MYBURGH, SA - 214391880

SYMBIOSIS An adaptive disaster response centre for the biodiversity of the Kruger National Park Stephanie Myburgh

Figure 1 // Aerial view of building on riverbed (By author. 2021) Figure 2 // Man vs Wildlife (By author. 2021) 2

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“We don’t own the planet eart, we belong to it,and we must share it with our wildlife.” _Steve Irwin

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Figure 3 // Sabie River biodiversity (By author. 2021) 5

DECLARATION ON PLAGIARISM I, Stephanie Myburgh (214391880),declare the following: 1.

I understand what plagiarism entails, and I am aware of the University’s policy in this regard.

2. I declare that this assignment is my own original work. Where someone else’s work was used, it was acknowledged, and reference was made according to departmental requirements.

3. I did not copy and paste any information directly from an electronic source (e.g., a web page, electronic journal article or CD ROM) into this document.

4. I did not make use of another student’s previous work and submitted it as my own.

5.

I did not allow and will not allow anyone to copy my work to present it as his/her own work.

I further declare that this research proposal is substantially my own work. Where reference is made to the work of others, the extent to which that work has been used is indicated and fully acknowledged in the text and list of references.

Signature 6

Dated 14 December 2021

Figure 4 // Female lioness portrait (Carstens. 2021)

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Figure 5 // Water Lily in Sabie River (By author. 2021) 8

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the opportunity given to me by the Architecture department of Tshwane University of Technology to pursue my Master’s in Architecture. Thank you to our year coordinator, Prof. Jacques Laubscher, for providing structure and encouraging continuous progress throughout the year.

A heartfelt thank you to my supervisors, Mr Kyle Brand and Dr Emmanuel Nkumbule, for your patience and guidance in this journey. I would like to thank my talented friends, Danielle Carstens and Desiré Maré. Thank you, Danielle, for the most breathtaking photographs. Desiré, thank you for all your contributions; your emotional support and editing assistance really helped me survive this year.

Lastly, thank you for all the support and encouragement from my family, you have been with me throughout this entire journey from the first year to the completion of my master’s, I dedicate this book to you. With this, a special thanks to my husband, Juan Myburgh; thank you, my love, for broadening my understanding of architecture, for being my inspiration, my daily motivation, and my true north.

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Figure 6 // King fisher pair (Carstens. 2021) 10

THE DESIGN OF AN ADAPTIVE DISASTER RESPONSE CENTER FOR THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE KRUGER NATIONAL PARK. by Stephanie Myburgh 214391880 Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Architecture: Professional at the Department of Architecture and Industrial Design in the FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT at the TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Supervisor: Dr M.E.N. Nkambule Design Supervisor: Mr K.G. Brand PRETORIA 2021-12-14

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ABSTRACT There is a direct relationship between humankind’s ecological footprint and the state of the environment. Currently, the Kruger National Park is experiencing a rapid increase in external threats concerning its fauna and flora. These threats include extreme climatic changes, human-related illnesses in animals, and illegal poaching. There is an alarming decrease - to the point of near extinction - in fauna and flora numbers in the Kruger National Park.

The South African National Park identified several critical fauna and flora conservation concerns in the Kruger National Park. The architectural design proposal responds spatially to the most pertinent of these concerns. The mini-dissertation further explores the symbiosis between humankind and nature as a theoretical premise by rethinking humankind’s role in the wilderness. This will be achieved by using architecture as a tool to incorporate new technological advances to assist with conservation strategies of the Kruger National Park.

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KEYWORDS: Kruger National Park, Disaster, Conservation, Biodiversity, Biomimicry, Human-wildlife conflict.

Figure 7 // Paul Kruger statue at the Kruger gate of the Kruger National Park (By author. 2021) 13

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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INTRODUCTION

Introduction Research Objectives Methodology

CHAPTER I: Context 1.1. History of the Park 1.2. Park Analysis 1.3. Kruger Park Wildlife and Vegetation 1.4. Existing Human Wildlife Relationship 1.5. Park Disasters

CHAPTER V: Design Resolution 5.1. Final 3D 5.2. Specification Component 5.3. Material Study 5.4. Plans 5.5. Sections 5.6. Details 5.7. Contract Documentation

CHAPTER II: Architecture vs.

Widerness 2.1. Technological Response 2.2. Architectural Response 2.3. Precedent Studies

CHAPTER VI: Conclusion 6.1. Findings 6.2. Conclusion

CHAPTER III: Concept 3.1. Concept Development 3.2. Design Rationale 3.3. Connecting Humans and Wildlife 3.4. Programme and Accomodation Development 3.5. Site Analysis

CHAPTER IV: Design Development 4.1. Model Development 4.2. Section Development 4.3. Plan Development

REFERENCES

List of References List of Figure

Figure 8 // Elephant bull strolling on the riverbank (Carstens. 2021) 15

Figure 9 // Steenbok ram (Carstens. 2021) 16

INTRODUCE Introduction Research Objectives Methodology

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INTRODUCTION The period in which we find ourselves today is classified as the Anthropocene period, where man’s ecological footprint can be seen in every natural system (Munguia-Carrara, 2020). To defend the wilderness, a great number of factors account for effective conservation, including the nature of people’s relationship with wildlife. Human activity is altering the biodiversity, species’ numbers, and biotic interactions on earth through our interference with ecosystems and their natural functioning (Munguia-Carrara, 2020).

As the natural systems change, human-wildlife interactions become more likely; this increases the competition for space and natural resources, which feeds negative perceptions of wildlife by humans and creates a conservation risk for wildlife. This is something generally known as Human-Wildlife Conflict (Munguia-Carrara, 2020).

The Kruger National Park (KNP) was established when President Paul Kruger decided to conserve the grounds in 1898 after hunting caused a concerning depletion of wildlife in the Transvaal Boer Republic (Siyabona Africa, 2021). In 1969, the conserved land was fenced due to Human-Wildlife Conflict (referred to as HWC henceforth) when the predatorial animals preyed on the bordering farms’ game (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

Today, the border fence serves as a crucial tool in conservation by keeping poachers out of the grounds. The issue at hand, however, is the human element that affects natural animal behaviour. As a result, animal migratory patterns are disrupted (Ferguston, et al., 2011). Animals are adapting their behaviour to accommodate the increasing tourist numbers to the extent that even human strands of the Tuberculosis virus have been found in some species due to living in proximity with humans (Miller, et al., 2019). Some of these human elements restrict the animals from reacting instinctively for survival in case of disaster. According to the National Environmental Management Act, 1998, conservationists have the obligation to control incidents, manage emergency situations, and remediate any environmental damage caused unnaturally.

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Figure 10 // Wild cheetah being playful on a man made structure in his habitat (By author. 2021)

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RESEARCH OBJECTIVES MAIN OBJECTIVES The project investigates how architecture can find a balance between space creation for internal use and improve the direct surrounding environment’s ecological condition.

This is not intended to solve the problem entirely but will serve as a pioneer to adapt the existing architectural purpose of riverbed construction to include a design that incorporates passive environmental assisting and cleaning elements. The programme will then serve as a first responder to the disasters that confront the Kruger National Park.

This shapes the concept of symbiosis and how Architecture can be used to mediate the conflict between humankind and wildlife. Ideally, the design will serve as an “invisible hand” to assist the biodiversity of the park to survive against external threats. The conservation strategy of the design aligns with conservation legislation, which dictates minimal interference with the natural ecosystem and benefits the biodiversity to combat the harm that humans do to the ecosystem of the KNP. The objective of the research is to rethink the role that humankind plays in our ecosystem and to help improve the wildlife conservation strategy in the Kruger National Park by introducing an adaptive architectural intervention with innovative technology to minimise human-wildlife conflict and achieve interspecies coexistence.

SECONDARY OBJECTIVES o o

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Creating a platform that will make people aware of the impact that humans have on the wildlife and the ecosystem they live in.

Educating people on animal behaviour and their indicators to teach appropriate human responses, by setting a safe space for symbiotic interactions between wildlife and humans.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS For this research study the investigation will follow the central research questions set out below.

MAIN QUESTIONS 1.

How can Architecture act as a mediator to improve existing Human-Wildlife relationships to form a more symbiotic relationship?

SUB QUESTIONS 2.

3.

4.

What are the main challenges that the Kruger National Park face annually to protect its wildlife?

How can people play a primary role as global protectors and be made aware of the behavioural repercussions on the ecosystem through Architectural intervention?

What are the wildlife conservation shortcomings and how can they be addressed by means of spatial exploration?

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METHODOLOGY This project is constructed on a pragmatic worldview. According to Sharma et al. (2018), this philosophy considers that reality is constantly changing, thus allowing the observer to adjust assessment methods and get the most practical, rather than metaphysical, results to achieve desired deliverables. The primary outcome of the study will be to see how we can design in such a manner that the norm of human-wildlife conflict can be changed to human-wildlife coexistence, to make the relationship more mutually beneficial.

1.1 PHENOMENOLOGY Neubauer et al. (2019) state that phenomenology, as a research approach, captures a phenomenon by learning from those who have experienced it, by documenting the what and how of the experience. By observation and documentation, the project will aim to form a clear understanding of the existing relationship between humans and wildlife in the KNP. The project explores the paradigm of challenges that the wildlife must endure daily and reveals their reality for readers to reflect on.

1.2 METHOD To form a better understanding of the topic at hand, an exploratory study (Fellows & Lui, 2015) is proposed. The method used to obtain the necessary knowledge will be research-based, with sources from published scholarly articles on wildlife conservation, human-wildlife conflict, disaster management, and other relevant topics. Research specific to the KNP will be gathered through park-specific data-based studies and annual reports released by South African National Parks (SANParks). The research will aid in the decision making of the design to respond to the unique context of the building.

A primary concern of the research outcome is that 50% of the main beneficiaries of the design - both humans and animals – are inaccessible and their needs will have to be determined intuitively and through historical patterns

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Figure 11 // Various species gathering at a watering hole (Carstens. 2021)

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Figure 12 // Buffalos don’t generally enjoy swimming, but will endure the water when survival or migratory pattern requires them to (Carstens. 2021)

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CHAPTER I CONTEXT 1.1. History of the Park 1.2. Park Analysis 1.3. Kruger Park Wildlife and Vegetation 1.4. Existing Human-Wildlife Relationship 1.5. Park Disasters In this chapter, we will look at the history and the existing inhabitants of the Kruger National Park. For an architectural design intervention to be applicable and realistic, it is important to gather a clear understanding of the context as well as the original intent of the park with all the challenges that its biodiversity has to face due to human presence and climate change.

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CHAPTER 1

HISTORY OF THE KRUGER PARK Based on its local and international profile, the Kruger National Park is known as the first, largest, and most successful National Park in South Africa (Brett, 2018) and is therefore of great significance to the South African heritage.

