10mm Thick High Density closed cell foam closure strip sandwiched between corrugated sheet and galvanised channe

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

Access Panel below

15mm Groove cut in panel at 1,8m height

Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove

Ground Floor Plan 1M PANEL

Scale 1:100

50x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm

Ground Floor Plan Panel 1

D-01

Existing Structure

78 58

Existing Structure

1/1 A

Existing Structure

78 58

Existing Structure

D-03

2x 63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

1: 100

Scale:

01/01/2021

Date OUT

12/31/2021

Date IN

GROUND FLOOR PLAN

Drawing number & description

01 /8

Sheet No./No.

THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

Project description

215624684

student number

WJ BADENHORST

Name

RESEARCH REPORT

M.Arch

Department of Architecture

125

GSPublisherVersion 0.23.100.100

Scale 1:100

584

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

1,025

Exterior

Standard door

1,025

D-05

Weather stop

Standard PVC door frame Interior Door threshold to be made of recycled HDPE

10mm Thick High Density closed cell foam strip sandwiched between corrugated sheet and galvanised channel

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

Access Panel below

15mm Groove cut in panel at 1,8m height

Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove

30x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm

Ground Floor Plan Panel 2

M9 bolt washer and nut to be fixed through foam and corrugated steel

D-04

Existing Structure

10mm Thick compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic wall plate fixed to column and web members Access Panel below

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting to later detail Interior

863

F 55

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column 2x 63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21) 58

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and Exterior greywater 75x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced verticle at 350mm

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer

D-06

Recycled high density polyethylene plastic skin with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm

Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove

1: 100

Scale:

01/01/2021

Date OUT

12/31/2021

Date IN

GROUND FLOOR PLAN

Drawing number & description

02 /8

Sheet No./No.

THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

Project description

215624684

student number

WJ BADENHORST

Name

15mm Groove cut in panel at 1,8m height

RESEARCH REPORT

M.Arch

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

Department of Architecture

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer

M9 bolt washer and nut to be fixed through foam and corrugated steel

10mm Thick High Density closed cell foam closure strip sandwiched between corrugated sheet and galvanised channel

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

50x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced verticle at 700mm

2x 63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

GSPublisherVersion 0.23.100.100

Scale 1:10

Elevation

Existing Structure

400

584

C 649

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene Standard PVC window frame fixed to HDPE member Standard 4mm clear float glass 649

2x 63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

584

2x 63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

50x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced verticle at 700mm

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

400 125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer

400

30x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm

400 400 400

2x 63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

Future Expansion

1:10

Scale:

01/01/2021

Date OUT

ELEVATION

Drawing number & description

12/31/2021

Date IN

03 /8

Sheet No./No.

THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

Project description

215624684

student number

WJ BADENHORST

Name

RESEARCH REPORT

M.Arch

Department of Architecture

GSPublisherVersion 0.23.100.100

Cables

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and steel section and pressure injected column

15mm Groove cut in panel at 400mm intervals

10mm Thick compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic wall plate fixed to column and web members

Scale 1:2

Detail D7

Interior

Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove

4mm Horizontal groove with 1mm lip

15mm Groove cut in panel at 400mm intervals

Scale 1:2

Exterior

10mm Thick compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic wall plate fixed to column and web members

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

Interior

15mm Groove cut in panel at 400mm intervals

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and steel section and pressure injected column

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

Scale 1:10

Access Panel

Detail D8

2,100

SECTION A-A

Cables

D-08

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting to later detail

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

Interior skin to be attached with screws to HDPE frame

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

Interior

10mm Thick compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic wall plate fixed to column and web members

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

Recycled high density polyethylene plastic skin with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm

Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove

15mm Groove cut in panel at 1,8m height

400

D-07

Access Panel Access Panel

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

5 26 5

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

Exterior

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

10mm Thick compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic wall plate fixed to column and web members Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

Exterior

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

Wall stud cable cut out folded up for roof fixing

1:10 and 1:2

Scale:

01/01/2021

Date OUT

12/31/2021

Date IN

SECTION A-A, DETAIL D7 & DETAIL D8

Drawing number & description

04 /8

Sheet No./No.

THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

Project description

215624684

student number

WJ BADENHORST

Name

RESEARCH REPORT

M.Arch

Department of Architecture

36 12 12 11

GSPublisherVersion 0.23.100.100

Scale 1:3

Detail D2

Access Panel below

Scale 1:2

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

Polysulphide sealent bead

PVC window sill

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting to later detail Standard PVC window frame fixed to HDPE member Standard 4mm clear float glass

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and pressure injected column

4mm Horizontal groove with 1mm lip

Existing corrugated steel sheet

Existing timber frame

Exterior

Interior

15mm Groove cut in panel at 400mm intervals

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

Exterior

115

Access Panel below

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

36 12

Interior 11 1 12

Standard PVC window frame fixed to HDPE member

Polysulphide sealent bead

M9 bolt washer and nut to be fixed through foam and corrugated steel

10mm Thick High Density closed cell foam closure strip sandwiched between corrugated sheet and galvanised channel

4mm Horizontal groove with 1mm lip

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting to detail 0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and pressure injected column

15mm Groove cut in panel at 400mm intervals

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame 0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

Access Panel below 10mm Thick HDPE Interior skin to be attached with screws to HDPE frame

36 12 12 11

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

10mm Thick HDPE Interior skin to be attached with screws to HDPE frame

15mm Groove cut in panel at 400mm intervals Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove 4mm Horizontal groove with 1mm lip

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting to detail

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and steel section and pressure injected column 63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

12 39

39 12 5 10 48 10 5

4 6 58 78 10

39x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 400mm

Detail D1

5 48 5

1:2 and 1:3

Scale:

01/01/2021

Date OUT

12/31/2021

Date IN

DETAIL D1 AND DETAIL D2

Drawing number & description

05 /8

Sheet No./No.

THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

Project description

215624684

student number

WJ BADENHORST

Name

RESEARCH REPORT

M.Arch

Department of Architecture

GSPublisherVersion 0.23.100.100

Scale 1:2

Detail D4

Scale 1:2

Detail D3

Existing timber frame

Existing corrugated steel sheet

15mm Groove cut in panel at 400mm intervals

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

Exterior

Interior

115

39x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and pressure injected column

50x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

Access Panel below

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

5 10 48 10 5

Exterior

11 1 12

2 12

115

Interior

115

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove 125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

41x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm

M9 bolt washer and nut to be fixed through foam and corrugated steel

10mm Thick High Density closed cell foam closure strip sandwiched between corrugated sheet and galvanised channel

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

10mm Thick HDPE Interior skin to be attached with screws to HDPE frame

15mm Groove cut in panel at 1,8m height Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove 4mm Horizontal groove with 1mm lip

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting to detail

Access Panel below

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame 0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

4mm Horizontal groove with 1mm lip Access Panel below Interior skin to be attached with screws to HDPE frame

Exterior 63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

15mm Groove cut in panel at 400mm intervals

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

36 12

Interior

12 39

39 12

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

5 6 48 10 5

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting to later detail 30x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm

5 10 48 10 5

4 6 58 78 10

1:2

Scale:

01/01/2021

Date OUT

12/31/2021

Date IN

DETAIL D3 AND DETAIL D4

Drawing number & description

06 /8

Sheet No./No.

THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

Project description

215624684

student number

WJ BADENHORST

Name

RESEARCH REPORT

M.Arch

Department of Architecture

GSPublisherVersion 0.23.100.100

Scale 1:2

Detail D6

Scale 1:5

Detail D5

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

115

Exterior

Interior

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel 63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21) Exterior

Access Panel below Interior skin to be attached with screws to HDPE frame

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and steel section and pressure injected column Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater 15mm Groove cut in panel at 1,8m height 4mm Horizontal groove with 1mm lip

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting to later detail

Weather stop

Standard hollow core door

Door threshold to be made of recycled HDPE

Standard PVC door frame

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

15mm Groove cut in panel at 1,8m height Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove Access Panel below

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and pressure injected column

Access Panel below 4

6 5

Weather stop Standard hollow core door

5 10

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

Interior skin to be attached with screws to HDPE frame

4mm Horizontal groove with 1mm lip

15mm Groove cut in panel at 400mm intervals

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and pressure injected column

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting to later detail

73x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and steel section and pressure injected column

15mm Groove cut in panel at 400mm intervals

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

Exterior

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater

Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove

Access Panel below

Standard PVC door frame

4mm Horizontal groove with 1mm lip

5 115 5

5 6 48 10 5

20 12 16

1:5 and 1:2

Scale:

01/01/2021

Date OUT

12/31/2021

Date IN

DETAIL D5 AND DETAIL D6

Drawing number & description

07 /8

Sheet No./No.

THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

Project description

215624684

student number

WJ BADENHORST

Name

RESEARCH REPORT

M.Arch

Department of Architecture

GSPublisherVersion 0.23.100.100

Scale 1:20

Axonometric Explosion

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

39x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 400mm

Exterior skin to be welded to HDPE frame

Exterior

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and steel section and pressure injected column

15mm Groove cut in panel at 400mm intervals 63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

Existing timber frame

Existing corrugated steel sheet

M9 bolt washer and nut to be fixed through foam and corrugated steel 10mm Thick High Density closed cell foam closure strip sandwiched between corrugated sheet and galvanised channel

125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

inte rio rs kin

50x6mm Compressed, recycled high density polyethylene plastic cover plate with recessed pre drilled holes spaced vertically at 700mm

Ac ces sp an el o n

Vertically stacked recycled plastic bottles (maximum radius of 60mm Ø, filled with recycled post consumer polystyrene and greywater 58x36mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene

6 x 40mm zinc plated mild steel self drilling screws with rubber and steel washer to be fixed through cover plate and steel section and pressure injected column

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21) 125x58mm pressure injected molded, recycled high density polyethylene column

4mm Horizontal groove with 1mm lip

63x41mm Glavanised internal wall stud (WXSE21)

Detachable HDPE cable tray skirting to detail

10mm Thick HDPE Interior skin to be attached with screws to HDPE frame

0.35 Micron DPC to be fixed behind HDPE panel

Interior

Steel sliding hanger with tightening screw to be placed in groove

1:20

Scale:

01/01/2021

Date OUT

12/31/2021

Date IN

AXONOMETRIC EXPLOSION

Drawing number & description

07 /8

Sheet No./No.

THE INTEGRATION OF PREFABRICATED WALL PANELS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF SOUTH AFRICA

PREFABRICATION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

Project description

215624684

student number

WJ BADENHORST

Name

RESEARCH REPORT

M.Arch

Department of Architecture

CHAPTER 06

TECHNICAL RESOLUTION • THE THERMAL EFFICIENCY • THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT -QUANTIFYING THE AMOUNT OF PLASTIC REQUIRED • THE COST ANALYSIS -SUMMARY OF COSTS -THE PANEL -IRONMONGERY

This chapter evaluates the technical aspects of the proposed design and simulates the effectiveness of the panel in a real-world scenario. This chapter also aims to determine the impact on the environment and users of the system.

Chapter 06 | Thermal Efficiency

Technical Resolution This analysis determines the efficacy of the panels by determining the logistics and context to gain an overview of the project from concept to reality. Based on the findings of the pilot study (Chapter 4) and the documentation of the proposed design (Chapter 5), it is possible to calculate technical aspects of the panel and the effect the aspects have in relation to the existing selfmade structures in informal settlements. The sub-questions answered in this chapter are, "Can the integration of prefabrication improve thermal efficiency?" and "Can an alternative insulating material replace conventional insulation?", as set out in Section 1.4 - Subproblems and related hypothesis. The following calculations related to the sub-problems must be made to provide the overall impact and improvement provided by the prefabricated wall panels: • Thermal efficiency • Environmental impacts • Cost analysis of a single panel. After the analysis is completed, a final review compares the findings to an existing self-made structure.

6.1 THE THERMAL EFFICIENCY Although the study focuses on informal settlements situated in Climatic Zone 2, Temperate-Interior, of South Africa, this study also compares the content to the required thermal resistance of all climatic zones (1, 3, 4, 5, and 6) of the country. According to SANS 10400 Part A, the dwellings are classified as an H4 category. The proposed panels are used in an H4 classified occupancy structure. SANS 204:2011 section 4.3.3.2 legal requirements for external non-masonry walls, requires a minimum R-Value of 1.9 in climatic zone 2, 3, 4, and 5, and a minimum R-value of 2,2 in climatic zones 1 and 6.

