NOI, D - 206036044

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This work is based on research supported by National Research Foundation of South Africa

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Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Architecture at the Department of Architecture and Industrial Design

in the FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT at the TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Supervisor: Professor Amira Osman PRETORIA December 2021 iii

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DECLARATION OF PLAGIARISM DEPARTMENT of ARCHITECTURE and INDUSTRIAL DESIGN I (full names & surname): Derek Nii Noi Student number: 206036044 Declare the following: 1.

I understand what plagiarism entails and I am aware of the University’s policy in this regard.

2.

I declare that this assignment is my own, original work. Where someone else’s work was used, it was acknowledged and reference was made according to departmental requirements.

3.

I did not copy and paste any information directly from an electronic source (e.g., a web page, electronic journal article or CD ROM) into this document.

4.

I did not make use of another student’s previous work and submitted it as my own.

5.

I did not allow and will not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of presenting it as his/her own work.

I further declare that this research is substantially my own work. Where reference is made to the works of others, the extent to which that work has been used is indicated and fully acknowledged in the text and list of references.

Signature

Date: December 2021

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Acknowledgements I would like to thank God for the gift of life, and the strength and knowledge to pursue this journey.

To my supervisor, Professor Amira Osman, thank you for the guidance and encouragement.

I wish to thank my parents, Mr Steve Noi (deceased) and Mrs Mary Noi, for their prayers and support in many ways.

To my siblings, who are always there for me, Wendy, Thelma, Linda and Jacquiline, I say thank you.

To my wife, Mrs Sifiso Belinda Noi, you have always been my pillar from whom I draw my strength. Thank you for the support, patience and encouragement.

My appreciation goes to Marinda Bolt (TUT), Francine van Tonder (TUT), Philip Laurens (Boogertman and Partners) and Denver Smith (DSR Architects).

Thank you to the staff at the Department of Architecture (TUT).

Lastly, my thanks go to my family, friends, studio mates and all my loved ones who helped in one way or another to Thank you...Medaase...Ngiyabonga.

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Abstract

Borders on the African continent, introduced by colonialism in the 1800s, are inefficient, with poor spatial planning and poor mobility.

This study proposes an architectural intervention to mitigate these effects at the Beitbridge border between South Africa and Zimbabwe.

Figure 2: Map showing Africa before it was partitioned Maps of Africa (2015)

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The research uses a constructivist approach with datacollection and analysis methods that include a literature study, review of precedent studies, analysis of the site and bordering towns, and studies of activities near the border and the economic impact of an intervention. It explores the creative use of space, innovative technologies, environmental practical solutions and the use of materials to enhance the experience and function of the intervention.

This study identifies how transitional and liminal spaces at borders can be explored for the economic emancipation of the continent. The intervention aims to enhance trade between countries while providing the space for collaboration and interaction between people of different cultures and identities.

Keywords: Beitbridge, border, border urbanism, liminal space, trade, transit, typology

Figure 3: Map showing Africa After it was partitioned Maps of Africa (2015)

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Lexicon Border: A physical barrier in place to keep something inside or outside a space Border Urbanisation: The commercialization of towns and spaces around the boder area with various interventions Liminal Space: The transitional space between two spaces Trade: The sale and exchange of goods for money, favour or other goods.

Transit Hub: Space within which travelers pause or converge for traveling necessities and information Typology: Classification of type and style of building with regards to material, style, and other similar characteristics.

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List of figures Figure 1: NRF logo Figure 2: Map showing Africa before it was partitioned Figure 3: Map showing Africa after it was partitioned Figure 4: Map showing Africa resources Figure 5: Seesaw installation on the US-Mexico border wall

by Ronald Rael Figure 6: Site Location and context Figure 7: Demilitarised Zone between South Korea and North Korea Figure 8: Seesaw installation on the US-Mexico border wall

by Ronald Rael Figure 9: The new US Embassy in London Figure 10: Perception about borders Figure 10B: Movement across the border Figure 11: Locality plan from Musina to Beitbridge Figure 12: Borders in life Figure 13: The African quadripoint Figure 14: Belgium and Netherlands border line Figure 15: North Korea and South Korea - Joint Security Area map Figure 16: North Korea and South Korea - Joint Security Area Figure 17: America - Mexico Border Figure 18: America - Mexico Border Figure 19: Site Location Figure 20: Locality map Figure 21: Movement across the border Figure 22: Zoning and land use around the site Figure 23: Approach towards border post with trading

Figure 24: Figure 25: Figure 26: Figure 27: Figure 28: Figure 29: Figure 30: Figure 31: Figure 32: Figure 33: Figure 34: Figure 35: Figure 36: Figure 37: Figure 38: Figure 39: Figure 40: Figure 41: Figure 42: Figure 43: Figure 44: Figure 45: Figure 46: Figure 47: Figure 48: Figure 49: Figure 50: Figure 51: xii

Climatic data on site Rammed Earth Application Elevation - Startup Lion Campus Section through Startup Lion Campus Section through Startup Lion Campus 3D view - Startup Lion Campus 3D view - Startup Lion Campus Courtyard at Dandaji market Public space at Dandaji market Trading day at Dandaji market - material use Section through Dandaji market Trading day at Dandaji market Application of shading device at Dandaji market Interior View - Matamoros market Entrance view - Matamoros market Section - Matamoros market Interior view - Matamoros market Section - Matamoros market Entrance view - Matamoros market 3D view site - Niamey Nyala master plan 3D view site sketch - Niamey Nyala master plan Welcoming Embrace Courtyard design Form making design Exploration of form making Spatial planning diagram Spatial planning diagram Spine connecting structures

Figure 52: Spaces between buildings and high roofs allowing for natural ventilation Figure 53: Spaces between buildings and high roofs allowing for natural ventilation Figure 54: Conceptual sections Figure 55: Conceptual sections Figure 56: Development section Figure 57: Concept models exploration Figure 58: Concept models Figure 59: Concept design Figure 60: Concept design Figure 61: Locality plan Figure 62: Concept design Figure 63: Concept design with roof Figure 64: Design development Figure 65: Design development Figure 66: Design development Figure 67: Site Layout Figure 68: Design resolution - plan layout Figure 69: Design resolution Figure 70: Design resolution - 3D section Figure 71: Design resolution - Eastern Courtyard view Figure 72: Design resolution - Approach from North Figure 73: Design resolution - South approach Figure 74: Design resolution - 3D view apracch from east Figure 75: Design resolution - 3D view from the west Figure 76: Design resolution - 3D view Figure 77: Design resolution - 3D view from formal shops into informal market Figure 78: Design resolution - Approach from south on bridge