In the 19th Century, the Transvaal experienced a decline in wildlife due to the development of agricultural and industrialisation of the Transvaal (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

Shortly after the British embraced the “sportsmanship” of trophy hunting, the Voortrekkers used the opportunity to the point where they became dependant on hunting for economic purposes, which caused an even further decline in wildlife (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

In 1846, they started to regard the game as a national asset. The government officials established laws to control hunting in order to protect the wildlife; the laws allowed hunting for consumption only and prohibited foreigners to hunt (Siyabona Africa, 2021). This was the root of a more symbiotic lifestyle between mankind and wildlife.

Figure 13 // Kruger National Park timeline indicating significant changes in management through its lifetime (By author. 2021) 26

CONTEXT

In 1898 an executive decision was made

by President Paul Kruger, of the ZuidAfrikaansche Republiek, to proclaim that an area would be set aside for a game reserve (Brett, 2018) and the “Sabie wildernis reserwe” (Sabie wilderness reserve) was established (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

The area was roughly situated south of the Olifants River, North of the Crocodile River, and East of where the Sand River meets with the Sabie River. With the establishment of the Singwidzi Game Reserve in 1903, all the eastern Transvaal Lowveld from the Crocodile River in the south to the Luvuvhu in the north became protected land (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

It was only in 1923, after 26 years of the park’s existence, that visitors were allowed into the park as it was previously purely for the protection of the wildlife.

During this year, a mere three visitors’ vehicles entered the park (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

This established the idea of using tourism to earn additional revenue for the park’s conservation, the result was that the number of visitors steadily grew to 850 vehicles per annum by 1929 (South African National Parks, 2021).

Today, the Kruger National Park is one of the 13 most prestigious game reserves in Africa, and the biggest in South Africa (Hastings, 2020). In total, the park covers 19455sqkm, 350km from north to south and 60km from east to west (Siyabona Africa, 2021). In 2016, it housed up to 1.8 million visitors, local and international, with a 6% rate of increase annually (Brett, 2018).

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CHAPTER 1

1.2. PARK ANALYSIS 1.2.1. RIVERS Perennial rivers The Kruger National Park has five perennial rivers (i.e., rivers that flow continuously throughout the year) that run through the heart of the park. These ma jor rivers include the Luvuvhu River to the north, the Crocodile River (southern boundary), the Letaba River, the Olifants River, and the Sabie River. These rivers act like arteries of the park and are currently being negatively impacted by human activities with continuous degradation occurring (McLoughlin, 2021).

In some cases, human activities are causing - directly and indirectly - perennial rivers to increasingly shape into intermittent rivers (which periodically cease to flow) (Fritz, 2016). These rivers house a lot of aquatic life within the lotic (flowing) waters and provide the rest of the non-aquatic life within the park with water during droughts; the rivers are therefore necessary for the survival of the KNP’s biodiversity.

Intermittent rivers Intermittent waterways are water systems that transform within nature as the rainy seasons occur within the area. Each of the beforementioned perennial rivers has a series of intermittent river channels that rely on them to survive.

Figure 14 // Map of Kruger National Park indicating all the Perennial rivers running through the park (By author. 2021) 28

CONTEXT These channels show the most expansion and contraction as the water availability changes, which causes them to transition from flowing (continuously) to fragmented pools to dry sand/rock channels (Fritz, 2016). The main drive of water availability within intermittent rivers is either surface-flow (the perennial river) or groundwater-level fluctuations, which give the soil unique properties that become a key component to the biodiversity of the lentic (standing) water pools and terrestrial riverbed within these fluctuations.

The connectivity, diversity, turnover, and spatial arrangement of these habitats are controlled by the magnitude, frequency, and duration of drying times (Fritz, 2016).

Recent studies show growing evidence of the taxonomic richness within the river channels and the decrease thereof with the increase of the intermittent severity. During the lentic and terrestrial phases of the river channels, they produce plants, vertebrates, and invertebrates. Studies have shown that over a two- to eight-year period, 20% more riparian plant species grow in the intermittent water channels than along the stretch of a perennial riverbed (Fritz, 2016). According to Dr Ken Fritz (2016), intermittent rivers show between 10% to 30% more terrestrial arthropod species than a perennial riverbed. Within a natural drying-wetting cycle, it is pertinent for an increase in the biological, physiological, and ecological diversity.

Figure 15 // Map of Kruger National Park indicating all the Intermittent rivers running through the park (By author. 2021) 29

CHAPTER 1 Strategic adaptive management Figure 16 // Map showing the location of the Kruger National Park (By author. 2021)

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The benefits that the rivers bring to the KNP are clear.

Because of this, an effective management plan needs to be put in place to protect the rivers as they play such a big role in the survival of the biodiversity within the KNP. To effectively manage the complex system of habitat variability on the riverbed, the Kruger National Park has implemented a strategic adaptive management strategy with a certain set of objectives that address the root of their main concerns, these objectives are referred to as Thresholds of Potential Concern (TPCs). The TPC process revolves around research, management, and monitoring, with full integration of components that will assist in the park (McLoughlin, 2021). There are two TPC categories (McLoughlin, 2021), namely: a) Flow requirements – Required flow to maintain the most healthy, natural ecosystem, and water quality guidelines that relate to the organisms in the river. b) Biodiversity related TPSs – Geomorphology (altering the shape of the riverbed) and what is causing it. Tree and shrub responses to changing water flow and sedimentation. Fish, bird, and invertebrate monitoring.

One of the main contributing factors to the rivers’ waterflow effects is the headwaters of the rivers (location of the rainfall catchment of the river), which lies to the upper west parts outside the park and does not fall under active conservation areas, but rather under various land-use types (McLoughlin, 2021). Some of the lands used include rural villages, agricultural land, and industrial land and can thus influence the quality of the water entering the park.

CONTEXT

Humans have already intervened with the natural flow of the rivers by constructing huge dams as water reservoirs. Although this does restrict water flow into the rivers, it can also serve as a lifeline during severe droughts. With human intervention, the catchment dams feeding into the rivers have managed to keep the main channels of the rivers perennial, thus providing a water source for the animals during these more dry seasons. This is a good example of how human intervention can provide for the wildlife in a natural manner that will not negatively alter their behaviour.

Figure 17 // Kruger National Park Zoning (By author. 2021)

Figure 18 // Kruger National Park Airports (By author. 2021) 31

CHAPTER 1

Figure 19 // Kruger National Park Tourist camp sites (By author. 2021) 32

Figure 20 // Kruger National Park entrance gate positions (By author. 2021)

Figure 21 // Kruger National Park mountain peaks (By author. 2021)

CONTEXT

Figure 22 // Kruger National Park historical landmarks (By author. 2021)

Figure 23 // Kruger National Park points of interests (By author. 2021)

Figure 23 // Kruger National Park roads (By author. 2021) 33

CHAPTER 1

1.3. KRUGER PARK WILDLIFE Another part of the biodiversity of the Kruger National Park is the game. The Park houses approximately 147 mammal species; amongst them, the big five, namely elephant, rhino, lion, leopard, and buffalo. Other than the mammals, the Park has 57 bird species, 114 reptile species, 49 fish species, and 34 species of amphibians (The Kruger Safari Co., 2020).

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CONTEXT

... AND VEGETATION According to Government Gazette no.

26752 (2004), 17 (36%) of the 47 species of protected trees that are indigenous to South Africa are housed in the Kruger National Park. Spreading over almost two million hectares of land, the Park’s vegetation can be divided into eight distinctly different landscapes, each with distinct vegetation that is suited to the soil conditions and water retention. These landscapes include:

Figure 24 // Elephant walking by dam’s edge with reflection in water (By author. 2021) 35

CHAPTER 1

NORTHERN SANDVELD

MOPANEVELD

Restricted to the northern edge of the park. It is sandy, well-drained soil with no dominant plant species but instead a wide range of vegetation (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

The most common ecosystem in the park as it covers more than half of the surface area. The Mopane tree in three variants is the most dominant species found in this region (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

Figure 25 // Typical Northern Sandveld vegetation (Siyabona Africa, 2021)

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CONTEXT

SAVANNA GRASSLANDS

Figure 26 // Typical Mopaneveld vegetation (Siyabona Africa, 2021)

The large grasslands stretch across the eastern border of the park.

The soil conditions consist of dark clay-like soils that lie on top of a layer of calcrete. This geology has good water retention and forms temporary water pans during the rainy season, which can last well into the dry season (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

Figure 27 // Typical Savanna Grasslands vegetation (Siyabona Africa, 2021)

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CHAPTER 1

MIXED BROADLEAF WOODLAND These woodlands dominate the ridges south of Skusuza main camp as well as large areas in central western Kruger. The main species of these lands is the bushwillow or combretum species.

The low hills are mainly on a geological bed of granite where the upper parts are sandy loose soils that supports various species. This area also has pockets of grasslands with sweeter grasses in the lower contours that is vulnerable during high rainy seasons when pans form (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

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THORN THICKETS

Figure 28 // Typical Mixed Broadleaf Woodland vegetation (Siyabona Africa, 2021)

These areas are specifically spread along the Sabie and Crocodile River valleys, with extensive thorn thickets formed by the acacias; it is a favourite grazing area for the endangered black rhino (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

CONTEXT

LEBOMBO This range forms the eastern border of the Kruger. The landscape forms a distinctive pinkish hue because of the rhyolite rocks on the hills. These are some of the driest parts of the park with mainly drought-resistant plants, such as succulents and euphorbias (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

Figure 29 // Typical Thorn Thickets vegetation (Siyabona Africa, 2021)

Figure 30 // Typical Lebombo vegetation (Siyabona Africa, 2021)

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CHAPTER 1

SOUTH-WESTERN FOOTHILLS These regions experience the highest rainfall and can be identified by their granite outcrops. These generally fall to the west and the south of the park. The vegetation consists of mixed woodland and sour grasses but also some of the rarer species of the park due to the high rainfall (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

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RIVERINE BUSH

Figure 31 // Typical South-western Foothills vegetation (Siyabona Africa, 2021)

These areas include typical riverside vegetation and can be found in various degrees of intensity along the main rivers of the Kruger National Park.

The riverine forest is associated with the alluvial flood plants because the increased flood dumping altered the soil conditions to be much deeper, which makes it more favourable for forest development (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

CONTEXT Based on the landscape characteristics, the split of the Sabie River into the Sand River can be identified as Riverine Bush vegetation. This specific landscape is very dependent on the soil conditions of the riverbed, which is threatened by the increasing floods as the soil is continuously displaced downstream.

Figure 32 // Typical Riverine Bush vegetation (Siyabona Africa, 2021)

For the purpose of this study, the term wildlife will comprise of nondomesticated animals and vegetation.

