DU PLESSIS, JP - 216012240 by jacques_23

A REGENERATIVE AGRICULTURAL CORE AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO LAND REFORM IN LIMPOPO, SOUTH AFRICA. by Jean-Pierre du Plessis 216012240 Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Architecture: Professional at the Department of Architecture and Industrial Design in the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment at the Tshwane University of Technology Supervisor: Dr M.J. Stander Design Supervisor: Mr M.J.V. Mokaba

PRETORIA 2021-12-20

DECLARATION ON PLAGIARISM The Department of Architecture and Industrial Design emphasises integrity and ethical behaviour regarding the preparation of all assignments. Although the lecturer/ study leader/ supervisor/ mentor will provide you with information regarding reference techniques and ways to avoid plagiarism, you also have a responsibility to fulfil in this regard. Should you at any time feel unsure about the requirements, you must consult the lecturer/ study leader/ supervisor/ mentor concerned before submitting an assignment. You are guilty of plagiarism when you extract information from a book, article, web page, or any other source of information without acknowledging the source and pretending that it is your work. This does not only apply to cases where you quote verbatim, but also when you present someone else’s work in a somewhat amended (paraphrased) format, or when you use someone else’s arguments or ideas without acknowledgement. You are also guilty of plagiarism if you copy and paste information directly from an electronic source (e.g., a website, e-mail message, electronic journal article, or CD ROM), even if you acknowledge the source. You are not allowed to submit another student’s previous work as your own. You are furthermore not allowed to let anyone copy or use your work to present it as his/her own. Any student, who produce work that is alleged to be plagiarised, will be referred to the Academic Affairs Disciplinary Committee for a ruling. Plagiarism is considered a serious violation of the University’s regulations and may lead to your suspension from the University. In accordance with Regulation 4.1.11.1(j) of Chapter 4 (Examination Rules and Regulations), and Regulations 15.1.16 and 15.1.17 of Chapter 15 (Student Discipline) of Part 1 of the 2021 Prospectus.

I, Jean-Pierre du Plessis, 216012240, declare the following: 1. I understand what plagiarism entails and I am aware of the University’s policy in this regard. 2. I declare that this assignment is my own original work. Where someone else’s work was used, it was acknowledged, and reference was made according to departmental requirements. 3. I did not copy and paste any information directly from an electronic source (e.g., a web page, electronic journal article or CD ROM) into this document. 4. I did not make use of another student’s previous work and submitted it as my own. 5. I did not allow and will not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of presenting it as his/ her own work. I further declare that this research proposal is substantially my own work. Where reference is made to the works of others, the extent to which that work has been used is indicated and fully acknowledged in the text and list of references.

Signature:

Date: 20 December 2021

ABSTRACT South Africa is the most economically unequal country in the world. The origins of economic inequality can be found in South Africa’s history of Apartheid. During Apartheid black African farmers were disconnected from urban centres and displaced to rural communities that were, and still are, poorly serviced with little infrastructure. This relegated the black African farmer to some of the poorest amongst South Africans. After South Africa’s political transition to democracy, land reform was implemented to bring about equality by redressing inequality of land ownership, focusing on improving access to de-racialised and secure land ownership. The secondary intention of land reform was to reduce poverty and food insecurity, but slow progress has been made over the past 26 years. The current land reform model is promoting large-scale farming as the only viable option for agriculture, even though the history of black African farmers has demonstrated the effectiveness of micro, small, and medium-scale farming. The current agricultural sector of South Africa has a dual economy with large-scale farming serving the formal economy and smaller-scale farming serving the informal economy. Large-scale farming makes up 6,5% of farms and accounted for 67% of the total agricultural income of South Africa, where micro, small, and medium-scale farming combined make up the other 93,5 per cent of farms but only contributed to 33% of the total income. This is due to the lack of infrastructure and support of smaller-scale farming to effectively contribute to agricultural markets

Therefore, this dissertation explored the design of an agricultural facility, centralised amongst several previously disadvantaged communities within Limpopo to: 1. assist in the regeneration of the black African farmer to a competitive entity within the agricultural markets of South Africa through skills development and access to agricultural facilities and equipment 2. connect upcoming small-scale farmers to urban centres through an agricultural packhouse and distribution centre that will expectantly promote small and medium scale farming as a viable option to subsistence farmers 3. strengthen rural-urban interdependency through the promotion of the agricultural sector within rural areas 4. oppose the disconnected design of Apartheid by using Fumihiko Maki’s linkage theory to inform the ordering of buildings and spaces within the design. The agricultural core explored in this research concentrated on the community of Ga-Poopedi in Limpopo, South Africa. The project developed was done so to serve as an architype for supporting other previously disadvantaged communities in overcoming poverty. Keywords: Agriculture, architecture, inequality, land reform, regenerative, rural development

FIG 0.1: SMALL-SCALE FARMING LAND IN GA-POOPED Source: Photograph by author (2021)

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PREFACE The notion of this thesis project grew during my travels throughout South Africa, during which the inequality suffered by rural communities became evident. Being raised in a white Afrikaans family it is easy to overlook the inequality found at our doorstep, especially within a context where race is often used to create division. Within my biblical worldview, I believe everyone on earth was made equal within the image of God. No race, culture, language, gender, or geography can make one individual more important than the other. I also believe we as architects have the obligation and ability to produce environments redressing inequality through the way we design. We as architects can reflect on the past and design for the present and an inclusive future. I believe I would not have the ability to attempt this project if it was not for Jesus that regenerated my heart of stone into a heart of flesh (Ezekiel 36:26) and laid the current situation of inequality, not only in South Africa but also within the rest of the world, on my heart. During this dissertation, sensitive topics such as Apartheid and inequality will be mentioned regularly. The design approach reflects the ideas and opinions of the author and is aimed at unity, not division. Within my biblical worldview, I also believe we have been put on earth to tend and keep it according to Genesis 2:15. Therefore the thesis project will also investigate how architecture can contribute to the environment through regenerative design principles. I quote the words of Nelson Mandela: “During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.” (Nelson Mandela Foundation, 2011)

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FIG 0.2: GA-POOPEDI AND SURROUNDING AREAS Source: Online satelite image by Google Earth (2019)

INTRODUCTION

INVESTIGATION

Outline Background Argument Delimitations Research Methodology

The competitive black African farmer The relegation of the black African farmer The importance of small-scale farming Rural-urban interdependency Regenerative agriculture Linkage theory Conclusion

CONTEXT ANALYSIS

Limpopo province Molemole local municipality Ga-poopedi local context Ga-poopedi and immediate context Site analysis Conclusion

PRECEDENT STUDIES

Precedent identification Precedent study 1: Mapungubwe interpretation centre Precedent study 2: Gando primary school Precedent study 3: METI, modern education and training institute Precedent study 4: Cowshed on garkau farm estate

PROJECT BRIEF, USERS, ACCOMMODATION, AND CLIENTS The project brief Project user classification Project programme Project accommodation list Possible project clients

CONCEPT AND DESIGN DEVELOPMENT Concept Regeneration of the black African farmer Regenerative design Design development

DESIGN RESOLUTION

Site plan Ground floor plan Elevations Section Details Perspective

TECHNICAL RESOLUTION Site plan Ground floor plan Northern Elevation Western Elevation Section A-A Details

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION

Outline Background Argument Research Methodology Limitations Delimitations

1.1 OUTLINE This dissertation presents the design of a regenerative agricultural core as an alternative to land reform within Ga-Poopedi, Limpopo, South Africa. An agricultural core implies a centralised facility supporting agricultural needs and linking rural communities to urban centres and agricultural markets. The project explores ways in which architecture, in the context of the abovementioned design, may have a positive, regenerative impact on black African farmers within previously disadvantaged communities while serving as a precursor to the current land reform model. The dissertation explores the concept of regeneration and has contributed to it with an appropriate design focussed on the regeneration of the black African farmer to a competitive entity within the agricultural markets of South Africa while contributing to a sustainable environment through the regeneration of resources.

FIG 1.1: PROPOSED SITE WITHIN GA-POOPEDI Source: Photograph by author (2021)

1.2 BACKGROUND Inequality in South Africa is a much broader concept than only income inequality and includes participation inequality, education inequality, gender inequality, health inequality, access inequality and social inequality (Deghaye, McKenzie, & Chirawu, 2014, p. 3). Before the Apartheid legal system, the black African farmer was a competitive entity within the agricultural markets of South Africa. Apartheid affected black African farmers to a point where agriculture was no longer an entrepreneurial opportunity and many families abandoned commercial farming and took up subsistence farming as a survival mechanism. (The World Bank, 1994, p. 60) During the Apartheid era, the black African farmer was deprived of land (Maluleke, 2019, p. 2), resulting in the most economically unequal country in the world as illustrated in Figure 1.2. (The World Bank, 2018, pp. 42-43)

in turn directly impact their access to opportunities, education, and health care. (Hanstad & Prosterman, 2006, p. 763) To date, previously disadvantaged communities struggle to make a living, as evidenced by the poverty within these communities. The relationship between the subsistence farming regions of South Africa and the previously disadvantaged communities closely relate to each other as can be seen in Figure 1.3.

Since the country’s 1994 political transition to democracy, multiple efforts to reduce inequality have been undertaken; the greatest being that of land reform; its focus is on redressing land ownership inequality (Maluleke, 2019, p. 2). Land and agrarian reform have been implemented in many countries to redress inequality through improved access and security of land ownership. One of the main reasons for this is due to poverty being mainly a rural phenomenon; many families living in rural areas are dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods. For these families, land has a significant impact on their economic and social conditions. These economic and social conditions

A report of the presidential advisory panel on land reform and agriculture (Advisory panel on land reform and agriculture, 2019, p. 16) indicated that because of the displacement of apartheid, the South African agricultural sector has a dual economy with a large gap between large-scale farming and the smaller-scale farming entities. The report also indicated that despite the land reform efforts of the past 26 years, the agricultural sector remains separated and excludes large numbers of poor black rural people. The inclusion of a small number of black African farmers within the entire agricultural sector will also not alter the distorted outcomes of the current dual economy. (Advisory panel on land reform and agriculture, 2019, p. 16) According to the same report, small-scale farmers that are responsible for the resilience of rural communities through food security are under pressure because of degradation of land due to farming practices, insecure land tenure, and an agricultural market that promotes large-scale farming. (Advisory panel on land reform and agriculture, 2019, p. 50) With the adequate legislative framework of the current land reform model already in place and updated regularly to adapt to changing circumstances, the persistent poverty within previously disadvantaged communities, the gap between large-scale farming and small-scale farming, and the pressure on small-scale farmers because of land degradation, are all indicative to consider an alternative model to the current land reform model. A model able to contribute to the physical needs of small-scale farmers such as infrastructure, equipment and education, to be applied holistically to the agricultural sector to benefit the smaller scale farmers’ market contribution and aimed at improving the livelihoods within rural communities.

