African Defense
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July 2013
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Central Africa Cyber Issues Littoral Small Craft Landmine Detection & Clearance
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African D efense 4 July 2013
Imperative of Appropriate Seapower for African Nations Africa taking charge of its seas. By Olutunde Oladimeji
Cyber Issues for Central Africa A growing number of cybersecurity incidents have taken place in African countries. Central Africa is taking steps to partner and better integrate common solutions. By Major Raoul Nanci Yossi
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The Heavy Lifting in Clearing Landmines By some estimates, there are more than 110 million landmines scattered in 78 countries. The liability to civilians and the denial of valuable land create second and third order of effects both in direct costs and income lost. By Jeff McKaughan
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On Patrol Littoral waters, harbors and rivers present challenges for maritime forces charged with providing national security, protecting natural resources and providing safe conduct for commerce. An array of small/medium craft are suitable for the mission. By Maura McCarthy
Displacement Conflict and human rights abuse associated with poor governance have become the key factors that contribute to mass migration in Africa; and it is no coincidence that conflict-ridden countries are often those with severe economic difficulties. By Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Patrick Mbite
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Light & Medium Airlift for African Operations African Defense’s African Publisher reviews airlift options for a full range of operational contingencies. By Helmoed Heitman
Departments 29 30
Capability Profiles Professional Development
A South African Air Force C-130 on the taxi way at Waterkloof Air Force Base. Photo by Jeff McKaughan.
Cyber Issues for Central Africa Risks and opportunities for security and connectivity A growing number of cybersecurity incidents has taken place in African countries. These include anonymous calls and/or e-mails for blackmailing, web defacement of government sites long service interruptions of websites, due to system failure or insufficient equipment, frequent scamming plots originating from the subregion, and smuggling of animal and natural resources facilitated by the Internet. Unfortunately, these incidents have shown that African governments are inadequately prepared to exercise authority in the cyber domain. This situation has forced some governments to legislate on the matter, but the laws are far from complete or enforceable. Many steps are still needed for these laws to become enforceable, like penal procedures, specialized law-enforcement personnel, specialized infrastructures and software. Lacking a sound cyberspace security strategy, Central African countries will likely allow vulnerabilities to continue to grow to the point that their cyberspaces will become safe havens for criminals and terrorists. In the same manner in which it is growing around the world, cyberspace is growing in Central Africa—along with threats. Governments cannot disregard enforcing their authority in both physical and cyber space. There are some measures being taken to improve the presence of government in cyberspace. However, there is too much to be done with not enough means, from knowledge acquisition (basic, intermediate and expert education), to building infrastructure and to creating and enforcing regulations. Most of these efforts are designed to make cyberspace operational. On
By Major Raoul Nanci Yossi Signals Division at the Defence’s General Staff Ministry of Defence Cameroon 4
the other hand, additional initiatives concerned with securing the whole system and giving governments more control have been ignored and put off to be worked out in the future. Central African militaries, whose basic roles are to guarantee their countries’ sovereignty, seem unprepared to fulfill their missions in the cyber realm. Opening this debate within the Central African military community is a good first step towards filling this gap. Increasing cybersecurity can lead to numerous positive spillover effects. Public trust in the Central African cyber domain will bring local economic entities to invest in the electronic-business sector. Similarly, increased confidence will attract more international financial transactions and increase Central Africa’s competitiveness. Limiting the amount of criminal acts in the regional cyber domain will diminish the negative perception of the region in the world, thus increasing its attractiveness, or soft power. An efficient cyber strategy that integrates a regional vision would help overcome the financial barrier to infrastructure investment. In the militaries of Central Africa, where the acknowledgement of cyberspace and cybersecurity is still in its infancy, debate on the matter will be quite beneficial, as it will help military planners define adequate future directives in order to counter and preempt cyber threats in a more globally integrated fashion. In the Economic Community of East African States (ECCAS) region, the existing reality of cyberspace is quite complex, although very limited. The overall index of cyber readiness for the region is evaluated as a two on a scale of one to seven, which places the region in the very bottom of the world list. Infrastructures From the infrastructure perspective, cyberspace in the Central Africa
Major Raoul Nanci Yossi community is at the brink of a tipping point. The year 2012 was the promised year of accomplishment for many projects in all eight countries of the ECCAS subregion. These projects aimed to connect partners to international undersea optical-fiber cables, followed by the interconnection of regional capitals in a Central African backbone, and finally by the interconnection of major cities through high-capacity communications links. The present telecommunication infrastructure landscape is dominated by wireless technology, either for distribution to the local population or for the interconnection of distant cities. Mobile telephony and mobile services are highly developed, especially in urban areas, although the rural sector does have an acceptable level of mobile penetration as compared to landline services. Surprisingly, and thanks to the portability of information and communications technology (ICT), the ECCAS subregion is now benefiting from all the existing telecommunication solutions offered around the world. The miracle of competition has led to the introduction by mobile-phone companies of 4G, 3G, GPRS and CDMA networks for the population.
African Defense/July 2013
Internet access, when available, remains insignificant from a global world perspective and is still expensive due to the reliance on satellite for bandwidth access in many ECCAS countries. The absence of local Internetmanaging infrastructures like Internet eXchange Points (IXPs) contributes to a high cost for Internet access. Projects backed by the World Bank are underway to fill the gap, namely, the Central African backbone, the WASC optical-fiber link, the African telecommunications satellite RASCOM and many others. The Military’s Role
addresses until the final stage, leaving the newly created cyberspace vulnerable to diverse forms of dangers. Up front, in parallel with all other efforts, the security apparatus has to take the lead and bring their experience with crime and instability in the physical world into the nascent cyber realm, making sure that networks, information systems, and laws will not have to be rebuilt because down the road they fail to meet security requirements. The experience of the military regarding secrets protection can be necessary to help identify or define priorities on what to protect immediately when moving to online capabilities. An immediate sector that the military can take advantage of is intelligence collection through the numerous collection tools available online. From another perspective, the military, although not connected to cyberspace, is immersed in ICT that is embedded in various weapon systems. In a context where countries lack expertise in security matters in cyberspace, it can be economically effective to employ the
Photo via Major Raoul Nanci Yossi
In the physical realm, the military and, in a broader sense, the security apparatus, have always been among the principal assets that guarantee the existence of states. In Africa, they are considered to be the cradle of peace and development. The security forces provide protection to government institutions and enforcement and dissuasive arms for the respect of laws. They also provide for the protection
of national integrity from inside and outside threats. In some countries of the ECCAS region, they even provide direct contribution to social and economic development. For all these reasons, the role of the security apparatus in the physical realm is obvious, but in the cyber realm, the reality of this role is still undefined. Despite the use of military and other security forces to protect critical communication infrastructures, based on their recognition as national security assets, and despite the participation of the military in frequency-management boards, the relation of the military to cyberspace is tiny. In fact, the militaries in Central Africa are merely ICT consumers; use it as a performance enhancer. But the actual role of the security apparatus can be more important. Indeed, in the developing context of cyberspace in the ECCAS region, the roadmaps ahead of the states are very dense. Priorities are multiple and cover infrastructure, education, laws, business, and security—the latter not being
Improving African Internet connectivity and access in the commercial sector will broaden capabilities for the militaries and reduce access costs. Security remains an issue. Here Gabonese network specialists establish connections during a workshop.
