The Dome of the Rock by Jarrod David Haynes

The Dome of the Rock

Building Study Illustrated Report BDES1011 Architectural History and Theory Sam Bailey, Jarrod Haynes, Natasha Hau, Max Volfneuk

Contents Introduction 5 Chapter I Context and Function 7 Chapter II Geometry 15 Chapter III Construction 23 Chapter IV Detail and Decoration 35 Conclusion 45 Bibliography 47

Introduction The Dome of the Rock is a shrine located on a raised platform known as Temple Mount in Jerusalem. The octagonal shrine features a gold dome that acts as a cap on top of the rock beneath it. The rock, more commonly known as the Foundation Stone is significant to both the Jewish and Islamic faiths. The Dome of the Rock was constructed between 688 and 691AD under the supervision of the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik, possibly to increase the prestige of the Islamic faith but also to heighten the importance of Jerusalem among Muslims. Sections of the Quâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ran are inscribed on both the outside and inside of the Dome of the Rock among intricate patterns. Today, the Dome of the Rock attracts thousands of tourists to see the rock itself, but also to experience the intricate architecture.

Martins, Francisco. The Dome Of The Rock. 2007. Available from: Flicker, http://farm3.staticflickr.com/2187/2131208351_f1b3feccbf_z.jpg. accessed 10 May 2015.

Chapter I

Context and Function Jarrod Haynes

The Dome of the Rock is located in an area of Jerusalem called Al-Haram al-Sharif, commonly known as Temple Mount. The site is sacred to Christianity, Judaism and Islam and was once sacred to Roman Paganism during the Rome’s occupation of Israel from 6—135AD. Temple Mount covers an area of around fourteen hectares and contains several important religious monuments such as the Dome of the Rock (Quabbat Al-Sakrah), Solomon’s Throne, El Aqsa Mosque, the Dome of the Chain and the Islamic Museum. The complex is a series of retaining walls located on a narrow hill referred to as Mount Moriah, rising to 740m above Jerusalem. From the position of the observer standing on high ground in the city, the city gives the impression of engulfing the complex as most of the Western, Southern and Northern retaining walls are shared by the surrounding structures. Most notably, the Western Wall, a structure of incredible significance to the Jewish faith, is a section of the Western retaining wall of Temple Mount. It is believed to be the last remaining remnant of the Jewish temple that stood in the Dome of the Rock’s place. The Dome of the Rock stands on small podium above the internal level of Temple Mount that most likely formed part of the Jewish temple. 8

Unknown photographer, The Western Wall and its environs. End of the 1970s, aerial photograph. From: Mier Ben-Dov, Mordechai Naor and Zeev Aner, The Western Wall. Israel: Ministry of Defense, 1984, pp. 14-15.

The area occupied by Temple Mount was incorporated into Jerusalem during Solomon’s expansion of David’s city. According to the Hebrew Bible, Solomon constructed the temple in the “four hundred and eightieth year after the Israelites came out of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign over Israel,” 1 locating the formation of the Temple Mount and the first temple in the tenth century BC. The first temple stood for around 400 years before it was looted and torched by the Babylonians under the command of Nebuchadnezzar during the sacking of Jerusalem. 2 There is, however, no archaeological evidence to support the existence of the temple. Kings 6:1, New International Version. Joan Comay, The Temple of Jerusalem: With the History of Temple Mount. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1975, 72. 1 2

Unknown photographer, Dome of the Rock: West, photograph From: http://www.rohama.org/en/content/66, accessed 2 July 2015.