Figure 79: Design resolution - 3D Section Figure 80: Section A-A Figure 81: Edge Detail Figure 82: 3D Details Figure 83: Technical development Figure 84: Technical development Figure 85: Technical development Figure 86: Technical development Figure 87: Technical development Figure 88: Technical Design development Figure 89: Technical development Figure 90: Movable sun control elements Figure 91: Purpose-made gutter design Figure 92: Balustrade design development Figure 93: Technical resolution - 3D site Figure 94: Technical resolution - Site and Locality Plans Figure 95: Technical resolution - Plan Figure 96: Technical resolution - Plans Figure 97: Technical resolution - Plans Figure 98: Technical resolution - Section A-A Figure 99: Technical resolution - Section B-B Figure 100: Technical resolution - Edge Detail Figure 101: Technical resolution - Details Figure 102: Technical resolution - 3D Edge Detail Figure 103: Technical resolution - North Elevation Figure 104: Technical resolution - South Elevation Figure 105: Technical resolution - West Elevation Figure 106: Technical resolution - Roof Plan

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Architecture is about the people.

Francis Diebedo Kere

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1.1 Introduction

With rich resources hidden beneath its soil and with the African continent considered one of the richest in the world, it was only a matter of time before outside countries scrambled for a share of these resources for their own benefit.

And with the colonisation of Africa came the partitioning of the continent by its colonial masters for these resources at the expense of African citizens and inhabitants, thus, the origin of countries and their borders in Africa

Figure 4: Map showing Africa resources Baobab news (2019)

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Borders and border posts are set up between countries around the world with the aim of protecting countries from each other. Borders across the African continent, set up by colonial powers in the late 1800s, are acting as barriers to economic progress across the continent and preventing trade, with people living in border areas forced to cross borders illegally just to buy everyday necessities.

Architecture has the unique ability to shape the character of a place. For this reason, we should be asking what architecture can do to change how we perceive borders, especially polarising ones. Can architects create a new landscape typology that, much like the embassy, mediates between the need for quality space and the need for security? (Edelson, 2013) Architecture is being used in different spheres of human social life, ranging from religion to politics. It can be used for unifying people or sowing division among people, based on race, religion or ethnic origin. In pursuit of unity and integration, architecture can be used to create spaces that bring people together regardless of their background, appearance or social status.

The introduction of a new typology at the borders of the African continent by this study is intended to foster a better collaboration and economic emancipation of the people through trade.

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Borders are meant to only allow what or who is desired to enter a space, they can be used in other ways with the appropriate intervention to make the transition a pleasant and beneficial one. The appropriate use of such threshold or liminal space will pave the way for a better collaboration and economic opportunities for people on both sides of the border

Figure 5: Seesaw installation on the US-Mexico border wall by Ronald Rael Source: Marchese (2021)

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1.2 Background The creation of the African Continental Trade Agreement in 2018 (African Union, 2018) is a realisation by African leaders and its people about the need for decolonisation of the continent by eliminating barriers that hinder economic progress on the continent, and this includes borders and various bureaucratic processes.

My bad experience at Beitbridge border sparked the thought of why we as Africans have kept these colonial borders to our detriment and how such a threshold could be enhanced with an intervention that will improve the use of the space.

The Covid-19 pandemic in 2020 exposed the vulnerability of health facilities in various countries, this gave rise to the need for lockdowns and curfews in these countries, which resulted in long queues and overcrowding at the borders, especially the Beitbridge border between South Africa and Zimbabwe.

My family had a personal experience where we had to drive from Johannesburg to the border in Limpopo at night to fetch my sister in-law due to the lack of proper accommodation and basic facilities for her there.

African borders have been in existence since 1884 and entrenched in the people’s psyche, but this threshold could be enhanced for the benefit of the people through the urbanisation of the space for economic, trade, health, and social exchange.

Through border urbanisation, people will not have to risk crossing the border illegally to buy groceries and basic daily needs from the other country.

The introduction of an architectural intervention on a threshold best described as “no man’s Land” will transform this liminal space into “every man’s land” where people of different cultures and backgrounds will be able to interact and trade.

There are people who also cross the border only to buy basic necessities for their families back home and they mostly use the various illegal routes to cross the border.

In December 2020, news24 reported that cargo drivers travelling across the border had to sleep in their trucks in a queue for about 3 days, which resulted in some of the drivers dying of dehydration and being victims of crime in no man’s land.

In 2018 I embarked on a journey that was supposed to be a joyous one to visit some family members in Zimbabwe from South Africa. I had no idea I would be spending nearly 13 hours at the border post just to get into Zimbabwe. This horrific experience was compounded by the fact that there was no place or space for comfort or any other activities but to wait in “no man’s land”.

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Figure 6: Site Location and context Source: Google earth (2020)

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In his 2021 budget speech Finance Minister Mboweni stated that “to improve access to African markets, our six busiest border posts will be upgraded and expanded. These will be significant infrastructure interventions using the PPP model.

Starting with Beitbridge, built in 1929 and last upgraded in 1995, these One-Stop-Border-Posts will harmonise the crossing of borders by people and goods, eliminating the dreadful scenes we witnessed recently”. (Mboweni, 2021) The above statement by the South African finance minister encourages a paradigm shift in the ways governments see and treat borders, this paves the way for a different approach towards the treatment and building of our borders on the continent.

A good architectural intervention will help enhance or even alleviate issues of petty traders having to cross borders daily to trade, they will rather meet each other within the liminal space as indicated in figure 4 on “no man’s land” to do their trade.

Processing of cargo will be enhanced, travelers will be productive while waiting or be accommodated.

Health exchange or support could happen within this space with less risk of infection during a pandemic while other spaces for social and educational purposes will be provided.

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1.3 Central Concepts of the Study To better understand this disciplinary trend, my hypothesis is to read “border as urbanism,” in which borders are viewed as a dynamic set of complex spatial conditions layered over time rather than as a single static line on a map. The hypothesis prioritises spatiality in borders, which are profoundly crucial as a means of understanding the complexity of borders for designers, but more importantly, as a model to understand the concept of the border as a process (Kim 2021).

emancipation, hence rendering the borders very permeable.