FIG 1.4: SUBSISTENCE FARMING Source: Goedde, et al. (2019)

FIG 1.5: COMMRECIAL FARMING Source: Photograph by Catinari (2021)

1.3 ARGUMENT Overcoming inequality in South Africa has proven to be more difficult than anticipated. The current land reform model promotes large-scale farming as the sole viable option for agriculture in South Africa, neglecting smaller-scale farmers in making a success and assisting in overcoming inequality in South Africa. (Cousins, 2016, pp. 9-13) However, the history of how the black African farmer competed within the agricultural markets of South Africa, before Apartheid within societies already starting to oppose their success, makes a strong case for the viability of smaller-scale farming. (The World Bank, 1994, p. 47) According to an article by Wandile Sihlobo, South Africa has space to accommodate both large-scale and smaller-scale farming within the dualistic agricultural economy. (Sihlobo,

2018) Sihlobo compares South Africa’s farming structure to that of Brazil’s with both countries having large-scale and smallerscale farms. Sihlobo states that the major difference between Brazil and South Africa lies within that the infrastructure within the smaller-farm areas is better than that of South Africa, specifically mentioning the areas within former homelands. (Sihlobo, Wandile Sihlobo: Dual-economy SA has room for small and big farms, 2018) This should be viewed in light of three facts: 1. Brazil has made large strides in poverty reduction within 10 years between 2004 and 2013 reducing poverty from 22% to 8,9% of the population. (International Fund for Agricultural Development, 2016) 2. Brazil has 5 million agricultural farms of which 85% are family farms. (Gross, 2019)

FIG 1.6: AN AUCTION IN PROGRESS ON MARKET SQUARE, JOHANNESBURG Source: Photograph by unknown (Market Square, n.d.)

3. The family farms of Brazil produce 70% of the food consumed by the country, on only 25% of Brazil’s agricultural land. (Gross, 2019) The Brazilian family farm can be compared to the South African subsistence farm. (Berdegue & Fuentealba, 2011, p. 14) According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), family farming played a key role in overcoming poverty in Brazil and family farming was promoted as an important entity within the agricultural sector. (Family Farming Knowledge Platform, 2021) Therefore, the researcher believes the promotion of small-scale farming in South Africa plays an important role in overcoming poverty and economic inequality.

rectifying the distorted land ownership situation within South Africa, but a different approach to land reform should be investigated to truly address income inequality. Considering how rural poverty was dealt with in Brazil and the strategies applied within the Brazilian context, it is the view of this researcher that subsistence, micro and small-scale farming can play a crucial role in overcoming inequality amongst the most vulnerable within South Africa. It is moreover the researcher’s view that architecture can contribute to the promotion of smaller-scale farming through an appropriate design assisting in the success of black African farmers within previously disadvantaged communities. Therefore, this research offers a regenerative agricultural core as an alternative and precursor to land reform to assist in overcoming inequality.

The current land reform model has had certain successes in

FIG 1.7: MARKET SQUARE, JOHANNESBURG Source: Photograph by Hilton (1899)

1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The philosophical worldview that underpins the research is that of the constructivist epistemological paradigm. The worldview as identified by Crotty is a subjective ontological claim stating that humans continually construct meanings through lived experiences. (Crotty, 1998, p42-44) Thus, humans make sense of the world through their historical and social perspectives. The nature of the dissertation and the cultural influence upon the researcher could create a biased approach and therefore a hybrid of quantitative and qualitative research testing a specific question regarding the relationship of inequality within South Africa, the high rate of poverty amongst people living in previously disadvantaged communities and the history of South African Apartheid specifically focussing on agriculture was employed. The hybrid approach allowed for quantitative research methods such as archiving, precedent studies and applied research to be used in combination with qualitative research methods such as analysing, mapping, and site visits to produce a relevant and unbiased architectural design proposal. The objective of this research is to contribute to the current model of land reform through the architectural proposal of a regenerative agricultural core as an alternative that will benefit communities that have been previously disadvantaged through the history of Apartheid by way of analysing the gap between the current and desired situation of inequality in South Africa and determining where the current land reform model is failing to correct the historical wrongs.

1.5 LIMITATIONS South Africa is currently finding itself within a world-wide pandemic. Due to this site visists were limited, and strict COVID-19 prevention protocols were adhered to. The site is also under control of tribal authorities and therefore permission first had to be granted prior to visiting the site. The chairperson of the community authorized acces to site. 1.6 DELIMITATIONS The dissertation will serve as a precursor to the existing model of land reform in South Africa. The dissertation acknowledges the role of the current land reform model in combating inequality and will serve as an alternative approach to the current land reform model, focusing on the assistance of previously disadvantaged communities and small-scale farmers with equal opportunities to compete within the South African agricultural markets. The design will be based upon secondary data, surveys, and reports conducted and published by various institutions such as Statistics South Africa, the government of South Africa, and other recognised research institutions.

INVESTIGATION

The competitive black African farmer The relegation of the black African farmer The importance of small-scale farming Rural-urban interdependence Regenerative agriculture Conclusion

2.1 THE COMPETITIVE BLACK AFRICAN FARMER Before Apartheid, South African economic activities were primarily focused on agriculture and the mining sector. The agricultural sector largely consisted of pastoralist subsistence farming by African family farmers and commercial farming efforts by European settlers. (The World Bank, 1994, pp. 45-46) The agricultural sector was divided into two geographical regions, interior, and coastal farming as can be seen in Figure 2.1. (The World Bank, 1994, pp. 45-46) The interior farming region was dominated by indigenous farmers practising subsistence farming with livestock and crops of which surplus was traded on small local markets. The ownership of these farms varied between communal land, private land, and commonage land. (The World Bank, 1994, p. 45) The coastal farming region was made up of three types of farming, commercial white farms with hired labourers, settler estates with indigenous tenant farmers, and free indigenous farmers farming on black-owned land. The coastal farming region produced horticulture, livestock and crops and was responsible for most of the export products such as wool, wine, and fruit. (The World Bank, 1994, p. 45) The discovery of diamonds in the 1870s and Gold in the 1880s drastically changed the South African economy and the interior farming region. Large and rapidly growing urban centres

FIG 2.1: SOUTH AFRICAN AGRICULTURAL REGIONS PRIOR TO THE DISCOVERY OF DIAMONDS AND GOLD IN 1870 Source: Adapted by author from The World Bank (1994)

emerged around the mines, creating flourishing markets for agricultural products as illustrated in Figure 2.2. The large demand for agricultural products was supplied by black African family farms that upscaled their subsistence farms to small-scale farms. The small-scale farming by black African family farmers was much more viable and efficient as opposed to the largescale farming by settlers that were reliant on expensive hired labour. (The World Bank, 1994, p. 45) African family farmers succeeded in agriculture in South Africa; competing against commercial white farms within a society that was opposed to their success. Even before Apartheid, many laws and policies were passed to hinder African farmers, some of these imposed higher levies and fees on Africans or offered support from the government to settler farmers. Despite the efforts from the government to hinder African farming, African farmers continued to maintain a competitive edge within the markets. (The World Bank, 1994, p. 47) The fundamentals that kept the black African farmer competitive within agriculture were the family farming approach that dramatically reduced labour costs; the adaptability to circumstances, the equal access to markets; and the agricultural equipment that could be afforded because of the reduced labour costs. This resulted in more affordable products that large scale farmers could not compete with.

FIG 2.2: SOUTH AFRICAN AGRICULTURAL REGIONS WITH URBAN CORES AFTER THE DISCOVERY OF DIAMONDS AND GOLD IN 1880 Source: Adapted by author from The World Bank (1994)

2.2 THE RELEGATION OF THE BLACK AFRICAN FARMER The development of South Africa during the 1900s was shaped by colonisation and institutionalised racism. (du Toit, 2017, p. 1) The agricultural landscape changed drastically during Apartheid, because of race-based land ownership laws that determined where individuals could own land according to race. Two distinct laws were passed, in South Africa, institutionalising racism. The first law, the Natives’ Land Act, was passed in 1913. This law identified ‘reserves’ within South Africa, defining areas where people could own land according to race. Only 7% of South Africa’s surface was allocated to ‘Native Reserves’ as seen in Figure 2.3. The effect of the act was the first legislated territorial segregation principle. (Kloppers & Pienaar, 2014, pp. 680-682)

markets they supplied. Well-paying hired labour was leveraged to ultimately become cheap labour due to the labourers’ increasing vulnerability because of exorbitant taxes and levies on black African agriculture. The competitive African farmer had to abandon agriculture as an entrepreneurial venture and practice subsistence farming as a mechanism to survive. (The World Bank, 1994, p. 60)

The second law, the Natives’ Trust and Land Act was legislated in 1936. This act enlarged the areas identified as reserves in the previous act of 1913. The act increased the size of the identified reserves of 1913 from 7% of South Africa’s surface to 13%, as seen in Figure 2.3. This also set the legislative maximum for ‘Native Reserves’. (Kloppers & Pienaar, 2014, pp. 682-684) These laws created an artificial land shortage amongst African

farmers forced to resettle in densely populated reserves called homelands, far from urban centres that initially created the

FIG 2.3: RESERVES IDENTIFIED ACCORDING TO THE 1936 NATIVE TRUST AND LAND ACT Source: Adapted by author from Harley & Fotheringham p.22 (1999)

2.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF SMALL-SCALE FARMING According to IFAD, the current food systems within the world is not sustainable, especially large-scale agriculture that comes with an extremely high environmental cost, threatening the food security of future generations. As opposed to large-scale agriculture, small-scale agricultural entities can overcome many challenges faced by the world today while bettering the lives of people and overcoming poverty within rural communities. (International Fund for Agricultural Development, 2020) IFAD further expanded on this and listed 5 reasons why smallscale farmers are at the centre to build a sustainable future: 1. when small-scale farmers improve their economic stature, a lot of their increased income is invested back into the rural economy through the acquisition of equipment, technology and agricultural support in turn creating growth and generating new jobs. This, in turn, creates opportunities for rural youth to live and work within their home communities rather than on large-scale farms or migrating to urban centres for work 2. Small-scale farming systems are more environmentally sustainable 3. Small-scale farming is important in ensuring food security amongst the most vulnerable groups and mainly serve domestic and local markets 4. Small-scale farming is more productive than other farming types due to the reduced labour costs and better motivation because the farm is built upon the family’s livelihood

and food security 5. Small-scale farms contribute to addressing inequality, poverty, and unemployment. (International Fund for Agricultural Development, 2020) Although the current land reform model has taken large strides in rectifying the distorted land ownership statistics in South Africa, rural poverty and food insecurity remain high. Many previously disadvantaged communities continue practising subsistence and small-scale farming to improve their livelihoods, but with no support, this remains a futile effort. The current land reform model measures viability informed by the large-scale farming model as opposed to subsistence and small-scale farming (Cousins & Scoones, 2010), despite the history of black African family farms before Apartheid proving competitive and even more successful than large-scale farms. (The World Bank, 1994, p. 14) Small-scale farming should be promoted and supported to overcome poverty and inequality within previously disadvantaged communities and contribute to a more sustainable agricultural sector. According to Kotze and Rose, to improve the success of small-scale farmers improvements should be made in the support of these farmers, specifically focussing on technology, knowledge transfer, skills development, and access to markets. (Kotze & Rose, 2015, p. 42)