Between 516 and 691AD, two other temples were constructed on the current site. It wasn’t until the late seventh century AD that Temple Mount, and in particular the foundation stone (Sakrah), became a significant destination for the Islamic faith. In 691, Caliph Abd El-Malik replaced a temporary rectangular mosque, constructed by Omar (a figure significant to the Islamic faith), with what is now commonly referred to as the Dome of the Rock. 3 It is believed that Abd El-Malik constructed the Dome with hopes to establish Jerusalem as a pilgrimage destination as his enemy, Ibn Zubayr, held control of the Kaaba, the holiest shrine in Islam, located in Mecca. 4 According to Duri, Malik “wanted to show the sanctity of the Haram and to acquire great prestige among Muslims.” 5 Joan Comay, The Temple of Jerusalem with the history of the Temple Mount. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1975, 209-210. 4 Benjamin Mazar, Mountain of the Lord. New York: Doubleday & Company Inc., 1975, 262. 5 Abdul Aziz Duri, “Jerusalem in the Early Islamic Period: 7th – 11th Centuries AD” in Jerusalem in History, ed. K. J. Asali, New York and Northampton: Olive Brance Press, 2000, 111. 3

The Dome of the Rock marks a massive change in early Islam’s approach to architecture and aesthetics. Previous Islamic buildings had not focused on aesthetics, instead placing an emphasis on utilitarianism as they were needed to fill immediate needs of a bourgeoning religion. The Dome “departed from the expression of modesty to that of ostentation and unlike the character of the earliest Islamic buildings, intended to be a prominent visual attraction.” 6 Creswell, who studied the origins of the Dome of the Rock, noted two significant buildings that mirror elements of the Dome’s architecture. Bosra Cathedral in Syria reflects the geometry of the Dome, however the overall plan of the building is rectangular. In contrast, the Church of Ascension, located adjacent to the Dome of the Rock in an area known as the Mount of Olives, “had an octagonal plan before 378CE with the exterior walls surrounding a space divided by a ring of columns with footprints of Jesus Christ at the centre.” 7 There is a debate over the origins of the design of the Dome of the Rock. It has been suggested that the plan is solely based upon geometry rather than the functional aspect of the building or a previous structure. 8 An overwhelming amount of scholarship gives the impression that “the monument’s design shows a continuation of the preceding Roman/Byzantine architecture in the region.” 9 M. Anawarul Islam and Zaid F. Al-Hamid, “The Dome of the Rock: Origin of its octagonal plan” in Palestine exploration quarterly, vol. 139, no. 2 (2007), 111, accessed 20 May 2015, doi: doi: 10.1179/003103207x194145. 7 ibid. 114. 8 Martin Lev, The Traveller’s Key to Jerusalem. London: Harrap Columbus, 1989. 9 M. Anawarul Islam and Zaid F. Al-Hamid, “The Dome of the Rock: Origin of its octagonal plan” in Palestine exploration quarterly, vol. 139, no. 2 (2007), 117, accessed 20 May 2015, doi: 10.1179/003103207x194145. 6

Temple Mount is sacred to both the Islamic and Jewish faiths but different areas of the site are of differing importance to both faiths. The Western Wall of Temple Mount has been one of the most important sites to the Jewish faith from around the third or fourth century BC. 10 The wall is worshipped as it is close to the outside walls of the former Jewish temple that stood in the Dome of the Rock’s place. Jews are, however, no longer permitted on Temple Mount. Although there has been conflict between Jews and Muslims for centuries, the early stages of the Ottoman Empire represented a relatively peaceful time for these two groups. 11 In the nineteenth century, the Western Wall became a destination not only for worshippers but for tourists as well. Joan Comay, The Temple of Jerusalem with the history of the Temple Mount. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1975, 235. 11 Karen Barkley, Empires of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. According to Barkley “the realms of the Ottomans were mostly peaceful, accepted diversity, and pursued policies of integration (istimalet).” There is an argument that “as long as these groups [non-Muslims] recognized their second-class status, they were protected.” 10

Said Nuseibeh, The Haram al-Sharif (temple Mount) and the Dome of the Rock seen from the west. 1996, photograph. From: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 2-3.