The demilitarised zone in Korea (ibid) does not have a lot of human urban activity and may not function as intended due to the lack of viable urban framework.

As the above article tests itself with the most impenetrable border in the world, my dissertation portrays a different narrative in the sense that due to economic hardship and political uncertainty in some countries, citizens are then left with little choice than to force themselves through these borders into neighbouring countries for economic

“Walls don’t stop people from entering our Capitol,” and “Walls don’t stop viruses from moving (Marchese, 2021).

The above statement by Ronald Rael about the AmericaMexican wall emphasises the idea that “Covid-19 pandemic has shown how our health is interlinked across race and status” (Osman 2021).

Rael was involved in the building of a seesaw between the fence, as shown in figure 8 below, where citizens from the other countries use the seesaw at the same time but in different countries.

Figure 7: Demilitarised Zone between South Korea and North Korea Source: Richard Coleta / US Army photo - stripes.com (2019)

Figure 8: Seesaw installation on the US-Mexico border wall by Ronald Rael Source: Marchese (2021)

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If we are prepared to use billions of dollars of materials and impressive engineering expertise to secure a border, then surely there are some opportunities for architects and landscape architects to make the border more than just a barrier” (ibid).

Some statements and observations by Edelson 2013, highlights the wrong approach and direction towards borders and how we treat such liminal spaces and thresholds with the number of resources available.

Given the same attention and resources, an intervention at the border can resolve issues like trade, security and movement between the two countries in reality and physically, thus implementing what is usually agreed on by leaders at meetings to make a positive impact on the lives of the citizenry. According to their website, the United States embassy in London (shown below) cost 1 billion dollars, it is argued similar resources can be diverted into a wellplanned border intervention along their borders.

Figure 9: The new US Embassy in London Edelson 2013 – Photo: Courtesy of the State Department via news.beloblog.com (2018)

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1.3.1 Borders Territories are not fixed for all time, but are always being made and unmade, reterritorialising and deterritorialising” (Wise, 2005, p 77-87). Soft, semipermeable borders are expressions of negotiated appropriation, identities (made and unmade) and emerging hybridity. In contrast, rigid physical borders can be read as expressions of territoriality, the demarcation and defence of space and its delimitation by boundaries (Iossifova, 2015, p 95).

The above quote expresses how hybrid a border can be, based on its permeability but most importantly, about collaboration and mutual understanding of such spaces and ways to use them to benefit the end users and inhabitants.

Figure 8: Perception about borders Author - 2021

Borders are usually put in place to give a false sense of security, protection, and safety but when they are removed, they promote integration, exploration of cultures, and tradition among neighbours.

Permeable borders such as the Beitbridge border between South Africa and Zimbabwe indicate the users' willingness to collaborate in many ways, which will lead to economic, cultural, social and educational enhancement and benefits for the border countries or regions.

Figure 10: Movement across the border Author - 2021

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1.3.2 Urbanisation Border urbanisation can turn a stale and intimidating liminal space into an urban threshold that combines the creative use of space and technology to enhance the experience at the borders and improve relations between countries.

Through border urbanisation, people will not have to risk crossing the border illegally daily for basic needs, as happens at the Beitbridge border.

Border urbanisation through architectural interventions can very much do what consulates do for various countries in a very informal way, provided that governments have the willpower and willingness to invest in them, similar way they invest in the infrastructure, resources and security for their embassies.

Although borders are often symbols of power, considered important at geo-political level, they also define everyday lives. They become internalised and impact people unequally. The border is not, however impenetrable or unable to be challenged. (Ortiz 2018, p 40) The border is something which can be resisted redefined and deactivated. (Ibid) As noticed during the Covid-19 global pandemic, less privileged countries were disadvantaged with medical care and vaccinations. Business and trade were also severely affected as the borders were closed with curfews to avoid inter border infections of the Covid-19 pandemic. An intervention at the border will enhance the exchange of medical and health facilities and products between countries.

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1.3.3 Liminality Even though border cities may act as an economic gateway, the researcher believes that border urbanism will further strengthen the economic activities between the towns and encourage regular trade, including formal and informal, without the bureaucratic process required at the border posts before crossing into the towns.

According to Suau (2013:70), Whilst the attributes of natural boundaries are defined by internal structures of enclosed territories, artificial borders delineate a territory from the margins inwards.

Man-made borderlands are understood as peripheral or edge voids, buffer lands allotted between frictional political, ethnic and economic shores. They are uninhabited bands or corridors, ‘terrain vagues’, which are usually declared as no man’s lands and therefore vulnerable to processes of severe ecological dereliction and urban and demographic abandonment.

Most spaces in-between borders, commonly referred to as liminal spaces, are usually abandoned or left for the growth of flora and fauna, which could be beneficial for the environment. Still, with better intervention and planning by designers, these liminal spaces could become a hub filled with activities that enhance collaboration (health, education, culture and trade) between these countries.

Design and planning are urged to catalyse overlapping and divergent political interests in order to negotiate and build schemes of spatial co-production. (Ortiz, 2018, p 86) The phenomena of border environments can be analysed through interurban (within the same city), trans-urban (between various cities) and trans-regional (between more regions, states or countries) levels. Border cities perform like the strategic economic region’s gateways. (Suau 2013, p 69)

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1.4 Objectives The objective of this project is to design an architectural intervention in the form of a transit trade hub within the liminal space at the Beitbridge border post between South Africa and Zimbabwe. The design explors and implements the possibilities and benefits of the use of liminal spaces created by borders, and how they can improve trade and collaboration between the two countries.

The intervention and typology aims to provide a sense of belonging to people from both countries devoid of their status, and a comfortable space that welcomes all classes of people. The design i intended to serve as a destination for some people and a threshold for cross border users.

This project iddntifies the challenges created by borders put in place by colonisers for their benefit, and in so doing, be able to develop a pragmatic architectural solution in the form of a transit hub within the liminal space between the border of South Africa and Zimbabwe to enhance trade, movement, collaboration, education, and health solutions between the two countries.

The design seeks to align itself with the objectives and vision of the African Continental Free Trade Agreement of 2018, which commenced in 2021.

