The Meaning of Architecture: Critics vs Public

The meaning of architecture: Critics vs the Public: Essay Word Count: 3037

ABSTRACT This paper explores how a building not only produces cultural, social and political meaning through its architecture, but also through the process of its design and construction. It is observed that there can be a disconnection between the meaning of architectural symbols and the public’s understanding of them. This is evident in Enric Miralles’ Post-Modern Scottish Parliament (1999-2004) in Edinburgh, Scotland. A Scottish Parliament building was required after a devolved Scottish Parliament was established in 1999. The building’s architecture was intended to represent the ideals and aspirations of Scottish nationhood. It was a controversial project which, although praised by architects and critics for symbolising Scottish national identity and democracy, has not been well received by the Scottish public. The discontent resulted from contextual social issues and the public’s inability to understand the abstract architectural symbolism that attempts to represent Scottish identity.

Semiotic theory outlined in Geoffrey Broadbent’s “A Plain Man’s Guide to the Theory of Signs in Architecture” (1977), is used to analyse the intended and consequential meaning of the Scottish Parliament building. The paper begins by outlining the political context and symbolic importance of a Scottish Parliament building for Scottish people. The architect’s intended meaning is then explored. This is followed an exploration of the origins and meaning of the controversy surrounding the realisation of Miralles’ Scottish Parliament building, by referring to to The Words Between the Spaces (2002) by Thomas Markus and Deborah Cameron. It is argued that although the abstract symbols embedded in the physical architecture may be successful in representing Scottish identity to some, they have not been successfully communicated or understood by the Scottish public. Therefore these abstract symbols can be seen as elitist and undemocratic, undermining the very purpose of the architecture and Parliament.

Although considered architecturally unsophisticated, it is suggested that architecture aims to appeal to their users and the general public as they are the most important audience, as it forms part of their everyday environment. It is also proposed that the social context and process of a building’s realisation has the potential to create greater meaning for the public than the architecture itself.

All architecture carries meaning. Meaning can be defined as implied or explicit significance. Architectural meaning can be either denotative by relating to its function, or connotative where the architecture symbolically refers to other objects or concepts.1 This paper uses semiotics to critically examine how a building produces cultural, social and political meaning via architecture, and through the design and construction process. Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols and how meaning is created. Meaning can be intentionally produced using architectural symbols and metaphors, but it is observed that there is often a disconnection between the meaning of the abstract architectural symbols and the public’s understanding of them. Enric Miralles’ Post-Modern Scottish Parliament (1999 – 2004) in Edinburgh, Scotland is an example of this. Scotland required a Parliament building following the Scotland Act 1998 which established the devolved Scottish Parliament.

Although acclaimed by architecture critics as a masterpiece, it is a controversial project that has not been well received by the public, even after eleven years. This is due to the public’s inability to understand the abstract architectural symbols used to represent Scottish national identity, as well as social, economic, and political contextual issues involved in the realisation of the building. This essay begins by outlining the political context, client brief, and symbolic importance of the Scottish Parliament for the Umberto Eco. "Function and Sign: The Semiotics of Architecture." In Signs, Symbols and Architecture. (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1980), 24.

1

2

Scottish people. Semiotic theory, as outlined in Geoffrey Broadbent’s “A Plain Man’s Guide to the Theory of Signs in Architecture” (1977) is then summarised and subsequently used throughout the paper to analyse the intended and consequential meaning of the Scottish Parliament. The architect’s intended meaning is then explored. This is followed by referring to The Words Between the Spaces (2002) by Thomas Markus and Deborah Cameron to explore the origins and meaning of the controversy surrounding the realisation of Miralles’ Scottish Parliament building. It is argued that although the abstract symbols embedded in the physical architecture may be successful in representing Scottish identity to some, they have not been successfully communicated to the majority of the Scottish public, and can be seen as elitist and undemocratic, therefore undermining the very purpose of the architecture and Parliament.