2.4 EFFECT OF AGRICULTURAL INFRASTRUCTURE SUPPORT ON SMALL-SCALE FARMERS A study was conducted in 2020 by Ndumiso Mazibuko, Michael Antwi, and Theresa Rubhara, aimed at examining the influence of accessibility and availability of agricultural infrastructure on the income of small-scale farmers in South Africa. (Mazibuko, Antwi, & Rubhara, 2020) In the aforementioned study by Mazibuko et al., the different factors influencing agricultural income were found to be the following:

FIG 2.4: INFRASTRUCTURE SUPPORT FACTORS INFLUENCING AGRICULTURAL INCOME Source: Diagram adapted from Mazibuko, et al. (2020)

1. Physical infrastructure availability Physical infrastructure includes roads, fences, irrigation, and post-harvest storage. The influence of this factor was positive and statistically significant. The provision of efficient infrastructure is imperative to agricultural growth. The increased availability of physical infrastructure would support farmers to produce more effectively and make increased agricultural income. 2. Social infrastructure availability Social infrastructure includes culture, education, and health. The influence of this factor was positive and statistically significant. The influence can be credited to the role of this infrastructure in the physical and mental wellbeing of

farmers contributing to increased productivity. 3. Institutional infrastructure availability Social infrastructure includes financial institutions, farmers’ unions, farmers’ cooperatives, and agricultural markets. The influence of this factor was positive and statistically significant. The availability of institutional infrastructure reduces marketing costs and thus, increases agricultural income. 4. Level of education of small-scale farmers The influence of education is directly proportional to the income. The higher the level of education, the more advanced the agricultural practises of farmers. This leads to higher income for small-scale farmers.

5. Access to agricultural extension services The influence of this factor was positive and statistically

significant. The results showed that any relative increase in access to agricultural extension services contributed to an increase in agricultural income. 6. Membership of farmer’s organizations The influence of this factor was positive and statistically significant. The results emphasized the significance of farmers’ organizations. These organisations provide a link between small-scale farmers and government to engage in discussions over infrastructure and support. The farmers’ organisations also better access to finance, information, and markets to improve agricultural sustainability. 7. Age of small-scale farmers The influence of this factor was positive and statistically significant. Age can indicate experience, assuming farmers can use agricultural infrastructure more effectively and have an improved understanding of farmer practices. The study also noted that the small amount of young people participating in agriculture is concerning as this can endanger the continuation of small-scale agriculture 8. Household members in farming activities The influence of this factor was positive and statistically significant. The assistance of household members in farming businesses play an important role in the efficiency of smallscale farmers. Household labour is more affordable, thus cutting production costs. The members also usually have a share in the business, evoking household members to

contribute to the farm to be as productive and efficient as possible.

9. Equipment infrastructure access The influence of this factor was positive and statistically significant. Agricultural equipment infrastructure can contribute to more efficient production, and harvest with a higher yield, contributing to a higher farm income.

The study concluded that infrastructure plays a crucial role to assist small-scale farmers in improving agricultural income through more effective production. The factors that played the biggest role in improving agricultural income of small-scale farming in the study was physical infrastructure availability, institutional infrastructure availability, level of education, access to extension services, membership of farming organisations, age of farmers, and the assistance of household members. Most of the small-scale farmers were over the age of 35, indicating a lack of participation from young people in farming. The result of the study shows the importance of infrastructure support of small-scale farmers and how it can contribute to poverty reduction amongst the most vulnerable households within South Africa. There is also a need to promote agriculture to young people as a viable business opportunity to ensure the continuation of small-scale agriculture and food security within the country. Therefore, the regenerative agricultural core will focus on infrastructure support for small-scale farmers within previously disadvantaged communities.

2.4 RURAL-URBAN INTERDEPENDENCE According to the report by UN-Habitat (Implementing the New Urban Agenda by Strengthening Urban-Rural Linkages, 2017), Rural-Urban linkages are nonlinear, diverse interactions across space. The interactions include the flows of people, goods, capital, and information between different sectors such as agriculture, services, and manufacturing. According to Proctor and Berdegué, 6.8 urban persons are dependent on each farm today. This number is estimated to rise to 11 urban persons per farm in 2050. (Proctor & Berdegué, 2016) The dependency between rural and urban goes both ways. Rural-based producers export products to regional urban markets as well as national and international markets. On the other hand, nationally manufactured goods are transported from urban cores to rural settlements. There is also a movement of people between rural and urban areas, mainly for work but also occasionally for services based within urban areas. With the movement between rural and urban areas a flow of information and ideas arise. This information includes information on markets, employment opportunities, new agricultural methods, supply chains, and social exchanges. (UN-Habitat, 2017)

are reliant on products from rural areas like fresh produce, food, and raw materials. On the other hand, rural communities rely on urban development for markets, farming inputs, and employment opportunities. (Gebre & Gebremedhin, 2019) Rural areas play a key role in the food security of a country and therefore, the rural population should be assisted within the ecosystem services that rural areas provide, and the ecosystems of rural areas should be protected to ensure lasting and sustainable rural-urban linkage that can keep up with the rapid urbanization. (Gebre & Gebremedhin, 2019)

Strengthening rural-urban interdependency is important in a time where urbanisation is happening faster than ever. According to the World Bank, 7 out of 10 people will live in urban centres by 2050. (The World Bank, 2020) Urban areas

FIG 2.5: RURAL-URBAN INTERDEPENDENCE Source: Diagram adapted from UN-Habitat (2017)

2.5 REGENERATIVE AGRICULTURE Regenerative agriculture is a new approach to food and farming systems. Regenerative Agricultural Association of Southern Africa (RegenAG SA) believes that regenerative agriculture can assist small-scale farmers to produce yields per hectare that compete with large-scale farms. Land degradation and climate change are two aspects affecting agriculture across the world. (Global Environment Facility, 2021) (Kotze & Rose, 2015) Land degradation is the negative trend in the production capacity of the soil. Land degradation affects everyone through food insecurity, higher cost of food, the loss of ecosystems, and climate change. (Global Environment Facility, 2021) The loss in production capacity of soil hurts agriculture, directly affecting rural communities and small-scale farmers. According to RegenAG SA agriculture has caused 476 billion tons of carbon emissions contributing to climate change to date (Agriculture and Climate Change, 2021) and according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), agricultural activities contribute 17% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions directly and is responsible for between 7 and 14% because of land-use changes. (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2016) Climate change is affecting agriculture through what products can be

According to RegenAG SA agriculture cannot only decrease its carbon footprint but also draw carbon from the atmosphere and store it in the soil to contribute to agriculture and reverse soil degradation. Facts released in a report by Kotze and Rose, states the following four facts: 1. only 1% of South Africa has the right soil and climate combination for rain-fed crops 2. only 3% of South Africa has good soil for agriculture 3. 13% of the country’s landscape is good for cultivation 4. 69% of the country is good for the grazing of livestock. (Kotze & Rose, 2015, pp. 2-4) With the rise in land degradation and climate change, smallscale farmers play an important role in reversing the negative trajectory through adjusting farming practices. The limited production capacity of soil within South Africa also calls for alternative farming practices. Therefore, regenerative agricultural practices focused on regenerating soils through the restoration of the carbon cycle, water cycle, and nutrient cycle will form part of the architectural proposal

grown at what time as well as the production yield.

2.7 CONCLUSION After investigating the competitive black African farmer, the relegation of the black African farmer through Apartheid, the importance of small-scale farming, the effect of agricultural infrastructure support on small-scale farmers, rural-urban interdependence, and regenerative agriculture, the importance of supporting subsistence and small-scale farmers to overcome rural inequality, poverty, and contribute to a sustainable future became evident. The black African farmer living in previously disadvantaged communities, currently amongst the poorest in South Africa should be supported within their agricultural ventures. The support must be focussed on infrastructure, skills development, and knowledge transfer. Small-scale farmers can play a crucial role in reducing climate change and land degradation through the adaption of regenerative farming practices. This could also contribute to increased production on smaller farmlands to compete with large-scale farmers. Supporting the black African farmer with infrastructure, skills development, and knowledge transfer, the black African farmer can be regenerated to a competitive entity within the agricultural markets of South Africa, whilst contributing to the reversal of land degradation and climate change. This will also strengthen rural-urban linkages needed for both rural and urban development while reducing food insecurity. Therefore, the proposal of a regenerative agricultural core focussed on regenerating the black African farmer to a competitive entity within the agricultural markets of South Africa.

FIG 2.6: GRAIN SILO IN THE DISTANCE Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

CONTEXT ANALYSIS

Limpopo province Molemole local municipality Ga-poopedi local context Ga-poopedi and immediate context Site analysis Conclusion

3.1 LIMPOPO PROVINCE Limpopo is the northernmost province in South Africa. Three of the former homelands set aside in the 1913 Natives’ Land Act and 1936 Native Trust and Land Act, Lebowa, Venda, and Gazankulu, is situated within the province. There are two predominant agricultural regions within Limpopo: cattle farming and subsistence farming. The subsistence farming regions directly correlate with the former homelands. The main distribution infrastructure (grain silos, fresh produce markets, livestock auction houses) found in Limpopo is situated around the larger towns with the capital city of the province, Polokwane, as the agricultural trading hub of the province as can be seen in Figure 3.1, far and inaccessible for small-scale and subsistence farmers of previously disadvantaged communities, rendering their produce expensive due to extreme transportation costs.

Limpopo has one of the highest Gini coefficients amongst the provinces of South Africa as may be seen in Figure 3.2 where it is compared to that of the other provinces. Limpopo also has high levels of poverty and the highest percentage of agricultural households within South Africa. Of the households in Agriculture, 91,4% indicated they were trying to get additional food for their households. (Maluleke, 2019, p. 13) Poverty in Limpopo is predominantly seen within rural communities and is the worst in South Africa, according to the report released by the National Development Agency.