Thus, to comply with the required H4 R-value of 1,9, the proposed prefabricated wall structure would consist of a sandwiched composite consisting of three layers [Figure 53]: 1. Outer layer consisting of a 10mm HDPE skin. 2. Sandwiched layer of recycled PET bottles filled with post-consumer expanded polystyrene insulation and water; polystyrene acts as an insulator and aggregate to fill most of the bottles; 25% of the bottle volume are filled with water to act as self-extinguishing fire prevention. 3. Interior layer consisting of a 10mm HDPE skin. These materials are supported by a pressure-injected column support frame between the HDPE sheets. The columns act as structural binders for the composite structure. One must calculate the total thermal resistance of each material to determine whether the wall complies with the required R-value of 1,9. The formula to be used: Rt = Rsi + Rse + R1 + R2 + ………. Rn + Ra Where: Rt = total resistance of the element Rsi = resistance or the inverse of the conductivity of the interior surface Rse = resistance or the inverse of the conductivity of the exterior surface R1 = resistance or the depth of layer / material conductivity of layer 1 R2 = resistance or the depth of layer / material conductivity of layer 2 Rn = resistance or the depth of layer / material conductivity of the nth layer Ra = resistance or the inverse of the conductivity of airspace Using the respective R-values of the materials present in the wall, one can determine the total resistance of the element: 1. R-value of Air space: 0.16 m²K/W 2. R-value of Interior Surface: 0.12 m²K/W 3. R-value of Exterior Surface: 0.03 m²K/W

Chapter 06 | Thermal Efficiency

4. R value of external HDPE sheet: 𝑑𝑑 • R = 𝑘𝑘 0.010

•

R = 0.0208333333333333 m²K/W

0.48

5. R value of internal HDPE sheet: 𝑑𝑑 • R = 𝑘𝑘 •

R = 0.0208333333333333 m²K/W

0.48

6. R value of plastic bottle interior (first side): 𝑑𝑑 • R= 𝑘𝑘 0.0003048

•

R = 0.001016 m²K/W

0.3

0.0003048

•

R = 0.001016 m²K/W

0.3

8. R value of polystyrene filling: 𝑑𝑑 • R = 𝑘𝑘 •

•

R = 0.035

GSPublisherVersion 0.22.100.100

0.080

R = 0.598

R = 0.1337792642140468 m²K/W

0.00027 0.60

0.48

0.010

•

R = 0.0208333333333333 m²K/W

0.48

0.0003048

•

R = 0.001016 m²K/W

0.3

7. R value of plastic bottle interior (second side): 𝑑𝑑 R = 𝑘𝑘 polystyrene •fillling

R = 2.285714285714286 m²K/W

R = 0.0208333333333333 m²K/W

0.0003048

•

R = 0.001016 m²K/W

0.3

8. R value of polystyrene filling: 𝑑𝑑 • R = 𝑘𝑘

greywater filling

Rt = Rsi + Rse + R1 + R2 + ………. Rn + Ra Rt=0.12+0.03+0.0208333333333333+0.02083333 • Existing House: 3333333+0.001016+0.001016+2.28571428571428 1. R value of external galvanised Sheet 6+0.1337792642140468 𝑑𝑑 • R = 𝑘𝑘 =2.613192216594657 m2K/W •

•

6. R value of plastic bottle interior (first side): 𝑑𝑑 • R = 𝑘𝑘

0.080

9. R value of water filling at 20º C: 𝑑𝑑 • R = 𝑘𝑘 •

bottel wall

7. R value of plastic bottle interior (second side): 𝑑𝑑 • R = 𝑘𝑘 •

5. R value of internal HDPE sheet: 𝑑𝑑 • R = 𝑘𝑘

0.010

•

interior skin

•

4. R value of external HDPE sheet: 𝑑𝑑 R = 𝑘𝑘

exterior skin•

• R =the 0.00045 m²K/W Therefore, wall complies with SANS 204:2011 section 4.3.3.2 for climatic zone 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. When comparing the panel's SANS 10400, Part A, compliance to the existing self-built structures in informal settlements, immediate thermal improvement is seen. A few variations of the same wall can be made with various cavity properties if polystyrene is absent. In that case, a single panel with just unventilated air as an insulator reaches a total R-value of 0.35369866663 m2K/W. This thermal value does not comply with SANS regulation but is 1,9 times more thermally effective when comparing it to a standard self-built dwelling. The same panel filled with water (at 20°C) as the insulator reaches a total R-value of 0.3274779308140468 m2K/W, which is 1.7 times more thermally effective.

•

0.080

R = 0.035

FIGURE 53: Panel section, (image created by author, 2021)

• R = 2.285714285714286 m²K/W comprises A new standard self-built dwelling of 0.27mm-galvanised corrugated steel 9. R value of water filling at 20º C: sheeting fixed to a timber frame. These 𝑑𝑑 • R = 𝑘𝑘 structures have 0.080 little resistance to the high • R = 0.598 solar radiation of 220 W/m² in South Africa. • R = 0.1337792642140468 m²K/W For comparison, solar radiation is 150 W/m² in the USA and 100 W/m² in Europe. •

Existing House: 1. R value of external galvanised Sheet 𝑑𝑑 • R = 𝑘𝑘 0.00027

•

R = 0.00045 m²K/W

0.60

Rt = Rsi + Rse + R1 + R2 + ………. Rn + Ra Rt = 0.12+0.03+0.00045 Rt = 0.12045 The existing standard self-made structures do not comply with SANS 204:2011 section 4.3.3.2 for climatic zone 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. It is thus vitally important to improve the thermal efficiency of the panels as much as possible with as little impact on the price and environment as possible. The most-viable and environmentallysustainable choice is incorporating water and polystyrene into the interior bottles in the cavity.

Chapter 06 | Environmental Impact

6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT The researcher must determine the environmental impact the panel may have on the macro and microclimate. The panel consists of recycled plastic, and this plastic can be gathered from various sources, such as informal recyclers, dumpsites, and companies that dispose of plastic waste after usage. The decision as to where to source recycled plastic must be made. Currently, the best solution would be to recycle the vast amounts of plastic on landfills and dumpsites and the plastic on its way to dumpsites. This plastic takes years to degrade and should be collected and turned into something useful. Recycled plastic can be divided into three groups or bodies of collection: 1. Post-consumer scrap 2. Pre-consumer scrap 3. Landfill/dump scrap.