The Dome of the Rock is significant to the Islamic faith because it was the site of Muhammad’s night journey and his ascension into heaven. According to the Koran (17:1), God took his servant [Muhammad] from the Sacred Mosque (Mecca) to the farthest mosque. Although the text does not mention the location of the farthest mosque, “as early as the eighth century, the expression ‘farthest mosque’ was understood to mean a place in Jerusalem.” 12 This association was cemented until the twelfth or thirteenth century. The Dome is sacred as its establishment represents “one of the first Muslim acts of sovereignty.” 13 Inasmuch as the Dome represents a contender to Mecca during the early stages of Islam, it also represents the establishment of the Umayyad caliphate and the Islamic religion as a whole. Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1996, 43. 13 F. E. Peters, The Distant Shrine: The Islamic Centuries in Jerusalem. New York: AMS Press, 1993, 44. 12

K. A. C. Creswell, Plan of the Dome of the Rock. 80mm x 70mm. From: Oleg Grabar, Dome of the Rock. Massachusetts and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Cambridge, 2006. 65.

Chapter II

Geometry Sam Bailey

Geometry plays a crucial role in the formation of anything tangible. From nature to the most unnatural creations, everything has an aesthetic value predominantly determined by precise measurements and angles. In architecture, this notion though extends beyond the visible and into the experiential. It can inspire admiration for the building or even resonate spiritually. Whatever the significance that geometry holds, it will always serve a purpose and will be greatly influenced by the required function of the building, which must be contemplated by the architect. The function of the Dome of the Rock is highly subjective and open to critique, consequently for centuries the original intended use and significance of it has been greatly disputed by scholars. This dispute is still ongoing. The possibility of the structure originally being a mosque has been denounced largely due to the unique geometrical layout of the building, however there are still inconsistencies when accepting this conclusion. The Dome of the Rock contains a prayer niche ( mihrab ), an essential aspect of a mosque, providing the direction in which to perform Salat, one of the five pillars of Islam. However a minaret required within a mosque, to call those surrendering themselves to Allah to perform Salat, was not included in its original construction. The foundation of this argument lies within the geometry of the structure. The vast majority of mosques retain a rectangular shape which is the most practical layout to perform their primary function â&#x20AC;&#x201C; as a retreat for prayer. 16

K.A.C. Creswell, Section of the Dome of the Rock. From: Oleg Grabar, Dome of the Rock. Massachusetts and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Cambridge, 2006. 65.

The geometrical layout of the Dome of the Rock has been described in three identifiable ways forming the annular building. The outer walls constitute an octagonal shape approximate 18 metres wide and 11 metres high. 1 They then enclose a similar octagon of the same orientation. This is a collaboration of eight pillars forming the points of the octagon and sixteen columns that, with 24 arches, form this octagon’s skeletal frame. Again enclosed within this inner octagon is a circular shape, of which a combination of four pillars and twelve columns, which produce sixteen inner arches, form its structure. This inner circular shape has been constructed to enclose the sacred rock laying in the centre of the holy building. The Dome of the Rock’s geometrical layout retains a strong sense of Byzantine architecture within its composition. New World Encyclopedia. “Dome of the Rock”. accessed 22 August 2013, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Dome_of_the_Rock#References. 1

K.A.C. Creswell after Mauss, Geometric structure of dome. From: Oleg Grabar, Dome of the Rock. Massachusetts and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Cambridge, 2006. 76

It has its genesis to this high tradition of Byzantine architecture through monumental buildings found in regions like Syria and Jerusalem (more specifically the Church of St. Simeon Stylites and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre respectively). 2 The geometry of the plan in this matter strongly alludes to a Christian influence. The octagonal shape is reflective of Christian architectural beliefs; it moves from square shapes representing the Earth into a circular shape and finally the spherical shape of the dome signifying the divine. This is the dominant reason for the strong belief that the architects who were associated with the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s construction were Christian. The conclusion of Christian architecture is supported by the understanding that the skill of Muslim architects was still developing at the time and was yet to conquer the complexities of a structure such as The Dome of the Rock. Through the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s layout further ideas can be explored regarding what the allusive function may be. The rock appears in the Islamic religion in The Night ed. H. A. R. Gibb et. al., The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Leiden: Brill Archive, 1954, 298. 2