FIG 3.1: ANALYSIS OF LIMPOPO Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

(State Of Poverty and its Manifestation in the Nine Provinces of South Africa, 2014, p. 52) The most municipalities within

Limpopo are classified as rural areas, with some municipalities classified as small towns, as may be seen in Figure 3.5 with Polokwane local municipality the only municipality classified as a secondary city, as it is the home of the provincial capital. The varying GDP amongst the different local municipalities within Limpopo as can be seen in Figure 3.3 is an indication of the high inequality within the province and South Africa. The agricultural share of municipality GDP is the highest amongst the municipalities with the lowest GDP as can be seen when comparing Figures 3.3 and 3.4. The municipalities with the highest agricultural share of municipal GDP also correlates with the former homelands.

3.2 MOLEMOLE LOCAL MUNICIPALITY Molemole local municipality is located within Limpopo and contains 37 settlements of which 30 are previously disadvantaged communities. 20 of these communities are actively participating in subsistence and small-scale agriculture. Large-scale agriculture in the area consists of cattle and grain farming. There is one livestock auction house within Molemole local municipality. The auction house is located 30km east of Mogwadi, near Legkraal as can be seen in Figure 3.6. For small-scale and subsistence farmers with limited transport, 30km is inaccessible. Molemole local municipality is connected to Zimbabwe Through the N1 and to Botswana through the R521. Zimbabwe and Botswana are both in the top partners to which South Africa export agricultural products, making it a centralised area for development for future export to both countries.

FIG 3.6: ANALYSIS OF MOLEMOLE LOCAL MUNICIPALITY Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

FIG 3.8: FRESH PRODUCE TRADER Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

FIG 3.7: TRACTOR WITH POTATO HARVESTER Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

FIG 3.9: FRESH PRODUCE STALL Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

FIG 3.10: BAKKIE TRADER Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

FIG 3.11: ROADSIDE TRADER WITH TRAILER Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

FIG 3.12: BAKKIE TRADER Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

FIG 3.13: BAKKIE TRADER WITH SHADED STALL Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

3.3 GA-POOPEDI LOCAL CONTEXT Ga-Poopedi is one of the many settlements created during apartheid and is within the former homeland of Lebowa set aside in the 1913 Natives’ Land Act and 1936 Native Trust and Land Act. Ga-Poopedi is centrally located amongst 16 previously disadvantaged communities actively participating in subsistence and small-scale agriculture. Small-scale farming lands are located close to the water sources on communal land surrounding the communities with subsistence farming being conducted within the backyards of homesteads. Ga-Poopedi is located on Maupye road, the main road linking the previously disadvantaged rural communities to the west with each other and connecting to Senwabarwana road. Senwabarwana road in turn leads to the R521, connecting to Polokwane, the closest urban centre and agricultural produce trading hub. Ga-Poopedi is located relatively close to large-scale farms. This is beneficial as large-scale farmers could contribute significantly to the success of the previously disadvantaged communities’ farming practices through mentorship and knowledge exchange programs. The involvement of commercial farmers will require proper promotion as envisioned by the current land reform model. The centrality, as well as the accessibility of Ga-Poopedi for both the previously disadvantaged communities and large-scale farmers, makes the community a viable location for a centralized agricultural hub.

FIG 3.14: ANALYSIS OF GA-POOPEDI LOCAL CONTEXT Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

3.4 GA-POOPEDI AND IMMEDIATE CONTEXT Ga-Poopedi is also located within the bushveld ecoregion that is primarily good for livestock grazing. The areas directly next to water sources are used for small-scale farming. Ga-Poopedi is dependent on boreholes for water supply. The average erf size within the settlement is 0,5 hectares. The dwellings mainly consist of single-story residences with sheet metal roofs. Many dwellings have a small rondavel connected to the main dwelling. There is no distribution infrastructure, such as grain silos, fresh produce markets, livestock auction houses, and distribution packhouses within the immediate context of GaPoopedi. Therefore, it is anticipated that the introduction of any agricultural infrastructure and assistance within the community of Ga-Poopedi would benefit several surrounding communities.

FIG 3.15: ANALYSIS OF GA-POOPEDI IMMEDIATE CONTEXT Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

There are two erf typologies within the subsistence farming communities. The first typology consists of a dwelling yard

with the rest of the erf reserved for subsistence farming as can be seen in Figure 14. Some of the erfs can be seen with some backrooms either for rent or for the extension of the family. The second typology consists of a dwelling yard, a livestock kraal next to the dwelling yard, and the rest of the erf reserved for subsistence farming as can be seen in Figure 15. The livestock kraal is located next to the house on the street edge for ease of access for loading purposes. Some of the erfs can also be seen with backrooms either for rent or for the extension of the family. The architecture on site still have traditional Bapedi influences, most noticible are the “kgoro”. In the past a Pedi villiage would consist of multiple kgoro (dikgoro) or clusters of buildings around the sub-chief’s homestead. Each of the kgoro consisted of multiple buildings, connected by a small, mudbrick wall, built around a central meeting place. Unfortunately through Apartheid this changed and can now be seen as each homestead evolved into its own kgoro on the erf with a meeting place enclosed by a small wall.

FIG 3.18: ERF TYPOLOGY 2 Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

FIG 3.19: TRADITIONAL BAPEDI ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES IN GA-POOPEDI Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

FIG 3.20: ERF TYPOLOGY 2 Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

FIG 3.21: TRADITIONAL BAPEDI ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES IN GA-POOPEDI Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

3.5 SITE ANALYSIS The site plays an important role in the regeneration of the African farmer. The proposed site is wedged between Maupye road and the community of Ga-Poopedi. The site is connected to surrounding communities in two ways, the first is through Maupye road, the main road connecting communities deeper into the rural area (Ga-Mokgehle, Ga-Tibu, Ga-Thupana, Schoonveld, Terbrugge, Sakoleng, Ga-Kgara, Ga-Sako etc.) with the connection road between Bochum, Mogwadi and the main regional road, the R521. With the street edge on Maupye road, the agricultural core will be visible to passersby on their way to the surrounding communities. The second connection is through two gravel roads perpendicular to Maupye road cutting through the site and the community, eventually merging into one road connecting several other previously disadvantaged communities including Koekoek, Ga-Mokwele, and Schellingburg to the site and Maupye road. The community of Ga-Poopedi primarily practice mixed subsistence farming with livestock kraal predominantly along the two gravel roads leading through the community and croplands behind the kraal and homestead accessible from the secondary roads. The two main roads are used by the community not only for vehicular access to homesteads but also as loading lanes for livestock. Maupye road is tarred up until the community of Ga-Poopedi, making it more accessible to be incorporated into the

FIG 3.22: SITE ANALYSIS Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

supply chains of surrounding commercial farmers to assist in connecting small-scale farmers to agricultural markets. With the site approximately 25 000m2 a vast number of ecosystems might be affected and will have to be incorporated into the design approach. The site is covered in bushveld, ideal for livestock grazing, but is also located at the highest elevation within the area, minimizing the grazing capacity of the specific area. The grazing capacity increases as one moves down and closer to the natural water basins. There are several existing trees onsite including Vachellia Tortilis, Combretum Imberbe, Acacia Nigrescens, Adansonia, Sclerocaarya Birrea.

FIG 3.23: CATTLE GRAZING NEXT TO ROAD IN GA-POOPEDI Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

FIG 3.24: WALL CONSTRUCTED FROM LOCALLY MANUFACTURED BRICKS Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

The proposed site is surrounded by roads on all sides with the tarred Maupye road on the eastern side, and the rest existing gravel roads.

FIG 3.25: RESEVOIR OF GA-POOPEDI Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

FIG 3.26: SITE & MAIN ROAD INTO GA-POOPEDI Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

3.6 CONCLUSION The proposed site is central to several other previously disadvantaged communities within the former homeland of Lebowa. There are many indications of subsistence farmers practising small-scale farming. The proposal of a regenerative agricultural core as an alternative to land reform will be well situated and accessible to the surrounding communities. Commercial farmers within the area will also be able to easily access the mentorship platforms being able to mentor and support many community members. The site will also link the communities surrounding Ga-Poopedi as a centralised core to be integrated within the value chains of surrounding commercial farms. The model will benefit members of the community if they receive land from the current land reform model, as well as develop skills of future farmers to be able to qualify for land acquisition. The skills development will contribute to both the daily lives of families and individuals as well as give a means by which families and individuals can achieve food security and reduce poverty.

PRECEDENT STUDIES

4.1 PRECEDENT IDENTIFICATION Precedents are analysed to assist the design process in developing an appropriate design response. This chapter will focus on four precedent studies that have been selected based upon the following categories: • Regenerative design approach: Regenerative design has been identified as core to the architectural response due to the degeneration of the previously disadvantaged communities through apartheid and the relegation of the black African farmer. Recently regenerative architecture has also come to the fore and being only sustainable is not enough anymore. By analysing precedent studies focussed on regenerative design, an appropriate design response can be incorporated within this project. • Vernacular architecture: The influence of vernacular architecture has been identified as a design element. The design proposal’s location is within the Lebowa former homeland to which mainly Bapedi were segregated. With the construction of the homelands, the traditional architecture of the people who were forced to live there were neglected, disrupting, and destroying the valuable heritage of this country. By analysing precedent studies that incorporated vernacular architecture, an appropriate design response has been incorporated within this project. Vernacular architecture also incorporates locally available materials as well as labour which will also contribute to not only architecture responding to context but also cultural aspects of the Bapedi. • Functional architecture for animals: Cattle play an important role in the Bapedi, not only being a source of food but also as a status symbol. The dissertation focuses on small-scale agriculture and livestock farming. Through analysing how architecture can be adapted for livestock handling an appropriate design can be formulated to incorporate animals within the design. The selected precedents are: Precedent study 1: Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre, Peter Rich Precedent study 2: Gando Primary School, Kéré Architecture Precedent study 3: METI school, Anna Heringer, Eike Roswag Precedent study 4: Garkau Farm Estate, Hugo Häring

FIG 4.1: PRECEDENT LOCATIONS Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

4.2 PRECEDENT STUDY 1: MAPUNGUBWE INTERPRETATION CENTRE The Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre has been identified based on the regenerative design approach as well as being inspired by vernacular southern African architecture. Location: Mapungubwe National Park, Limpopo, South Africa Architect: Peter Rich Year: 2009 Area: 1 500m2 Mapungubwe is a visitors’ centre, housing artefacts of a society that used to live in the area where the centre is located. The centre serves as a space to interpret the history of a civilisation believed to have prospered within the area during 1200 and 1300 AD. The site today is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Design Considerations: The centre is constructed from timbrel vaulting completely sourced locally and constructed through local labour. The tiles used to construct the vaults are made from pressed soil and cement made locally. The labour for the construction of the centre formed part of a poverty relief program focussed on skills development of the local community. Local unskilled labourers were trained to produce the tiles for the construction of the vaults as well as the physical construction. Stone from the area was also incorporated to clad the vaults reducing transport to the site as well as contributing to a context-appropriate building.