QUANTIFYING THE VOLUME OF PLASTIC REQUIRED PER 2,1M X 2,1M PANEL HDPE density: 970kg/m3

Wall sections: Column one: Volume = Length x height x width = 125mm x 2100mm x 58mm = 12.5cm x 210cm x 5.8cm = 15225 cm3 Column two: Volume = Length x height x width = 36mm x 2100mm x 58mm = 3.6cm x 210cm x 5.8cm = 4384.8 cm3

Column three: Volume = Length x height x width = 36mm x 2100mm x 58mm = 3.6cm x 210cm x 5.8cm = 4384.8 cm3 Column four: Volume = Length x height x width = 125mm x 2100mm x 58mm = 12.5cm x 210cm x 5.8cm = 15225 cm3 External skin: Volume = Length x height x width = 2100mm x 2100mm x 10mm = 210cm x 210cm x 1cm = 44100 cm3 Internal skin: Length x height x width = 2100mm x 2100mm x 10mm = 210cm x 210cm x 1cm = 44100 cm3 Weight of column one: 14.76825Kg Weight of column two: 4.25326Kg Weight of column three: 4.25326Kg Weight of column four: 14.76825Kg Weight of external skin: Weight of internal skin:

42.777Kg 42.777Kg

Total weight of 2,1 x 2,1 panel (Excluding Filling): 123.59702Kg When comparing this weight to a standard 2,1 x 2,1m single leaf brick wall, the weight of the panel seems minuscule. The standard brick size is 220x115x85mm. By dividing the wall length and height with the dimensions of a brick, it can determine the number of bricks required to construct the wall. A 2,1x2,1m wall requires 237,5 bricks, which equals to 9,5 bricks per horizontal layer and 25 vertical courses. The total number of bricks has to be multiplied by the weight of a single brick, which is between 3 and 3,5 kg, to determine the weight. This weight equals to 831.25kg

HDPE thermal conductivity: 0.48 W(m /K) Weight of Column 1: 14.76825Kg Weight of column 2: 4.25326Kg Weight of Column 3: 4.25326Kg Weight of column 4: 14.76825Kg

Chapter 06 | Environmental Impact

Weight of External Skin: 42.777Kg Weight of internal Skin: 42.777Kg

The totalweight weightofof2,1 the panel could be divided by the weight of a plastic packaging product Total x 2,1 panel (Excluding Filling): 123.59702Kg to determine the amount of plastic that will be removed from landfills. In the context of this project, was determined to use the value of a milk jug, as most people know the size Weight of it Milk jug: 60g and qualities of a milk jug. The weight of a single milk jug amounts to 60g of HDPE plastic. Quantity of bottles per panel: =

123.59702 0.060

=2,060 milk jugs Quantifying the cost per impact panel on South Africa's refuse and waste environment. This weight has a total tremendous For every 7,8 panels manufactured, a cubic meter of solid HDPE would be removed from Cost ofSouth PlasticAfricans Recycling: landfills. produce between 0.3 and 0.4kg of plastic waste per day (Jambeck, 2019). South Africa's mid-year (2021) population statistics indicate that South Africa has a 3 total population of 60,14 million people. Thus, South Africans accumulate approximately 24,056,000 kilograms of post-consumer plastic scrap per year. This quantity of plastic would build 194,632.5 panels or 48,658 housing structures.

South Africa's mid-year (2021) population statistics indicates that South Africa has a total population of 60,14 million people. If we compare statistics, this accumulates to approximately 24,056,000 kilograms of post-consumer plastic scrap per year. This will build 194,632.5 panels or 48,658 housing structures. Each panel represents 300 plastic bottles removed from landfills. These bottles are integrated into the panel cavity to aid thermal efficiency and slow combustion. A single 440ml empty bottle weighs 22g. This plastic reclaimed is thus 300x22g, amounting to 6.6kg of plastic recycled for each standard panel. The volume is multiplied by the density of polystyrene to determine the amount of polystyrene required to fill a bottle. = 440cm³ x 1,06g per cm³ = 466,4g per bottle = 300 bottles x 466,4g = 139,9kg of polystyrene removed from landfills. Using the South African waste crisis as a source for construction materials, each panel recycles 270kg of plastic and emits zero new carbon emissions. The panel is completely constructed from recycled materials.

Chapter 06 | Cost Analysis

6.3 COST ANALYSIS Various aspects should be kept in mind when determining the average cost of recycling plastic, including plastic sources, electricity, transportation, and preparation. A company's yearly statistics have been collected based on recycling cost per metric ton for accurate data. The plastic recycling company, Polyethylene Recoveries, has listed the total costs for each category (Table 7, 8, and 9): Table 7: Post-consumer scrap recycling costs Table 9: Landfill scrap recycling costs

POST-CONSUMER SCRAP Scrap mixed colours (metric ton)

LANDFILL/DUMP SCRAP R4500

Scrap mixed colours (metric ton)

R3500

Transport (metric ton)

R250

Transport (metric ton)

R250

Sorting (metric ton)

R0.60

Sorting (metric ton)

R1000

Washing (metric ton)

R1020

Washing (metric ton)

R1200

7% loss on recycling (metric ton)

R315

10% loss on recycling (metric ton)

R350

Extrusion/Electricity (metric ton)

R1400

Extrusion/Electricity (metric ton)

R1400

Bagging (25kg bags or 1250kg bulk bags) Average cost to recycle per (metric ton)

R155 R7640.60

Table 8: Pre-consumer scrap recycling costs

PRE-CONSUMER SCRAP Scrap mixed colours (metric ton)

R5500

Transport (metric ton)

R250

Sorting (metric ton)

R0.00

Washing (metric ton)

R0.00

4% loss on recycling (metric ton)

R260

Extrusion/Electricity (metric ton)

R1400

Bagging (25kg bags or 1250kg bulk bags) Average cost to recycle per (metric ton)

R155 R7565.00

Bagging (25kg bags or 1250kg bulk bags) Average cost to recycle per (metric ton)

R155 R7855.00

SUMMARY OF THE COSTS: All the costs in table 7, 8, and 9 are based on averages over 12 months, including winter and summer tariffs for electricity costs (Polyethylene Recoveries, 2021): • All costs exclude value-added-tax. • No additives (moisture absorbents, master batches) have been included in the costs. • Calculations are based only on stage one extruding/recycling. • Post-consumer waste refers to plastic scrap from households and factories after use. • Pre-consumer waste refers to clean plastic that has never been used. • Dump or landfill scrap is collected from dumpsites.

Chapter 06 | Cost Analysis

The cost structure of the panel can be divided into two main categories. 1. The panel 2. The ironmongery.

THE PANEL:

Total cost of a single 2,1m x 2,1m wall panel: = R1191.47 + R58.08 + R24 =R 1,273.55 Thus, the panel with the fixing and support structure costs R5,094.2.

The cost of the recycled HDPE: = (Total cost of recycling per ton) / 1000Kg =7855/1000 =R7.86 per Kilogram of recycled HDPE Cost of a single 2,1m x 2,1m panel: =R7.86 x 123.59702Kg =R971.47 A time-sensitive calculation was assumed for determining the cost of the cavity filling based on the South African minimum wage of R20 per hour: 300 bottles are required for a single panel filling. If one assumes that it takes two minutes to clean and fill a single 440ml bottle (calculated by timing a real-time cleaning and filling process), it takes 10 hours to generate the required number of bottles. = 10h x R20 = R220 Thus the total cost of a single panel is R1,191.47.