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CHAPTER 1

1.4. EXISTING HUMAN-WILDLIFE RELATIONSHIP One of the most defining experiences of humankind’s existence is the interaction with other species (Nyhus, 2016); these interactions can be either positive or negative. Since prehistoric times, humans have competed with food, space, and resources; over time, humans have come to dominate the field and have become an ecological force on this planet. This competing nature has resulted in the complete eradication of some plant and animal species (Nyhus, 2016). Apart from the eradication, other interactions include the domestication of species that humans deem beneficial, and the implementation of social, behavioural, and technical approaches to minimise negative interaction with wildlife. As research on the field of understanding the human-wildlife relationship advances, several positive conservation strategies have been developed, which bring us closer to coexistence.

The Existence of the Kruger National Park, for example, has a significant economic impact on the surrounding neighbourhoods as it provides jobs and business opportunities for the locals to meet whatever demands are created by the large number of tourists.

A main attraction of the Kruger National Park is the chance for visitors to go on a game drive. In return, humans will develop protective management strategies for the animals as this human-wildlife interaction is what provides the thrill of the experience to the tourists. The refuge that the Park provides is a crucial part of wildlife conservation, but it does pose a threat to humans and wildlife alike as it creates competition for resources such as space, which produces a confined area (Teel, et al., 2010). In other words, human-wildlife conflict include actions by either humans or wildlife that affect the other in an unfavourable manner (Nyhus, 2016).

Human wildlife conflict tends to be more common around protected areas because of poachers sneaking into the park and animals escaping the park (Teel, et al., 2010). The conflict has resulted in the extinction of animal species and large amounts of human deaths. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) recommended that the management of protected areas worldwide should take action to prevent and mitigate the existing HWC. The cost of no action will result in significant ecological 42

CONTEXT and social declines as well as loss in governmental support to conservation (Teel, et al., 2010).

To achieve an effective management system for protected areas containing wildlife, such as the Kruger National Park, a series of underlying factors should be considered for conservation effectiveness, such as the nature of mankind’s relationship with wildlife (Teel, et al., 2010). Human activity is altering the natural functioning of the ecosystem (Munguia-Carrara, 2020), which makes this of the biggest factors contributing to HWC; this includes activities such as population growth, land-use transformation, habitat loss and fragmentation, increasing wildlife populations due to conservation initiatives, and growing interest in access to nature reserves and nature-based activities (Teel, et al., 2010). The consequence of our activities is that we now live in a highly transformed landscape at our own fault (pollution, emerging diseases, climate change, species trade, overexploitation, land use, invasive species, land cover change) (Munguia-Carrara, 2020). According to researchers, the extinction rate of species is now 1000 times higher than the natural extinction rate; due to human activities, we are in a biodiversity crisis (Munguia-Carrara, 2020). Therefore, Nyhus (2016) has identified the HWC and coexistence as a new field of study known as anthrotherology, where various disciplines address the issue in their field of knowledge.

Figure 33 // Ego driven ecosystem conformation to eco driven ecosystem (By author, 2021) 43

CHAPTER 1

1.5. PARK DISASTERS The Kruger National Park is a prestigious park that exists for the protection of our wildlife, wildlife that is a phenomenal part of all Africans’ heritage. It can henceforth be argued that it is South Africans’ responsibility to see to the protection of African wildlife and the iconic landscape. Various elements have been identified that are either threatened by, or threatening to, the existence of the wildlife and require strategic intervention. This includes elements such as biodiversity, species of special concern, veterinary services, and responsible tourism. The mentioned threats bring great damage, loss or destruction; for the purposes of this study, these threats will also be referred to as disasters.

BIODIVERSITY In its natural state, the biodiversity of the Kruger National Park consists of mainly fauna and flora, humans are present but even the community within the Park is fenced in for protection. With the proposed Architectural intervention, the aim is to introduce an ecological system that includes humans. This suggests that the programme will explore the possibility of humans living alongside animals with minimal harm to one another.

What poses the most harm to the biodiversity of the park is extreme conditions like flooding and droughts, which are worsened by the increasing climate change.

Floods Any ground or riverbed that has a significantly high waterbed, or is temporarily, seasonally, or permanently wet can be defined as wetlands (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

These wetlands are very productive ecosystems for riparian plant and animal species with high moisture requirements and can usually be found adjacent, or in some way attached, to permanent water sources. The Sabie River is one of the five main water sources in the KNP and acts as an evergreen artery running through the Park. The wide flat riverbeds form seasonal to semi-permanent wetlands along with various intermittent channels deviating from the main river.

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CONTEXT

Apart from habitation, the vegetation on the wetlands and intermittent channels serves other purposes for the Sabie River, such as regulating water flow during floods, protecting the riverbeds from erosion, and helping in water purification of the rivers after it has passed through the townships adjacent to the Park (Siyabona Africa, 2021).

With drastic climate change, the Kruger National Park is experiencing an increase in the frequency and severity of flooding, to the extent that there is not enough time for the riverbed and intermittent channels’ vegetation to recover. See Figure 1 for the Sabie Riverbed in 2009, 2016, and 2019 and the decline in vegetation due to flooding and drought. With the projected cyclone-generated extreme floods, the Sabie River is in danger of being stripped of even more vegetation (Milan, et al., 2018). Without the protection that the vegetation offers against erosion, in time, the Sabie River’s wetlands will transform into a more bedrock state that will have drastic implications on the surrounding ecosystem (Milan, et al., 2018).

Climate change poses the threat of losing species in the KNP. Laser surveys measured that the damage made by the 2000 and 2012 floods made to the Kruger’s rivers require more than decades to recover (Chambers, 2018). The 2012 flood removed approximately 1,25 million tonnes of sediment, including patches of mature Riparian Forest vegetation that survived the 2000 flood from the Sabie riverbed (Chambers, 2018). Following these floods, the Kruger experienced a further four floods to date, which have exhausted the resiliency of the riverbed biodiversity resulting in a gradual decline in species. Climatic studies foreshadow that large flood events such as these are due to an increase in climate change, which does not allow adequate recovery time of the ecological system (Chambers, 2018). Both the 2000 and 2012 floods have been classified as 100-year floods and occurred within a period of 12 years.

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CHAPTER 1

Flood history: February flood of 2000 // Caused immense damage to existing infrastructure. Access between the northern and southern sides of the park was cut off. Categorised as the worst flood in Southern Kruger History (Getaway, 2020).

February flood of 2012 // The second time that the KNP experienced what is referred to as a “hundred-year” flood within 12 years. This flood was directly related to a tropical cyclone in Mozambique, which is the eastern border of the KNP. The flood caused road closures of the Olifants River causeway, Tshokwane to Lower Sabie, Pretoriuskop to Skukuza, and all the gravel roads south of Letaba River due to flooding or damage (Getaway, 2020).

January floods of 2013 // Letaba River overflowed, which destroyed Shingwedzi Camp. All visitors and staff had to be airlifted to safety. Shimuwini, Shingwedzi, Sirheni, Talamati, and Tamboti were all inaccessible. Gravel roads in Phalaborwa, Letaba, and Mopani were all closed (Getaway, 2020).

Torrential rains in 2016 // The H1-7 road between Shingwedzi and Punda Maria experienced extreme damage to the point of road closure due to torrential rains in the area (Getaway, 2020).

February floods of 2020 // Floods caused by torrential rains, which caused more damage in the north of Kruger. Nyalaland Wilderness trail, Sirheni Bush Camp, Bateleur Bush Camp, Balule Camp, Talamati Bush Camp, Pafuri Gate, Tshokwane, and Muzandzeni picnic sites had to be closed for a period (Getaway, 2020).

January floods of 2021 // Strong River flows were experienced in the south of KNP, leaving parts inaccessible due to low-lying bridges left overrun by water (Imogen, 2021).

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CONTEXT

Figure 34 // Riverbank vegetation recovery (By author. 2021) 47

CHAPTER 1

Droughts Droughts in the natural ecosystem is an important phenomenon and not a homogeneous negative effect. Different species experience droughts differently, for example, the predators and scavengers do very well during dry seasons, with grazing herbivores as the most affected (Govender, 2016). Naturally, a drought assists in the natural selection process and helps to control abundant species. For example, the KNP had over 7500 hippos before 2016, so much so that they poisoned the water holes for some animals due to the formation of blue-green algae caused by their waste. In 2016, the KNP experienced one of the worst droughts since 1991, the reduction in water levels cost the lives of many hippos, which restored the balance of the ecosystem.

However, when humans fenced in the KNP, they disrupted, amongst others, the migratory patterns, and other instincts that animals follow in the wilderness to combat climatic threats (Ferguston, et al., 2011). The KNP recognised this and intervened by introducing artificial watering holes. Figure 36 shows a map with the location of 21 artificial watering holes situated in the KNP, the black circles are drinking points with a water reservoir and the white circles show points with only one drinking point (Ndlovu, et al., 2018).

2009

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2016

CONTEXT

The problem with the artificial waterholes is that the megaherbivores (plant-eaters that exceed 1000kg in weight) and herds tend to graze around the water sources and, as a result, destroy surrounding biomass that is necessary for food for themselves (and smaller herbivores) as well as protection from predators, which makes them more vulnerable in the watering area (Reardon, 2012)

Figure 35 // Sabie riverbank vegetation comparison for 2009,2016 and 2019 (Google, 2019)

Figure 36 // Artificial waterhole placements in the Kruger National Park (Google, 2019) 2019

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CHAPTER 1

SPECIES OF SPECIAL CONCERN More and more animal species are becoming endangered; this is due to various factors such as the destruction of their natural habitat, climate change, pollution, or even illegal poaching. Rhinos are the largest poaching targets in Southern Africa (Siyabona Africa, 2021); a rise in the demand for rhino horn has caused this increase in poaching, as it is used in certain traditional Asian medicines (Montesh, 2012. Goga & Albaran, 2017).

South Africa has two types of Rhinos, namely the black rhino (see Figure 11) and the Southern white rhino; both are on the red list of endangerment. The Kruger National Park is home to approximately a third of the world’s remaining wild rhinos (Myburgh, et al., 2017) and one of the only places where they can remain wild and roam freely.

Figure 37 // White rhino, a species suffering near extinction (Carstens. 2021) 50

CONTEXT

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CHAPTER 1 VETERINARY SERVICES Even with the protection that the KNP provides to the wildlife, humans still pose a threat to animals within the Park. This is why there is a group of veterinarians appointed to tend to all animal injuries that have been caused as a result of humans.

To practise ethical and professional services (including capture, holding, translocating and research) concerning wildlife, SANParks require all veterinary staff to adhere to several “values” set out in the park practice, SANParks Strategic Organisational Objectives Framework (South African National Parks, 2021), namely: o Prioritising services in terms of resources, ethical, and legal constrictions. o Conserving the use of resources. o Training and building on the wildlife profession. o Acknowledging that SANParks acts according to what is best for whole populations rather than individual animals. o Using information and skill to empower the South African Developing Country region surrounding the KNP. o Acknowledging the significance of the wildlife, ecological, and socio-interfaces.