Miralles’ design won an international competition, where the lead client was Scotland’s first minister, Donald Dewar. He stipulated that it must use “architecture of democracy”, and not be “a single monolithic building that overemphasises the importance of the parliament”.2 The Parliament building was to be a “landmark building reflecting the aspirations of Scotland as a nation… [that] Scottish people can be proud of”.3 It was a politically and socially significant project following the Scotland Act 1998, which established the first Scottish Parliament independent of Westminster since the Treaty of the Thomas A. Markus, and Deborah Cameron. The Words between the Spaces: Buildings and Language. (London: Routledge, 2002), 75 3 Ibid.

2

3

Union in 1707, which united the Kingdom of Scots and the Kingdom of England as Great Britain. The devolution of the Scottish Parliament had been on the political agenda since the 1910s, creating great anticipation of what the devolved parliament, and the architecture which houses, it would be like.

Architecture is an especially poignant symbol of the concept of a ‘nation’ as it is obtrusive, staying in one location and existing throughout time. 4 While form is composed of features, meaning is created by values. 5 Meaning is not only determined by physical properties, but also by a set of associations the building carries.6 Semiotics can be used to analyse how buildings carry meaning. Charles Morris divided semiotics into three basic levels he saw as being ‘nested’ together- pragmatic, semantic and syntactic.7 Pragmatics deals with the origins, uses and effects of signs. Semantics examines the signification of signs and the ways in which they produce meaning. Syntax studies the combination of signs, disregarding their individual significations.

This essay focuses on how architecture produces meaning semantically.

Saussure’s semantic concept states that meaning is produced by a signifier and a signified which are united in a social contract.8 In this context of semantics, architecture can be thought of as the use of physical signifiers

Ibid, 138.

Mario Gandelsonas, and David Morton. "On Reading Architecture." In Signs, Symbols and Architecture. (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1980), 284.

6 Kimberley Devlin, and Jack L Nasar. "The Beauty and the Beast: Some Preliminary Comparisons of ‘high’ versus ‘popular’ Residential Architecture and Public versus Architect Judgments of Same." Journal of Environmental Psychology (1989), 333.

7 Geoffrey Broadbent. "A Plain Man's Guide to the Theory of Signs in Architecture."

Architectural Design 7, no. 9 (1997), 478.

8 Ibid.

4 5

4

such as form, surface or volume, to represent the signified which may be a concept or object.9

According to Pierce, signifiers can be thought of as being either icons, indices or symbols. Icons signify other objects by being similar to them; indices signify by a relation of causality; and symbols signify by referring to an object by low association of general ideas that cause the symbol to be interpreted as referring to that object.10 Signifiers in architecture are usually symbolic or iconic. The building as an entity, independent from its architecture, can also be a signifier of the meaning related to its social, cultural, and political context and associations. The connection between the signifier and signified is learned, and in architecture is often abstract, limiting the understanding of the symbols for the general public, requiring captions and books to clarify the architectural messages.11 This is because symbols that are too literal are considered by architecture critics and academics, such as Charles Jencks, to be “too simple, banal, leading to a univalent architecture� 12 which is inferior and unsophisticated.13 It can also be argued that abstract symbols are multivalent and left open to different interpretations, and the meaning they

Charles Jencks. "The Architectural Sign." In Signs, Symbols and Architecture, 71-118.

(Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1980), 74.

10 Broadbent, Theory of Signs in Architecture, 478.

11 Charles Jencks. The Language of Post-modern Architecture. (New York: Rizzoli, 1977) 50.

12 Broadbent, Theory of Signs in Architecture, 478.

13 Naomi Stead. "Popularise or Perish: Reading the National Museum of Australia." In The Making: Architecture's Past: Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand, 2001, 331.

9

5

carry for individuals is representative of their own experiences and values, and may therefore be different due to the individuals’ backgrounds. 14

Rather than having a single sweeping meaning, Miralles’ design is complex, using a variety of symbols to signify multiple meanings, on different levels.