African Defense/July 2013
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Technology As far as technology is concerned, military organizations in Central Africa exist in a global sociopolitical and economic context where they are very important actors. Thus, they are affected by the technological breakthroughs that might be suitable for the region. But like all armies, they experience many difficulties in the assimilation (or innovation) process. Overall, the militaries in Central African deal with technology in a submissive way, rather than being leading actors. Nevertheless, as soon as a technology is incorporated, they usually are quick to master it and excel in its utilization. These acquired abilities are generally not used to their full potential. Some military corps of the region, such as the engineer and signal corps, put their expertise to the service of nation building and can be used as models for the whole military organization to help develop a subregion that is striving to get out of its socioeconomic stagnation. One of the sectors where this contribution will certainly be welcome is information technology and cyberspace, where the security aspects are not yet implemented. The Cyber Community of Central African States The Economic Community of Central African States is an organization that already exists and possesses functioning organic structures. In a context where actionable resources are rare and scattered across the community, and
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Photo via Major Raoul Nanci Yossi
military potential, which is easy to adapt and disciplined, to protect and design countermeasures against cyber criminals. In a more statutory sense, the police and national gendarmerie, which enforce law and order in the physical realm, should do the same in the cyber realm, as they are the ones with whom citizen complaints are filed. The security apparatus is a government’s means for exercising authority. It has to be present also in the cyber realm. This presence means possessing the forensic and active and defensive capabilities necessary to give power to the state.
High speed datalinks are the basis of an infrastructure that will allow countries with core ICT capabilities to share with those without. because the cyber realm is said to be without borders, one can hypothesize that collaboration built upon existing assets that promotes the sharing of cyber resources and capabilities within the region would be a good point of beginning. Such cooperation will help to create a strong cyber environment conducive of the confidence and trust necessary to tip off a Cyber Community of Central African States (C3AS). One fundamental truth of cyberspace is that it is universally accessible—thus the idea of a borderless realm. This concept brings up the need to cooperate as the first variable of success especially in Central Africa where no country pretends to have all the resources or capabilities required to prevail. Given the fact that when a cyber resource is available online it can be useful to all in the region, and having an existing community of states where the pillars of regional cooperation are established, the countries of ECCAS should put together their resources in a mutual agreement and create a formal C3AS. Such a cyber community will strengthen the basis for Central African cyberspace and make it better prepared to face the challenges that come with it. Overall, countries in the region face the same sort of problems: poor infrastructures, education and regulations. At the infrastructure level, interconnecting all regional networks will bring multiple advantages. First, those countries without access to undersea
cables for high-speed access to the Internet will be connected through their neighbors. Second, an interconnection through high-speed links will make it possible for countries of the region that possess core ICT infrastructures like IXP, PKI or server farms to share with the others services that for now are only available from another continent. It will be possible even to create redundancy infrastructures to deal with eventual failure. Interconnection will also bring access to knowledge by linking regional universities or training centers. With regard to security, a mesh grid of interconnected networks of ECCAS countries will reduce the likeliness of a state’s being isolated from cyberspace due to a disagreement with neighbors who were network-access providers. The Central African Backbone (CAB) project, which is now finishing the interconnection of three states of the subregion (Cameroon, Chad and the Central Republic of Africa), and in its latter phase will interconnect the rest of the countries of the region while providing core infrastructural facilities like IXP, PKI and server farms, constitute a sample of the model envisioned in the C3AS concept and is to be encourage. Other projects of this nature have to be developed to create a solid core for the C3AS. In that manner, as for the energy sector, the Central African region (Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon and Gabon) disposes of a
African Defense/July 2013
framework of the economic community (ECCAS) constitutes a background that only needs to be reinforced and strategized. In that respect, there are many contacts that exist between the different administrations in charge of ICT, but these exchanges remain just a forum for discussion and opportunities, not a community where members see themselves as engaged in the same struggle. This forum of exchanges between ICT leaders has to evolve into a decisional structure in charge of all the ICT strategies of the subregion, defining directives, regulations, and laws to be enacted by the parliaments. In that sense, all the countries of the subregion must harmonize their legal framework on ICT and have a comprehensive strategy of development. The less advanced will benefit from the achievements of the other members, and the most advanced will benefit from the elimination of unstable areas within their vicinity. As noted earlier, education constitutes one of the strongest pieces of ICT development; in the ECCAS region, the countries are not at the same level in that matter. A collaborative initiative will facilitate access to training infrastructures to all members at a relatively low cost.
Photo via Major Raoul Nanci Yossi
tremendous energy potential that can be developed and shared through an interconnected energy grid. This gives the region an opportunity to solve its energy gap, a good thing for ICT development. At the information-systems level, virtual environments and delocalization of resources are technologies that have been proven robust against attacks aimed at one geographically located information system. Therefore, through a collaborative endeavor, countries in Central Africa could develop multiple data-center environments—a subregional computer cloud—which if interconnected could help build cheaper distributed information systems that are robust and resilient to the benefit of all its members. Such a regional computer cloud will present tremendous economic advantages, as it will help reduce the amount of traffic out of the C3AS sphere, thus having an impact on the contractual bandwidth for external transaction. A Central African cyber community will only be possible if there is a common desire to make it happen. This is to say diplomatic efforts have to be paramount. Indeed, the decision makers of the ECCAS region have to come to together and put in place a global strategic plan that will set the path to a C3AS. The
Congolese offices discuss elements of a network planning conference. A joint cyber community will strengthen the basis for Central African cyberspace and make it better prepared to face challenges.