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CONTEXT Apart from medical assistance, veterinarian scientists have other duties such as researching new diseases occurring in the park, broadening the biometric data bank on wildlife that is being used for international studies. According to South African National Parks (2021), other basic veterinary services and responsibilities include: o Coordinating research on proximity living, meaning wildlife diseases and the impact it has on humans, wildlife, and livestock. o Implementing and managing wildlife capture and relocation programmes. The aim of this is: o To reintroduce new populations into the various parks. o To improve the conservation strategies for rare and endangered species. o To defend the biodiversity by preventing habitat degradation by controlling overpopulated species. o To increase responsible wildlife trade for park revenue. o To improve breeding strategies for valuable, rare, and endangered species. o Training people in the veterinary and wildlife capture fields, and focussing on previously disadvantaged individuals.

For veterinary staff to see to the abovementioned responsibilities, the KNP is equipped with a complete research laboratory (South African National Parks, 2021). On all field operations, biosamples will be drawn for data analysis. The findings are available for all research institutions globally (Kruger National Park, 2018).

Figure 38 // The bird with the most elegant and seemingly effortless flight pattern : The African Skimmer (Carstens. 2021) 53

Figure 39 // Two cheetahs getting ready for a hunt(Carstens. 2021) 54

CHAPTER II ARCHITECTURE vs. WILDERNESS 2.1. Technological Response 2.2. Architectural Response 2.3. Precedent Studies

One would think that with architecture being static and human-dominated, it has no relation to the fluidity and ever-changing characteristics of the wilderness. This chapter discusses the possible links that the architectural sciences and technology can have with the wilderness, and how it can potentially be used to assist in some of the “disasters” that the ecosystem must face.

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2.1. TECHNOLOGICAL RESPONSE How can technology assist in illegal poaching?

Modern technology can be used to assist in the wellbeing of people and wildlife; apart from assisting in the research and delivery of resources, it can also help a great deal with intelligence in the defence sector of wildlife conservation. The idea of the proposal is to equip the KNP with a selection of defensive technologies to be mixed and deployed as needed to achieve the best possible outcome for long-term ecological impact.

Two innovative technologies will be looked at for the defence against illegal poaching.

One is the drone system that is discussed under veterinary services; alternatively, the drones can be equipped with night vision to track down poachers (Salmon, 2015).

Algorithms are then used to predict poacher movements, and rangers are pre-deployed to intercept the poaching (Salmon, 2015) The other technological system is the Postcode MeerKAT system (See figure 12). It is a surveillance system that was developed by three organisations, namely SANParks, the Peace Parks Foundation, and the CSIR (Ngwenya Lodge, 2017. de Villiers, 2017. Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, 2017). The system uses a surveillance radar to scan the terrain, detect movement, and plot it on a map (Kruger National Park, 2017). As movement is detected, with the assistance of electro-optical cameras and analysis software, the movement can be determined as being human or animal (Kruger National Park, 2017) (Ngwenya Lodge, 2017). Once detected, the rangers either track the poachers before intervening or deploy either road- or air-based assistance to the area. This gives the rangers a proactive advantage over the poachers. With four systems, the radar can cover up to 50% of the KNP’s landscape. The system showed an 80% decrease in poaching in areas that it surveys and a 90% success rate in poacher arrests (Ngwenya Lodge, 2017).

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The MeerKat system is currently a mobile system and can be dismantled and reassembled at the current poaching hotspot. The Architectural proposal includes a MeerKat headquarter for 24/7 management of the surveillance system; see Figure 13 for the current setup.

ARCHITECTURE vs WILDERNESS Note that tese are theoretical placements of temporary systems, for security reasons information pertaining to actual placement is not made available to the public.

Figure 40 // Map of the areas that can be covered by Meerkat surveillance technology(By author. 2021) 57

CHAPTER 2 How can technology assist with the veterinary services?

Technology has become an irreplaceable resource in the medical industry, where all health information and documentation have been digitalised. In Ghana, they have taken this a step further and allowed for technology to be a source for healthrelated deliveries, by introducing an autonomous drone system, the “Zipline” system (Demuyakor, 2020). The main benefits of this system include quick lead times and accessibility to remote locations.

Figure 41 // Map of the areas that can be reached by drone delivery system (By author. 2021)

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ARCHITECTURE vs WILDERNESS The drone is sent from the storage facility out to a specific GPS location where it will drop off a packet of up to 1.6kgs with lifesaving medications. The drone’s lead time from order to launch is, on average, five minutes, and flies at 100km/h to the destination, with a 160km range. Engineering achieved this fast time by moving the GPS circuitry from the plane to the battery, meaning it is always on and can save 10 to 15 minutes from launch time by removing the start-up boot (McManus, 2019). The drone bodice is constructed from a Carbon fibre composite core with a lightweight foam shell adding to a total weight of 6.4kg. The wing weighs 2kg with a 3m span structurally integral wing span that is made from a high-strength fibre composite with high-density polystyrene aerodynamic surfaces. The Plane communicates with air traffic control to avoid collisions by using the specialised, decentralised air traffic management system for unmanned aerial vehicles (McManus, 2019).

As all the medical procedures on the wild animals take place on-site in the KNP, the medical staff and rangers are limited to the supplies and resources on hand. This means that sometimes supply shortages can mean the end of an animal’s life. Although the KNP has existing road infrastructure for the game rangers and medical staff to use for these procedures, due to the sensitive nature of the Park, speed limits and accessibility (a herd of elephants or buffalo may be obstructing the way) pose a challenge for lead times to and from the sites of emergencies. By implementing a drone system like the Zipline system, medical supplies for conservation purposes can be made readily available. This will equip personnel closest to the reported site to keep things under control until the medical team arrives, the medical team will also be able to do back-to-back procedures without returning to base camp to restock.

During the flood, the seasoned personnel would not be preventedfrom doing their jobs due to lack of supplies when many of the roads in the KNP are inaccessible.

Future expansion of the drone system can also provide food parcels and emergency supplies to staff villages when the roads are closed due to flooding.

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2.2. ARCHITECTURAL RESPONSE How can architecture assist in wetland restoration?

The relationship between the various elements of a functioning ecosystem is sensitive and can, without proper understanding, be easily unbalanced when humans intervene, as can be seen by the artificial waterholes installed around the KNP. When intervening to rectify the repercussions of human beings’ ecological footprint, the design of the intervention should mimic the mechanics, function, and placement of a natural element that produces the same result. Using nature as inspiration for innovative solutions, also known as biomimicry, can be the solution to assist the animals during hard times with minimal effect on the animals’ natural behaviour. Figure 36 illustrates the current installation of artificial waterholes.

For example, when elephants experience drought, they will dig small water wells for water. The process involves elephants smelling water from as far as 20km away, or underground as deep as one meter; once they find the water, they dig holes to reach it. By using their trunks to siphon off the sand sludge, the hole is left with fresh clean drinking water, and once the elephants have quenched their thirst, other animals will take turns to drink (Amazing Facts About Elephants Against the Drought, 2019).

Figure 5 illustrates how elephants dig wells in areas that they know housed water in the past.

The proposal deems to mimic an intermittent river’s conditions by extending the riverbed into the building. This section will be allocated to various species of vegetation found in intermittent rivers to create a germination hub for the riverbed biota. As an external space, all insects, birds, and rodents have access to it and allow for the seeds to germinate to nearby riverbanks. During flooding season, the water will seep into the area to mimic the natural conditions; however, with severe floods, the area can be closed off with slues for protection. During severe droughts that threaten the existence of the vegetation, the building can mechanically wet the section. This will assist in the recovery time of the riverbank between floods.

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ARCHITECTURE vs WILDERNESS Figure 42 // Graphical illustration of the proposed intervention, that will act as a pioneer to future alternative adaptations that will collectively combat the riverbank deterioration (By author. 2021)

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CHAPTER 2 How can architecture design impact human behaviour?

As mentioned before, the climatic changes caused by human activity has a significant impact on the ecosystem of the Kruger National Park (Munguia-Carrara, 2020).

Human wildlife conflict is a complicated topic because one of the subjects is humans, with underlying tension between human-human conflict due to discrepancies regarding the use of resources and conservation (Nyhus, 2016). The fact that humanwildlife interaction is predominantly perceived as negative regardless of the positive recreational, educational, and psychological benefits is problematic (Nyhus, 2016).

The only way to prevent further damaging the ecosystems is by drastically changing human behaviour. According to Flury-Kleubler & Gutscher (2001), we can only affect the stimuli that another person is exposed to; and as stimuli are relevant to the individual’s existence, it has meaning, therefore that individual’s reactions and behaviour can be shaped.

Studies have proven a clear link between Architecture and Neuroscience because the brain is constantly adapting to its direct environment. There are many emotional theories to explain this, one of which is the appraisal theory.

Stress

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Excitement

Isolation

ARCHITECTURE vs WILDERNESS

According to Moors et al. (2013), the appraisal theory states that emotions are the result of the individual’s adaptive responses to the elements contained in their direct environment and their wellbeing within a set environment. The final emotion is thus a process compared to a state of being. To elaborate, an emotion involves a subconscious process from the individual (Moors, et al., 2013); the process consists of: 1) evaluation of the environment 2) person-environment interaction 3) motivation for action readiness (will it pose a danger?)

4) peripheral physiological response (involuntary response) 5) expressive (sending out social signals) and instrumental behaviour (doing something about it) By using textures, light, space, sound, and other sensory elements, this can be implemented into architectural spaces, allowing it to educate visitors on the repercussions of their behaviour through evoking emotions (Flury-Kleubler & Gutscher, 2001). The programme allows for sensory installations as an emotional experience will have a longer-lasting impact on the visitors than a typical fact-based exchange.

Engagement

Relaxation

Figure 43 // Emotions that the building design will evoke by the use of elements such as, space, light, ceiling height, sound, water, colour, texture, wildlife and earth (By author. 2021)

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ARCHITECTURE vs WILDERNESS

Figure 44 // Illustration of which elements can be used to evoke each emotion (By author. 2021) 65

CHAPTER 2

2.3. PRECEDENT STUDIES During the design process, a couple of precedent studies were analysed to see how other architects have resolved similar challenges in architectural terms The precedent for stimuli-based architecture is the Jewish Museum in Berlin.

Project: Jewish Museum Architect: Studio Libeskind Libeskind designed this museum with the intent to bring the Jewish presence back to Berlin (Pavka, 2010). His design of architectural spaces conceptually and physically expresses feelings of absence, emptiness, and invisibility (Pavka, 2010). The design allows visitors to experience the effect of the Holocaust on the Jewish culture by play of light and shaping internal spaces (Pavka, 2010). See Figures 845 to 47 for the implemented stimuli design in the Jewish Museum.

Figure 45-47 // Spaces within the Jewish Museum in Berlin (By author. 2021) 66

ARCHITECTURE vs WILDERNESS

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CHAPTER 2

The precedent for form and spatial planning is the MAXXI Museum of Arts of the XXI century in Rome.