FIXING COMPONENTS AND SUPPORTING STRUCTURE: The fixing components include: 1. Screws and bolts 2. Galvanised channels. Cost of galvanised channels (Appendix A): 4 x 63mm wall channels at R14.52 each =R58.08 Self-drilling screws and bolts (8 x 16mm): = 2 x 25 packs at R12 each =R24

CHAPTER 07

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS • STRUCTURE, COST AND THERMAL EFFICIENCY -SELF MADE STRUCTURES -THE PROPOSED ALTERNATIVE STRUCTURE • SMOKE, FIRE AND TOXICITY -SELF MADE STRUCTURES -THE PROPOSED ALTERNATIVE STRUCTURE

This chapter compares the technical aspects evaluated in the previous chapter to the real-world model. This comparison serves as a juxtaposition of the new prefabricated system with the self-made structures currently seen in informal settlements.

Chapter 07 | Structure, Cost and Thermal Efficiency

comparative analysis 7.1 STRUCTURE, COST, AND THERMAL COMFORT 7.1.1 Self-made structures: Most of the self-made structures in informal settlements exhibit the same construction and structural stability tendencies. These structures are most commonly known as "Zozos" or "shacks" and are constructed of two main components: timber and corrugated steel sheeting. As seen in Figure 54, these structures use pine timber recycled from previously used pallets to create a frame for structural stability. The timber is then used to clad the exterior with a single sheet of corrugated steel sheeting [Figure 54 and Figure 55].

particular size and kept as-is for the duration of occupancy. According to Transkei shack builder, Mara Mdunyelwa, a few options are available for clients (Xi & Gontsana, 2014): • •

These prices are based on the Rand value in 2014. If one applies the inflation rate of 39,04% over the past seven years, these amounts equal to: • •

FIGURE 54: Self-built FIGURE 55: Self-built wall wall panel, (image photo- panel, (image photographed by author, 2020) graphed by author, 2020)

Upon further investigation of the building materials, a few differences can be seen between various structures: 1. Quality of the materials 2. Size 3. Finish Some structures have cleaner and uniform sizes, indicating that the shack builder purchased the materials from a hardware supplier. These structures cost more as the quality of the materials is higher than the more commonly seen recycled or previously owned materials. Some structures are larger than others, and, most purchased in a

A one-room shack costs R2,800 A two-room shack costs R5,500

A one-room shack costs R3,893 A two-room shack costs R7,647

Lastly, the colours and finishes are different for each shack builder and the client's preference. The builder hopes that by differentiating the colours of shacks, the products are seen and easily recognised for their quality and craftsmanship. This differentiation indicates that the citizens of an informal settlement will most likely purchase the structures from more reputable sources than the first source they come across. According to Mdunyelwa, "Competition is fierce, and quality and reliability are important." The construction of these structures is uniform and requires little adjustment and improvisation. The timber frames consist of four linking members, which create a single wall panel frame, which is then enforced with vertical members made of separate smaller pieces fixed together with nails. The panels are clad on the exterior with the corrugated galvanised steel sheet. These panels have no insulation and have a low thermal resistance value due to the high heat capacity and high thermal conductivity of steel. Due to transportation, cost, and customisation on-site, these panels must be pre-made and in various sections.

Chapter 07 | Structure, Cost and Thermal Efficiency

7.1.2 The proposed alternative structures: The effective panel would exhibit the following properties to contribute positively to the needs of the citizens: • Be prefabricated • Be available in various sizes • Have better thermal properties • Be priced competitively • Stay in line with the current construction methods • Be differentiated by colour and accessories • Be available with aperture points and circulation thresholds. If the panel is to be adopted into the informal settlement framework, the users must have a sense of familiarity with the panel. If the users feel a sense of familiarity, the chances of successful integration are much larger as users seem to trust the system even before installation has occurred. The proposed design is constructed with prefabrication as its main design driver. These panels require little alteration to be fixed to existing structures, are purchased ready-made, and contain all the necessary equipment and ironmongery to erect a panel. The panels are constructed from recycled HDPE plastic and consist of an outer HDPE skin, an interior cavity filled with insulative materials, and an enclosing interior HDPE skin. These panels are available in various sizes to minimise waste and allow incremental expansion. Due to the panels acting as single pieces, future phases could introduce more panels fixed to each other by applying a new wall stud for affixing the panel. These panels exhibit ideal insulative values, complying with SANS 204 in all six climatic zones of South Africa, creating a more stable and pleasant interior space. When referring to Appendix C, the proposed structure has a 5.92°C difference in the winter month of June, and has a minimal rise in temperatures in the summer month of December. Due to HDPE plastic having a large thermal capacity, the author assumes that the temperature swing creates the result of the higher average of 2.53°C in summer months.

Due to the many available colours of HDPE plastic, various panels with various textures and patterns are possible. This colour and texture variations stand out among the selfbuilt structures due to the uniformity and eye-catching colours. The intention is to tie into the familiarity-effect. As more panels are incorporated into citizens' homes, the panels subconsciously become a standardised construction method and lead to increased production and distribution. With the highly customisable properties of the exterior and interior colours, added accessories benefit the users of the panel by incorporating alternative solutions to problems currently seen with self-built structures. These panels have a hidden electrical cord compartment that hide extension cords and increases these structures' safety when installing. To account for the various services and variations users might require, such as sanitary fittings, windows, and doors, the panels are designed with modularity in mind. According to Mdunyelwa, a standard oneroom makeshift shack cost R2,800 in 2014. Applying the inflation rate experienced over the past seven years, the new cost for the same structure is R3,893 (Xi & Gontsana, 2014). If one considers the prefabricated wall panel's cost, the structure costs R5,094.2. That is an increase of R1,201.09 for a thermally effective and scratch-resistant structure that is available in various colours and can be incrementally expanded. In addition, the structure saves money throughout the structure's lifespan by reducing mechanical thermal interventions.

Chapter 07 | Fire, smoke and toxicity

7.2 SMOKE, FIRE AND TOXICITY 7.2.1 Self-made structures: A few elements are required to fuel a fire continuously. This collection of elements is referred to as the "fire triangle". These requirements are: • Sufficient oxygen flow • Heat • Fuel. Fire spreads with incredible speed throughout informal settlements and leaves devastating effects on the residents. According to the most recent statistics from the Fire Protection Association of South Africa, 5,283 informal settlement fires were reported in 2017 and 2018 (Fire protection Association of South Africa, 2018). The fires are due to many combustible materials and the close proximity of dwelling units and are exacerbated by the abundance of ignition sources, such as illegal electrical connections and open flames.