Although located in Edinburgh, Miralles envisioned the Parliament building as belonging to the whole of Scotland, being a signifier of Scottish landscape, people and democracy. Rather than being monumental and set on a grand park or garden, Miralles’ design rises from the base of Arthur’s Seat and reaches the city as if emerging out of the land. This connection to landscape is intended to create a “series of identifications between building and land, between land and citizens, between citizens and building”. 15 The building is intended to signify the Scottish land, which in turn signifies the Scottish people; therefore the building signifies the Scottish people and their national identity (Fig. 1). Miralles’ connection between the building and land resulted from his view that the land carries a collective sentiment and consciousness for the Scottish people.16

Signifier

Signified/Signifier

Miralles’ Design

Natural context/Scottish Landscape

Therefore

Scottish People Signified

Devlin, K, and Nasar, J. "The Beauty and the Beast”, 333.

Miralles, Enric. EMBT, RMJM Scottish Parliament Bluiding Competition Entry. Edinburgh, 1998.

16 Mark Wigley. "Enric Miralles Benedetta Tagliabue." El Croquis 144, 2009, 154.

14 15

6

Figure 1. Diagram showing how the Miralles’ design is a signifier the landscape which in turn signifies the Scottish people, therefore the Scottish people are signified by his design.

Miralles integrates the building into the landscape through various architectural gestures. Sixty percent of the area of the site is covered in vegetation. From the south-east boundary towards Arthur’s Seat, the site is landscaped with sloping concrete branches, covered native Scottish plants and turf, which continues as green roofs over part of the Parliament. The plaza also contains two ponds. This use of the water and greenery creates a subtle transition from the natural to the built environment (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Photograph of the Scottish Parliament looking towards Royal Mile and Carlton Hill, showing the extent of the landscaping, and how, with the green roofs, it creates a subtle transition from the natural to built environment, and how the scale of the building does not dominate the landscape but respects the scale of the buildings on Royal Mile and beyond.

Bowden, Andrew, Scottish Parliament from Salisbury Crag, Edinburgh. 2009. Flickr.

Furthermore, instead of being a single building, the Parliament is a series of small, low-lying, non-hierarchical pieces that organically collide like moored boats or floating leaves (Fig. 3). The scale of the buildings respects the medieval street pattern of the Royal Mile, (Fig. 2) and blends in with the

7

natural context, signifying the connection between nature and the Scottish people.

Figure 3. Aerial photograph of the Scottish Parliament showing the series of discrete forms that organically collide like moored boats or floating leaves. Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, Edinburgh. 2007.

The shape of these pieces can be associated with a mythical Celtic past, signifying the continuity of Scotland as a nation. They also allude to the upturned boat houses found in the Outer Hebrides, acting as signifiers for the greater land of Scotland. This is further emphasised by the use of natural Scottish materials such as granite, oak and sycamore, externally and internally. The Cannongate Wall (Fig. 5) also incorporates a range of large pieces of carved Scottish stone, providing another connection to the land. In addition to the natural material palette, the twelve skylights in the Garden Lobby are shaped like leaves, providing a further connection between the

8

building and nature, while their steel skeletal construction symbolises maritime heritage.

Miralles also uses architectural symbols to signify democracy and social aspects of Scottish history and culture. Externally, democracy is denoted through the landscaping of the concrete branches (Fig. 2) as a natural amphitheatre to encourage citizens to gather, sit and participate in the politics of their country. The positioning of the debating chamber directly above the public main hall, signifies that the Members of Scottish Parliament (MSPs) derive their power from the people (Fig. 4).17

Debating Chamber

Relationship between public and political spaces signify democracy Power

Public Entrance Hall Figure 4. Diagram showing how the position of the debating chamber directly above the public entrance hall is to remind the politicians that their power is derived from the people below, thereby signifying democracy.

References to Scottish culture and history are most noticeable on the public facing faรงade of the Cannongate Building (Fig. 5) which incorporates a

17

Ibid.

9

range of Scottish stones, a sketch of Edinburgh’s Old Townscape, and twentyfour noteworthy quotations. These quotations are written in English, Gaelic and Scots and relate to Scotland, the Parliament and well-known items of literature from celebrated Scottish writers and politicians. The writing is on a human scale, encouraging pedestrians to stop and read them, thereby engaging with the architecture and parliament. Unlike many of Miralles’ other symbols, these quotations are literal signifiers.