African Defense/July 2013
The few universities available that become centers of excellence for regional training and research for the promotion of ICT may help create adequate training programs and technological solutions for the local needs of the population. Another aspect crucial in this collaborative initiative is law enforcement. The growing trend of cyberspace crime, which for now revolves around scams and identity theft, calls for an intensive collaboration between lawenforcement agencies (exchange of information, continuation of investigation, training and expertise sharing). The potential gain from a cyber community in Central Africa is significant. Indeed, when one considers that the region possesses a population of nearly 114 million inhabitants, mostly youth— who are grand consumers of ICT— developing a robust, resilient and secure cyber environment can generate revenues for the states and economic gain for the population, not to mention the quality of life that comes as a bonus. The reluctance of foreign companies to sell or provide some category of service in Central Africa is a sign of mistrust. That is also true when it comes to electronic transactions within the region, where a lack of visibility on the means of recourses that consumers may have deters them from risking their money in cyberspace. The concept of a mutualization of resources—human, intellectual, infrastructural, political and economic—in a common goal will create an environment conducive of trust. Generating confidence in cyberspace by promoting trust will fade away the various potential risks that exist in the C3AS, leaving a brighter future. When it comes to social behavior, there are several criteria that presumably can help build trust and therefore contribute to shaping the behavior of a population. In the case of cyberspace, things are not so different; potential actors in cyberspace (or consumers of cyber products) will also be sensitive to these elements of trust. As presented by Piotr Sztompka P in his book Trust, the first element of trust one can think about is normative coherence; to the extent that people share the same values (morality, integrity, benevolence, skills level, etc.) and have the same expectations, trust will be easier to build. In the case of
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confidence to counterbalance skepticism. Many cyber businesses are run by young, computer-savvy entrepreneurs in the backyard and bedrooms of private homes; bringing more visibility to their activities in line with who they are, how their services are provided, and with whom they are affiliated, will give assurance or setback to potential clients. These transparency elements can only be provided in an environment where cyber-service providers are encouraged to step out of the darkness and make themselves known to the public. Such encouragement to go official will be promoted by a global strategy for the subregion. The feeling of security also plays an important role in trust development. At the level of the state, the assurance that cyberspace will not be a source of political instability or social unrest can be a strong incentive for decision makers to consider the advantages that may exist in that realm. At the user level, the absence of negative experiences encountered by user gives them the impression of security, which overall favors confidence in cyberspace use. At a regional level, a fully meshed network grid contributes to reducing the risk of network disruption against one of the member states, providing each state with the perception of security, a perspective that urges each to adhere to the interconnection concept. A C3AS environment that is trusted because of the existence of normative coherence, accountability, transparency, and security will be a perfect recipe for tipping the expansion of cyberspace in the subregion. This will permit foreign investors to provide the necessary momentum for this realm to become a true instrument for development and peace by fighting poverty.
A network officer from Chad participating in a field training exercise. Establishing a C3AS could pay long range benefits.
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realm. Questions are asked about how cyberspace can change the daily life of Central African citizens, how the states can benefit, and what the risks of embracing the new reality are. Because of the socioeconomic context of the ECCAS region and the political reality in many of its countries, the approaches to cyberspace are diverse, from indifference to pseudo grand strategy. These different approaches expose the region to the numerous risks that come with cyberspace and hinder the advantages that states could derive from it. For the states of the Central African region to find their way out of a time of much tragedy and enjoy the benefit of the power of cyberspace, they need to put their assets in common to form a Cyber Community of Central African States that will gives them a strong basis from which to withstand the beast.
Where to Now? At a moment where Central African region countries are moving towards cyberspace, with multiple efforts being done to bridge the numeric gap with the rest of the world, such as linking to highspeed broadband-transmission undersea cable and introducing information systems into the daily life of citizens in the administration and the private sector, there are many concerns regarding state control over this sprawling and boundless
Photo courtesy of US DoD
Photo via Major Raoul Nanci Yossi
ECCAS, this is quite true; people in the region share similar ethnocultural values, economic conditions and the levels of technology. It will be much easier for people in Gabon to understand what are the needs and expectations of their neighbors in Cameroon, the Congo, or Equatorial Guinea, and vice versa. As a matter of fact, normative coherence is a criterion that is naturally given to the ECCAS, thanks to the common history of the people in that region. The second element of trust is accountability. Obviously, everyone that engages his money online will need to be able to follow the trail and be able to react in case of any attempt to divert it from the original aim by the recipient. On that question, services offered in cyberspace by people located in the geographical area of the ECCAS will reflect a better impression of safety to costumers within the region than if the provider is miles away. The simple fact of being located within the region becomes an advantage. Moreover, the establishment of uniform means of recourse within the C3AS will constitutes a strong step forward in accountability when there are disagreements. In a community where laws are enforced properly, those that provide services will be constrained by the reality of retaliation in case of failure to comply with contractual commitments. An educated population that understands how transactions in cyberspace work will be less reluctant to use it. The knowledge of this realm thus contributes to providing the population with the necessary
African Defense/July 2013