The project researches and explores innovative technologies and environmental solutions that aim to improve the lives of all people that experience it in different ways based on the purpose for which they are there.

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Conclusion Borders of the world can be described as rigid with physical enforcement and defense, or as soft borders that are usually semi-permeable. African borders could be described as soft semi permeable borders, which allows good collaboration and provides the opportunity for urbanisation through design, planning and architectural interventions based on the needs of the surrounding towns and the type of collaboration and trade between the countries.

The environment at the Beitbridge border is arid and harsh, hence the typology has to be responsive accordingly.

Courtyards and small windows will be used to protect the interior of the intervention with outlet windows at higher level and opposite sides for cross ventilation. The ventilation system also makes use of the river to cool the intervention through windows that are placed at a lower height.

Rammed earth walls make use of the soil found on site to have a visual link to the surroundings and to be able to withstand the harsh conditions and to protect the inhabitants of the intervention from such conditions as well.

The African continent needs to re-examine, analyse and explore its borders to use them positively to improve inter country trade and collaboration, this collaboration can be achieved through the repurposing of the borders and thresholds by an intervention that focuses on the smart use of these liminal spaces.

The South African Minister of Finance in his 2021 budget speech expressed the commitment by the government to improve its borders especially the Beitbridge border between South Africa and Zimbabwe where this research is focused. Such commitments are commendable and African countries need to invest more into such interventions.

Borders on the African continent could be interrogated and invested into by governments for better use, which could improve on the economies of the countries on the continent.

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1.5 Research Questions Main Question Can an architectural intervention within a liminal space at Beitbridge border enhance the human experience, trade, and collaboration between South Africa and Zimbabwe?

Sub questions 1.

What are the tools needed to improve the use of liminal spaces created by borders for easy movement across Africa?

2.

What is the existing typology of the context and what will be the appropriate typology for the liminal space?

3.

What type of intervention and function will best suite the site?

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1.6 Delimitations

1.7 Limitations

The intervention will be limited to the Beitbridge border post area only. Therefore, other routes used illegally will not be covered. The design however aims to decrease the use of these illegal routes and encourage users to utilise the space intervened on, if it performs as expected.

The frequency of site visits was less because of the Covid-19 lockdown level in the country.

Interactions with stakeholders about the border was also limited due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

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2.1 Methodology

2.1.2 Worldview

This chapter explores the research methodology used in the study and the researcher’s chosen paradigm. It also considers the influences and factors that come into play when applying the methodology in a particular research context and how that methodology affects or influences the results of the research, and the intervention derived or built as a result.

Positivism and constructivism are two distinct philosophies with different methodologies. The researcher believes that the choice of one over the other is particularly influenced by the type of research and the kind of work that the researcher has been exposed to. Being a systematic designer and exposed to architectural work, the researcher employed the constructivist philosophy and methodology for this study, with the research problem investigated in the study and architecture, in general, better researched and resolved through constructivism.

2.1.1 Exploring the Paradigm of Positivism and Constructivism The epistemological paradigm could be described as a good guide in research methodology, but the human approach to things may differ, based on several factors such as the researcher’s philosophy, upbringing, influence and education. The researcher’s profession can influence the choice of research methodology to a great extent.

Certain professions may influence a researcher’s philosophy and align it to positivism or constructivism. Advocacy and pragmatic philosophies can be considered as offshoots of constructivism in terms of its methodology. The researcher’s approach to the current study is based on constructivism and phenomenology as explained below.

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2.1.3 The Rersearch Approach Phenomenology, as described by Neubauer, Witkop and Varpio (2019), is “a form of qualitative research that focuses on an individual lived experience within the world”.

Considering the “individual lived experience” plays a major part in the research for the current study and is influenced by the researcher’s approach to the study, which is based on a personal experience of crossing borders in Africa and specifically the Beitbridge border post between South Africa and Zimbabwe.

In selecting the best research approach to use, the researcher also considered positivism as a potentially useful approach. He used Dudovskiy’s (2018) definition of positivism summarises this approach.

As a philosophy, positivism adheres to the view that only factual knowledge gained through observation (the senses), including measurement, is trustworthy. In positivism studies, the role of the researcher is limited to data collection and interpretation objectively. In these types of studies research findings are usually observable and quantifiable. (Dudovskiy, 2018)

The researcher is a systematic designer and a believer in the constructivist research approach. Owing to the kind of paradigm and profession he has been exposed to, he believes that architecture is usually made for other users.

Therefore, it is imperative to adopt an approach and methodology that consider the opinion and needs of the end user. This, he believes, is better achieved through constructivism research and phenomenological analysis.

A positivist approach to research can then be described as research conducted devoid of human influence and experience but based on facts and tangible results. This approach has little impact on the current research because the human experience plays an important role in this context and in most architectural interventions.

As Crotty (1998) states, Humans engage with their world and make sense of it based on their historical and social perspectives – we are all born into a world of meaning bestowed upon us by our culture. Thus, qualitative researchers seek to understand the context or setting of participants through visiting this context and gathering information personally. They also interpret what they find, an interpretation shaped by the researcher’s own experiences and background.”

Constructivism, on the other hand, involves human engagement, which the researcher believes plays a significant role in the creation and development of any architectural intervention that is meant to improve the human experience of any space.

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2.2 Methods The study used primary data that involved videos, site visits and analysis, and secondary data from literature, precedent studies and case studies by previous professionals and researchers.

2.2.1 Primary data 2.2.1.1

Videos – Existing videos of the various aspects related to the topic were accessed, viewed and analysed for relevant information.

2.2.1.2

Site visits – site visits were conducted to gather firsthand information about the selected site for analysis, subject to the Covid19 lockdown restrictions in the country.

2.2.2

Secondary data

2.2.2.1

Literature Various sources of literature about the topic were read and reviewed for information

2.2.2.2

2.2.2.3

and comparison.

Precedent Studies – Projects of a similar nature and stature were analysed for ideas and approaches.

Case Studies – Studies, research and articles from previous professionals and researchers were studied.

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3.1 Introduction

3.2 History

African borders have been in existence since 1884 and have hindered the economic growth, cultural development, and regional integration on the African continent.

The Beitbridge border post dates back to the days when the bridge was constructed over the Limpopo river in 1929.