Project: MAXXI Museum of Arts of the XXI century Architect: Zaha Hadid Architects The design of the MAXXI Museum by Zaha Hadid Architects is a public building designed with the intent to abandon the idea of the building as an “object” and to distort the inside and outside space (Zaha Hadid Architects, 2021). The form created by the confluent lines intersecting creates internal and external spaces. The deconstructed fluidity of the design resembles of coexistence of the “static” city and the chaotic fluidity of modern life.

Figure 48-50 // Interiors of the MAXXI Museum in Rome (Zaha Hadid Architects, 2021) 68

ARCHITECTURE vs WILDERNESS

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Figure 51 // Elephant feeding (Carstens. 2021) 70

CHAPTER III CONCEPT

3.1. Concept Development 3.2. Design Rationale 3.3. Connecting Humans and Wildlife 3.4. Programme and Accomodation Development 3.5. Site Analysis

The concept of coexistence through symbiosis will be discussed in this chapter, namely how Architecture can mediate the conflict between humankind and wildlife.

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3.1. CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT The concept explores the possibility of harmonious living between mankind and wildlife. Ideally, the design must serve as an “invisible hand” to assist the biodiversity of the park with survival against external threats. The conservation strategy of the design aligns with conservation legislation by requiring minimal interference with the natural ecosystem; where possible, this will benefit the biodiversity to combat the harm that humans do to the ecosystem of the KNP. The line sketch (Figure 52) illustrates how human beings can experience a life-changing event that can alter their existence. Each line represents a human activity that is driven by greed; every time the line intersects with another line, a point of conflict arises, this can be between man-to-man, man-to-wildlife, or man-to-environment. The centre of the sketch is tranquil; this is the point of impact, namely the point of realisation where humans are made aware of the extent of the damage caused by all activities. Proceding the impact point, all actions start to align with little to no conflict. This represents sustainability and living in harmony with nature, to where a symbiotic relationship is formed.

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CONCEPT

3.2. DESIGN RATIONAL

Figure 52 // Conceptual line diagram (By author, 2021)

The coexistence of humans and wildlife can either be beneficial or hazardous to each other (Munguia-Carrara, 2020). All the discussed disasters are examples of harmful elements that humans contribute to the existing human-wildlife relationship found in the KNP. With innovative intervention and management, this can be steered to be beneficial for both parties. The challenge is how Architecture can be used as a tool to rectify some of these disasters to convert the humanwildlife conflict to human-wildlife coexistence and make it more symbiotic.

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3.3. CONNECTING HUMANS AND WILDLIFE The ma jority of the people in the KNP are individuals with a desire to experience a connection with nature. Unfortunately, not all individuals know how to react or behave within a natural setting. This irresponsible behaviour causes a lot of harm to the wildlife within the Park. Tourism, therefore, poses a threat to the conservation of the KNP. Initially, in 1898, the Park did not allow visitors to enter. From 1927 onwards, tourism was used as a revenue stream to support conservation (Siyabona Africa, 2021). Today, the KNP is a world-class destination for tourists; and one of the biggest features of the Park is that it serves as the Park’s main source of income. A big challenge with a tourist-driven entity is that its success is related to the experience of the tourists. This requires diversity in nature-based responsible activities and products, whilst maintaining the tranquillity and sense of space of the wilderness and without posing any harm to it (Kruger National Park, 2018).

Figure 53 // Typical landscape of the Kruger National Park (By author, 2021) 74

Figure 54 // Typical vehicular interaction between human and wildlife(By author, 2021)

CONCEPT

Managing a diverse group of people who visit is challenging in the sense that they each come from their own beliefs and cultural backgrounds (Kruger National Park, 2018). According to Fox & Xu (2016), an individual’s socio-cultural background plays a role in their opinion towards the use of nature as a resource and the feelings they experience in a natural setting, all of which will influence their actions and behaviour.

Beliefs and culture shape an individual’s attitude towards nature and their response to environmental issues (Fox & Xu, 2016).

Figure 55 // Typical free-standing interaction between human and wildlife(By author, 2021) 75

CHAPTER 3 The tourism element of the proposal intends to help shape the visitors’ attitudes by making them aware of environmental issues and educating them on animal habits, behaviour, and wildlife conservation. Through spatial manipulation, innovative interaction points can be created between man and nature.

Figure 56 illustrates how space and natural light (or the absence of it) can be used to help the visitor experience the spatial confinement in relation to vast openness. It will also give a glimpse of how a burrowing animal would experience space, creating not only physical interaction with nature but also a symbolical connection.

See Figure 57 for an example of how more unique connections with nature can be created. A platform submerged below the flood line of the river is proposed and a walkway floating on water/ground level (depending on the season), the gap in the ground floor provide the necessary safety and allow for the thresholds to open without encaging the visitor. The design will spread the awareness of the impact humans have on the ecosystem to give some common ground to help manage the diversity of Park visitors.

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ALTERNATIVE INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMAN AND WILDLIFE

CONCEPT

Figure 56-58 // Examples of alternative interaction points incorporated into the design, allowing visitors to experience the wildlife in a unique manner (By author, 2021) 77

CHAPTER 3

3.4. PROGRAMME AND ACCOMODATION DEVELOPMENT A proper response to manmade disasters requires either elimination or remediation to ensure effective conservation of the biodiverse environment.

The proposal suggests a building that can act as a first responder to various significant disasters and threats through four intervention strategies, namely species of special concern, veterinary services, biodiversity, and responsible tourism. The building’s technological programme consists of an active disaster response, which consideres the species of special concern and veterinary services interventions and is, apart from the spatial requirements, predominantly reliant on human resources. The architectural intervention will act as the passive disaster response by promoting biodiversity and responsible tourism (See Figure 58).

These identified disasters and responses align with the Management Plan of the KNP

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CONCEPT

Figure 59 // Passive vs Active response diagram (By author, 2021) 79

CHAPTER 3

Figure 60 // Active response spatial allocations (By author, 2021)

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CONCEPT

SPECIES OF SPECIAL CONCERN “MEERCAT SURVEILANCE SYSTEM

ACTIVE RESPONSE The active response sections comprises of two activities that is, Species of special concern and veterianry services.

These activities are classified as active because they require human resources and technology to function.

Species of special concern The identified technological system is the Meerkat system. It is an infrared surveilance system that combats animal poaching. This system is allocated on ground floor with quick access to response vehicles.

Figure 61 // Meerkat surveillance system (Salmon, 2015) VETIRENARY SCIENCES AUTONOMOUS DRONES

Veterinary services The identified technological system is autonomous drones like the Zipline system in Ghana. The drones will be stored, stocked, dispatched, received and maintained within the proposed intervention. This system is allocated on ground and first floor of the east wing as well as roof space for dispatch.

Figure 62 // Autonomous drone 81

CHAPTER 3

Figure 63 // Passive response spatial allocation and main movements PUBLIC ENTRANCE

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STAFF ENTRANCE AND DELIVERIES

CONCEPT PASSIVE RESPONSE

DRY SEASON

The passive response sections comprises of two activities that is, Biodiversity and responsible tourism. These activities are classified as passive as it is the dependent on non-human resources, such as water management and spatial experiences of which the building will be the main resource.

Biodiversity to combat some of the challeges that the riverbank vegetation and insect/bird life has to face, space will be allocated for a propegation hub where conditions desirable for vegetation propecation will be mimicked by effective management.

FLOOD SEASON

RIVER FLOOD LINES

Responsible tourism The idea behind this response is to help the park visitors to emphathise with the environment by creating different ways that they can connect with nature.

Figure 64-66 // River connection (By author, 2021) 83

CHAPTER 3

Figure 67-71 // Natural elements incorporated into the proposal (By author, 2021)

84

CONCEPT

AIR / SPACE

EARTH / VEGETATION

WATER

1. SUBMERGED

Connection To assist in responsible tourism, the proposal creates opportunities for the visitors to connect with nature. For this to be effective the design allowed the elements of air, earth, water and light, in their natural form, to interact / engage in the spacial design. This create a unique connection between humand and wildlife, withiout sactificing the safety of either one.

2. VISUAL

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3. SURFACE

CHAPTER 3 Figure 71 // Sabie river channel (By author, 2021)

As part of the passive response programe the water that enters the building will be flitered to rid some of the toxins gathered upstream. This filtration methods involves three basic steps: 1. The settler // solids andliquids are progressively seperated.

2. Forced aeration // aeration is forced into the stagnent water through pipe system in the germination hub. This helps to increase the activity of micro-organisms by approxamitely 15 times, promoting plant growth and water purification.

3. Vertical flow bed // tersiary treatment of the water where it is pumped from the germination hub to tthe green roofs and the immediate surroundings to encourage natural vegetation growth.

Figure 72-74 // Steps in the water filtration system for the propagation hub of the building (By author, 2021)

Figure 75 // Water movement through the building (By author, 2021) 86

CONCEPT

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Figure 76 // Intermittent River during dry season (By author. 2021) 88

CONCEPT

Figure 77 // Flowing intermittent river in between wet and dry season (By author. 2021)

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Figure 78-79 // Man made water interventions vs. animal water intervention (By author. 2021)

Figure 80 // Mechanical refill of the propagation hub (By author. 2021) 90

CONCEPT Figure 78 illustrates how man made water sources function in the park. As these interventions are very unnatural, it rises a series of alternative problems to the direct environment. Figure 79 illustrates how elephants in nature deals with water shortage.

During extreme droughts that threaten the survival of the vegetation within the propegation hub, it is pertinent that management intervenes by regulating the moisture content of the hub. This intervention should mimic the ideal natural cycle and minimise the effect of the altering climatic conditions. The proposal follows an elephant’s natural instinct and impliminnts that into the building by incorporating a bore hole to the sub-waterlevel. This enables the management to mechanically irrigate the vegetation within the hub to prevent severe damage from drought.

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3.5. SITE ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 3

The proposed location is situated in the Kruger National Park, Mpumalanga, South Africa. As the Park is a world-renowned wildlife park and forms part of South African culture (Parker, 2011), an adaptive conservation strategy should be implemented.

The Architectural intervention will be on the riverbank of the Sabie River as indicated in Figure 80. This site is specifically chosen as it will flood annually, giving the Architecture a seasonal element and spreading awareness of the devastation that the ecosystem must endure under extreme weather conditions.

Figure 81 // Proposed site position on the Sabie Riverbed (Google, 2019)

Figure 82 // View of site from bridge (By author. 2021) 92

CONCEPT

Figure 83 // Site indicating contours and river positioning (By author. 2021) 93

Figure 84 // Giraffe looking straight into the camara, immortalising this humanwildlife connection (Carstens. 2021) 94

CHAPTER IV DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 4.1. Model Development 4.2. Section Development 4.3. Plan Development

The fourth chapter explains the design exploration. The process followed to incorporate conceptand intoillustrates architectural This chapterthe analyses the spaces and elements, illustrated in model process of the design. From conceptual and diagrams. massing to space making and the rational behind the desicions made.