Medium and Light Airlift for African Operations Tailoring platforms to transportation requirements Recent events in Africa have once again highlighted the need for airlift in a continent that still remains characterised by few and poorly maintained roads. These events, the deployment of a French contingent to Mali in January and the challenge faced by the South African force in Bangui in March, mainly involved strategic airlift or, in the latter case, the lack thereof. That is indeed a major issue for any military force wanting to deploy within Africa, but heavy lifters alone are not going to suffice. Heavy/long-range transports such as the C-5, C-17 and An-124 are limited by their weight and size to a fairly small number of airports between the Sahara and South Africa. Even the Il-76 was judged too heavy by French Air Force officers in 1994 to fly equipment to Goma or Bukavu in the east of the DRC for Operation Turquoise. Both airports had tarred runways, but those officers did not think their surface would stand up long to multiple landings by heavily laden Il-76s at 170 tons or so. In addition, Bukavu had, and still has, a very small dispersal area, which would have complicated handling large cargo aircraft. For that reason the French used chartered Il-76s and An-124s to fly equipment to Ndjamena in Chad, from where French Air Force C-160s flew it to, mainly, Goma. A little while later, during Operation Support Hope, the US Air Force studied Bukavu airport and decided it could handle a maximum of three to four C-130 sorties per day for two weeks, after which the runway would require resurfacing. In Mali, the French used C-160s to paradrop and land forces at Kidal (1,300 meter gravel) and at Tessalit (2,400
By Helmoed Heitman African Defense Publisher African Defense/July 2013
meter gravel), working together with the advancing ground forces, and then used them as airheads for operations against the rebels in the surrounding areas. Those runways would not have stood up to much movement by heavy lifters. One interesting note is that at Kidal it was necessary to paradrop a small earthmover to clear the runway. The new generation of heavy lifters, the A400M and the An-70, may find things a bit easier if the published allup weight figures for the latter are to be believed. But they, too, will not be in a position to deliver cargo everywhere it is needed—not even a C-130 will do that. While the US Air Force may believe that it has no requirement for a lighter transport type, the reality in Africa is that lighter types will be essential. That is largely a function of most African countries being quite large on the one hand, and having poor and poorly maintained road nets on the other. Returning to the example of the operations in Mali, the country’s only really large airport is at the capital, Bamako, and the road distance from there to Kidal—over some very rough roads—is more than 1,540 km. The only other tarred runway (2,000 m) at Timbuktu, from where only tracks lead to Kidal, some 500 km to the northeast as the crow flies. Going back a little, the EUFOR deployment in Chad in 2008 saw forces airlifted to Ndjamena from where they still had to cover 800 km eastwards to the area of operations. That required a smaller transport aircraft, as the airfield at Abeche has a long and tarred runway, but only limited dispersal space. Alternatively, the runway at Iribia had only a lightly surfaced 1,500 m runway but no dispersal area. and the airfield at Goz Beida in the south had a 1,800 m gravel strip and also no dispersal area. The 2,000 km overland route from the port of Douala
in Cameroon to Abeche took some 25 days over generally fairly well maintained roads. The Central African Republic also has only one tarred runway, at Bangui, with some twenty gravel airfields of between 900 m and 2,500 m and another six under 900 m serving a country of 622 000 km2. Most other African states are not much better off, some less so where dense forest and mountains make airfield construction difficult. It is also worth bearing in mind that many African air forces are required to fly a range of humanitarian missions, which often require them to land on very short fields, or on a suitable stretch of road. So there is a very real requirement for light STOL [short takeoff or landing]types too, despite relatively poor payload/range performance. Considering the difficult access to villages in the Congo River basin and parts of the Great Lakes region, one cannot but wonder whether there is not also a place for some light floatplanes there. Classification Having argued for lighter transport aircraft, one must clarify what is meant by that. With the South African Air Force is the most likely major customer in the Sub-Saharan region in the near future, this article will use its classification of the C-130 and similar aircraft as medium transports and C-27 and C-295 class transports as light. Lighter aircraft that than those will be considered utility aircraft for the purposes of this article. Some Realities of Forward Air Delivery in Africa It is also important to keep in mind that in much of Africa infrastructure is not well developed or maintained—including
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SAAF Celebrates 50 Years with the C-130 On June 1, Lockheed Martin officials joined members of the South African Air Force (SAAF) in commemorating 50 years of continuous C-130 operations. 1963 saw the first arrival of the original fleet of seven SAAF C-130Bs. Members of the SAAF’s 28 Squadron—which also celebrated its 70th anniversary on June 1—ferried the new C-130s from the US to Air Force Base Waterkloof, near Pretoria where the SAAF C-130 fleet is stationed today. South Africa has the distinction of being the fifth international operator of the C-130. All seven original C-130Bs have been extensively revamped and are part of 28 Squadron’s active Hercules fleet. “The C-130 Hercules is known worldwide as a proven workhorse,” said George Shultz, vice president and general manager, C-130 Programs. “Missions carried out by operators such as the South African Air Force and 28 Squadron have earned the Hercules this reputation. In its first 50 years of C-130 operations, the SAAF showcased the renowned capabilities of the C-130 within the borders of South Africa and beyond to support needs across the continent. We are proud to have South Africa as a member of the C-130 family and look forward to future decades of partnership and collaboration.” many, arguably most, African countries there is a clear requirement for medium transport aircraft to provide intra-theatre airlift: The heavy lifters are too heavy, and the light transports will often lack the range/payload capability. Taking the SAAF view of the C-130J as a medium transport aircraft, it quickly becomes clear that there is not much competition in that bracket. The remaining An-12s are aging, and Chinese equipment has not always proved popular with its users, although the Y-8 and its Y-9 cousin are useful aircraft, the latter also offering a somewhat greater maximum payload of 25 tons compared to the C-130J’s 20 tons. One possible option for African air forces might be the C-160s of the French
of self-defence armament, much as helicopters have in similar circumstances.
Another important factor for many African air forces is the need to be able to fly at least light vehicles into an air field close to where the action is taking place: It really will not help much to fly from a main base to a forward airfield quickly, if the troops then have to walk 100 km or more to get to where things are happening. The more so if the opposing rebels, bandits or even smugglers, are well motorized with off-road vehicles, as is certainly the case in much of the Sahel and also in other parts of Africa. Forces that are deployed in response to a rebel attack or to deter such an attack should also be in a position to over-match the technicals (armed pick-ups) employed by many, if not by most, rebel groups. That will require being able to deploy at least some light armored cars and armored personnel carriers by air. Finally, the distances involved will also require the ability to deploy some type of logistic vehicle to carry fuel, ammunition and food to forces in contact from wherever the nearest airfield may be. Intra-Theater Airlift
The bottom line of all this is that in
In addition to being a capable transport, the C-295 is also a well-performing maritime patrol aircraft.