According to SANS 10400 Part T, section 4.2.2, H4 classified structures must have a minimum of 30-minute fire resistance on the external walls. This fire resistance allows the inhabitants of the structure to evacuate before the fire reaches the internal space of the dwelling. Many possible interventions could be made to prevent a fire from killing the inhabitants of a dwelling and improve the possibility of safe evacuation. One of the first and more important of these is to create the longest possible time that the fire could take to enter the structure from the exterior. A conventional self-built dwelling consists of a galvanised sheet exterior and a timber frame to which the sheet is fixed. If the exterior is exposed to fire, the flame finds an air gap between the sheets or burns through the steel to enter the internal space.

In a study conducted by the Fire Engineering Research Unit at the University of Stellenbosch, 20 shacks were constructed in a similar fabric to shacks in informal settlements of South Africa, to gather data to inform firefighters of the intensity and speed with which shack fires spread through an informal settlement. A fire was started at the edge of the simulation, and within five minutes, the flames had engulfed and destroyed all 20 shacks (de Koker et al., 2020).

Due to the low mass and low specific heat capacity of the corrugated steel sheeting (420 J/(kg°C), if a flame is exposed on the exterior of a structure, the heat travels through the sheet to the interior structure within 12 seconds. Once the galvanised steel sheet burns, harmful gas is emitted. Once heated above 200°C, the zinc coating melts and emit Zinc-Oxide fumes. These fumes are harmful and result in metal fume fever when ingested or inhaled.

This experiment concluded that even with specific interventions such as fireproof paint, the fire could not be stopped or halted due to its intensity. This conclusion is disturbing as it may take a while for inhabitants to notice a fire and notify the authorities. By the time the authorities arrive and extinguish the fire, it may be too late. A runaway fire is difficult to stop and burns through any material if the chemical reaction is too hot and if the fire continues to burn without being put out (de Koker et al., 2020).

Burning wood emits carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur oxides, and nitrogen oxides, that are toxic once inhaled. With the quick heat transfer of the steel, the heat on the interior will start to smolder the timber frame and ignite a flame before the fire has travelled through the sheet, resulting in the zinc coating burning off when the temperature reaches 200°C. With each consecutive self-built structure burning, increasing quantities of gasses are emitted into the surrounding environment, lowering the chances of the citizens escaping.

Chapter 07 | Fire, smoke and toxicity

7.2.2 The proposed alternative structures: Although plastic is an effective material used for packaging, industrial design, and architecture, the material does have aspects that can negatively impact users. One of the most significant positive aspects of HDPE is that it exhibits a high specific heat capacity, with 1900 J/(kg°C) required to heat 1kg of plastic. Thus, a 1kg piece of HDPE requires four and a half times more energy to be heated than steel sheeting. This amount of thermal mass results in the HDPE burning at high temperatures on the exterior without the heat entering the structure for a delayed period. The prefabricated panel consists of two 10mm thick HDPE plates on either side, with sandwiched bottles filled with water and polystyrene inside the cavity. The bottles in the interior cavity are filled with greywater and polystyrene to aid thermal efficiency and slow combustion. The polystyrene will act as a rough aggregate to prevent the bottles from being filled completely with water and result in an extremely heavy wall panel, as well as being an insulator to improve the thermal efficiency of the panel. The water in the panel serves two purposes. Firstly, the water acts as a thermal conductor once exposed to flame and generates a convection current to carry the energy away from the sidewall and dissipate the heat through the water. Waters high heat capacity, indicates that more energy is required to separate the molecules, resulting in an extended time before the flame melts the bottles. Secondly, when the flames do melt the plastic walls of the bottles, the remaining water is released into the panel's cavity as a final aid to increase the amount of time the panel withstands the heat generated by the fire. Once the flames have disintegrated the panel's exterior and cavity, the interior skin protects the inhabitants from the harmful gas expelled from the burning HDPE. Due to plastic's monomers breaking up and creating single bond polymers after exposure to fire, harmful gasses are emitted (Burke, 1999). LowDensity Polyethylene has a low molecular weight and forms a softer plastic.

Due to this, LDPE burns easily at a lower temperature. High-Density Polyethylene is stronger and forms a more rigid plastic. Both these plastics are combustible at temperatures higher than 300°C, which is 100°C higher than the turning phase for Zinc and galvanised sheets to emit harmful gas. Despite the impression that fumes expelled from burning plastic are more dangerous than those from steel or timber, the toxicity of fumes from steel and timber is equally harmful. To combat the combustible aspects of HDPE, fire retardant additives should be introduced into the production phase of the panel to slow the already slow combustible aspect of HDPE. These additives can increase the fire resistance of the plastic and lessen the impact of the harmful gasses emitted into the environment. Numerous fire-retardent additives should be introduced into the plastic mixture to slow the combustion process (Blue, 2018): • • • •

Hydrated aluminum oxide Phosphorus compound Antimony trioxide Bromine and chlorine halogen retardants.

The best mixing solution is hydrated aluminum oxide with the bromine compounds in the production phase of the panel. These additives decompose and absorb energy emitted from the fire. Using these components in conjunction results in the brominated compounds converting into water and bromide radicals, which extinguishes the fire. At the same time the aluminium oxide emits phosphoric acid and promotes charring, which cuts off fuel for the fire. These oxides are non-toxic and environmentally friendly. This study finds that HDPE would positively contribute to the housing crises, and help prevent loss of life due to fires in informal settlements (Blue, 2018).

CHAPTER 08 CONCLUSION • CONCLUSION

This chapter summarises and concludes the design, and elaborates on how effectively the prefabricated system solves the problems and sub-problems identified in Chapter 1.

Chapter 08 | Conclusion

conclusion 8.1 PROBLEMS GUIDE EVOLUTION. A pattern-seeking strategy was adopted to guide the evolution of this research. When looking at different problemsolving strategies, the researcher's view, interpretation, and knowledge produced various techniques and methods of solution fabrication. A typical strategy used in mathematics is to search for and find patterns in an equation, apply a proposed solution to the equation, and then illustrate the resolution and finished product. Following the pattern-seeking strategy can solve various problems. However, in some situations patterns are hidden, some in pragmatic relativism and others in patternist philosophy. The main problem of this project emerged from the housing sector of South Africa, how the sector is influenced by legislative and financial pressures, and the daily lifestyle predicaments of many South Africans. The most significant problem is a lack of adequate housing and the poor living conditions of citizens in informal settlements. The South African government did implement various solution strategies, such as the RDP programme, to combat these problems. However, the strategies were not as successful as initially intended. Strategies such as these rely on legislative and political influences to successfully operate and complete their goals. When autocratic facets influence a strategy, a larger margin for error can occur, which it subsequently has in this case. Corruption, poor supervision, and a lack of strategic investment resulted in the project being obscured from public view to the point that beneficiaries only hope for housing delivery and do not know when or if their housing needs will be fulfilled.