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CHAPTER 4

4.1. MODEL DEVELOPMENT A model exploration of the possibility of a public landform building that sits on the riverbed and provides a podium overlooking the Sabie River is proposed. This will enable the visitors of the Kruger National Park to admire the diverse biodiversity of the river and surrounding wilderness without any visual obstructions. The threshold between the river and the building is focussed on creating a positive space for direct interaction between the visitors and the river elements.

Figure 85 // Solid mass building facing the river (By Author. 2021).

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DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

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Figure 86-87 // Breaking the solid mass into a series of smaller masses to increase wilderness-building interaction and create safe external spaces for the visitors without boundary walls (By Author. 2021).

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DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

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Figure 88 // A series of interlocking confluent massing that represents humans (straight rigid lines) coexisting with wildlife (organic lines).

(By Author. 2021).

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DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

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4.2. SECTION DEVELOPMENT Depressed base plane The natural riverbed section is unique to every season. For the design, it is important to make the experience as authentic as possible by including the seasonal aspect in the design. By lowering the base plane of the main movement route in the design to a natural flood level of the river, it enables the visitors to experience the space differently in every season. The vertical surfaces of the depressed plane will act as visual boundaries of the space for the visitors and physical boundaries for flood water entrapment. This part of the proposal will form a micromanaged intermittent river that can act as a germination hub for the riverbed biota.

The degree of level change in the sunken plane is based on the ergonomics of the typical predators within the Park, and when depressed to above eye level, a separate space from the greater context is created. The plane assists in isolating the visitor from the dangers that the wilderness might pose while remaining an outdoor space with access to air, light, and other climatic conditions.

Figure 89 // Graphically illustrates the principal of a depressed plane (By author. 2021) 102

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

Overhead Plane The depressed base plane forms part of the river with a manmade intermittent channel; the intent is that visitors should be able to directly experience the biota without physical boundaries. The main movement route through the biota is defined by an overhead plane that implies vertical boundaries for protection against damage to the biota from the visitors. This method discreetly defines a space within a space that will subconsciously influence the visitor’s behaviour.

Apart from defining the movement space, the overhead plane provides protection from the elements to the visitors. The overall form of the building is greatly impacted by the overhead plane as it allows for the addition of the depressed plane without sacrificing the continuation of the three directional elements of the building. This combination provides a platform from which the visitors can experience the wildlife on ground level without any visual boundaries to obstruct the symbiotic interaction between humans and wildlife.

Figure 90 // Graphically illustrates the principal of an overhead plane (By author.

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Another space-defining element within the sectional design is the ceiling. The entrance lobby’s ceiling is designed with a large void space overhead that connects the basement level to the sky, which allows natural light in through polycarbonate sheeting (see figure 90). The special experience will thus take the visitor onto a sunken plane with a low ceiling space, directly into a large void space surrounding them with natural light. The elevated void establishes the spatial field below as the entrance to the building.

Figure 91 // Entrance lobby section illustrating the use of variations of ceiling height and materials to influence the way a space is experienced (By author. 2021) Arrival with low ceiling to create a confined space

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Entrance with void roofspace and transparent roof for natural light

Office space with coloured glass art suspended overhead, transparent roof above to illuminate art by natural light

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

4.3. PLAN DEVELOPMENT The typical typography (figure 91) of the Kruger National Park involves one or more units on a section of land that is fenced around at a distance for protection. This does not allow the visitors to enjoy the wildlife from the comfort of the building, but they must endure the harsh conditions of the elements outside. The proposal challenges this typography by eliminating the “fenced in” mentality and transforming the building into a boundary while creating its own external spaces within the building (figure 92).

Figure 92 // The typical footprint of existing buildings in the Kruger National Park (By author.

2021)

Figure 93 // The new proposed footprint that eliminates boundaries and transition space between human and wildlife (By author. 2021)

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CHAPTER 4 The form of the proposal is based on the original line diagram that inspired this thesis.

It symbolises human behaviour to the point of realisation that change is needed in our behaviour for the survival of all species on this earth. Looking to nature, whenever animals feel threatened or that their environment can no longer provide for their survival needs, they will migrate to a more promising place. According to Rasmussen and Wendt (1962), because buildings are stationary elements within a space, their form should be dictated by the movement that will be taking place within the building. By analysing the confluent lines of animal migratory tracks and humans’ natural movement paths, the building shape that has been determined for the building represents the mental migration of the destruction of symbiosis.

The building footprint intends to optimise direct contact with the surrounding wilderness and create opportunities for humans to form a connection. To guide the visitor’s path to a mental connection with nature, various vertical planes have been incorporated into the plan as the two parallel vertical planes define the space with a directional quality to both ends of the configuration.

Figure 94 // The main and secondary axis of the building movement (By author. 2021) 106

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT In this case, the directional quality is manifested by the visitors’ use of the space for movement and circulation, the journey will take the visitor from a dark discreet entrance to wide panoramic views of the Sabie River.

Figure 95-98 // The progression of the proposed footprint (By author. 2021)

The narrow vertical planes define the spaces for visitors to enjoy within the greater context of the wilderness while providing a sense of enclosure and safety from the animals. Additionally, the linear form separates spaces from one another and establishes a boundary between protected interior spaces and external wilderness.

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CHAPTER 4

Light “Light is of decisive importance in experiencing architecture. The same room can be made to give very different special impressions by the simple expedient of changing the size and location of its openings,” – Rasmussesn (1962).

Le Cobusier (1986) stated that light and shade is what reveal form, and therefore architecture is the mastery of light play. To better understand this statement, the design process involved the making of various models that explore different ways in which the structure can incorporate playful light elements into the design. Light is necessary to fully experience the effect of an enclosed space. The Kruger National Park has harsh sun conditions that provide a source of good quality light that can be used directly or indirectly to accentuate the form of the design. Contrary to artificial lighting, natural light adds another seasonal element to the design as the quality and colours will vary during different seasons and different times of the day.

Figure 99 // Cube models used to explore different ways to experience light (By author. 2021) 108

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

109

Figure 100 // Leopard observing his surroundings for danger (Carstens. 2021) 110

CHAPTER V DESIGN RESOLUTION

5.1. Final 3D 5.2. Spacification Component 5.3. Material Study 5.4. Plans 5.5. Sections 5.6. Details 5.7. Contract Documentation

111

CHAPTER 5

5.1. FINAL 3D

112

DESIGN RESOLUTION

This chapter graphically illustrates the resolved design. How the proposal adresses the concept in terms of compostion, space creation, materiality, how the building sits on the riverbed and interacts with the surroundings.

Full river view renders of the design shows how the building will be experience within the context.

Animated sections and details illustrates how the spaces can be used along with all the technical drawing, included in the last section of this chapter, for a clear understanding of the final design.

Figure 101 // Close-up river view of southwestern facade when not flooded (By author. 2021) 113

CHAPTER 5

Figure 102 //Birds view of building green roofs and filtration corridor, illustrating how the building sits within the context (By author. 2021) 114

DESIGN RESOLUTION Figure 103 // Patio allowing the public to overlook the water filtering process when flooding occurs (By author. 2021)

115

CHAPTER 5

5.2. SPECIFICATION COMPONENT Figure 104-105 // Model experimentation (By author. 2021)

116

Figure 106-107 // Bridge water interaction (By author. 2021)

DESIGN RESOLUTION

Figure 108-109 // Floating bridge concept (By author. 2021)

Figure 110 // Bridge & platform connection (By author. 2021) 117

CHAPTER 5

Figure 111 // Floating with single handrail (By author. 2021)

Figure 113-114 // Floating pontoon structure (By author. 2021)

118 Figure 112 // collapsing bridge connection (By author. 2021)

Figure 115-116 // Collapsing bridge concept (By author. 2021)

DESIGN RESOLUTION

Figure 117-118 // Floating walkway finish (By author.

2021)

Figure 119-120 // Movable timber screen (By author. 2021)

Figure 121 // Adaptability of the entrance movement route allowed by the movement of the design (By author. 2021) 119

CHAPTER 5 Figure 122 // 3D illustrating the material usage of the main movement route (By author. 2021)

120

DESIGN RESOLUTION

121

CHAPTER 5 Figure 123 // Interior render of the entrance walkway during the dry season allowing visitors to directly interact with the river vegetetion (By author. 2021)

122

DESIGN RESOLUTION Figure 124 // Tranquil setting from entrance walkway, illustrating the inside vs. outside, natural vs. manmade and safe vs. danger (By author. 2021)

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CHAPTER 5

5.3. MATERIAL STUDY As the focus of the design is based on a conserved natural setting, the material pallet consists of a variety of natural materials such as timber, stone, clay brick, rammed earth, and papyrus. Where the structure requires it, materials like recycled concrete and steel is used to compensate for strength.

Rammed earth The layering patterns of earth tones will camouflage well into the landscape and complement the linear shape of the building.

124

River stone One of the most important materials of the design is gabion walls. The gabions will be stacked with a 3:2 river stone, which is the natural stone ratio to visually reinforce the natural setting and blend into the surroundings. The gabion walls are predominantly used as retaining walls for the depressed surfaces in the design; the rough texture of the stone will further articulate the contrasting surface of the floodwater on the lowered surface.

Recycled concrete For structural purposes, certain areas of the proposal will be constructed out of reinforced concrete with an off shutter concrete finish to contradict the rough textures of the other materials and to minimise the chemicals used during construction. All the aggregates are recycled from old concrete reservoirs or other structures within the Kruger National Park that have been damaged and can

Timber Timber is a sustainable material that is used in the Kruger National Park as it blends in well with the context. Because timber is a low-tech material, local labour from the surrounding settlements can be used for the construction.

DESIGN RESOLUTION Waste management To keep on par with the theme of sustainability, the environmental impact should be minimised during the construction process.

A couple of ways to manage this is by using local labour where possible, finding local suppliers of materials, proper planning of procedures to minimise construction waste, and economic use resources such as water to prevent spillage of toxic particles into the river.

Steel For structural purposes, steel is used in the structure of the design.

Glass Within the design, glass is used for various purposes: 1) it will be the main source of natural light into the building, 2) it is an element used for space making; 3) it will act as the mediator between the inside and outside, shadow and light, enclosed and open, and human and wildlife.

Figure 125-130 // Material textures (Pixabay. 2021)

Papyrus The papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) is a plant type that is naturally found in wetlands. In central, southern, and eastern Africa the papyrus dominates the wetland vegetation and can grow up to between 5 and 6 meters long (Kipkemboi & van Dam, 2016).

Papyrus serves as one of the most efficient types of wetland vegetation, which is partly due to its structural properties (Kipkemboi & van Dam, 2016). Apart from the natural benefits of the species, ancient Egyptians have learned to harvest the stems of the papyrus for its floating properties. This property enables them to build rafts that can be used to cross any large body of water.

For the floating pontoons of the entrance walkway, the stems of the papyrus will be used. As this is a natural material, unlike plastics, long periods of exposure will not result in the contamination of the river water.