Journey as the place the prophet Muhammad rose to the heavens from mortality on earth. This could be the source for the inspiration behind the layout of the building. If the architects were Christian and had control over this element of the building’s design, to take it from the square origins of the octagon to the inner circular shape may be a clue that the structure was built to function as a memorial to Muhammad rising to the divine heavens. However the reasoning behind the geometry in The Dome of the Rock also has significance in the widely accepted theory that it was constructed to rival the Ka’ba, which had recently been rebuilt by Caliph Abd al Malik’s rival ruler Caliph Ibn al Zubayr. Malik’s (Jerusalem’s ruler from 685—705) desired the construction of The Dome of the Rock to rival the Ka’ba and in doing so relocate the Hajj, bringing with it the trade benefits. 3 This theory is also supported through the geometrical layout of the structure. Within the Hajj the process of circumambulation occurs; the octagonal shape appears considerate of this and with the extensive space surrounding the structure the act can easily be performed. John D. Hoag, Western Islamic Architecture: A Concise Introduction. New York: Dover Publications, 2005, 12. 3

Further geometric disciplines are explored in The Dome of the Rock in circles of presence and lines of sight, created within the structure and the expanding surrounding of Temple Mount, to further develop the experience of the building. 4 The excellence of the geometry allows the whole building to be perceived at a glance generating a harmonious airiness. 5 This sense of harmony is identifiable immediately from the time you step onto Temple Mount â&#x20AC;&#x201C; given the profound presence of the building. The geometry involved in this circle of presence excels the building past the architecture of the time. Contributing to this excellence are the lines of sight from specific points on Temple Mount, which enable one to encapsulate the essence of the geometry in this sense and the significance it retains within the whole experience of the structure. As an individual first experiences the Dome of the Rock, there is not a single aspect that cannot be overlooked. Holding significance within the history, geometry and experience of the building the dome itself is the greatest achievement and the central architectural feature that identifies the great structure. Simon Unwin. Analysing Architecture: Geometries of Being. London: Routledge, London, 2009, 131. 5 ed. H. A. R. Gibb et. al., The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Leiden: Brill Archive, 1954, 298. 4

Mike Brusselle. Opposite the Dome of the Rock. n.d., photograph. 250mm x 180mm. From: Joan Comay.,The temple of Jerusalem with the history of Temple Mount. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1975, 211.

Said Nuseibeh, The Dome enshrines the Rock, the highest tip of the sandstone ridge of Mount Moriah, which projects about five feet above the building floor, 1996. From: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London and Massachusetts: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 113-114.

Chapter III

Construction Max Volfneuk

â&#x20AC;&#x153;At the dawn, when the light of the sun first strikes on the cupola and the drum catches the rays, then is this edifice a marvellous sight to behold and one such that in all Islam I have never seen its equal; neither have I heard tell of aught built in pagan times that could rival in grace this Dome of the Rock.â&#x20AC;?

Comay, Joan, The Temple of Jerusalem with the history of the Temple Mount. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975, 210.

Mivan, Dome of the Rock, n.d. From: Islamic Art and Architecture at the University of North Carolina, Dome of the Rock, available from: http://guides.lib.unc.edu/islamicart, accessed 2 July 2015.

Of the numerous structures on Jerusalem’s renowned Temple Mount, the Dome of the Rock is by far the most universally defining feature. When considering the reason for its superlative status, many factors encompassing scale, geometry, historical significance and decoration add to the discourse; but the powerful impression left on observers by the massive golden dome atop this octagonal monolith is undoubtedly its single most striking aspect. Noticeable due to its central location at the peak of Mount Moriah, the brilliant golden cupola radiates a circle of presence 1 over all of Jerusalem; it marks the location of a rock whose ownership has been fought over continuously for over two millennia by the three main monotheistic religions of the world, all of whom recognize its status as a holy place for their reasons. Simon Unwin, “Geometries of Being” in Analysing Architecture. London: Routledge, 2009, 145. 1

The rock is widely known as the ‘foundation stone’. For Jews, the rock signifies the place where Abraham’s faith was tested by God to sacrifice his son Isaac. For Muslims, it marks the place of Mohammed’s ascension to heaven. Comay points to evidence insisting that the rock is a physical piece of the Garden of Eden and was traditionally believed to mark the spot from which all the earth’s water originated. 2 A cave exists beneath the rock, its entry point located “via a small passage just to the east of the southern axis”. 3 It is accessible to worshippers via a small staircase; it houses a pair of mihrabs “symbolizing the presence of the Prophet [Mohammed] and indicating the direction of Mecca.” 4 Joan Comay, The Temple of Jerusalem with the history of the Temple Mount. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975, 212. 3 Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006, 74. 4 Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London and Massachusetts: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 22. 2

Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs, The Qubbat al-Sakhra (Dome of the Rock). Segment drawing. From: http://www.elazhar.com/encyclopedia_u/Chapter4.asp, accessed 17 June 2015.