The bridge has since become a major trade route for people and trucks carrying goods and materials among SADC (Southern African Development Community) countries. This has become a major trade hub with various trade activities happening at the border post and neighbouring towns, which could be formalised and improved.

The borders on the African continent should be explored and developed to break the sense of division and rather create opportunities for the benefit of the residents.

These interventions must be places where people will convene for corporation and integration to bridge the gap created by colonisers with borders that were put in place during the colonial era.

The African Union in its Free Trade Agreement is “determined to establish a continental framework of principles and rules for trade in services with a view to boosting intra-African trade in line with the objectives of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) and promoting economic growth and development within the continent” (AU, 2021)

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3.3 Site Beitbridge is a border town in the province of Matabeleland South, Zimbabwe. The name also refers to the border post and bridge spanning the River Limpopo, which forms the political border between South Africa and Zimbabwe.

(Wikipedia, 2021) The town lies just north of the River Limpopo about 1 km from the Alfred Beit Road Bridge which spans the River Limpopo between South Africa and Zimbabwe. The main roads are the A6 highway to Bulawayo and the Victoria Falls, being 321 kilometres (199 mi) and 758 kilometres (471 mi) away respectively and the A4 to Masvingo and Harare. According to the 2012 population census, the town had a population of 41,767 dominated by the Venda and Ndebele people.

There is a sizeable percentage of Shona people from other provinces this is a busy border post with traders from all over Zimbabwe. The Beitbridge border post is the busiest road border post in Southern Africa, and is best avoided during busy border-crossing seasons. (Wikipedia, 2021)

Figure 11: Locality plan from Musina to Beitbridge

By Author 2021

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3.4 Borders - in Perspective According to Iossifova (2015), "borders are expressions of power and intent; they are the physical manifestation of political will and its accumulation and layering through time.

They can be read as the imagined lines on the equally imagined perimeter of imagined communities; of the spaces, some call enclaves, because it is easy to think them as such based on a removed bird’seye view".

Borders can be described as soft and permeable or impermeable, based on how easy it is to move through them and how rigidly they have been constructed and are guarded. What is also important is how much investment has been committed to them by the countries on either side of them. The sections below present examples of these different types of borders in terms of permeability, rigidity and investment.

Figure 12: Borders in life

By Author 2021

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3.4.1 The African Quadripoint The African quadripoint refers to the border area where Zambia, Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe meet along the Zambezi river.

Most River borders can be described as soft borders as they usually don't have strong physical barriers, with citizens able to cross to the other side or fishing on the same river as citizens from the bordering countries.

With the construction of the Kazungula bridge, which was officially commissioned in 2021, is said to improve trade between the bordering countries for the better, in accordance with African Free Trade Agreement (Mukeredzi, 2021).

Figure 13: The African quadripoint Wikimedia.org – Photo: Brian McMorrow

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3.4.2 Belgium Netherlands Border

Belgium and Netherlands have a soft border between them which was culminated by the fact that citizens from the two countries don't need a visa to visit the other country, especially with the introduction of a schengen visa which allows this kind of travel between the countries and hence the absence of a permanent border control.

Figure 14: Belgium and Netherlands border line Wikipedia.org

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3.4.3 North and South Korea Border The Demilitarised zone between South Korea and North Korea is a heavily guarded joint security area where border line rules are strictly adhered to and enforced, and offenders risk being shot if prior arrangements are not made by visitors.

Both countries remain at war with each other, hence the presence of a hard impermeable border signifying power and strength to the other and the world at large

Figure 16: North Korea and South Korea - Joint Security Area Rambling Wombat - 2017

Figure 15: North Korea and South Korea - Joint Security Area map Redrawn by Author - 2021

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3.4.4 American and Mexican Border The American-Mexican border is a very secure and heavily guarded border that runs from the state of California through Arizona and New Mexico to Texas.

Parts of the border are fenced while parts that are bordered by natural features that form barriers such as lakes and mountains are not.

The estimated cost of the border wall as at 2017 was $21 million and it was expected that it would take more than three years to complete (Smith, 2017).

With such a huge budget, a more appropriate architectural intervention could be built that would benefit people from both countries.

Figure 17: America - Mexico Border the guardian - 2017

Figure 18: America - Mexico Border Brookings.edu - 2017

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4.1 Introduction Informal sector activities - primarily vending and sex work are as large as those in the formal sector employing about 1400.

The selection of site and topic for this mini dessertation was inspired by an experience on a trip to visit family in Zimbabwe from South Africa (explained in chapter one), where I used the Beitbridge border post.

Outside Beitbridge town, farming is a major employer.

A diamond mine recently closed, increasing unemployment and poverty. Most women rely on vending, sex work and cross border trading for income. (iHarare, 2008)

Beitbridge town has about 2570 formal houses and 3000 informal settlements with limited recreational facilities.

The major source of local income or employment are freight, retail, construction, customs and police employing about 1200 people.

Figure 19: Site Location Redrawn by Author - 2021

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1.5km ZIMBABWE IMMIGRATION BORDER POST (BEITBRIDGE)

SITE

Figure 20: Locality map Redrawn by Author - 2021

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SOUTH AFRICA IMMIGRATION BORDER POST (BEITBRIDGE)

The Beitbridge border post between South Africa and Zimbabwe is a major trade and holiday route to other southern African countries so there is a lot of movement at this border and considered one of the busiest on the African continent.

The movement through the Beitbridge border post depends on the mode of transport when crossing. Trucks take a different route leading to their terminal while travelers in cars, buses and pedestrians use another routes to go through immigration formalities.

The lack of adequate staff and other spaces like waiting areas, access points, routes, enough pause and resting areas for travelers usually create congestion especially during holiday break when most people travel back home to visit their family.

Figure 21: Movement across the border Author - 2021

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The immediate community around the border on the Zimbabwe side has mixed accommodation spaces including, residential, industrial areas, commercial areas, and truck terminals for cross border drivers, these factors and clientelle therefore influenced the spatial planning and accommodation strategy of the intervention.

The South African side of the border has commercial spaces for travelers, Residential areas for the staff working at the immigration offices, and Transport terminals for trucks in transit. There is also a taxi rank close to the main border post entrance that take people to Musina town and back.

The population on this side of the border is bigger than the South African side so it has more variety in terms of space and land use.