In modern society, the scale and difficulty of scope inherent in social difficulties result in governments struggling to accurately manage and control all the components of projects such as the RDP programme. Governments face multifaceted problems that could span over six main fields (Burrowes & Shannon, 2021): • Economy • Healthcare • Education • National safety and security • Climate • Trust in government. The proposal of prefabrication and incremental architecture in informal settlements may have a higher success rate in relation to other strategies as citizens have independent access to these panels on their own accord. Citizens can purchase their panel system, gain a basic knowledge of construction, and install these panels without the need for contractors. The empowerment of self-appointment creates a sense of worth and belonging, typically observed in high-income communities that implement house additions and maintenance themselves. The initial proposal of this study aims to provide an intermediate improvement of the self-made structures used in informal settlements. The immediate installation and gradual improvement stem from incremental architecture where completion and resolution spans occur over a period. This incremental approach would better the living conditions of citizens before the RDP programme provides complete housingstructures. That is where the real importance of the study emerged - the cost structures. During the design development phase of the proposed panelling system, it became evident that the initial cost estimate of the system was higher than expected. The system was compared to the self-made structures as seen in informal settlements,

Chapter 08 | Conclusion

and the costs, size, and construction were kept in context with the self-made structures as a known base to accommodate the lower-income class. The predicted cost of a single wall panel had to be in the price range of the self-made structure wall panels, which on average is R500 per panel. The proposed prefabricated wall panel solution costs R1,473.55 per panel, indicating that a larger investment is required to construct a structure. This cost, although more, can be rationalised by the benefits gained when comparing the panel to a standard selfmade structure panel. Upon completion, a thermally effective and more durable house can be expected, reducing maintenance costs over the structure's lifespan. In addition, citizens using the structure have fewer requirements for mechanical equipment, which improves the experience and comfort of the interior space. In this study, a hidden pattern emerged where the true value of the panel could be seen. Creating a multi-use system could benefit various users across a broad spectrum and introduce a unified motive of self-empowerment. South Africans are extremely resourceful in creating a plan for problems experienced in everyday life. This ties in with South Africans' multicultural views, where one can solve problematic situations independently. Throughout the research, design development, and construction detailing, the researcher found that this proposal might not completely solve the housing crisis, but act as an intermediary aid to the poor living conditions of citizens living in informal settlements. These prefabricated panels are situated above self-made structures, but below RDP housing, creating a unique entry into the built environment of South Africa. By giving power to citizens, this project breaks away from the current politicised cycle of housing delivery. The proposed project empowers and authorises citizens to become architects of their situations.

The inhabitants create their own solutions, equally matching government initiatives. Due to this project operating in the housing expanse, financial assistance already used to assist citizen's, could be reallocated and assigned to the production of prefabricated wall panels to ease poor living conditions. When examining the hierarchal tree, this different strategic approach might result in funding materialising from above, and support from below, creating a more effective and quicker strategy to assist with the housing crisis in South Africa. The thermal efficiency complies with SANS 10400, and the prefabricated wall panel demonstrates improved fire and combustion resistance. As the internal cavity has compacted bottles filled with polystyrene and greywater, the researcher anticipates that the bottles have a convection current happening when a flame is applied to the panel. Once the effect has run its course, the researcher anticipates that the melted bottles will release the water and create a self-extinguishing process, impeding the fire travelling through the panel and delaying the time for a fire to enter the interior. This delay gives the inhabitants enough time to evacuate the structure. A positive outcome of harvesting plastic for the panels would be less plastic on landfill sites as the plastic would be recycled and reused for alternative purposes. This new use of waste material serves as a driver for recycling, as South Africa has not yet fully implemented a comprehensive recycling solution. The proposed prefabricated wall panels would aid in the housing crisis, selfempowerment, and positively impact the waste crisis in South Africa.

CHAPTER 09 APPENDICES • APPENDICES • EXAMINERS COMMENTS

This chapter contains the appendices for the document. References to the appendices have been made throughout the study.

appendix a

appendix b ByFusion Global, Inc. 1723 W 134th St Gardena, CA 90249 +1 833 BYBLOCK : +1 833 292 5625 www.byfusion.com

ByBlock® Product Data Sheet

§ § § § §

Specialized trade skills are not required for installation of ByBlock which translates to approximately 54% project savings between materials and labor costs when compared to concrete block construction. Environmentally Friendly. 100% repurposed plastic waste. No additives or fillers. Zero Breakage. Does not crack or crumble. Minimizing unnecessary construction waste. Water Resistant. Since ByBlocks are made with plastic, they are able to resist water without additional products. Insect Resistant. Plastic is not consumable by termites and carpenter ants. Workability. ByBlock can be used alone for many applications, but also integrate easily with all other building materials to fit the demands of the project. They can be screwed, nailed, stapled, sawed and drilled through using standard, readily available tools and hardware. Finishing. ByBlock can be finished with any readily available finishing material including but not limited to stucco, sheet rock/drywall, plaster, siding, paneling and some specialized paints to meet the demands of any project.

ByBlocks are intended to be reinforced using threaded rod (3/8”-5/8” / 10 – 16 mm) for assembly and added strength. ByBlocks can be integrated with other structural building materials such as wood, steel and concrete depending on the application and as directed by engineering. Refer to our ByBlock Installation Guide for a more detailed overview. ByBlock is not intended as a sole component of a wall assembly in thermal applications. ByBlock will serve as an insulating, structural component; utilizing standard building materials to the interior and exterior of the wall assembly as per project design specifications.

FASTENER 2 #10x 3” Screw 2” depth

3/8” x 4” Lag Screw 3” depth

Fig. 3: Stucco Wall Example

49,800 lbf LOAD DIRECTION Withdrawal Shear Load Withdrawal Shear Load

RESULT 202.9 lbf 270 lbf 326.6 lbf 519 lbf

THERMAL PROPERTI ES 3

Flashing Top Plate

Stucco Topcoat

Threaded Rod

Scratch Coat Mesh

COLOR Colors vary due to the nature of the material. No two ByBlock are alike. FIRE RESISTANCE: ByBlock are categorized as Type 5 construction. Approved thermal barriers must be applied as part of finishing to conform with the building code for fire safety as required for the application. Secondary fire retardants (spray, wraps or panels) can be applied. PERFORMANCE Standard, single unit un-reinforced 10kg/22lbs ByBlock offers unique performance and strength.