Said Nuseibeh, The inside of the cupola is decorated with elaborate floral designs and two inscriptions from the Qu’ran, 1996. From: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London and Massachusetts: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 54.

Grabar concisely describes the building’s basic structure:

“It consists of two sections imbricated into each other. The first is a tall cylinder (20 meters in diameter and 25 metres high) set over a large rocky outcrop, topped nowadays by a gilded dome made of aluminium alloy. The second is an octagonal ring (about 48 meters in diameter) of two ambulatories on piers and columns around the central rock.” 5 Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006, 1 5

Although it is not classified as a mosque, the Dome of the Rock contains architectural elements associated heavily with places of worship. The arches surrounding the rock at the base of the cylinder are radial, leading the eye toward the centre no matter the position of the viewer. A mysterious paradox becomes apparent here: traditionally, the radial theme in Islamic architecture serves the function of aligning all Muslimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; line of sight in the direction of the holiest earthly place toward which the faithful must pray, Mecca. While this paradox remains shrouded in mystery, it has been stipulated that the Caliph Malik had political and economic motivations in building the Dome of the Rock, using the holy status of the rock in the region he controlled to attract pilgrims away from Mecca. 6 Benjamin Mazar, The Mountain of the Lord. New York: Doubleday & Company Inc., 1975, 262. 6

K.A.C. Creswell, Construction of original dome. n.d., detail sketch. From: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006, 73.

While it was constructed by Umayyad builders, the building process was supervised by two Byzantine architects Rajan ibn Haywah, a scholar and political adviser to Malik, and Yazid ibn Salam, a Jerusalemite assumed to have filled the role of local community liaison. 7 The impression of this culture’s sense of aesthetics can be observed in the external geometrically patterned tiling and the exquisite use of colour inside and out. The polished marble columns and floors and endless lines of textual and abstract mosaics covering almost every surface all unite to reiterate the iconoclastic “function of art to raise people’s minds from the material to the divine”. 8 Most of these decorative elements were added to the original structure in the twelfth century and have been maintained and restored at several points in the building’s history. 9 Richard Ettinghausen, Oleg Grabar, and Marilyn Jenkins, Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250. Boston: Yale University Press, 2001, 20. 8 Wladyslaw Tatarkiewitz, “Byzantine Aesthetics” in History of Aesthetics Volume 2. London and New York: Continuum, 2005. 9 Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006, 3. 7

Garo Nalbandian, Dome of the Rock: Inside, n.d. From: Stephen Langfur, Dome of the Rock, 2015, available from: http://www.netours.com/content/ view/160/26/, accessed 1 July 2015.

The massive dome itself is not made of stone as many of its Greek and Roman predecessors. The internal supporting framework is made of a double timber lattice structure originally constructed from locally-sourced cedar wood. 10 The inner lattice holds a highly decorated, embossed leather ceiling, 11 with verses from the Quran winding their way around the inside of the dome interspersed by repetitive, abstract Islamic patterns. The exterior was originally made from lead which was covered by gold leaf, but the combination of natural decay due to time and weather, along with earthquakes and thievery, has resulted in replacement of the exterior skin in various restorations since 1958, sponsored heavily by members of Arabic royalty. 12 Nazmi Al-Ju’Beh, “Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum” in Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum, accessed June 3 2015. 11 Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006, 1. 12 Joan Comay, The Temple of Jerusalem: With The History of the Temple Mount. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975, 212. 10