SITE

Figure 22: Zoning and land use around site Author - 2021

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The approach towards the main entrance of the border on the east side is filled with traders, food vendors and a transport hub, while the west side has retailers, fast food shops, and truck terminals.

The buzz of human activities and trade softens the edges at the approach to the border entrance, some of the items sold also gives the treveler a clue of what they will need on their journey. This afforded the researcher the opportunity to decide on what to include in the intervention

Figure 23: Approach towards border post with trading Author - 2021

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4.2 History of the site According to Wikipedia, the Alfred Beit Road Bridge is named after Alfred Beit, founder of the De Beers diamond mining company and business associate of Cecil Rhodes.

He was also a director of a number of companies, among them the British South Africa Company and Rhodesia Railways. The original bridge was constructed in 1929 at a cost of $600,000 and financed jointly between the Beit Railways Trust and the South African Railways.

(Wikipedia, 2021).

The new bridge was completed in 1995, and was officially opened on 24 November. It was built by the Zimbabwean Government, which now benefits from the tolls levied on crossings. The new bridge can accommodate much heavier traffic than the old one could, which is now for rail traffic only (ibid).

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4.3 Climate influence on material selection The climatic conditions at the site is semi-arid and dry with hot temperatures most of the year due to excess evaporation over precipitation. (wikipedia, 2021) Choice of materials for the intervention were influenced by the arid climatic conditions on the site.

The buildings in the intervention are orientated north with minimal exposure to the west with deciduous trees to filter the harsh western sun during summer.

A gentle stream of water runs north to south through the middle (spine) of the intervention into the existing Limpopo river on the south to cool the space during the hot summer season. This space also has a high roof to allow for good ventilation but also protect the user for the sun.

Rammed earth is therefore selected as one of the main materials for construcetion, as it is of good and appropriate thermal value for this context. the material and method require minimal maintenance in this arid dusty environment, and it's strength to withstand the harsh conditions and strong winds.

The average wind speed on the site is between 11km per hour to 18km per hour with the windiest months between September to February, and less windy between the month of March to August. Therefore trees were introduced to act as windbreakers on an intervention that has strong walls and materials.

Movable sun shades were employed on the northern side of the intervention for sun control for the inhabitants and the plants on the roof garden.

Figure 24: Climatic data on site Wikipedia - 2021

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4.4 Typology The current controversies around borders, both internationally and nationally, raise questions on architecture’s ethical position to rethink border typologies (Architizer 2013) The architectural typology at our borders are usually very formal and without much consideartion to the materials, functionality of the buildings and site analysis.

Architectural interventions at borders could play a very important role in the urbanisation of border and has the ability to bring unity among people who use them. An intervention on the threshold or liminal spaces at these borders gives the people the ability to interact and trade in no man's land.

The material selection allows for the use of the natural soil from the site which is beneficial for arid environments similar to the conditions found on site.

This also blends in with the earth and the existing natural earth (face brick) material used for buildings at the border.

The type of rocks found on site are Igneous and metamorphic, which are used in the structure for its strength and ability to withstand wear and tear.

Figure 25: Rammed Earth Application Author - 2021

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If we learn to build with local materials, we have a future.

Francis Diebedo Kere

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5.1 Principle: Responsive materials and climate Project: Startup Lions Campus Location: Turkana County, Kenya Date: 2021 Architect: Kere Architecture

Located on the banks of lake Turkana, the project responds to the site conditions through the responsive use of materials which were sourced on site and resonates with the environment and climate, thus withstanding the harsh hot conditions present on site which necessitates the need to be able to cool the building naturally

As described by Kere architects, this project is an information and communication technologies center (ICT).

Ventilation towers were implored to create a stack effect to help cool the building naturally, saving power and money.

Similar method is employed in the form of louvers above openings in the intervention.

The project celebrates the unique morphology and natural beauty of its site. It is built over two levels that follow the natural slope and features extensive roof terraces that offer sweeping views over lake Turkana. (Kere, 2021)

Figure 26: Elevation - Startup Lion Campus Kere Architecture - 2021

Figure 27: Section through Startup Lion Campus Kere Architecture (redrawn by author) - 2021

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Figure 28: Sections through Startup Lion Campus Kere Architecture (redrawn by author) - 2021

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Figure 29: 3D view - Startup Lion Campus Kinan Deeb for Kere Architecture - 2021

Figure 30: 3D view - Startup Lion Campus Kinan Deeb for Kere Architecture - 2021

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5.2 Principle: Sense of belonging and material use Project: Dandaji Market Location: Tahoua, Niger Date: NA Architect: Atelier Masomi

The market is laid out to progressively step down to the old tree, the surroundings of which are formalized to become a real public space with seating and rest spaces for all to gather around. (Masomi, 2019) Walking along the shaded lanes, one experiences the simplicity of the compressed-earth brick stalls that contribute to the cooling of the space, while the alternating heights of the shading structures help the airflow throughout. (ibid)

The project aims to inspire confidence in the users and visually appealing as well.

There is also a sense of simplicity about the project that users can relate to, culminated by the smart use of materials that the people can also identify with.

This use of natural materials found on site and easiness of its use for the intervention also creates a sense of belonging among the people in the community.

Figure 31: Courtyard at Dandaji market Maurice Ascani - 2021

Figure 32: Public space at Dandaji market Maurice Ascani - 2021

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Figure 35: Trading day at Dandaji market Maurice Ascani - 2021

Figure 33: Trading day at Dandaji market - use of local materials Maurice Ascani - 2021

Figure 34: Section through Dandaji market Atelier Masomi - 2021

Figure 36: Application of shading device at Dandaji market Maurice Ascani - 2021

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5.3 Principle: Ventilation system & social cohession Project: Matamoros Market Location: Matamoros, Mexico Date: 2020 Architects: Colectivo C733

Patios were used to protect the interior spaces against the inclement weather. (Colectivo, 2020) The design makes use of materials that could be sourced form the area to be used by the local builders.

Spaces created between the structure also gives the building a light feel allowing for good ventilation and light through the building.