ByFusion Global, Inc.

MAXIMUM LOAD

COMPRESSI ON 1 408 psi (unreinforced)

R-Value / RSI

R - hr·ft2·°F/ Btu RSI - m2•K/W

1.14 / 0.20

K-Factor

Btu-in/hr·ft2·°F

0.86

ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE 4 STC Rating 21 OITC Rating 15

TEMP RANGE -30ºC to 40ºC

THERMAL EXPANSI ON 5 CHANGE (mm) CLTE [µm/(m·°C)] 0.89 61.947

1 : ASTM C165-07 (Reapproved 2017), Standard Test Method for Measuring Compressive Properties of Thermal Insulations, Procedure A 2 : ASTM D1761-12, Standard Test Method for Mechanical Fasteners in Wood 3 : ASTM C518-17, Standard Test Method for Steady-State Thermal Transmission Properties by Means of the Heat Flow Meter Apparatus 4 : ASTM E90-09 (2016), Standard Test Method for Laboratory Measurement of Airborne Sound Transmission Loss of Building Partitions and Elements 5 : ASTM E831-19, Standard Test Method for Linear Thermal Expansion of Solid Materials by Thermomechanical Analysis

CLEANING ByBlock walls do not require special cleaning. ByBlock structures/surfaces can be cleaned using an air gun to blow debris free from the product.

appendix c

Energy Performance Evaluation [Project Number] NEW PROPOSED RESIDENCE FOR MR AND MRS,ON ERF, STAND,-,°C 110

003 System - June 1

External temperature Min: 7.14, Max: 22.75, Avg: 13.97

Internal result temperature Min: 8.86, Max: 32.28, Avg: 19.89

Internal temperature range

0 0

24 [Hrs] °C

003 System - September 1

110

External temperature Min: 6.53, Max: 32.73, Avg: 18.20

Internal result temperature Min: 9.75, Max: 39.49, Avg: 23.28

Internal temperature range

0 0

24 [Hrs] °C 110

003 System - December 1

Internal result temperature Min: 16.24, Max: 32.26, Avg: 24.05

Internal temperature range

0 0

3/7

External temperature Min: 14.33, Max: 31.11, Avg: 21.52

24 [Hrs]

CHAPTER 10 AFTERWORD • EXAMINERS COMMENTS • LIST OF FIGURES • LIST OF TABLES • BIBLIOGRAPHY

This chapter contains the afterword of the document. This entails the examiners' comments, the list of figures, the list of tables and the bibliography that contains all the citations and references used throughout the document.

List of FIGURES INTRODUCTION Figure 01: HDPE skin, photo by Polimeer Figure 02: "Power", photo by Oladimeji Odunsi Figure 03: "Cows at a garbage dump", photo by Pop & Zebra

i x xiv

CHAPTER 01 Figure 04: Orthographic sketch of an informal settlement, photo by the Author Figure 05: Basic design concept for the prefabricated system, photo by the Author

02 05

CHAPTER 02 Figure 06: Previously "white area" that has flourished into "area", photo by the Author Figure 07: World map with the identified locality, photo by the Author Figure 08: South African map with the identified province, photo by the Author Figure 09: Dot map of Pretoria based on monthly household income, photo by the Author Figure 10: Abahlali baseMjondolo Movement SA fighting for people's rights, photo by Abahlali baseMjondolo Figure 11: Municipal Waste Production per country, photo by Jambeck J.R. Figure 12: The plastic we eat, photo by the Author Figure 13: Primary plastic production, photo by Geyer et al Figure 14: Plastic waste generation, photo by Geyer et al Figure 15: ByFusion brick wall, photo by BrickFusion Figure 16: ByFusion brick section, photo by ByFusion Figure 17: ByFusion brick, photo by ByFusion

17 18 20 20 21 21 21

CHAPTER 03 Figure 18: Incremental expansion, photo by the Author Figure 19: The contextual project location, photo by the Author Figure 20: An informal settlement, photo by the Author Figure 21: An informal settlement with prefabricated elements, photo by the Author Figure 22: The main concept, photo by the Author Figure 23: The first concept, photo by the Author Figure 24: The first concept in plan form, photo by the Author Figure 25: Second revision in plan form, photo by the Author Figure 26: Second revision in elevation form, photo by, photo by the Author Figure 27: First conceptual perspective, concrete block version, photo by the Author Figure 28: First conceptual perspective, corrugated steel version, photo by the Author Figure 29: First conceptual perspective, parallel fixing version, photo by the Author Figure 30: First conceptual perspective, corner version, photo by the Author Figure 31: Installation guide, photo by the Author Figure 32: The catalogue, photo by the Author

26 27 28 28 29 30 30 31 31 32 32 33 33 36 37

CHAPTER 04 Figure 33: Phase one of preparation, photo by the Author Figure 34: Phase two of preparation, photo by the Author Figure 35: Phase three of preparation, photo by the Author Figure 36: Phase four of preparation, photo by the Author Figure 37: First melt, phase one, photo by the Author Figure 38: First melt, phase two, photo by the Author

41 41 41 41 42 42

13 13 14 15 16

List of FIGURES Figure 39: First melt, phase three, photo by the Author Figure 40: First melt, phase four, photo by the Author Figure 41: Second melt, phase one, photo by the Author Figure 42: Second melt, phase two, photo by the Author Figure 43: Second melt, phase three, photo by the Author Figure 44: Second melt, phase four, photo by the Author Figure 45: Third melt, phase one, photo by the Author Figure 46: Third melt, two one, photo by the Author Figure 47: Third melt, three one, photo by the Author Figure 48: Third melt, four one, photo by the Author Figure 49: The prototype, image one, photo by the Author Figure 50: The prototype, image two, photo by the Author Figure 51: The prototype, image three, photo by the Author Figure 52: The prototype, image four, photo by the Author

42 42 43 43 43 43 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 45

CHAPTER 06 Figure 53: Panel section, photo by the Author

CHAPTER 07 Figure 54: Self-built wall panel, image by the Author Figure 55: Self-built wall panel, image by the Author

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List of Tables CHAPTER ONE Table 01: Integrating the sub-problems and hypothesis Table 02: The researcher’s paradigm indicated on the model developed by Laubscher Table 03: The research formation adapted from Laubscher Table 04: Summary of research styles developed by Laubscher

03 06 07 08

CHAPTER TWO Table 05: Different plastics and their properties Table 06: Positive and negative aspects of different plastics

22 23

CHAPTER SIX Table 07: Post-consumer scrap recycling costs Table 08: Pre-consumer scrap recycling costs Table 09: Landfill scrap recycling costs

64 64 64

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