The Dome of the Rock amplifies the structure of the landscape it inhabits, calling attention to the sacred rock located at the peak of Mount Moriah. A brilliant golden dome atop an exquisitely crafted monument to the glory of Islam stands in the visual centre of the Temple Mount. “The Dome of the Rock operates as a magnetic entity and breaks down into partial and repetitive elements as one draws near” says Grabar, explaining that “the dome of the rock was shaped in such a way that a remote impact was indeed its one of its main objectives”. 13 The beauty of the Dome of the Rock functions as a manifestation of what Tonna describes as the “tragic discourse” at the heart of Arab-Islamic architecture:

“...much craftsmanship and visual virtuosity is expended on procuring a peculiar vibrancy that makes everything look unreal and about to change; and yet this visual excitement is subsumed into a feeling of serenity and equilibrium brought about by incantatory repetition and the suppression of violent contrasts.” 14 Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 55. 14 Jo Tonna, “The Poetics of Arab-Islamic Architecture” in Muqarnas, vol. 7 (1990), 195, accessed 24 April 2015, doi: 10.2307/1523128. 13

Jon Arnold Images/Alamy, Detail of Ottoman tile work on exterior of Dome of the Rock, as redone in the twentieth century, n.d. From: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006, 193.

Chapter IV

Detail and Decoration Natasha Hau

Unknown photographer, Exterior decoration with inscriptions from the Qu’ran. Photograph. From: https:// architecture.knoji.com/dome-of-the-rock-a-masterpiece-of-islamic-architecture/, accessed 5 July 2015.

The striking golden dome marks the Dome of the Rock’s status as one of Israel’s most prominent architectural structures, and this is further enhanced by the lavish decoration on its interior and exterior. Yet these features are subject to an ironic paradox that problematizes its identity. Renowned as an exemplar of Islamic architecture, many of its details were taken from other structures or made by craftsmen trained in other styles. This renders the structure virtually a conglomerate of several different aesthetic styles. Furthermore, since its construction in 691AD, the Dome of the Rock underwent numerous restorations that were motivated primarily by political agendas, 1 with the extensive renovations virtually rendering the present structure utterly different from its original design. The following investigation into the source, motivations, contents and significance of the details that comprise the Dome of the Rock aims to ascertain its identity as an exemplar of Islamic architecture. Beatrice St. Laurent, “The Dome of the Rock and the Politics of Restoration” in Bridgewater Review, vol. 17, iss. 2, 1998, 14-20, accessed 7 May 2015, http://vc.bridgew.edu/br_rev/vol17/iss2/8 1

Said Nuseibeh, South facade of the Dome of the Rock, 1996. From: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London and Massachusetts: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 26.

From the very beginning the Dome of the Rock was comprised of recontextualised elements. The practice of recycling columns, capitals, and other elements from earlier Roman and Byzantine sites (particularly Roman ruins) was not uncommon due to the value and aesthetics of the marble. The Byzantine architectural style is also identifiable in the motifs featured in mosaics, although, as Grabar notes, Islamic decoration distinguishes itself from its precedents (namely Mediterranean Christianity) through its self-conscious rejection of traditional forms by means of abstraction. 2 Motifs that could be representational were deliberately abstracted to further it from naturalism. This “non-realistic use of realistic shapes and the anti-naturalistic combination of naturalistic forms” 3 starkly contrasts the representational practice of Christian art and establishes Islamic art to be deliberately and exclusively non-representational. This active rejection of previous artistic forms demonstrates the development of the nascent religion of Islam’s artistic vocabulary. Oleg Grabar, Formation of Islamic Art, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987, 198, accessed 12 June 2015, available from Google Books. 3 Richard Ettinghausen, Oleg Grabar, and Marilyn Jenkins, Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250. Boston: Yale University Press, 2001, 19. 2

Said Nuseibeh, Outer Octagonal Arcade: North, 1996. From: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London and Massachusetts: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 84.