Figure 37: Interior View Rafael Gamo - 2021

Figure 38: Entrance view Rafael Gamo - 2021

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Figure 39: Section Colectivo C733 - 2021

Figure 40: Interior view Rafael Gamo - 2021

Before proposing a building, it seemed critical to us propose a flexible community structure capable strengthening social ties and generating a sense belonging, evoking the image of the old "Parián" form a PLAZA-MARKET. (Colectivo C733, 2020)

to of of to

Figure 42: Entrance view Rafael Gamo - 2021

Figure 41: Section Colectivo C733 - 2021

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5.4 Principle: Network of public spaces Project: Niamey Nyala Masterplan Location: Niamey, Niger Date: 2017 Architect: Kere Architecture

Appropriate housing is planned along the riverside to slow the city’s expansion into the desert, as well as water transport to improve the connection between various points along the banks. (ibid) The project aims to take advantage of it's location along the bank of the Niger river to aid the connection between points along the river, which could ease congestion on the roads of the town.

The plan intends to create a network of public spaces along the Gounti Yéna (a tributary of the Niger River flowing through the city from south to north) and the Yantala Corniche on the left of the river, promoting Niamey’s biodiversity. (Kere, 2021)

The intervention at the border promotes integration through the provision of courtyards, and also the adaptation of the river as an alternative use of transport.

Figure 43: 3D view - site Kere Architecture - 2021

Figure 44: 3D view - site sketch Kere Architecture - 2021

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Intentional blank page

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Buildings are deeply emotive structures which form our psyche.

People think they are just things they maneuver through, but the make up of a person is influenced by the nature of spaces.

Sir David Adjaye

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6.1 Concept exploration The Courtyard.

Arid architecture like the intervention, is characterised by courtyards that are protected by outer walls from the harsh climatic conditions, the courtyards in the intervention also promote interaction and integration of different people.

A welcoming Embrace.

Through this architectural intervention, the feel and experience in the liminal space at Beitbridge could be turned from hostile to welcoming.

Figure 45: Welcoming Embrace Author - 2021

Figure 46: Courtyard design Author - 2021

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The concept of creating space and architectural intervention using forms that inspire the feeling of embrace and welcome on a site that is considered hostile requires the creative use of the space, materials, and climatic considerations for comfort.

Embracing in one direction usually means turning your back towards the other direction, so combining many embraces at different directions create pockets of courtyards in various sizes to help diffuse the hostile spaces and make them multi-functional public spaces for comfort.

Figure 47: Form making Author - 2021

Figure 48: Exploration of form making Author - 2021

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Figure 50: Spatial planning diagram Author - 2021

Figure 49: Spatial planning diagram Author - 2021

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The site spans across the Limpopo river with intended interventions on both sides of the river, which necessitates the need for a link between the two spaces on either side of the river in the form of a spine (bridge) The spine is both a visual and physical path from which other functions of the intervention emanate and spread out.

Figure 51: Spine connecting structures Author - 2021

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Arid conditions of the site require creative ways of designing that allow the use of natural ventilation and light through the building. This is made possible by the creation of spaces between the buildings and high roofs for the spine that offers protection from the weather and high enough for natural ventilation.

Figure 52: Spaces between buildings and high roofs allowing for natural ventilation Author - 2021

Figure 53: Spaces between buildings and high roofs allowing for natural ventilation Author - 2021

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Figure 54: Conceptual sections Author - 2021

Figure 55: Conceptual sections Author - 2021

Figure 56: Development section Author - 2021

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Models are used to explore the heights, shapes, sizes, and functions of the intervention in relation to each other and the sloping site that leads to the Limpopo river.

Figure 57: Concept models exploration Author - 2021

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Figure 58: Concept models Author - 2021

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Design is not just what it looks like, Design is how it works.

Steve Jobs

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6.2 Design Resolution The formaking process is influenced by the concept of a welcoming building and the climatic conditions of the site, while taking full advantage of the views across the Limpopo river and the natural features around the site.

These shapes also create courtyards for gatherings and thus promote integration among travelers and people of different backgrounds.

Figure 59: Concept design Author - 2021

Figure 60: Concept design Author - 2021

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Figure 61: Locality plan Author - 2021

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Figure 62: Concept design Author - 2021

The forms of the buildings open up to create courtyards for public gatherings and also enhance easy movement around the trade area for easy access to most of the trading shops and spaces.

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Roof design exploration to enhance the free movement of air through the building and also to allow hot air to escape the building and covered areas while maintaining protection from the weather

Figure 63: Concept design with roof Author - 2021

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Figure 64: Design development Author - 2021

Movement around the site is essential for the functioning of the intervention. The uninterrupted movement path in the middle of the intervention (spine) runs from the north to the south of the site over the Limpopo river to phase 2 (the South African side) of the intervention.

Figure 65: Design development Author - 2021

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The movement path (spine) that runs through the intervention connects the other spaces to each other and serve as a common interaction route from where other parts of the trade area can be accessed, and from there it opens up to courtyards that promote integration.

Figure 66: Design development Author - 2021

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Phase 2

Phase 1

Figure 67: Site Layout Author - 2021

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Figure 68: Design resolution - Phase 1 plan layout Author - 2021

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Figure 69: Design resolution - Phase 1 Author - 2021

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Figure 70: Design resolution - 3D section through phase 1 Author - 2021

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Figure 71: Design resolution - Eastern Courtyard view Author - 2021

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Approach from the north, the user encounters an open market space which usually characterises African markets, this leads to more intimate spaces with shops that open up to other open spaces and courtyards.

Figure 72: Design resolution - Approach from North of intervention Author - 2021

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The south approach has open spaces for more interaction and informal trade before the user is guided by the spine with high roof into the intervention, with water feature in the middle that draws the users attention up north with anticipation of what to expect on the other side and water source.

Figure 73: Design resolution - South approach Author - 2021

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Figure 74: Design resolution - 3D view approach from east Author - 2021

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Spaces between buildings are connected to the main spine from which other spaces can be accessed. The space is landscaped with vegetation to soften it and to provide seating and relaxation for users.

The north facade of building B is equipped with movable sun control devices for manual control of how much sun is allowed into the building. The west of the building accommodates services and water storage spaces enclosed with small openings for sunlight.