Figure 5. Photograph of the Cannongate wall, showing the pieces of Scottish stone and quotations of significance incorporated into the concrete wall. Don Barker, Edinburgh. 2009.

Flickr.

Other literal symbols are the Saltire crosses embedded into the concrete of the vaulted ceiling of the main hall, signifying Scottish nationhood.

Scottish culture and identity are further signified through the shape of the bay windows of the members’ offices. The shape is inspired by the stepped gable 10

roofs present on Royal Mile and are combined with an abstract silhouette of Reverend Robert Walker skating on Duddington Loch, depicted in a painting by a famous Scottish artist, Henry Raeburn (Fig. 6). 18 History

Culture

Stepped Gables

Painting of Reverend skating

MSPs bay windows

National Identity

Figure 6. Diagram of Miralles’ use of abstractions of historical and cultural references to signify national identity in the MSPs bay windows.

Another element of this silhouette is used in the granite and timber panels on various facades. These panels also represent a curtain being pulled aside, signifying the openness and democratic nature of the Scottish Parliament (Fig. 7).19

18 19

Ibid.

Ibid.

11

Democracy

Culture

Curtain of window drawn

Painting of Reverend

aside

skating

Democracy and Culture

Figure 7. Diagram of Miralles use of abstract symbols to signify openness, democracy and Scottish culture.

However, this symbol is abstract and rarely understood by the general public who have interpreted them as a variety of banal objects such as; hairdryers, triggers and questions marks. This freedom to interpret symbols could be seen as a signifier of the democratic nature of the parliament.20 It is intended to encourage visitors to engage with the architecture, to decipher the signified meaning of the abstract symbols, but has instead left the general public confused. In the context of a Parliament building, it could be argued that sentiments of Scottish identity and nationhood could have been achieved by uniting the Scottish people through a shared consensus on the meaning of the symbols.

20

Stead,"Popularise or Perish�, 337.

12

Despite Miralles’ design being critically acclaimed and winning the 2005 Stirling Prize Award, it continues be controversial and divide public opinion.

Research has suggested that there is a difference between what designers and the public find appealing in architecture. It was found that architects, who are more visually literate than the public evaluate architecture more cognitively and rationally, considering the environmental context, organisation and interpretations of the architectural symbols.21 Whereas the public respond more emotionally and appreciatively, making judgements based on their values and priorities, rather than rational reasoning. 22 The building has received commendation from architectural critics for its representation of Scottish culture, landscape and identity, on many levels.

Charles Jencks stated that it was a “tour de force… without parallel in the last 100 years of British architecture” and “for a national parliament of a new era of Scotland, you want precisely the symbolism and relation to the land that Miralles gave”.23 The great public interest, and relative confusion about the architecture, resulted in over 400 000 visitors in 2009.24 It can be argued that this is evidence of how Miralles’ design successfully engages the public’s imagination and interest in both architecture and politics. However, for a building to become a “heritage object”, in terms of being culturally valuable,

Seyed Abbas Yazdanfar, Heidari Ali Akbar, and Aghajari Negar. "Comparison of Architects’ and Non-Architects’ Perception of Place." Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2014, 690.

22 Ibid.

23 Senay Boztas. "Holyrood Is 'without Parallel' in 100 Years of Architecture Leading Academic Praises Parliament as 'tour De Force'" Herald Scotland, January 23, 2005. Accessed September 15, 2015.

24 "Holyrood Visitor Figures Hit the Heights." Scottish Parliament, January 4, 2010, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/newsandmediacentre/17720.aspx. Accessed September 27, 2015.

21

13

the public must feel like it belongs to them as a community. 25 Rather than uniting people, the Scottish Parliament has polarised public opinion.