Figure 131 // Material textures (Kipkemboi & van Dam, 2016) 125

CHAPTER 5

Figure 132 // Building sitting on the riverbed with directional quality to the river that implies a future relationship with the river (By author. 2021) 126

DESIGN RESOLUTION Figure 133 // Southern elevation that floats above the water surface (By author.

2021)

Figure 134 // View crossing the river as will be seen by animals within the river (By author. 2021) 127

CHAPTER 5

5.4. PLANS 1.Pick-up / Drop-off 2. Entrance 3. Waiting Area 4. Store room 5. Souvenier Shop 6. Entrance Foyer 7. Reception 8. Management Office

9. Public Bathrooms 10. Pump Room 11. Covered Deck 12. Walkway 13. Floating Walkway 14. Propagation Hub 15. Pump Room

PARTIAL BASEMENT PLAN Scale 1:200 Figure 135 // (By author. 2021)

3

4

5

6 1

2 7

11

9

128

8

10

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16. Moses Platform 17. Exhibition Space 18. Restaurant 19. Courtyard 20. Kitchen 21. Staff Bathroom 22. Cool Room

21 22

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12

13 16

17

15 14

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7

3

1

8

2 5

4 6

6

6

6

6 1. Staff Change Rooms 2. Store Room 3. Open Offices 4. Staff Lounge 5. Weapons’ Safe 6. Overnight Accomodation 7. Boardroom 8. Waiting Area 9. Outside Patio

18

PARTIAL GROUND FLOOR PLAN

Scale 1:200 Figure 136 // (By author. 2021) 130

19

17

9

DESIGN RESOLUTION

11

10

12

14

13

15

12

16

12

12

15

10. Medical Storage 11. Reception 12. Exhibition Space 13. Ceramic evaporative cooling system 14. Glass Floor 15. Lookout point 16. Internal Courtyard 17. Store Room 18. Male Bathrooms with dissabled 19. Female Bathrooms with disabled

15 131

CHAPTER 5

LONG SECTION

Scale 1:200 Figure 137 // (By author. 2021)

132

DESIGN RESOLUTION

133

CHAPTER 5

LONG SECTION CONT. Scale 1:200

134

DESIGN RESOLUTION

EDGE DETAIL

To scale Figure 138 // (By author. 2021)

135

CHAPTER 5

5.5. SECTIONS

SECTION SHORT SECTION CC

To scale Figure 139 x // (By // (By author. author.

2021) 2021) 136

DESIGN RESOLUTION

137

CHAPTER 5

5.6. DETAILS

GLASS FLOOR DETAIL Scale 1:10 Figure 140 // (By author. 2021) 138

DESIGN RESOLUTION

PLANTER DETAIL

Scale 1:10 Figure 141 // (By author. 2021) 139

CHAPTER 5

STAIR DETAIL

Scale 1:25 Figure 142 // (By author. 2021)

140

DESIGN RESOLUTION Figure 143-145 // Flood concept of river flowing into building (By author. 2021)

RIVER FLOOD LINES

FLOOD DURING DRY SEASON

STAIR DERTAIL

Scale 1:25 Figure 146 // (By author. 2021)

FLOOD DURING WET SEASON 141

CHAPTER 5

5.7. CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION

SITE PLAN

To scale Figure 147 // (By author. 2021) 142

DESIGN RESOLUTION

SITE PLAN Scale 1:100

143

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BASEMENT PLAN A-N To scale Figure 148 // (By author. 2021) 144

DESIGN RESOLUTION

BASEMENT PLAN A-N Scale 1:100

145

CHAPTER 5

BASEMENT PLAN T-FF To scale Figure 149 // (By author. 2021) 146

DESIGN RESOLUTION

BASEMENT PLAN T-FF Scale 1:100

147

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GROUND FLOOR PLAN A-N

To scale Figure 150 // (By author. 2021) 148

DESIGN RESOLUTION

GROUND FLOOR PLAN A-N Scale 1:100

149

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GROUND FLOOR T-FF To scale Figure 151 // (By author. 2021) 150

DESIGN RESOLUTION

GROUND FLOOR T-FF Scale 1:100

151

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ROOF PLAN

To scale Figure 152 // (By author. 2021) 152

DESIGN RESOLUTION

ROOF PLAN Scale 1:100

153

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SECTION AA

Scale 1:100 x // (By author.

2021) Figure 153 // (By author.

2021) 154

DESIGN RESOLUTION

155

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SECTION BB

Scale 1:100 Figure 154 // (By author. 2021) 156

DESIGN RESOLUTION

157

CHAPTER 5

SECTION CC

To scale Figure 155 // (By author. 2021) 158

DESIGN RESOLUTION

SECTION CC Scale 1:100

159

CHAPTER 5

EDGE DETAIL

To scale Figure 156 // (By author. 2021) 160

DESIGN RESOLUTION

EDGE DETAIL Scale 1:100

161

CHAPTER 5

GLASS FLOOR DETAIL Scale 1:10 Figure 157 // (By author. 2021) 162

DESIGN RESOLUTION

PLANTER DETAIL

Scale 1:10 Figure 158 // (By author. 2021) 163

CHAPTER 5

STAIR DETAIL

Scale 1:25 Figure 159 // (By author. 2021) 164

DESIGN RESOLUTION

STAIR DETAIL

Scale 1:25 Figure 160 // (By author. 2021) 165

CHAPTER 5

This chapter illustrates that if nature is prioritised through the process of design, a final product that exists harmoniously within its environment can be produced.

By incorporating elements into the building that can benifit nature, like a river filtration system and protecton for the vegetation against the elements, the design can function like an organism that leaves its surroundings cleaner and stronger than before.

166

DESIGN RESOLUTION

Figure 161 // Building sitting in context as seen from bridge (By author. 2021)

167

CHAPTER VI 168

Figure 162 // Two zebras fighting for dominance (Carstens. 2021)

CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION 6.1. Findings 6.2. Conclusion

After an in depth study of the river ecology, how human activities influences it and what the long term impact will be if we ignore the issue, we analyse the findings and conclude in the final chapter of the book.s 169

CHAPTER 6

6.1. FINDINGS The after-effects of all humankind’s activities can be seen in every living ecosystem today. Various research data has been collected and studied to understand this impact and has indicated that ecosystems, such as the Kruger National Park, are predicted to experience extreme environmental changes in the near future. This can lead to permanent alterations of the environment and in turn to the extinction of biodiverse species.

Currently, mankinds’ activities proceed interacts with environmental influences as a side consideration. Dr Sergio Altomonte stated that “Buildings and urban spaces should be designed first and foremost around their occupants,” (Maulana, 2018). This statement considers human occupants to be the sole users of the building, where it should include all the natural elements that are in contact – directly or indirectly –with the object.

This challenges the role of the architects and engineers, or maybe even their responsibility. As a result of a programme to increase of skills and understanding, they are enabled to comprehend this specific need and design accordingly. A single architectural intervention will not solve all the challenges that the ecosystem is facing, but disregarding the impact of the built environment only adds to the challenges. By incorporating environmental interventions into our buildings, each structure will have a small positive effect on the microclimate in which it is situated and can collectively make a difference.

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CONCLUSION

6.3. CONCLUSION As mentioned before, the current condition of the environment gave birth to a new field of study, namely anthrotherology. This field requires collaborative input from all professions as it is no single profession or action that solely affects the environment and contributes to climate change. It is thus strongly recommended that further research and environmental initiatives should be inspected.

The built environment is a big contributor to climate change; based on the findings of the research, it is clear that the architectural and engineering professions are leaders in sustainable development and can be used as a tool in the conservation of our environment. With rapidly advancing technology, the built environment now has the ability to design the next chapter in sustainability; it does not only have the current user’s needs in mind. It also considers future generations by prioritising the wellbeing of thewilderness on the same level as the needs of the direct user, which is mankind (Maulana, 2018). A committed mindshift has the potential to minimise the harm done to the environment and bring us one step closer to symbiotic living.

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Figure 163 // African Jacana very graciously takes off from a lily pad (Carstens. 2021) 172

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 // Aerial view of building on riverbed (By author. 2021) Figure 2 // Man vs Wildlife (By author. 2021) Figure 3 // Sabie River biodiversity (By author. 2021) Figure 4 // Female lioness portrait. Carstens. 2021. Available at: https:// d c wi l d l i f e p h o t o g r a p h y. c o m / ? f b c l i d = I w A R 1 i w B x 5 h G r j Z N x 8 5 G U s 4 s G f _ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] Figure 5 // Water Lily in Sabie River (By author. 2021) Figure 6 // King fisher pair.

Carstens.

2021.

Available at: https:// d c wi l d l i f e p h o t o g r a p h y. c o m / ? f b c l i d = I w A R 1 i w B x 5 h G r j Z N x 8 5 G U s 4 s G f _ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] 178

Figure 7 // Paul Kruger statue at the Kruger gate of the Kruger National Park (By author.

2021) Figure 8 // Elephant bull strolling on the riverbank. Carstens. 2021. Available at: https://dcwildlifephotography.com/?fbclid=IwAR1iwBx5hGrjZNx85GUs4sGf_ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] Figure 9 // Steenbok ram.

Carstens.

2021.

Available at: https:// d c wi l d l i f e p h o t o g r a p h y. c o m / ? f b c l i d = I w A R 1 i w B x 5 h G r j Z N x 8 5 G U s 4 s G f _ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] Figure 10 // Wild cheetah being playful on a manmade structure in his habitat (By author.