Figure 75: Design resolution - 3D view from the west Author - 2021

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Figure 76: Design resolution - 3D view from east Author - 2021

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Figure 77: Design resolution - 3D view from formal shops into informal market Author - 2021

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Figure 78: Design resolution - Approach from south on bridge Author - 2021

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Figure 79: Design resolution - 3D Section Author - 2021

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Figure 80: Section A-A Author - 2021

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Figure 81: Edge Detail Author - 2021

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Figure 82: 3D Details Author - 2021

6.3 Technical development and Resolution

Figure 83: Technical development Author - 2021

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6.3.1 Technical development

Figure 84: Technical development Author - 2021

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Figure 85: Technical development Author - 2021

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Figure 86: Technical development Author - 2021

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Specifications STABILISED RAMMED EARTH a) Substructure: Ashlar stone masonry i) Material: Stones ii) Size: As per Engineer and stone mason design drawings iii) Bonding: Mortar, grade M iv) 300mm above natural ground level b) Dump Proof Course (DPC) i) Material: Polyethylene. ii) Size: 375 microns. iii) End lap: 150mm c) Rammed Earth i) Size: 400mm wide ii) Materials: Sand, silt, clay, lime iii) Stabiliser: Lime iv) Insulation: Only required for west facing walls 50mm Styrofoam panel in centre of wall v) Location: As per architect's design drawings vi) Joints: Control joints at 4500mm c/c, filled with expansion foam vii) Finish: Off shutter viii) Method: Fill formwork at 150mm layers Compacting with rammer e) Chamfer: 50mm at 45 degrees f) Degree of accuracy III: SANS 2001-CC1

c) Profile: As per Architect's design drawings d) Finish: Varnish e) Location: As per Architect's design drawings. f) Joinery: Bolts and nuts through pre-drilled holes. g) Fixing: Bolted to mild steel metal plate fixed to concrete footing. h) Steel plate i) Material: Mild steel ii) Size: 150x150x8mm iii) Finish: Galvanised iv) Profile: As per Architect's design drawings v) Fixing: Pre-drilled holes for bolts and nuts to be fixed to laminated timber. j) Other requirements: Grooves in profile for timber slaths.

Grooves as per Architect's design drawings.

SUNSHADE a) Material: Timber slaths b) Profile: Round c) Size: 50mm diameter d) Finish: Varnish e) Fixing: To be tired loosely together by 15mm diameter jute rope.

Inserted loosely in between grooves of laminated timber. f) Supporting structure: Laminated saligna timber column.

TIMBER COLUMNS a) Material: Laminated Saligna timber b) Size: 50x300mm

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Figure 87: Technical development Author - 2021

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The design of stands for trade in the open areas of the intervention is a portable shelve system with foldable roof that closes up the stall after trade day, with cupboard space for storage.

These stalls are designed for informal traders who sell small goods that travelers may need as they cross the border into the other country.

Figure 88: Technical Design development Author - 2021

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Figure 90: Movable sun control elements Author - 2021

Galvanised mild steel base to hold timber columns with bolts, joined to steel channel with a swivel bolt which is welded to a steel base.

Figure 91: Purpose-made gutter design Author - 2021

Figure 89: Technical development Author - 2021

Figure 92: Balustrade design development Author - 2021

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6.3.2 Technical resolution

Figure 93: Technical resolution - 3D site Author - 2021

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Figure 94: Technical resolution - Site and Locality Plans Author - 2021

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Figure 95: Technical resolution - Plan Author - 2021

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Figure 96: Technical resolution - Plans Author - 2021

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Figure 97: Technical resolution - Plans Author - 2021

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Figure 98: Technical resolution - Section A-A Author - 2021

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Figure 99: Technical resolution - Section B-B Author - 2021

Figure 100: Technical resolution - Edge Detail Author - 2021

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Figure 1011: Technical resolution - Details Author - 2021

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Figure 102: Technical resolution - 3D Edge Detail Author - 2021

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Figure 103: Technical resolution - North Elevation Author - 2021

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Figure 104: Technical resolution - South Elevation Author - 2021

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Figure 105: Technical resolution - West Elevation Author - 2021

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The sky is the limit if you have a roof over your head.

Sol Hurok

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Figure 106: Technical resolution - Roof Plan Author - 2021

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Borders around the world are being interrogated and repurposed to help the people affected by them and also bring people together for more collaboration and integration. Soft borders become redundant when countries do not take advantage of them with interventions that benefit the people.

The choice of site and functions at the intervention is based on challenges experienced at the Beitbridge border, which include illegal crossing for daily goods, overcrowding and lack of comfortable social and integration spaces. An information centre in the building provides travellers with much-needed information.

Border routes and stations could be developed as linear urbanisation, which could reduce the pressure on urban areas and cities. This linear urbanisation of African borders starts with bridging the borders and investing in the creation of interventions that enhance the experience at such spaces. Functions at these spaces and interventions are determined by the needs of the users, travellers and the towns near the borders.

Similar interventions at various borders across Africa will improve trade and integration on the continent in line with the African Continental Trade Agreement’s vision of ease of trade and integration in Africa. This type of trade at the borders will improve the lives of the residents in the border towns.

The provision of a trade area at a border crossing will improve hauling of goods across the border, reduce illegal border crossing for trade and provide travellers with a place to buy essentials and with spaces to socialise, stay and exchange goods on their travels.

In cases where countries are bordered by road network and water bodies, as in the case of the Beitbridge border post, the citizens could use the river as a means of transport to these architectural interventions established at these liminal spaces and thresholds.

It is imperative that the intervention resonates with the people of the area and its users. This is achieved through the choice of materials, which also helps with climate control and availability of materials in the area.

Architectural interventions within a liminal space at borders have the ability to enhance different aspects of human life and experience. The liminal space known as "no man's land" between South Africa and Zimbabwe provides an ideal site for an intervention that enhances the experience of crossing the Beitbridge border.

Rammed earth was chosen as an appropriate material because of its good thermal value in an arid environment and low maintenance needs. Most of the materials selected were natural, with the aim of reducing the carbon footprint of the intervention.

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With this, other and future border interventions on the continent, the economy of Africa will flourish, benefitting its people. Travellers going through the border at Beitbridge with have a better experience with the introduction of a pedestrian bridge and comfortable spaces to accommodate travellers and traders.

An intervention at the liminal spaces and thresholds at the borders can be used as a buffer zone where medical expertise and aid could be exchanged without crossing to each other’s countries during a pandemic or an outbreak such as the Covid19 pandemic. The intervention will also be used as quarantine spaces in times of a pandemic

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Whatever good thing we build end up building us.

Jim Rohn

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