Furthermore, the local craftsmen, who were mostly Christians along with some Islam converts, redirected their Byzantine-trained skills and techniques to working towards the ideology of the new sovereign. Despite having roots in another culture, these new craftsmen were able to develop designs that became characteristic of Islamic architecture. For example, surrounding the outer octagonal arcade is a design featuring a vase and swirling flowers with a border consisting of eight-pointed stars within circles. The use of the eight-pointed star was unprecedented in Islamic art and, along with the regular geometries of squares, triangles and circles, the star formed the basis of arabesque decoration characteristic to Islamic design. Islamic decorative practices originated from the rejection, extrapolation and recontextualisation of previous forms. 38

Said Nuseibeh, North Quadrant of Drum Upper and Lower Registers, 1996. From: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London and Massachusetts: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 132.

The Dome of the Rock bears significance for Jews, Christians and Muslims, and this is manifest primarily in the language of the inscriptions, which promote “the embracing, not excluding … [of] the People of the Book, as Jews, Muslims, and Christians are called”. 4 The effects of these inscriptions result in an architecture of the building as inviting, and this is reinforced by the decorative details which also serve as vector lines in the building, guiding the observer into and through the building. The calligraphic inscription from the Quran directs the observer by means of the formal sequence of the “longitudinal and vertical strokes” 5 rather than the actual reading of the text, as it can only be done without difficulty if the sun directly illuminates it. Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London and Massachusetts: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 162. 5 Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006, 93. 4

Said Nuseibeh, Worshippers gather for Afternoon Prayers inside the southern door near the octagonal arcade, 1996. From: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London and Massachusetts: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 57.

These inscriptions form an intricate interplay with a particular detail of the mosaics – that is, the gold and mother of pearl mosaics that are used in the vegetal motifs of the interior octagonal arcade are set at a slight angle to the surface, so as to “catch the light and shine out against the darkness of the background”. 6 This effect is emulated in several designs that wrap the interior. These illuminated designs are led by the natural movement promoted by the shape of the building and by the movement of the sun’s light that streams through the intricately crafted grilled windows on the upper drum. Despite several alterations and refurbishments, the mosaics and inscriptions have been largely retained, showing the original Umayyad builders’ recognition of the shared roots in the ancient city of Jerusalem. Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London and Massachusetts: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 93. 6

The structure underwent two major alterations following its completion in 691AD, and refurbished sections varied for political, structural and/or aesthetic reasons. Much of the mosaic, faience and marble that decorates the exterior of the structure was added several centuries after its initial construction. However the interior decoration despite a number of repairs and replacements have largely retained its original state. The first significant refurbishment occurred in 1545 under the order of Solomon the Magnificent as the Dome of the Rock was located in one of the three holiest cities of Islam. Blue and gold glazed ceramic Persian tiles replaced damaged originals on the exterior of the structure. The restorations were not only to repair the damaged faĂ§ade; it was also to assert the strength and wealth of the Ottoman dynasty in the sovereignty of Islam. 7 Beatrice St. Laurent, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Dome of the Rock and the Politics of Restorationâ&#x20AC;? in Bridgewater Review, vol. 17, iss. 2, 1998, 15, accessed 7 May 2015, http:// vc.bridgew.edu/br_rev/vol17/iss2/8 7

Secondly, between the years of 1960 and 1967, the Jordanian government sponsored the refurbishment of the Dome, altering elements such as replacing the existing tiles with new ones produced in Turkey and restoring the original gold colour of the Dome which had previously been black since the Fatimid restoration in 1022 after an earthquake. This gold exterior, made of a durable aluminium bronze alloy sourced from Italy, continues the structures discourse of outsourcing materials from non-Islamic craftsmen. Evidently, despite the numerous changes made to the building over the years, which extend beyond the two main instances elaborated above, ultimately it has varied little from initial design, thereby affirming its eminence as the oldest example of Islamic architecture. 42

Said Nuseibeh, Tiles on the Domeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s upper exterior facade, with floral motifs and calligraphy of passages from the Quâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ran. Most of the tiles are copies of the original faience installed by order of Solomon the Magnificent in 1552, 1996. From: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London and Massachusetts: Thames and Hudson, 1996, 42.