According to a YouGov poll of more than 2 000 people it was ranked the 8th most popular building in the United Kingdom, and is considered by journalist, Jonathan Clancey, of The Guardian, as a “rich and complex…triumph” that responds well to its environmental and urban context”.26 Conversely, a Channel 4 survey of 10 000 people ranked it as the 8th biggest eyesore in the United Kingdom.27 The discontent is due a disconnect between the abstract architectural signifiers, and the meanings the public perceives, as well as contextual social and economic issues involved with the design and construction. The inability of the majority of people, whose identity and nationhood the architecture is attempting to signify, to conceptualise the building as the architect intended, suggests that the architectural language is elitist. A review in Building Magazine labelled it as “Miralles’ magnificent mess… an indecipherable jumble of forms”.28 This undermines the democratic aspirations of the design, and therefore the parliament itself, as it prioritises Miralles’ expert knowledge to the detriment of public understanding.29

Markus T, and Cameron D, The Words between the Spaces, 122.

Jonathon Glancey. "Reassuringly Expensive." The Guardian, May 31, 2004. http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12402641.Holyrood_is__apos_without_parallel_apos__i n_100_years_of_architecture_Leading_academic_praises_parliament_as__apos_tour_de_forc e_apos_. Accessed September 29, 2015.

27 Rod Mills. "No Hooray for Holyrood 'ugly' Parliament Building Should Be Razed, Says Poll."

Express, October 14, 2008, Http://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/65983/No-Hooray-for-Holyroodugly-parliament-building-should-be-razed-says-poll ed. Accessed September 29, 2015.

28 Martin Spring. "Scottish Parliament: Miralles’ Magnificent Mess Revisited." Building, January 29, 2010. http://www.building.co.uk/scottish-parliament-miralles%E2%80%99-magnificentmess-revisited/3156995.article. Accessed September 10, 2015.

29 Hayden Lorimer. "Sites of Authenticity: Scotland's New Parliament and Official Representation of the Nation." In Celtic Geographies, 91-108. (1st ed. London: Routeledge, 2002), 107.

25 26

14

Therefore, unlike art, public architecture should be designed in a way that produces meaning that is clearly perceivable for the public. 30

The connection between the building as a signifer and its signified meaning for the public is a result of values which are determined by spatial, temporal, cultural and historical context.31 Apart from Miralles’ design, the Scottish Parliament building as an entity, has become a signifier of the social contextual issues involved with its design and construction. These issues can in turn be seen as signifers for the disappointment of the expected meaning of the Scottish devolution, evident as article The Express newspaper lamented that what “should have been the pride of Scotland’s burgeoning political ambition has turned into a major embarrassment”.32 These issues involve the lack of transparency and public involvement in decisions regarding the realisation of the building, and problems with construction which made it three years late, with increased costs. Firstly, Miralles’ design was chosen through a competition process. The public were invited to express their opinions by writing comments while visiting the travelling roadshow, where the models and sketches of the short-listed finalists were displayed. However, it is unclear what impact this had on the final decision made by an exclusive panel of six judges, as at the public information meetings the public’s sentiments of disenfranchisement regarding the decision were evident.33

Ibid, 691.

Markus T, and Cameron D, The Words between the Spaces, 140.

32 Mills, R. "No Hooray for Holyrood” 33 Lorimer, "Sites of Authenticity”, 106.

30 31

15

Therefore it could be argued that the design selection process itself failed to be democratic. In addition to this issue, choosing a non-Scottish architect to design the Scottish Parliament contradicted the notion of the building being born out of patriotism and democracy, and led to public dissatisfaction before construction had even commenced. This dissatisfaction was exacerbated throughout the five year construction period by major issues caused by last minute changes to the design and ambitious architectural detailing. This resulted in a three year delay, with an eventual cost of £414.4 million, forty times the original £10 million budget. 34 Structural issues including, cracking windows, water seepage, and falling beams and façade panels, have persisted through the first decade of the building’s life, costing a further £11 million.35 These financial issues arouse hostility towards the building as it is funded by taxes, which creates a sense of attachment between tax payers, the Scottish people, and the building, making the taxpayers the harshest critics.