Photo courtesy of ATK
The Challenge of Transporting Vehicles
Both the C-295 (above) and the C-27J have gunship lite variants under development. At least one C-27J gunship is under contract with Jordan. Photo courtesy of EADS
airfields—so sustained use of an airfield by medium or even light transport aircraft might well require flying in runway repair equipment. Another critical point is that in many cases everything will have to be flown in—including fuel. Therefore, it is the unrefuelled radius with a given payload into a rough field in hot weather that is the key criterion, not the one-way range. There will also be times when forward airfields are within range of rocket launchers (BM-21—20 km with standard rockets) or mortars, making it necessary to turn aircraft around quickly. In extreme cases, an airfield may be within range of machinegun fire, making for a potentially dire situation. That was experienced by the Air Force of Zimbabwe during supply operations to the garrison at Ikela in the central DRC, which was surrounded by opposing forces for six months. After several aircraft had been hit by machinegun fire, the AFZ [Air Force of Zimbabwe] resorted to parachute drops of supplies. Since then, many rebel movements in Africa have acquired twin and quad 14.5 mm heavy machineguns and twin 23 mm cannon, M23 in the DRC even captured some twin 37 mm cannon in Goma in November 2012. The risk envelope for forward supply missions has, thus, expanded considerably, requiring aircraft with good agility. One must also take into account the possibility that a rebel movement has realized the potential of an anti-materiel rifle—quick and easy to bring within effective range of an airfield, and as quick and easy to escape with afterwards. And MANPADS [manportable air defense] are in Africa, even if they have not been much used. In some situations one will also find that outlying bases are so small and so surrounded by tall trees that a parachute drop is impractical. At Ikela, for instance, much of the paradropped supplies fell outside the positions. Unless such a base is within helicopter range and is safe for a helicopter to land or at least briefly hover, one will be reduced to a free drop of suitably packaged supplies. A final point to make here is that there will also be occasions, for instance an evacuation of non-combatants in a volatile situation or insertion of a patrol, where it will be necessary for the transport aircraft to have some form
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Tactical Airlift: Light Transports Tactical airlift in the African context will often require aircraft smaller and lighter than the medium types discussed above, chiefly because light transports will be able to access far more airfields and airstrips than the heavier types. A key question in this category is whether there is a requirement to transport vehicles and, if so, what type
African Defense/July 2013
Photo courtesy of Alenia
The C-27J has wowed air show crowds for years with its fighter-like maneuverability. While its dance-like air moves would be rarely called for on a normal transport mission, it does show off the ruggedness of the airframe. of vehicles. While most of these aircraft can transport light utility vehicles, only the C-27J has the cabin volume and payload (11.5 ton maximum) to be able to transport light combat vehicles. If that is a key requirement, there is no other choice. The C-27J also seems to offer the greatest agility and ability to absorb battle damage, and there is a gunship variant in development that could be of real interest to armed forces facing guerrilla threats. The Casa-295, on the other hand, has a longer fuselage offering more general cargo space and should prove cheaper to operate, with only slightly less maximum payload at 9.5 tons. It also has the advantage for some operators of being available in maritime surveillance and patrol variants and with an airborne radar variant in development. Its 5-ton cousin, the CN-235, could be a useful type for some air forces, and has the advantage of a gunship variant being developed together with ATK. Of the Antonovs, the 6.7 ton payload An-32 is a well-proven type and should be available at low prices from a Russian industry keen to rebuild, and is regarded by some air forces as particularly suited to high altitude operations, while second-hand An-26s could be very cheap, although their condition might be suspect. Both, however, suffer the disadvantage of a limited maximum range of around 1,500 km, which will be a problem for some African air forces. The outsider here is the An-72, the only jet in this category, with obvious transit speed advantages and with its highmounted engines, likely to be fairly A Mauritanian BT-67 (Basler Turbo) proving the longevity of the airframe.
immune to vacuuming up airfield debris. The advantage of not having propellers for troops to walk into should also not be under-estimated, and it has a more useful maximum range of 4,800 km. Utility Aircraft The category often overlooked because it is unglamorous from an air force point of view are the really light transports or utility aircraft. But these can be very useful types in a range of situations, essentially performing the role of a flying pick-up truck. They are able to move people and light stores quickly and cheaply, and often not even requiring an airfield if there is a halfway smooth gravel road available. The latter point is well illustrated by smugglers who use Let-410s to fly cassiterite ore out of the DRC, using roads near the illegal mines to do so. Looking back three decades to South Africa’s counter-insurgency campaign along the border between Namibia and Angola, the much-maligned Kudu was actually an extremely valuable means of moving people and supplies around the operational area. It was cheap to fly and could land on the shortest of runways, and this writer rarely encountered one that was not being flown at well over its theoretical maximum payload for the conditions. Some may see this as a role for helicopters, and while the African battlespace will often present commanders with distances that make using helicopters for resupply impractical. And even more so under the hot and sometimes high conditions that will be encountered. They have their place in the transport line-up but cannot replace light transports or utility aircraft. At the upper end of this category are the very light transports like the 3.2 ton/1,200 km Shorts C-23 Sherpa and the 2.8 ton/1,400 km Casa-212, which are also the only two to have a tail ramp,
Photo courtesy of Basler Turbo
and German Air Forces as those aircraft are phased out. Most were modernized in the 1990s and should still have a useful life ahead of them. The SA Air Force experience of the C-160 was that it was unparalleled at quick turn-around tactical operations into short airstrips, not least as a result of its ability to ‘kneel’ backwards to facilitate loading bulky items—or simply to push pallets out in a slow taxi. Generally it found that two C-160s could be turned around in the same time as a single C-130. Its only real weakness was the fact that it could not transport one of its own propellers, so propeller damage in the field presented a challenge. And it did not have the range performance of the C-130, although the later aircraft with the additional center-section fuel tank would match the range, albeit at the expense of payload. Looking forward, Embraer’s C-390 seems likely to be a serious challenger to the C-130J in its capability bracket, with a 23 ton payload and a maximum range of 6,200 km. One question still to be answered is how well suited a turbofan type is to tactical operations into forward airfields. All these type are well suited to intra-theatre airlift in the African context and even to some extent to inter-theatre operations. An air force’s selection will depend as much on the cost, with through-life cost often overlooked when faced with low acquisition costs, as on the political considerations involved. The Russian/Indian joint venture medium type will be a modern aircraft, but is intended to have a maximum range of only 2,500 km, which will severely restrict its usefulness for many African air forces, given the likelihood of not being able to refuel at the forward airfield. It is really what one might term a ‘cross-over’ type on the margin between medium and light or tactical, with the payload of the former and a range closer to the latter.