FIG 4.2: CONSTRUCTION OF MAPUNGUBWE INTERPRETATION CENTRE Source: Photograph by Peter Rich (2009)

FIG 4.5: EXTERIOR ROCK CLADDING OF MAPUNGUBWE INTERPRETATION CENTRE Source: Photograph by Iwan Baan (2010)

FIG 4.3: ENTRANCE TO MAPUNGUBWE INTERPRETATION CENTRE Source: Photograph by Iwan Baan (2010)

FIG 4.6: INTERIOR SPACE OF MAPUNGUBWE INTERPRETATION CENTRE Source: Photograph by Iwan Baan (2010)

FIG 4.4: MAPUNGUBWE INTERPRETATION CENTRE BLENDING INTO LANDSCAPE Source: Photograph by Iwan Baan (2010)

FIG 4.7: PERGOLA AT MAPUNGUBWE INTERPRETATION CENTRE Source: Photograph by Iwan Baan (2010)

FIG 4.8: VAULT CONSTRUCTION Source: Photograph by Peter Rich Architects (2010)

FIG 4.9: SKETCH OF CENTRE ENTRANCE Source: Sketch by Peter Rich Architects (2010)

FIG 4.10: VAULT CONSTRUCTION PROCESS Source: Photograph by Peter Rich Architects (2010)

FIG 4.11: DESIGN SKETCHES Source: Sketches by Peter Rich Architects (2010)

4.3 PRECEDENT STUDY 2: GANDO PRIMARY SCHOOL Gando primary school has been identified based on the traditional building techniques combined with modern engineering methods resulting in a regenerative design. This led to a more sustainable design and a building that could adapt to the environment. Location: Gando, Burkina Faso Architect: Francis Kere Year: 2001 Area: 310m2 The province of Boulgou in Burkina Faso has a small number of schools. The two main problems within the educational facilities within Boulgou are poor lighting and poor ventilation. The architect of the Gando Primary school resolved these problems through a design that was restricted through cost, resources, climatic conditions, and construction feasibility. Design Considerations: The design of the school was based on a brick made locally of a mixture of clay and cement. Clay is a resource that is readily available and traditionally used in the construction of buildings within the area of the project. The bricks are easy to produce and can be made with local labour. The bricks also contribute

to thermal protection within the semi-arid environment. The construction of the school was made possible by involving the community in the construction process. None of the members of the surrounding community could build but be trained in construction giving them access to skills that can later be used and contribute to the development of the community. The roof is made of corrugated metal sheets, a popular roofing solution within the area. Corrugated metal sheets are usually the cause of extremely hot interior spaces but through proper design Kéré combined a dry-stacked brick ceiling with the roof. The ceiling separates the interior space and the roof, allowing ventilation through perforations within the ceiling allowing rising hot air to escape and drawing cool air in from the shaded sides of the building. Traditional building techniques were combined with modern engineering contributing to a more sustainable design. The way local resources as well as members of the local community were involved within the construction process also contributed to a regenerative design, training local members with skills that can be used to develop the community further. The design solution of the Gando primary school simplified the construction whilst limiting future maintenance.

FIG 4.12: WESTERN ELEVATION OF GANDO SCHOOL Source: Photograph by Erik-Jan Ouwerkerk (2008)

FIG 4.13: DESIGN DRAWINGS OF GANDO SCHOOL Source: Drawings by Kéré Architecture (2008)

FIG 4.14: GANDO PRIMARY SCHOOL Source: Photograph by Simeon Duchoud (2008)

FIG 4.15: DETAIL OF GANDO SCHOOL ROOF Source: Photograph by Kéré Architecture (2008)

FIG 4.16: GANDO PRIMARY SCHOOL Source: Photograph by Simeon Duchoud (2008)

FIG 4.17: INTERIOR OF GANDO PRIMARY SCHOOL Source: Photograph by Simeon Duchoud (2008)

4.4 PRECEDENT STUDY 3: METI, MODERN EDUCATION AND TRAINING INSTITUTE The METI school project is aimed at improving living conditions within the rural areas of Rudrapur. The project uses vernacular architecture and construction techniques that use earth and bamboo. These techniques require a lot of maintenance and usually last only 10 years. Location: Rudrapur, Dinajpur District, Bangladesh Architect: Anna Heringer, Eike Roswag Year: 2006 Area: 325m2 The school offers an alternative approach to the current model of learning within schools with the design of different spaces with different uses as opposed to current learning models based in one classroom. The design aims to promote different abilities of children, focussing on the different learning speeds. Design Considerations: The main potential for the construction of the METI school lied within the low labour cost of employing locals and using materials that were available close to the site. The project employed the labour of the surrounding communities as well as bamboo and earth that is readily available within the vicinity of the site. The project improved the historic building techniques of the area for an improved lifecycle of materials. The construction techniques and materials have been adapted from historic vernacular architecture. The improvements were focused on the foundation and damp-proof course. Local tradesmen from the community were trained during the construction, creating new jobs as well as providing professional skills. Through architecture, problems can be approached differently. In the case of Meti, constructing the school served as a learning medium to train members of the community in skills and building techniques. Projects within a rural setting can improve livelihoods as well as contribute to the skills development of locals. Applying vernacular construction techniques and architecture, with some new technology, a sustainable and even regenerative design can be developed working with the site, environment, and the surrounding context.

FIG 4.18: METI SCHOOL IN BANGLADESH Source: Photograph by Kurt Hoerbst (2006)

FIG 4.19: CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF METI SCHOOL Source: Photographs by Kurt Hoerbst (2006)

FIG 4.20: CATTLE USED TO MIX MORTAR Source: Photograph by Kurt Hoerbst (2006)

FIG 4.21: CATTLE USED TO MIX MORTAR Source: Photograph by Kurt Hoerbst (2006)

FIG 4.22: MEMBERS OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATING IN CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOL Source: Photograph by Kurt Hoerbst (2006)

4.5 PRECEDENT STUDY 4: COWSHED ON GARKAU FARM ESTATE The architect, Hugo Haring, believed in functionalism in which each building should be designed according to the specific purpose and function. The cowshed on the Garkau farm estate was designed to functionally represent the uses of the shed, in this case feeding cows. Location: Lubeck, Gerany Architect: Hugo Häring Year: 1928 Area: N/A The architect of the project, Hugo Haring, believed all things should be left to unfold their forms. Architects should rather than impose shapes, search for them, or rather than construct them, discover them. (Hugo Haring, 1925) Design Considerations: The cowshed on the Garkau farm estate was conceived through Hugo Haring’s functional approach to architecture. Opposed to a preconceived style, Haring designed buildings following the needs of use, context, and construction. The structure of the design was allowed to evolve around the function and the environment. In the case of the cowshed, the design followed the needs of the animals and the processes of caring for them. On plan, the circular movement routes of the cows determined the shape of the building. The design of the shed saw the cow as the client that will use the space, as opposed to people. The shapes of the building were found by investigating the site and the way the cows (the client) would move through and use the cowshed. Considering the important role that cattle play in the Bapedi, the architecture should see livestock as a client of the design. Following the principles of Haring, the design will search for shapes within the functions of the cattle as a client.

FIG 4.23: GUT GARKAU UNIT 3 Source: Photograph by Michael Holms Coats (2017)

FIG 4.24: GUT GARKAU UNIT 3 Source: Photograph by Michael Holms Coats (2017)

FIG 4.25: GUT GARKAU UNIT 3 MATERIALS Source: Photograph by Michael Holms Coats (2017)

FIG 4.26: GUT GARKAU UNIT 3 CURVE Source: Photograph by Michael Holms Coats (2017)

4.6 CONCLUSION After analysing the four precedent studies and how architects have previously approached spesific projects the following three main design principles that will aid in the design of the regenerative agricultural core are: 1. Employing construction methods that can aid in the skills development and training of local community members. This also contributes to the regenerative concept of the architectural proposal, extending past the lifetime of the building. 2. Adapting and incorporating vernacular architecture to contribute to a context spesific building. Vernacular architecture usually incorporate localy available building materials contributing to the sustainability of the design. 3. Incorporating the site and functions surrounding the site into the design as a client. This will assist in designing site sensitive. The different ecosystems and functions of the site should also inform the design.

FIG 4.27: WALL CONSTRUCTION WITHIN GA-POOPEDI Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

PROJECT BRIEF, USERS, ACCOMMODATION, AND CLIENTS The project brief Project user classification Project programme Project accommodation list Possible project clients

5.1 PROJECT BRIEF The purpose of the dissertation is to assist with the regeneration of the black African farmer within previously disadvantaged communities to be competitive within the agricultural markets of South Africa. The key to the success of subsistence and small-scale farmers within the agricultural sector is access to infrastructure, skills development, and knowledge transfer. The architectural proposal is a regenerative agricultural core as an alternative to land reform within the previously disadvantaged community of Ga-poopedi where GaPoopedi serves as the centralised rural-urban link between the previously disadvantaged communities of the rural area and the urban agricultural markets.

FIG 5.1: AGRICULTURAL CORE WITHIN GA-POOPEDI AS RURAL-URBAN LINK Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

FIG 5.2: AGRICULTURAL CORE INPUT AND OUTPUT Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

5.2 PROJECT USER CLASSIFICATION The architectural proposal encompasses various amenities. Most of the amenities focus on the education of members of the surrounding communities. The amenities require general as well as specialized staff members. Community members The architectural proposal is aimed at improving the livelihoods of specifically the members of the previously disadvantaged community of Ga-Poopedi, as well as the surrounding communities. These individuals include: • Subsistence farmers • Small-scale farmers General puplic The architectural proposal includes a market area where the public, as well as members of the communities, can buy and trade with other members of the community using the market area as a trading platform. General staff The general staff of the architectural proposal are crucial to the longevity of the success of the proposal. The general staff include the following: • Maintenance staff • Cleaning staff • Security staff • Administrative staff Specialised staff The agricultural core will also serve as a mentorship facility. The mentorship facilities will offer successful small-scale and commercial farmers within the surrounding area a way to significantly contribute to the success of subsistence and small-scale farmers of the previously disadvantaged communities.