2021) Figure 11 // Various species gathering at a watering hole. Carstens. 2021. Available at: https://dcwildlifephotography.com/?fbclid=IwAR1iwBx5hGrjZNx85GUs4sGf_ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] Figure 12 // Buffalos don’t generally enjoy swimming but will endure the water when survival or migratory pattern requires them to. Carstens. 2021. Available at: https://dcwildlifephotography.com/?fbclid=IwAR1iwBx5hGrjZNx85GUs4sGf_ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] Figure 13 // Kruger National Park timeline indicating significant changes in management through its lifetime (By author. 2021) Figure 14 // Map of Kruger National Park indicating all the Perennial rivers running through the park (By author. 2021) Figure 15 // Map of Kruger National Park indicating all the Intermittent rivers running through the park (By author. 2021) 179

Figure 17 // Kruger National Park Zoning (By author. 2021) Figure 18 // Kruger National Park Airports (By author. 2021) Figure 19 // Kruger National Park Tourist camp sites (By author. 2021) Figure 20 // Kruger National Park entrance gate positions (By author. 2021) Figure 21 // Kruger National Park Mountain peaks (By author. 2021) Figure 22 // Kruger National Park historical landmarks (By author. 2021) Figure 23 // Kruger National Park points of interests (By author. 2021) Figure 23 // Kruger National Park roads (By author. 2021) Figure 24 // Elephant walking by dam’s edge with reflection in water (By author. 2021) Figure 25 // Typical Northern Sandveld vegetation [Image online]. Available at: https:// www.krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_Park_Facts-travel/explore-kruger-park-vegetation-byregion.html [Accessed 16 November] Figure 26 // Typical Mopaneveld vegetation [Image online]. Available at: https://www. krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_Park_Facts-travel/explore-kruger-park-vegetation-by-region. html [Accessed 16 November] Figure 27 // Typical Savanna Grasslands vegetation [Image online]. Available at: https:// www.krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_Park_Facts-travel/explore-kruger-park-vegetation-byregion.html [Accessed 16 November] Figure 28 // Typical Mixed Broadleaf Woodland vegetation [Image online]. Available at: https://www.krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_Park_Facts-travel/explore-kruger-parkvegetation-by-region.html [Accessed 16 November] 180

Figure 29 // Typical Thorn Thickets vegetation [Image online]. Available at: https://www. krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_Park_Facts-travel/explore-kruger-park-vegetation-by-region. html [Accessed 16 November] Figure 30 // Typical Lebombo vegetation [Image online]. Available at: https://www. krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_Park_Facts-travel/explore-kruger-park-vegetation-by-region. html [Accessed 16 November] Figure 31 // Typical South-western Foothills vegetation [Image online]. Available at: https:// www.krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_Park_Facts-travel/explore-kruger-park-vegetation-byregion.html [Accessed 16 November] Figure 32 // Typical Riverine Bush vegetation. [Image online]. Available at: https://www. krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_Park_Facts-travel/explore-kruger-park-vegetation-by-region. html [Accessed 16 November] Figure 33 // Ego driven ecosystem conformation to eco driven ecosystem (By author, 2021) Figure 34 // Riverbank vegetation recovery (By author. 2021) Figure 35 // Sabie riverbank vegetation comparison for 2009,2016 and 2019 [Image online] Available at: https://earth.google.com/web/search/kruger+national+park [Accessed 27 April 2021] Figure 36 // Artificial waterhole placements in the Kruger National Park [Image online] Available at: https://earth.google.com/web/search/kruger+national+park [Accessed 27 April 2021] Figure 37 // White rhino, a species suffering near extinction. Carstens. 2021. Available at: https://dcwildlifephotography.com/?fbclid=IwAR1iwBx5hGrjZNx85GUs4sGf_ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] 181

Figure 38 // The bird with the most elegant and seemingly effortless flight pattern (The African Skimmer. Carstens. 2021. Available at: https:// d c wi l d l i f e p h o t o g r a p h y. c o m / ? f b c l i d = I w A R 1 i w B x 5 h G r j Z N x 8 5 G U s 4 s G f _ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] Figure 39 // Two cheetahs getting ready for a hunt. Carstens. 2021. Available at: https://dcwildlifephotography.com/?fbclid=IwAR1iwBx5hGrjZNx85GUs4sGf_ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] Figure 40 // Map of the areas that can be covered by Meerkat surveillance technology (By author. 2021) Figure 41 // Map of the areas that can be reached by drone delivery system (By author.

2021) Figure 42 // Graphical illustration of the proposed intervention, that will act as a pioneer to future alternative adaptations that will collectively combat the riverbank deterioration (By author. 2021) Figure 43 // Emotions that the building design will evoke by the use of elements such as, space, light, ceiling height, sound, water, colour, texture, wildlife and earth (By author.

2021) Figure 44 // Illustration of which elements can be used to evoke each emotion (By author.

2021) Figure 45-47 // Spaces within the Jewish Museum in Berlin (By author. 2021) Figure 48-50 // Interiors of the MAXXI Museum in Rome [Image online] Available at: https://www.zaha-hadid.com/architecture/maxxi/ [Accassesd 3 Desember 2021]

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Figure 51 // Elephant feeding Carstens.

2021.

Available at: https:// d c wi l d l i f e p h o t o g r a p h y. c o m / ? f b c l i d = I w A R 1 i w B x 5 h G r j Z N x 8 5 G U s 4 s G f _ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] Figure 52 // Conceptual line diagram (By author, 2021) Figure 53 // Typical landscape of the Kruger National Park (By author, 2021) Figure 54 // Typical vehicular interaction between human and wildlife (By author, 2021) Figure 55 // Typical free-standing interaction between human and wildlife (By author, 2021) Figure 56-58 // Examples of alternative interaction points incorporated into the design, allowing visitors to experience the wildlife in a unique manner (By author, 2021) Figure 59 // Passive vs Active response diagram (By author, 2021) Figure 60 // Active response spatial allocations (By author, 2021) Figure 61 // Meerkat surveillance system [Image online] Available at: https://www.iitpsa. org.za/the-meerkat-wide-area-surveillance-system-in-support-of-counter-poachingoperations/ [Accessed at 21 March 20021] Figure 62 // Autonomous drone [Image online] Available at: https://pixabay.com/images/ search/drones/ [Accessed 8 December 2021] Figure 63 // Passive response spatial allocation and main movements Figure 64-66 // River connection (By author, 2021) Figure 67-71 // Natural elements incorporated into the proposal (By author, 2021) Figure 72-74 // Steps in the water filtration system for the propagation hub of the building (By author, 2021)

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Figure 75 // Water movement through the building (By author, 2021) Figure 76 // Intermittent River during dry season (By author. 2021) Figure 77 // Flowing intermittent river in between wet and dry season (By author. 2021) Figure 78-79 // Man made water interventions vs. animal water intervention (By author.

2021) Figure 80 // Mechanical refill of the propagation hub (By author. 2021) Figure 81 // Proposed site position on the Sabie Riverbed (Google, 2019) Figure 82 // View of site from bridge (By author. 2021) Figure 83 // Site indicating contours and river positioning (By author. 2021) Figure 84 // Giraffe looking straight into the camara, immortalising this human-wildlife connection.

Carstens.

2021.

Available at: https:// d c wi l d l i f e p h o t o g r a p h y. c o m / ? f b c l i d = I w A R 1 i w B x 5 h G r j Z N x 8 5 G U s 4 s G f _ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] Figure 85 // Solid mass building facing the river (By Author. 2021).

Figure 86-87 // Breaking the solid mass into a series of smaller masses to increase wilderness-building interaction and create safe external spaces for the visitors without boundary walls (By Author. 2021).

Figure 88 // A series of interlocking confluent massing that represents humans (straight rigid lines) coexisting with wildlife (organic lines) (By Author. 2021).

Figure 89 // Graphically illustrates the principal of a depressed plane (By author. 2021) 184

Figure 90 // Graphically illustrates the principal of an overhead plane (By author. 2021) Figure 91 // Entrance lobby section illustrating the use of variations of ceiling height and materials to influence the way a space is experienced (By author. 2021) Figure 92 // The typical footprint of existing buildings in the Kruger National Park (By author. 2021) Figure 93 // The new proposed footprint that eliminates boundaries and transition space between human and wildlife (By author. 2021) Figure 94 // The main and secondary axis of the building movement (By author. 2021) Figure 95-98 // The progression of the proposed footprint (By author. 2021) Figure 99 // Cube models used to explore different ways to experience light (By author.

2021) Figure 100 // Leopard observing his surroundings for danger. Carstens. 2021. Available at: https://dcwildlifephotography.com/?fbclid=IwAR1iwBx5hGrjZNx85GUs4sGf_ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] Figure 101 // Close-up river view of south-western facade when not flooded (By author.

2021) Figure 102 //Birds view of building green roofs and filtration corridor, illustrating how the building sits within the context (By author. 2021) Figure 103 // Patio allowing the public to overlook the water filtering process when flooding occurs (By author. 2021) Figure 104-105 // Model experimentation (By author. 2021) Figure 106-107 // Bridge water interaction (By author. 2021)

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Figure 108-109 // Floating bridge concept (By author. 2021) Figure 110 // Bridge & platform connection (By author. 2021) Figure 111 // Floating with single handrail (By author. 2021) Figure 112 // collapsing bridge connection (By author. 2021) Figure 113-114 // Floating pontoon structure (By author. 2021) Figure 115-116 // Collapsing bridge concept (By author. 2021) Figure 117-118 // Floating walkway finish (By author. 2021) Figure 119-120 // Movable timber screen (By author. 2021) Figure 121 // Adaptability of the entrance movement route allowed by the movement of the design (By author. 2021) Figure 122 // 3D illustrating the material usage of the main movement route (By author.

2021) Figure 123 // Interior render of the entrance walkway during the dry season allowing visitors to directly interact with the river vegetation (By author. 2021) Figure 124 // Tranquil setting from entrance walkway, illustrating the inside vs. outside, natural vs. manmade and safe vs. danger (By author. 2021) Figure 125-130 // Material textures [Image online] Available at: https://pixabay.com/ images/search/textures/ [Accessed 8 December 2021]

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Figure 131 // Material textures [Image online] Available at: http://www.learn2grow.com/ gardeningguides/tropicalplants/featuredplants/Papyrus.aspx [Accessed at 8 December 2021]

Figure 132 // Building sitting on the riverbed with directional quality to the river that implies a future relationship with the river (By author. 2021) Figure 133 // Southern elevation that floats above the water surface (By author. 2021) Figure 134 // View crossing the river as will be seen by animals within the river (By author. 2021) Figure 135 // Partial basement plan (By author. 2021) Figure 136 // Partial ground floor plan (By author. 2021) Figure 137 // Long section (By author. 2021) Figure 138 // Edge detail (By author. 2021) Figure 139 // Short section (By author. 2021) Figure 140 // Glass floor detail (By author. 2021) Figure 141 // Planter detail (By author. 2021) Figure 142 // Stair detail (By author. 2021) Figure 143-145 // Flood concept of river flowing into building (By author. 2021) Figure 146 // Stair detail (By author. 2021) Figure 147 // Site plan (By author. 2021) Figure 148 // Basement plan A-N (By author. 2021) Figure 149 // Basement plan T-FF (By author. 2021) 187

Figure 150 // Ground floor plan A-N (By author. 2021) Figure 151 // Ground floor plan T-FF (By author. 2021) Figure 152 // Roof Plan (By author. 2021) Figure 153 // Section AA (By author. 2021) Figure 154 // Section BB (By author. 2021 Figure 155 // Section CC (By author. 2021) Figure 156 // Edge detail (By author. 2021) Figure 157 // Glass floor detail (By author. 2021) Figure 159 // Stair detail (By author. 2021) Figure 160 // Stair detail (By author. 2021) Figure 161 //Birds view of building green roofs and filtration corridor, illustrating how the building sits within the context (By author. 2021) Figure 162 // Two zebras fighting for dominance. Carstens. 2021. Available at: https://dcwildlifephotography.com/?fbclid=IwAR1iwBx5hGrjZNx85GUs4sGf_ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021] Figure 163 // African Jacana very graciously takes off from a lily pad. Carstens. 2021.

Available at: https://dcwildlifephotography.com/?fbclid=IwAR1iwBx5hGrjZNx85GUs4sGf_ XzEBUsuxr1N2LgQVFQdLatQTm3pLp1RRf4 [Accessed at 2 December 2021]

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