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making them potentially attractive for special forces—deploying very light vehicles—and also for flying cargo into fields where a really quick turn-around is essential. The SA Air Force has also remarked on the agility of the C-212, with one pilot saying he could drop a stick of trainee paratroopers and be back on the runway before they were. The C-47 first took to the air a few days before Christmas 1941 and has been plying the skies ever since. Turbopowered versions can be found working for African militaries. BSAS International (offices in the US and South Africa) and Basler Turbo Conversions (US) both have,
1.1 tons but with an interesting maximum range of 4,100 km). Both of the latter are unusual in being low-wing types, but the PAC750’s manufacturer points out that this greatly simplifies the task of refuelling the aircraft at a forward location. Among the lighter aircraft in this group is the GippsAero Airvan, with a 750 kg payload and 1,350 km range. And, of course, Pilatus PC-6 with its remarkable STOL performance and 730 km range with a 1.1 ton payload. Getting There First with the Most Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest is often quoted as having said that his strategy based on “getting there the firstest with the moistest.” While that is probably apocryphal, the advantages of doing so are obvious, whether one is thinking in terms of deploying troops or in terms of supplying them. In Africa that will often mean using air transport, and very often it will mean using medium or light transports or even utility aircraft. That little bit of ammunition a 1.5 ton capacity aircraft can deliver to troops is often going to be worth far more than 20 tons delivered to an airfield even 100 km away.
Photo courtesy of Viking Air
Photo courtesy of Quest
Single-engine aircraft have the advantage of being small and less expensive—both in acquisition and sustainment costs. The Quest Kodiak is one such example.
and are, converting the transport to fill the transport requirements for a low-cost, reliable troop and supply transport. Next comes a group of aircraft of only slightly lower payload but limited by their lack of a ramp, making them more suited to liaison missions than light cargo missions. Among them are the Antonov An-38 (2.5 tons/1,750 km), the Ruag Do228 (2.3 tons/1,100 km at full payload), the Pzl M-28 Skytruck (2 tons/1,500 km) and the revived Twin Otter (2 tons/1,480 km) by Viking Air, which is probably the best suited to really rough conditions. Among the lighter twins are Harbin’s Y-12(II) (1.7 tons/1,340 km), which has done very well in Africa as a utility transport and the revived Turbolet-410 (1.6 tons/1,380 km), and we must not forget the King Air, widely used by air forces in the liaison role, and the BrittenNorman Islander. Finally there are the single-engine utility types, which offer useful capability and an attractive operating cost profile. The best-known among them is the ubiquitous Cessna Caravan, which is also used in patrol and even armed configurations. Similar types include the Quest Kodiak (1.6 tons/1,600 km), the PAC750 (1.5 tons/2,180 km), which has demonstrated remarkable rough field performance, and the Pilatus PC-12 (only
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African Defense/July 2013
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The Heavy Lifting in Clearing Landmines Skills, techniques and heavy equipment come together manager explained what the company is all about. “The mission of Mechem is to be a global leader in creating a safer world through providing continuous quality: Explosive Remnants of War clearance solutions; specialized canine products and services; mine and ballistic protected vehicles; ancillary equipment; related skills development and life support under harsh conditions.” Just this year the company has been awarded contracts in Angola, Benin, DRC, Libya, Mozambique, Senegal, Somalia, South Africa and South Sudan. “Mechem uses the full spectrum of technologies available, being manual demining, mine detection dogs, vehicle mounted detection capacities and mechanical demining,” explained
Photo courtesy of Mechem
By some estimates, there are more than 110 million landmines scattered in 78 countries. The liability to civilians and the denial of valuable land create second and third order of effects both in direct costs and income lost. While relatively easy to plant, the cleanup of mines— whether in larger fields or individual—is difficult and technologically challenging. This is not a problem that is being solved by a one-solution-fits-all approach but the ultimate definition of a toolbox full of solutions that can be applied when and where appropriate. South Africa’s Mechem has a long history of research and development of mechanical and chemical technology for the defense industry Ashley Williams, Mechem’s general
Here the Mechem Vehicle Mounted Metal Detection System, a multi-array metal detection system, is shown mounted behind a Casspir.
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Williams. “The company is very open to improving technology and has a dedicated product development department that concentrates on improving present technologies, but also scans the market for technologies that can make demining quicker, safer and cheaper. Having a core professional staff is central to their strategy, as is having the capability to surge with contract staff as required by business. “As far as employees are concerned the company has a small core of permanent employees situated at its head office in Pretoria,” said Williams. “International employees are contracted in for specific contracts as they are awarded. These contract employees are either recruited as trained ex-military, police or demining personnel or Ashley Williams are trained by Mechem at our training facility in Pretoria. Local personnel are recruited and trained in the country of operations. The general policy within Mechem is to try and keep continuity as far personnel are concerned and employees will usually be transferred to a new project once their current contract comes to an end.” The Mechem Explosives and Drug Detection System (MEDDS) is a system where odor samples are collected from a certain area and taken to trained dogs to determine if there is any traces of explosives in the area—instead of taking the dog to the smell we take the smell to the dog. Only areas where the
African Defense/July 2013
This Minewolf system, in service with the UN, moves through a clearing process.