5.3 PROJECT PROGRAMME AND ACCOMMODATION LIST The design of a regenerative agricultural core as an alternative to land reform is unique as it aims to assist in the redressing of past injustices within previously disadvantaged communities. The accommodation schedule has been determined by identifying the needs of black African farmers within the specific community of Ga-Poopedi as well as the surrounding communities. The programme of the architectural proposal is an agricultural support facility aimed at supporting the regeneration of the black African farmer within the previously disadvantaged rural community of Ga-Poopedi as well as the surrounding communities. The programme will serve as a trade core to reconnect previously disadvantaged communities to agricultural markets through the chain integration of commercial farms as well as assist in the skills development of previously disadvantaged individuals and families to have them as a competitive entity within the agricultural markets and improve their current living circumstances. 5.2.3 PROJECT ACCOMMODATION LIST Livestock auction house and auditorium: -Seating area -Speaker’s podium -Livestock auction scale -Ablution facilities -Livestock pens -Livestock forcing gate -Livestock receiving and dispatch Agricultural equipment storage facility: -Agricultural implement garage -Workshop -Tools storage -Office

Agricultural input and sales centre: -Farmer mentorship support office -Farmer chain integration support office -Farmer financial support office -Veterinary and agricultural support office -Boardroom and mentoring room -Reception office -Staff kitchenette -Ablution facilities Outdoor market: -Stalls -Ablutions -Parking

Vegetable packhouse and distribution centre: -Vegetable receiving -Chiller room -Cleaning facilities -Sorting facilities -Packing facilities -Cold Storage -Vegetable dispatch -Managing offices -Staff changing rooms -Staff ablution facilities Future biogas digester plant: -Cow manure hydration pit -Dosing feeder -Digester panel tank -Gas accumulator

5.4 PROJECT POSSIBLE CLIENTS The South African National Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development invest millions of rands per year into food security, land reform and restitution as well as rural development. The architectural proposal also aligns with the vision and mission statements of the DALRRD. The DALRRD has a yearly budget assigned by the national treasury. The budget average over the past 3 years has been R8,92 billion per year with R768million per year specifically assigned for “Farmer Support and Development”. The vision statement of the DALRRD extracted from their website: “Equitable access to land, integrated rural development, sustainable agriculture and food security for all.” The mission statement of the DALRRD extracted from their website: “To accelerate land reform, catalyse rural development and improve agricultural production to stimulate economic development and food security through: • transformed land ownership patterns • agrarian reform • implementation of an effective land administration system • sustainable livelihoods • innovative sustainable agriculture • promotion of access to opportunities for youth, women, and other vulnerable groups • integrated rural development “ The proposal is aligned with the vision and mission statement of the DALRRD. The DALRRD also have a part of their budget specifically for the support and development of farmers as well as rural development.

CONCEPT AND DESIGN DEVELOPMENT Concept Regeneration of the black African farmer Regenerative design Concept development Design development

6.1 CONCEPT Regeneration formed the main concept of the design. Regeneration is the act or process of being regenerated wherein regenerate means:

(of a living organism) grow (new tissue) after los

to generate or produce anew, bring new and more vigorous life to (an area, industry, institution, etc), revive

bring into renewed existence, generate again, to restore to its original strength or properties FIG 6.1: THE CONCEPT OF REGENERATION Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

The concept of regeneration was implemented in the dissertation in two ways, the regeneration of the black African farmer, and regenerative design.

6.2 REGENERATION OF THE BLACK AFRICAN FARMER As mentioned within an earlier chapter, the black African farmer was relegated through the system of Apartheid from a competitive entity within agricultural markets to some of the poorest households within South Africa. History proved that the black African farmers practising subsistence farming could adjust to their situation and take up small-scale and mediumscale farming to produce sufficient agricultural products to supply urban centres. This is currently being overlooked

through the current land reform model seeing commercial farming as the only viable option for agriculture in South Africa. The dissertation is aimed at assisting in the regeneration of the black African farmer to the competitive entity within the agricultural markets of South Africa as they once were before apartheid through overcoming the disconnection created by the displacement of Apartheid.

FIG 6.2: SUBSISTENCE CATTLE KRAAL IN GA-POOPEDI Source: Photograph by Author (2021)

6.3 REGENERATIVE DESIGN In recent years the concept of regenerative design has come to the fore. Sustainability on its own is not enough anymore. A move should be made from designing sustainable and only replenishing that which is used, to designing in such a way to build communities and environments to a healthy state and ultimately to regenerate these communities and environments to be able to grow and evolve. Opposed to sustainable architecture that is based on the concept of only using the minimum resources, regenerative architecture focuses on reversing damage as well as having a net positive impact on the environment.

FIG 6.3: MOVING FROM SUSTAINABLE TO RESTORATIVE TO REGENERATIVE Source: Diagram by Author (2021) adapted from Brown, et al., (2018)

According to the International Living Future Institute (ILFI), regenerative design can be measured through six performance areas namely place, water, energy, materials, equity, and beauty. The “place” performance area is aimed at restoring mutually beneficial relationships between nature and people. The “water” performance area is aimed at the design of sites, buildings and communities that harvest and recycle enough water while respecting the natural hydrology of the land. The “energy” performance area is aimed at establishing communities reliant on renewable energy with buildings designed to be energy efficient. The “materials” performance area is aimed at using materials that are safe for all species throughout the material lifecycle. The “equity” performance area is aimed at developing communities with equal access for all people regardless of their physical abilities, socioeconomic status, gender, race, or age. The “beauty” performance area is aimed at celebrating designs with transformative change as a core purpose. (International Living Future Institute, 2021) The proposed project will aim to design within these performance areas to focus on reversing damage and have a net positive impact on the environment and community.

FIG 6.4: REGENERATION PERFORMANCE AREAS Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

6.4 CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT

• Mutually beneficial relationship between architecture and site

• Rainwater harvest

Reuse for: -Irrigation -Agricultural core amenities -Drinking after treatment Minimal disturbance between architecture and nature Replace the disturbed nature or aid in regeneration Strengthen the existing nature.

• Solar energy Roof design for optimal or most efficient solar collection and least installation requirements. North facing - optimal East/west facing - less effective South facing - not applicable

• Greywater system • Biogas energy

• Eucalyptus poles

• Community involvement

• Transforming communities

• Skills development

• Bricks - Non-load bearing - Local manufacturers • Inclusive design

• Limited use of metal

Health Agriculture Justice Economic empowerment Water Education FIG 6.5: REGENERATION CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

6.5 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT Healthy and damaged ecosystems on site: The site has been cleared next to the Maupye tar road during the construction of the road. Some vegetation has started to regrow in this area. Most of the site has been overgrazed with high potential of regenerating valuable grazing for livestock. A small part of the site still have flourishing ecosystems and this should be protected and strengthened. There are some trees on site made up mostly of Sclerocarya birrea and Acacia tortillis.

FIG 6.6: HEALTHY AND DAMAGED ECOSYSTEMS ON SITE Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

Main access and movement routes around the site: Site access can be divided into two types. The first is from surrounding communities that will mainly use Maupye road for access. The second is the members of Ga-Poopedi, Koekoek, Ga-Mokwele, and Schellingburg, that will make use of the two main roads leading through Ga-Poopedi. The site is also divided into three by the two main roads leading into Ga-Poopedi and on to Koekoek and the other communities. The linking of the three sites will be an important design consideration.

FIG 6.7: MAIN ACCESS AND MOVEMENT ROUTES AROUND THE SITE Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

Optimal building orientation on site: With the site located in South Africa and within a region with approximately 2100kWh/m2 annual solar radiation solar energy is a large consideration for energy. The building design will accommodate for the easy installation of solar panels with limited use of extra brackets and stands. Therefore, the optimal building orientation for solar collection is to the north with a monopitch roof design at the correct angle to accommodate solar panels.

FIG 6.8: OPTIMAL BUILDING ORIENTATION FOR SOLAR COLLECTION Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

Secondary building orientation on site: The secondary orientation for buildings on site will be with roofs facing in an east and west direction. This will account for a limited loss of energy of approximately 15%. The east facing roofs will be exposed to sunlight earlier within the mornings with the west facing roofs accommodating the afternoon sun.

FIG 6.9: SECONDARY BUILDING ORIENTATION FOR SOLAR COLLECTION Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

FIG 6.10: TRADITIONAL PEDI ARCHITECTURE Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

FIG 6.11: CURRENT ARCHITECTURE IN GA-POOPEDI Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

Proposed architecture and construction: The proposed architecture is influenced by the traditional Pedi architecture. The construction will consist of an external load bearing eucalyptus pole construction to mimic the traditional Pedi architecture. This will also allow for the incorporation of local manufacturer’s bricks within the design as non-load bearing members of the design. The proposed roof is a sheetmetal roof to accomodate solar panels for energy generation for the surrounding communities.

FIG 6.12: PROPOSED ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

Optimal building orientation on site: The design is centralised around the NorthSouth and East-West axis on site. The design is aimed at limted disturbance on site with a focus on regenerating the damaged ecosystems on site and surrounding the buildings. The distribution centre will be visually linked to the rest of the centre as well as through the street edge market.

FIG 6.13: BUILDING PLACEMENT ON SITE Source: Diagram by Author (2021)

PRELIMINARY DESIGN RESOLUTION

Site plan Ground floor plan Northern Elevation Western Elevation Section A-A Details Perspective

7.1 PRELIMINARY SITE PLAN

FIG 7.1: SITE PLAN Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

7.2 PRELIMINARY GROUND FLOOR PLAN

FIG 7.2: GROUND FLOOR PLAN Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

7.3 PRELIMINARY NORTHERN ELEVATION

FIG 7.3: NORTHERN ELEVATION Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

7.4 PRELIMINARY WESTERN ELEVATION

FIG 7.4: WESTERN ELEVATION Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

7.5 PRELIMINARY SECTION A-A

FIG 7.5: SECTION A-A Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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7.6 PRELIMINARY DETAILS

FIG 7.6: DETAILS Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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7.7 PRELIMINARY PERSPECTIVE

FIG 7.7: PERSPECTIVE Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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TECHNICAL RESOLUTION

Maker’s space component development Component spesification Contract documentation drawings

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8.1 MAKER’S SPACE COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT

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FIG 8.1: COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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8.2 COMPONENT SPECIFICATION 1) SUPPORTING STRUCTURE a) Brick parapet wall i) Bricks outer leaf: Face brick extra (FBX). • Manufacturer: Corobrik,Tel: +27 (0)11 871 8600, or acceptable equivalent. • Product: Submit proposal, to the acceptance of the Architect. • Comply with SANS 227. • Compressive strength: >30MPa ii)Bricks inner leaf: Non-face brick extra (NFX). • Manufacturer: Corobrik, Tel:+27 (0)11 871 8600, or acceptable equivalent. • Product: Submit proposal, to the acceptance of the Architect. • Comply with SANS 227. • Finish: Plastered • Compressive strength: >30MPa iii) Thickness: As per Architect’s design drawing. iv) Bond/ coursing: Half lap stretcher. v) Joints: Flush joint. vi) Mortar mix: Class 2 according to SANS 50934-1. vii) Mortar bed: 10mm. b) Accessories: i) DPC: Polyethylene Material • Product: 250-micron DPC. • Laps: 150mm. • Standard: SANS 952-1 and