These problems were widely published in the Scottish newspapers, with negative headlines such as; “Director of troubled project to build Scottish Parliament quits”- Herald Scotland 20/6/2001 “Reassuringly expensive” – The Guardian, Jonathan Glancey, 31/05/2004

Derek Lambie. "Cheaper to Tear down Scottish Parliament by 2020." The Scotsman, January 13, 2014. http://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/top-stories/cheaper-to-tear-down-scottishparliament-by-2020-1-3265721#axzz3p0isa0Sa. Accessed September 25, 2015.

35 Derek Lambie. "Cheaper to Tear down Scottish Parliament by 2020",2014.

34

16

“Exclusive: anger as Scottish Parliament repair bills rises to 2.6 million last year” – Daily Record, Mark Aitken, 10/01/2010 “Wood you believe it? $11 m to varnish Holyrood poles” Herald Scotland, Brian Donnelly, 7/9/2011 “Cheaper to tear down Scottish parliament by 2020” – The Scotsman, Derek Lambie, 13/01/2014 “Scottish Parliament building hit by more leaks” - Daily Record 21/03/2014

Newspaper articles are an example of discourse that influences the public’s experiences and perceptions of important buildings before people are able to encounter them physically. They attribute judgments and values to the building, leaving the eventual visitors to form their opinions in relation to their expectations.36 However, no Scottish newspaper employs professional architectural critics, so their evaluations are focus on budget, politics and aesthetics. This could be a reason why the public’s perception of the architecture differs from its intended symbolic meaning, as local context and values precede over architectural symbols and metaphors, in producing meaning.37

Although architecture critics praise it as being an exemplary building of contemporary architecture that is layered with symbols and meaning, the

36 37

Markus T, and Cameron D, The Words between the Spaces, 93.

Jencks. The Language of Post-modern Architecture, 41.

17

building continues to divide public opinion. Firstly because the public are unable to connect the architectural signifers with their signified meanings. This suggests that the architectural language used is elitist and inaccessible to the average person, undermining the democratic nature of the architecture, parliament, and government it is attempting to signify. The aim of the Scottish Parliament project was to create a piece of architecture that represents the Scottish people, identity, nationhood and democracy, independent from associations with the rest of Great Britain. Architecturally, Miralles’ design is full of symbolism with different levels of meaning. Miralles attempts to relate the building to Scottish landscape, people, and democracy. The building has a strong connection to landscape as Miralles saw it as being a signifier of Scotland and its people. Political democracy is signified through the positioning of physical spaces and abstract symbols, which are also used to signify elements of Scottish culture and history.

Independent from its architecture, the building as an entity has become to signifier the social and contextual issues involved in its realisation. These issues include a lack of transparency and public participation in decisions made throughout the competition process, construction and maintenance issues, and the resulting impacts on budget. Furthermore the feelings of discontent created can be seen as a signifier for the disappointment of the expected meaning of a devolved Scottish Parliament. However, it is suggested that discourse in the form of popular media, may influence the public’s perception of the building based on economic and political, rather than 18

architectural values. This illustrates that the public’s perception of architecture is more dependent on its social, political, and economic context, and values, rather than the architectural symbolism that they may not understand.

Therefore, in the context of important buildings where the public has a vested interest, it is suggested that firstly, in order to develop an understanding and connection between the building and the people, symbols that the public can easily comprehend the meaning of are used, as architecture should be about appealing to the people who have to use and interact with the building, not architecture critics or academics. Secondly, it is proposed that there be a greater level of transparency and citizen participation in the decision making process, as the social context and the process of a building’s realisation has the potential to create greater meaning for the public than the architecture itself.

LIST OF CITATIONS IN ESSAY (BIBLIOGRPAHY) Broadbent, Geoffrey. "A Plain Man's Guide to the Theory of Signs in Architecture." Architectural Design 7, no. 9 (1997): 474-82.

Boztas, Senay. "Holyrood Is 'without Parallel' in 100 Years of Architecture Leading Academic Praises Parliament as 'tour De Force'" Herald Scotland, January 23, 2005, http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12402641.Holyrood_is__apos_without_ parallel_apos__in_100_years_of_architecture_Leading_academic_praises_parl iament_as__apos_tour_de_force_apos_/. Accessed September 15, 2015.