African Defense/July 2013
because of the perception of the area or roads being mined and when one does the clearance maybe only 1 or 2 mines are found over a stretch of 50km.” How to address those challenges? Williams offered, “The best solutions to these challenges are having strong hands on logistical personnel who know and understand Africa; procuring good vehicles and equipment that can preferably be supported in Africa, even if they are more expensive and lastly doing thorough impact studies and surveys of the area of operations.” Mechem also offers their customers a choice of options, ranging from tools and training for a host country to perform clearance tasks themselves up to a turnkey operation by Mechem. The company offers a full spectrum of training, that includes basic deminer training, EOD Levels 1 to 3, demining management, mine protected driver training, specialist Mechem equipment training and all levels of dog handler training. Minewolf MineWolf Systems is a leading provider of technologies and services to counter the threats from landmines and other explosive devices. Based in Switzerland, with its state of the art production site in Germany, MineWolf Systems builds its products to the highest engineering standards. The company
has an outstanding track record and its platforms have cleared millions of square meters of contaminated land for armed forces, Marty Steel humanitarian and commercial customers in over thirty countries worldwide. “Our platforms range from the MineWolf [MW370] best suited for large area mine clearance to the smallest remote controlled Micro MineWolf [MW50] which is ideal for supporting foot patrols or working in difficult, hardto-access terrain,” said Marty Steel, Minewolf regional manager, East Africa. “It is also ideal for releasing key areas such as water points during the initial emergency phase of mine action activities.” Designed with a toolbox mentality, all the MineWolf platforms are multipurpose and can be equipped with different attachments/tools for mine clearance, IEDs and/or conducting other engineering tasks in a safe and costeffective way. The newest Minewolf platform, the MW50 is just 1.2 meters wide including the tiller. The Micro MineWolf is easy
Photo courtesy of MineWolf
dogs indicate that there is explosive odor present then have to be physically demined. This method has proven useful tool for area reduction, route clearance and land release. “The beauty of the system is that although it cannot pinpoint a landmine, it can rapidly negate large areas as being free from explosives,” said Williams. The Mechem Vehicle Mounted Metal Detection System (MVMMDS) is a multi-array metal detection system drawn behind a mine protected vehicle with a real time marking system. This system is excellent for the rapid verification and clearance of roads and routes. Besides the real time marking which allows for immediate investigation of signals, the system can also be fitted with a differential geographic positioning system (DGPS) for later follow up. The system can also be set to different levels of metal detection, meaning that if there is for example only a threat of large metallic vehicle mines, it can be set to only signal metal objects larger than 5kg. The Mechem Deflagration System (MDS) is a system whereby landmines can be deflagrated (burned out) by means of a powder that burns at over 1,000 degrees celcius. Most of the time the landmine will burn out completely or only a partial detonation will occur. This system is classified as dangerous goods and with the correct packaging it can be transported by air. This system eliminates the need for explosives which are difficult to transport and also create security problems in the post-conflict areas where most demining is done. Hunting landmines is never an easy task, but there are challenges that make Africa uniquely difficult. “First, the terrain in Africa is very difficult and vehicles and equipment really take a hammering,” explained Williams when asked about the challenges of Africa. Second, the logistics of getting equipment and vehicles into Africa can be a challenge often caused by either the government or rebel forces. Third, Africa is unique in that most minefields have not been properly recorded and the large number of nuisance mines which litter the continent. Often whole communities are cut off
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Photo courtesy of Armtrac
Armtrac’s wheeled 100 is one of several clearance vehicles that offer operators options in size and capabilities. The 100 was recently sold to Chad. to navigate and is small enough to operate in jungles and forests or urban environment making it the ideal platform for supporting foot patrols. It can also operate on steep slopes of up to 45 degrees or in trenches so that clearing difficult areas can be done remotely and operator safety is not compromised. “The MW50’s compact size means that it can be moved to areas which cannot usually be reached by mine clearance machines,” said Steel. “It can be transported on the back of a 4x4 pick-up, on a small off-road trailer or by helicopter, enabling easy access to the remotest areas. Operating in some of the remotest regions of the world can create operational difficulties and challenges in supporting operations globally. “We pride ourselves on our comprehensive range of service solutions,” said Steel. “All customers have access to 24/7 technical support and the MineWolf technical support team provides training and advice as well as maintaining and operating the machines as required. Coupled with project management and logistical support, the company ensures its customers’ machines are kept fully operational wherever they are deployed.” The company has a particularly strong track record of providing robust solutions in Africa. The first MineWolf machine, which was deployed to Sudan
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in 2006, is still fully operational. The company runs a spare parts warehouse located at Yei in the Republic of South Sudan and has a team of technicians linked to its regional office in Nairobi who are operating and/or supporting machines throughout Africa. There are now 24 MineWolf machines accredited and operating in Angola, DRC, Somalia, Republic of South Sudan Republic of Sudan, and Western Sahara making them a proven option for dealing with explosive remnants of war in the African context. Armtrac Developing efficient equipment that is operator and user friendly is a goal of UK-based Armtrac, a small/medium enterprise with 18 employees. “Our mission is to manufacture quality, safe, trusted and operational value for money mechanical demining equipment,” said Steve Brown, Armtrac’s managing director. By using a standard quick hitch coupling to attach elements such as tillers and flails, the company can rapidly change tools and equipment functions on all of its platforms. This includes other tools such dozer blades, dirt buckets, fork lift tines and agricultural attachments to be fitted for construction or agricultural use in and out of the minefield thus
giving Armtrac machinery a second life. Armtrac’s tool systems are hydraulically driven which are largely maintenance free compared to belts and gearboxes which are prone to breakdown. Commercialoff-the-shelf parts helps get damaged and broken-down equipment back up and running quicker as parts can be found within the commercial supply chain. “On aspects of our equipment, like the Armtrac 400 and 75t tracked machines, is that they can be used in demining and construction,” explained Brown. “They are both fitted with a cabin or can be remote controlled and use a telescopic boom at the front on which to mount the toolkit which extends by two meters to facilitate demining or vegetation cutting on steep slopes and river banks. With its 4-ton lift capacity, this gives these machines huge flexibility in its demining role to lift large UXO as well as level and grade sites in its post-demining construction role.” The wheeled 100, recently sold to Chad, can move independently between separated sites without the use of a prime mover and trailer to transport it. The company has seen success in Egypt, Angola, Libya, North and South Sudan. “Last month we signed a contract with Egypt for a second Armtrac 400; our biggest machine and there is potential for a further order for an Armtrac 400 later this year,” said Brown. “At the start of 2013, we supplied Chad with an Armtrac 100 and there is a potential for a second Armtrac 100 to follow.” The 350 hp wheeled 100 has a top speed of 40 kph which makes it an attractive option for African clients. The company Steve Brown has been focused on looking for new options to make the Armtrac better operational value for money in terms of sale price and the range of activities that can be undertaken with the same machine. “However, we have recently developed and launched our new Armtrac 20t robot,” noted Brown. “This is a small general purpose
African Defense/July 2013