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SANS 10021. 2) FACE BRICK CHIMNEY • Manufacturer: Gundle, a) Black clay fair faced brick wall. Tel: +27 (0)11 876 6400, or i) Bricks: acceptable equivalent. • Type: Platinum face brick extra ii) Brick force reinforcement. (FBX). • Standard: SANS 190-2. • Manufacturer: Corobrik, Tel: • Manufacturer: Silverton +27 (0)11 871 8600, only. Reinforcing and Wire Products • Comply with SANS 227. Pty (Ltd), Tel: +27 (0)11 658 ii) Thickness: As Architect’s design 9652, or acceptable drawing. equivalent. iii) Bond/ coursing: Half lap stretcher. c) Waterproofing: Acrylic reinforced iv) Joints: Flush joint. cementitious slurry waterproofing. v) Mortar mix: Class 2 according to i) Substrate: Plastered brickwork SANS 50934-1. ii) Preparation: Surface to be dry, b) Accessories: clean, and dust-free. i) Brick force reinforcement. • Wet surface of plaster and apply • Standard: SANS 190-2. whilst damp. • Manufacturer: Silverton • Prime with a full coat of slurry. Reinforcing and Wire Products iii) System: Acrylic reinforced Pty (Ltd), Tel: +27 (0)11 658 cementitious slurry. 9652, or acceptable equivalent. • Manufacturer: BASF ii) Air bricks: Construction Chemicals South • Brick: Concrete Air Brick Grey. Africa, Tel: +27 (0)11 203 2405, • Manufacturer: Leroy Merlin, or acceptable equivalent. Tel: +27 (0)10 493 8000, or • Product: Masterseal 550, or acceptable equivalent. acceptable equivalent. • Product: Submit proposal, to • Application: Two coats, by the acceptance of the Architect. brush, roller or trowel. • Position: As per Architect’s • Comply with SANS 10021. design drawing. • Parapets: Liquid membrane to iii) Corbelled throat: be carried up and over parapets. • Step: Quarter brick. • Number of courses: As per

Architect’s design drawing. iv) Final 3 brick courses concealed by sheet metal cover: • Bricks: Non-face brick extra (NFX). • Manufacturer: Corobrik, Tel: +27 (0)11 871 8600, or acceptable equivalent. • Product: Submit proposal, to the acceptance of the Architect. • Thickness: As Architect’s design drawing. • Bond/ coursing: Half lap stretcher. • Joints: Flush joint. • Mortar mix: Class 2 according to SANS 50934-1. 3) MILD STEEL SLIP OVER CHIMNEY COVER a) Product: 2mm thick galvanised mild steel purpose made slip on cover to Architect’s design drawing. • Galvanising to comply with SANS 121. b) Method of provision: Fabricated off site, installed on site. c) Manufacturer: R & G Sheet Metal Workers (Pty) Ltd ,Tel: +27 (0)11 452 8055, or acceptable equivalent. d) Steel Grade: SANS 50025. e) Finish: Water based satin finish over galvanising as delivered.

i) Surface preparation: Clean and degrease. • Product: Duram NS2 Galvanised Iron Cleaner, or acceptable equivalent. ii) 1st coat: Galvanised Metal Primer. • Product: Duram NS6 Galvanised Iron Primer, or acceptable equivalent. • Dry Film Thickness: 50μm - 60μm per coat. • Application: One coat, by brush. iii) 2nd coat: Water based undercoat. • Product: Duram Universal Undercoat, or acceptable equivalent. • Dry Film Thickness: 25μm - 35μm per coat. • Application: One coat, by brush. iv) Finishing coats: Water based satin finish. • Product: Duram NS8 Black Metal Topcoat, or acceptable equivalent. • Dry Film Thickness: 30μm - 35μm per coat. • Application: Two coats, by brush. v) Colour: Black.

FIG 8.2: SOLAR CHIMNEY AXONOMETRIC Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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8.3 CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION DRAWINGS

FIG 8.3: CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION: SITE PLAN Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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FIG 8.4: CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION: FLOOR PLAN Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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FIG 8.5: CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION: ROOF PLAN Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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FIG 8.5: CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION: PERSPECTIVE Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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FIG 8.7: CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION: SECTION Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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FIG 8.8: CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION: DETAILS Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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FIG 8.9: CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION: NORTHERN ELEVATION Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

FIG 8.10: CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION: WESTERN ELEVATION Source: Drawing by Author (2021)

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CONCLUSION

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9.1 CLOSING THOUGHTS The design of the regenerative agricultural core serves as an architype that can be adapted to other previously disadvantaged communities. The agricultural core puts small-scale farmer support at the centre of overcoming inequality amongst the most vulnerable households within South Africa. The history of South Africa resulted in a country overwhelmed with inequality, especially within communities that have been disconnected from urban centres. By connecting previously disadvantaged communities to agricultural markets the dissertation aims to regenerate the black African farmer to a competitive entity within the South African agricultural markets. The dissertation attempts to promote small-scale farming as a viable option for agriculture in South Africa. Large-scale farming has many negative impacts on the environment, and it is quite the opposite for small-scale farming. Small-scale farming has the ability to stop and turn around the negative trend of land degradation in agriculture. Through improved agricultural practices small-scale farming can stop carbon emissions and use carbon from within the atmosphere, reversing the damage that has been done and regenerating a healthy environment, while having a positive impact on reducing inequality within rural communities. Therefore, the dissertation puts forward a regenerative agricultural core as an alternative to land reform to combat inequality in South Africa.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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10.1 SPECIAL THANKS First and foremost, I would like to give Jesus, my lord and saviour, all the glory for this dissertation. Without Jesus this project would not have been possible. Thank you for giving me strength when I was weak and for your provision in every aspect throughout my life. You are my rock and my foundation. To my wife, Eunice du Plessis, for all your support with and during this time of studies. Thank you for all the late-night model building support and encouragement in difficult times. Thank you for your prayers. Thank you for all your sacrifices, hard work, and provision to keep our house and family afloat. You are the best teammate. To my Main supervisor, Dr Mel Stander, for your guidance and assistance throughout the year. Thank you. To my Design supervisor, Mr Victor Mokaba, thank you for your continual support and guidance through a difficult year. Thank you for all your input, comments, patience, and effort throughout the dissertation. Thank you. To my family, you’ll know if you are in this category, thank you for all your prayers and support. Thank you for the input you had in my life to make me the person I am today. I appreciate each one of you. To my friends, in particular, Pieter Hoyer, Jaco Swart, and Dean Smuts, thank you for all the encouragement and support over the past years. Thank you for the journey, it has been good. See you all in the next phase of architecture. Thank you.

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REFERENCES

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11.1 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 0.1: Small-scale farming land in Ga-Pooped [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 0.2:Ga-Poopedi and Surrounding Areas [online satelite image]. Source: Google Earth Pro v 7.3.4.8248 (2019) Ga-Poopedi, 23°21’00.00; 29°11’30.00, 1055m above sea level. [Online] available at: https:// www.google.com/maps/@23.34772,29.19146,6843m/ data=!3m1!1e3 Figure 1.1: Proposed site within Ga-Poopedi [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 1.2: Gini coefficient of income inequality by country 2021 [adapted diagram]. Source: Roser, M., & Ortiz-Ospina, E. (2021). Our World in Data. [Online] Available at: https://ourworldindata. org/income-inequality [Accessed 04 10 2021] Figure 1.3: Relationship between the subsistence farming regions and the former homelands of South Africa [adapted diagram]. Source: Alexander, M. (2018, 07 18). The provinces and ‘homelands’ of South Africa before 1996. [Online] Available at: https://southafrica-info. com/infographics/provinces-homelandssouth-africa-1996/ [Accessed 09 06 2021] and Waldner, F., Hansen, M. C.,

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Potapov, P. V., Low, F., Newby, T., Ferreira, S., & Defourny , P. (2017). National-scale cropland mapping based on spectraltemporal features and outdated land cover information. PLoS ONE. Figure 1.4: Subsistence farming [photograph]. Source: Goedde, L., Ooko-Ombaka, A., & Pais, G. (2019). Winning in Africa’s agricultural market. Nairobi: McKinsey & Company. Figure 1.5: Commercial farming [photograph]. Source: Catinari, M. (2021). John Deere updates Machine Sync to Automatic Forage. North America FarmQuip Magazine. Figure 1.6: An aution in progess on Market Square, Johannesburg [photograph]. Source: Market Square (n.d.) Figure 1.7: Market Square, Johannesburg [photograph]. Source: By Hilton T (1899) Figure 2.1: South African agricultural regions prior to the discovery of diamonds and gold in 1870 [adapted diagram]. Source: The World Bank. (1994). South African Agriculture: Structure, Performance and Options for the Future. Washington D.C.: The World Bank. Figure 2.2: South African agricultural regions with urban cores after the discovery of diamonds and gold in 1880 [adapted diagram]. Source: The World Bank. (1994).

South African Agriculture: Structure, Performance and Options for the Future. Washington D.C.: The World Bank. Figure 2.3: Reserves identified according to the 1936 Native trust and Land Act [adapted diagram]. Source: Harley, A. & Fotheringham, R. (1999). AFRA: 20 years in the land rights struggle 1979-1999. Pietermaritzburg: Association for Rural Advancement. Figure 2.4: Infrastructure support factors influencing agricultural income [adapted diagram]. Source: Mazibuko, N., Antwi, M., & Rubhara, T. (2020). Agricultural infrastructure as the driver of emerging farmers’ income in South Africa. A stochastic frontier approach. Johannesburg: The Scientific Electronic Library Online. Figure 3.1: Analysis of Limpopo [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.2: South African Income Inequality according to Gini Index per Province of 2019 [adapted diagram]. Source: Maluleke, R. (2019). Inequality Trends in South Africa . Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. Figure 3.3: GDP per Capita of Metropolitain Districts in South Africa[adapted diagram]. Source: Arndt, C., Davies, R., & Thurlow, J. (2018). Urbanization, Structural Transformation, and Rural-Urban

Linkages in South Africa. Pretoria: National Treasury. Figure 3.4: Agricultural share of Metropolitain Districts in South Africa [adapted diagram]. Source: Arndt, C., Davies, R., & Thurlow, J. (2018). Urbanization, Structural Transformation, and Rural-Urban Linkages in South Africa. Pretoria: National Treasury. Figure 3.5: Urban Rural classification of Metropolitain Districts in South Africa [adapted diagram]. Source: Arndt, C., Davies, R., & Thurlow, J. (2018). Urbanization, Structural Transformation, and Rural-Urban Linkages in South Africa. Pretoria: National Treasury. Figure 3.6: Analysis of Molemole Local Municipality [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.7: Tractor with potato harvester [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.8: Fresh produce trader [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.9: Fresh produce stall [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.10: Bakkie trader [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.11: Roadside trader with trailer [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021)