The details that comprise the Dome of the Rock has rendered the structure a significant milestone in architectural discourse as it represents the establishment of a new relationship between architecture and decoration. Previously, the Mediterranean attitude towards decoration was that of its servitude to architecture. It rarely surmounted the construction itself. In the Dome of the Rock, this principle is subverted. Brilliant and ornate mosaic patterns and marble facing succeeded the defined and rigid structure, and it is within this decoration, despite its numerous renovations and vague stylistic origins, that Islamic architecture finds its most exemplary exhibition. 43

Conclusion An analysis of the context, geometry, construction, and decoration of the Dome of the Rock reveals its significance as the precursor of the Islamic architectural style.

Bibliography

Chapter I Context and Function Abdul A. Duri, “Jerusalem in the Early Islamic Period: 7th – 11th Centuries AD, in Jerusalem in History , edited by K. J. Asali, 105 -129. New York and Northampton: Olive Brance Press, 2000. Benjamin Mazar, The Mountain of the Lord. New York: Doubleday & Company Inc., 1975. Joan Comay, The Temple of Jerusalem: With the History of Temple Mount. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1975. Karen Barkley, Empires of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective , New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. M. A. Islam and Z. F. Al-Hamad, “The Dome of the Rock: Origin of its octagonal plan.” Palestine exploration quarterly 139, no. 2 (2007): 109-128. Martin Lev, The Traveller’s Key to Jerusalem. London: Harrap Columbus, 1990. Mier Ben-Dov, Mordechai Naor and Zeev Aner, The Western Wall. Israel: Ministry of Defense, 1984. Oleg Grabar, Dome of the Rock . London: Thames and Hudson, 1996. Peters, F. E., The Distant Shrine: The Islamic Centuries in Jerusalem. New York: AMS Press, 1993. 48

Chapter II Geometry

New World Encyclopedia. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Dome of the Rockâ&#x20AC;?. accessed 22 August 2013, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Dome_ of_the_Rock#References. Oleg Grabar, Dome of the Rock . Massachusettes and London: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006. ed. H. A. R. Gibb et. al., The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Leiden: Brill Archive, 1954. John D. Hoag, Western Islamic Architecture: A Concise Introduction. New York: Dover Publications, 2005. Simon Unwin, Analysing Architecture: Geometries of Being. London: Routledge, 2009.

Chapter III Construction Benjamin Mazar, The Mountain of the Lord. New York: Doubleday & Company Inc., 1975. Joan Comay, The Temple of Jerusalem: with the history of the Temple Mount. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975. Jo Tonna, “The Poetics of Arab-Islamic Architecture”, Muqarnas , vol. 7 (1990), 182-197, doi: 10.2307/1523128, accessed 24 April 2015. Nazmi Al-Ju’Beh, “Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum.” Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum, accessed June 3, 2015. Oleg Grabar, Dome of the Rock. London: Thames and Hudson, 1996. Oleg Grabar, Dome of the Rock. London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006. Richard Ettinghausen, Oleg Grabar, Marilyn Jenkins, Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250. Boston: Yale University Press, 2001. Simon Unwin, “Geometries of Being” in Analysing Architecture. London: Routledge, 2009. Wladyslaw Tatarkiewitz, “Byzantine Aesthetics” in History of Aesthetics, vol. 2. London and New York: Continuum, 2005. 50

Chapter IV Detail and Decoration Beatrice St. Laurent, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Dome of the Rock and the Politics of Restorationâ&#x20AC;? in Bridgewater Review, vol. 17, iss. 2, 1998, 14-20, accessed 7 May 2015, http://vc.bridgew.edu/br_rev/vol17/iss2/8 Oleg Grabar, Formation of Islamic Art, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987, 198, accessed 12 June 2015, available from Google Books. Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London and Massachusetts: Thames and Hudson, 1996. Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock. London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006. Richard Ettinghausen, Oleg Grabar, and Marilyn Jenkins, Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250. Boston: Yale University Press, 2001. Richard Krautheimer and Slobodan Curcic, Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture , United States: Yale University Press, 1992, available from: Google Books, accessed 1 May 2015. Widjan Ali, The Arab contribution to Islamic art: from the seventh to the fifteenth centuries , United States: Cairo Press, 1999, available from: Google Books, accessed 12 May 2015. 51