Devlin, Kimberley, and Nasar, Jack L. "The Beauty and the Beast: Some Preliminary Comparisons of ‘high’ versus ‘popular’ Residential Architecture and Public versus Architect Judgments of Same." Journal of Environmental Psychology, 1989, 333-44.

19

Eco, Umberto. "Function and Sign: The Semiotics of Architecture." In Signs, Symbols and Architecture. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1980.

Gandelsonas, Mario, and Morton, David. "On Reading Architecture." In Signs, Symbols and Architecture. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1980.

Glancey, Jonathon. "Reassuringly Expensive." The Guardian, May 31, 2004. http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12402641.Holyrood_is__apos_without_ parallel_apos__in_100_years_of_architecture_Leading_academic_praises_parl iament_as__apos_tour_de_force_apos_. Accessed September 29, 2015.

Jencks, Charles. "The Architectural Sign." In Signs, Symbols and Architecture, 71-118. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1980.

Jencks, Charles. The Language of Post-modern Architecture. New York: Rizzoli, 1977.

Lambie, Derek. "Cheaper to Tear down Scottish Parliament by 2020." The Scotsman, January 13, 2014. http://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/topstories/cheaper-to-tear-down-scottish-parliament-by-2020-13265721#axzz3p0isa0Sa. Accessed September 25, 2015.

Lorimer, Hayden. "Sites of Authenticity: Scotland's New Parliament and Official Representation of the Nation." In Celtic Geographies, 91-108. 1st ed. London: Routeledge, 2002.

Markus, Thomas A., and Deborah Cameron. The Words between the Spaces: Buildings and Language. London: Routledge, 2002.

Mills, Rod. "No Hooray for Holyrood 'ugly' Parliament Building Should Be Razed, Says Poll." Express, October 14, 2008, Http://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/65983/No-Hooray-for-Holyrood-uglyparliament-building-should-be-razed-says-poll ed. Accessed September 29, 2015.

Miralles, Enric. EMBT, RMJM Scottish Parliament Bluiding Competition Entry.

Edinburgh, 1998.

Scottish Parliament. "Holyrood Visitor Figures Hit the Heights." Scottish Parliament, January 4, 2010, http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/newsandmediacentre/17720.aspx.

Accessed September 27, 2015.

Spring, Martin. "Scottish Parliament: Miralles’ Magnificent Mess Revisited."

Building, January 29, 2010. http://www.building.co.uk/scottish-parliamentmiralles%E2%80%99-magnificent-mess-revisited/3156995.article. Accessed September 10, 2015.

20

Stead, Naomi. "Popularise or Perish: Reading the National Museum of Australia." In The Making: Architecture's Past: Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand, 2001, 329-337.

Wigley, Mark. "Enric Miralles Benedetta Tagliabue." El Croquis 144, 2009.

Yazdanfar, Seyed Abbas, Ali Akbar Heidari, and Negar Aghajari. "Comparison of Architects’ and Non-Architects’ Perception of Place." Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2014, 690-99.

IMAGES Figure 2.

Figure 3.

Figure 5.

Bowden, Andrew 2009, Photograph of the Scottish Parliament from Salisbury Crags looking towards Royal Mile and Carlton Hill, Digital Image. Available from https://www.flickr.com/photos/bods/ (accessed October 19, 2015).

Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, Edinburgh, 2007. Aerial photograph of Scottish Parliament Building, Digital Image. Available from http://www.mediastorehouse.com/r3/scottish-parliamentedinburgh-2007/print/4056535.html (accessed October 20, 2015).

Barker, Don 2009, Photograph of the Cannongate wall, showing the pieces of Scottish stone and quotations of significance incorporated into the concrete wall, Digital Image. Available from http://www.architectureweek.com/cgibin/awimage?dir=2005/1019&article=news_13.html&image=12845_image_3.jpg (accessed October 19, 2015)

21