Figure 3.12: Bakkie trader [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.13: Bakkie Trader with shaded stall [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.14: Analysis of Ga-Poopedi Local Context [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.15: Analysis of Ga-Poopedi Immediate Context [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.16: Rural erf typology 1 [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.17: Rural erf typology 2 [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.18: Erf Typology 2 [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.19: Traditional Bapedi Architectural influences in Ga-Poopedi [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.20: Erf Typology 2 [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.21: Traditional Bapedi Architectural influences in Ga-Poopedi [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.22: Site Analysis [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.23: Cattle grazing next to road in GaPoopedi [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.24: Wall constructed from locally

manufactured bricks [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.25: Resevoir of Ga-Poopedi [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.26: Site & Main road into Ga-Poopedi [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 3.27: Erf Typology 2 [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 4.1: Precedent Locations [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 4.2: Construction of Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre [photograph]. Source: Peter Rich Architects via ArchDaily. (21, April 2010). Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre / Peter Rich Architects. [Online] Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/57106/ mapungubwe-interpretationcentre-peter-rich-architects?ad_ source=search&ad_medium=projects_ tab Figure 4.3: Entrance to Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre [photograph]. Source: Iwan Baan via ArchDaily. (21, April 2010). Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre / Peter Rich Architects. [Online] Available at: https://www. archdaily.com/57106/mapungubweinterpretation-centre-peter-richarchitects?ad_source=search&ad_ medium=projects_tab [Accessed 06 08

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2021] Figure 4.4: Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre blending into landscape [photograph]. Source: Iwan Baan via ArchDaily. (21, April 2010). Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre / Peter Rich Architects. [Online] Available at: https://www. archdaily.com/57106/mapungubweinterpretation-centre-peter-richarchitects?ad_source=search&ad_ medium=projects_tab [Accessed 06 08 2021] Figure 4.5: Exterior rock cladding of Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre [photograph]. Source: Iwan Baan via ArchDaily. (21, April 2010). Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre / Peter Rich Architects. [Online] Available at: https://www. archdaily.com/57106/mapungubweinterpretation-centre-peter-richarchitects?ad_source=search&ad_ medium=projects_tab [Accessed 06 08 2021] Figure 4.6: Interior Space of Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre [photograph]. Source: Iwan Baan via ArchDaily. (21, April 2010). Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre / Peter Rich Architects. [Online] Available at: https://www. archdaily.com/57106/mapungubweinterpretation-centre-peter-richarchitects?ad_source=search&ad_ medium=projects_tab [Accessed 06 08 2021] Figure 4.7: Pergola at Mapungubwe Interpretation

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Centre [photograph]. Source: Iwan Baan via ArchDaily. (21, April 2010). Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre / Peter Rich Architects. [Online] Available at: https://www. archdaily.com/57106/mapungubweinterpretation-centre-peter-richarchitects?ad_source=search&ad_ medium=projects_tab [Accessed 06 08 2021] Figure 4.8: Vault construction [photograph]. Source: Peter Rich Architects via ArchDaily. (21, April 2010). Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre / Peter Rich Architects. [Online] Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/57106/ mapungubwe-interpretationcentre-peter-rich-architects?ad_ source=search&ad_medium=projects_ tab [Accessed 06 08 2021] Figure 4.9: Sketch of Centre entrance [sketch]. Source: Peter Rich Architects via ArchDaily. (21, April 2010). Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre / Peter Rich Architects. [Online] Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/57106/ mapungubwe-interpretationcentre-peter-rich-architects?ad_ source=search&ad_medium=projects_ tab [Accessed 06 08 2021] Figure 4.10: Vault construction process [photograph]. Source: Peter Rich Architects via ArchDaily. (21, April 2010). Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre /

Peter Rich Architects. [Online] Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/57106/ mapungubwe-interpretationcentre-peter-rich-architects?ad_ source=search&ad_medium=projects_ tab [Accessed 06 08 2021] Figure 4.11: Design Sketches [sketch]. Source: Peter Rich Architects via ArchDaily. (2010, April 21). Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre / Peter Rich Architects. [Online] Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/57106/ mapungubwe-interpretationcentre-peter-rich-architects?ad_ source=search&ad_medium=projects_ tab [Accessed 06 08 2021] Figure 4.12: Western Elevation of Gando School [photograph]. Source: Erik-Jan Ouwerkerk via ArchDaily. (2016, April 22). Primary School in Gando / Kéré Architecture. [Online] Available at: https://www.archdaily. com/785955/primary-school-in-gandokere-architecture [Accessed 07 08 2021] Figure 4.13: Design Drawings of Gando School [drawing]. Source: Kéré Architecture via ArchDaily. (2016, April 22). Primary School in Gando / Kéré Architecture. [Online] Available at: https://www.archdaily. com/785955/primary-school-in-gandokere-architecture [Accessed 07 08 2021] Figure 4.14: Gando Primary School [photograph]. Source: Simeon Duchoud via ArchDaily. (2016, April 22). Primary School in Gando / Kéré Architecture. [Online]

Available at: https://www.archdaily. com/785955/primary-school-in-gandokere-architecture [Accessed 07 08 2021] Figure 4.15: Detail of Gando School roof [photograph]. Source: Kéré Architecture via ArchDaily. (2016, April 22). Primary School in Gando / Kéré Architecture. [Online] Available at: https://www.archdaily. com/785955/primary-school-in-gandokere-architecture [Accessed 07 08 2021] Figure 4.16: Gando Primary School [photograph]. Source: Simeon Duchoud via ArchDaily. (2016, April 22). Primary School in Gando / Kéré Architecture. [Online] Available at: https://www.archdaily. com/785955/primary-school-in-gandokere-architecture [Accessed 07 08 2021] Figure 4.17: Interior of Gando Primary School [photograph]. Source: Simeon Duchoud via ArchDaily. (2016, April 22). Primary School in Gando / Kéré Architecture. [Online] Available at: https://www.archdaily. com/785955/primary-school-in-gandokere-architecture [Accessed 07 08 2021] Figure 4.18: METI School in Bangladesh [photograph]. Source: Kurt Hoerbst. (2006). METI School. [Online] Available at: https:// architektur.hoerbst.com/projekt/metischool-bangladesh-anna-heringer/ [Accessed 08 08 2021] Figure 4.19: Construction process of METI School [photograph]. Source: Kurt Hoerbst. (2006). METI

School. [Online] Available at: https:// architektur.hoerbst.com/projekt/metischool-bangladesh-anna-heringer/ [Accessed 08 08 2021] Figure 4.20: Cattle used to mix mortar [photograph]. Source: Kurt Hoerbst. (2006). METI School. [Online] Available at: https:// architektur.hoerbst.com/projekt/metischool-bangladesh-anna-heringer/ [Accessed 08 08 2021] Figure 4.21: Cattle used to mix mortar [photograph]. Source: Kurt Hoerbst. (2006). METI School. [Online] Available at: https:// architektur.hoerbst.com/projekt/metischool-bangladesh-anna-heringer/ [Accessed 08 08 2021] Figure 4.22: Members of community participating in construction of school [photograph]. Source: Kurt Hoerbst. (2006). METI School. [Online] Available at: https:// architektur.hoerbst.com/projekt/metischool-bangladesh-anna-heringer/ [Accessed 08 08 2021] Figure 4.23: Gut Garkau Unit 3 [photograph]. Source: M. H. Coats. (2017, November 14). KSA Unit 3 - Gut Garkau - Hugo Häring farm buildings - 1923-26 - Klingberg, Scharbeutz, SchleswigHolstein, Germany. [Online] Available at: https://twitter.com/m_holms_coats/ us/930546614372061189?lang=hu [Accessed 09 08 2021] Figure 4.24: Gut Garkau Unit 3 [photograph]. Source: M. H. Coats. (2017, November 14). KSA Unit 3 - Gut Garkau - Hugo Häring farm buildings - 1923-26

- Klingberg, Scharbeutz, SchleswigHolstein, Germany. [Online] Available at: https://twitter.com/m_holms_coats/ us/930546614372061189?lang=hu [Accessed 09 08 2021] Figure 4.25: Gut Garkau Unit 3 Materials [photograph]. Source: M. H. Coats. (2017, November 14). KSA Unit 3 - Gut Garkau - Hugo Häring farm buildings - 1923-26 - Klingberg, Scharbeutz, SchleswigHolstein, Germany. [Online] Available at: https://twitter.com/m_holms_coats/ us/930546614372061189?lang=hu [Accessed 09 08 2021] Figure 4.26: Gut Garkau Unit 3 curves[photograph]. Source: M. H. Coats. (2017, November 14). KSA Unit 3 - Gut Garkau - Hugo Häring farm buildings - 1923-26 - Klingberg, Scharbeutz, SchleswigHolstein, Germany. [Online] Available at: https://twitter.com/m_holms_coats/ us/930546614372061189?lang=hu [Accessed 09 08 2021] Figure 4.27: Wall Construction within Ga-Poopedi [photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 5.1: Agricultural core within Ga-Poopedi as Rural-urban link [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 5.2: Agricultural core input and output [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.1: The Concept of regeneration [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.2: Subsistence Cattle Kraal in Ga-Poopedi

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[photograph]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.3: Moving from sustainable to restorative to Regenerative [adapted diagram]. Source: Brown, M. (2016). FutuREstorative: Working Towards a New Sustainability. London: RIBA Publishing. Figure 6.4: Regeneration Performance Areas [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.5: Regeneration Concept development [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.6: Healthy and damaged ecosystems on site [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.7: Main access and movement routes around the site [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.8: Optimal building orientation for solar collection [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.9: Secondary building orientation for solar collection [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.10: Traditional Pedi Architecture [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.11: Current Architecture in Ga-Poopedi [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.12: Proposed Architecture and Construction [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 6.13: Building placement on Site [diagram]. Source: By Author (2021)

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Figure 7.1: Site Plan [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 7.2: Floor Plan [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 7.3: Northern Elevation [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 7.4: Western Elevation [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 7.5: Section [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 7.6:Details [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 7.7: Perspective [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 8.1: Component development process [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 8.2: Solar Chimney axonometric [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 8.3: Contract documentation: Site Plan [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 8.4: Contract documentation: Floor Plan [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 8.5: Contract documentation: Roof Plan [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 8.6: Contract documentation: Perspective [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 8.7: Contract documentation: Section [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 8.8: Contract documentation: Details

[drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 8.9: Contract documentation: Northern Elevation [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021) Figure 8.10: Contract documentation: Western Elevation [drawing]. Source: By Author (2021)

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11.2 REFERENCES Advisory panel on land reform and agriculture. (2019). Final report of the presidential advisory panel on land reform and agriculture. Pretoria: The presidency.

Cousins, B. (2016). Land reform in South Africa is sinking. Can it be saved? Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies.

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