de-mining tool with on board GPS which is ideal for technical survey and accessing restricted areas that larger machines cannot reach. It can be configured with a variety of toolkits and ancilliaries including a mine plough and a tiller which cuts a one meter path to a depth of 15 cm. It could be used in heavy vegetation areas, including jungle terrain, to cut vegetation or to clear a route of mines, booby traps or IEDs.” Armtrac also explores other technologies for dealing with mines and sells other toolkits that can be attached to their range of machines. One example is the mine comb which, when fitted to a machine, lifts mines out of the ground. One is currently being evaluated by the US Army’s Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate, Fort Belvoir, Va., in conjunction with an Armtrac 75t. “We have also developed a sifter that can be towed behind a machine fitted with a forward clearing tool which will lift and sort the tilled soil for any uncleared explosive remnants down to a depth of 75 cm,” explained Brown. “This provides a level of quality assurance for UXO and mines not dealt with by the primary tool.” Operators can buy Armtrac systems outright or they can hire them deliver and operate the equipment on site. To train new operators, the company provides a two-week training program in the UK with an engineer traveling with the new equipment on delivery to train operators and maintenance teams. DCD Protected Mobility “DCD Protected Mobility has a long history in the design, manufacture and support of special purpose tactical wheeled vehicles, providing niche solutions to meet market requirements,” said the company’s general manager, Andrew Mears. “We provide innovative and sustainable combat proven landward protected mobility products and solutions, through international partnerships, benefiting all stakeholders.” The company’s flagship system is the Husky, also known as the vehicle mounted mine detector (VMMD), has been successfully deployed in Africa, Middle East, Balkans and Asia. It successfully completed arduous and comprehensive testing in South Africa, at the US Army’s Yuma and Aberdeen
African Defense/July 2013
Proving Grounds and the White Sands Missile Test Range. Tested to international standards in the USA, France and South Africa, the platform is a unique landmine detection vehicle, combat proven in conflict situations around the world since the early 1980s. Operations in Afghanistan and Iraq expanded the Husky’s role beyond detecting and marking landmines to the detection of IEDs and EFPs. The system facilitates fast and efficient route clearance creating safe passage for military personnel and civilians. What makes the Husky unique is its ability to pass over pressure fused anti-vehicle landmines without detonating them. In the event of a detonation, the vehicle structure components have been engineered in a modular configuration and break apart in a predictable fashion, facilitating fast in-field repairs. The system clears a three-meter wide path travelling at speeds between 15 and 50 km/h depending on terrain. The systems in service have collectively been subjected to thousands of detonations. African users of vehicles and equipment supplied by DCD include the South African Army, Ugandan and Kenyan armies. The Halo Trust is still utilizing systems acquired by the United Kingdom in Humanitarian operations. “The costs relating to the acquisition of demining and route clearance equipment is often problematic for African users and we constantly strive to drive our production costs down in order to meet these challenges,” said Mears.
The Husky is also in service with the US Army, USMC and the armed forces of Australia, Spain, France and Canada. “Over the years we’ve Andrew Mears developed the system, to increase its capabilities. Incremental improvements are going on all the time,” explained Mears. “We are a systems house continually developing our own intellectual property and supporting our products throughout their life cycle. Improvements already made include an alternator upgrade providing more power to the electrical consumers now fitted to the vehicles as well as additional sensors and ground penetrating radar.” “Some of our new innovative products include a two seat variant of the Husky and a world-class armored utility vehicle the Mountain Lion,” Mears added. “We also produce a light armored personnel carrier the Springbuck which is in service in a number of African countries.”
African users of DCD Protected Vehicles’ and equipment include the South African Army, Ugandan and Kenyan armies
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On Patrol
Photo courtesy of US Navy
Security threats abound in harbor, riverine and littoral waters, specialty small craft offer options
Piracy off Africa’s eastern coast may be slowing at the moment, but it’s heating up on the western coast. According to the International Maritime Bureau (IMB), in the first three months of 2013 there were five pirate attacks involving Somalis compared to 43 in the first three months of 2012. It’s a different story on the west coast. The IMB reports the number of attacks in East Africa decreased from 237 in 2011 to 75 in 2012, while the number of incidents reported off the West African coast increased from 44 in 2011 to 58 in 2012. IMB data shows that Gulf of Guinea pirate attacks are up; the only area in the region with decreased attacks is in Benin’s waters. On the East African coast, most piracy incidents occur in international waters, or outside the 12-nautical mile limit states have over sovereign waters. Alternatively, on the West African coast, incidents occur within that 12-mile
By Maura McCarthy African Defense Staff 18
limit and are thus subject to the legal jurisdiction of the state. Some maritime analysts suggest that these incidents, then, will be reported as criminal and not as acts of piracy since they occur in domestic waters. Another difference between attacks on each coast is their relationship to oil. The bulk of illicit activity on Africa’s West Coast relates to the oil trade. Counter piracy, counter narcotics, illegal fishing, illicit trafficking, abductions and crimes associated with oil transport are the predominant threats African navies must counter, and to accomplish these missions they a need versatile, capable, efficient and perhaps most important, cost-effective fleet. There are a number of options to choose from, and leading boat builders are constantly fine-tuning their crafts to provide their clients with the right vessel for the right mission. Foreign military sales and maritime cooperation among neighbors and allies are critical in a time of increased risk and decreased financial resources.
Building Maritime Forces Brunswick Commercial and Government Products (BCGP) has provided boats to the US Navy and Coast Guard since 1965 when they were known as Boston Whaler Commercial and Government Products. The largest marine manufacturer in the world, Brunswick includes 350 agencies in over 80 countries. Their customers include every branch of the US armed forces, Coast Guard, Department of Homeland Defense, Department of Justice, as well as law enforcement and rescue agencies throughout the country. Their vessels are also used by military, police and environmental protection agencies in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Middle East. Whether it’s a 4.7 meter inflatable or a 45-foot Sentry aluminum patrol craft, BCGP has an option. Rigid hull Boston Whalers are offered in five models ranging from 15 feet to 37 feet, and the Impact rigid hull inflatable boat (RHIB) line offers 5.2 to 12 meters options. The Sentry, an aluminum boat line, is offered
African Defense/July 2013
details of each customer’s ever changing missions to determine our model designs, updates, changes, and additions,” Jones concluded. The maritime environment is a harsh one, both in terms of the nature of the missions and the environment’s effect on the vessel. Vessels must be durable, stable, and reliable, while at the same time provide operators with the speed and maneuverability required to execute their mission set. “Today’s crews also stay out longer and in adverse environmental conditions. Crew comfort is essential
Staying competitive in the marine industry demands innovation and the ability to integrate cuttingedge technological developments. “Successfully developing solutions to requirements has allowed Silver Ships to be awarded contracts which integrate ballistic protection, counter measures, C4SIR systems and ability to maintain low level sound and reduced impact to crew through use of shock mitigated seats, floors and the ergonomics of the patrol boats,” Clanton said. In terms of design, Silver Ship utilizes AutoCAD and Solidworks and produces over 50 vessels each year in a 78,000-square foot facility for production, rigging, metal and paint work. To stay current and integrate innovation, Metal Shark focuses “on new technology, creativity, and the
African Defense/July 2013
on longer missions and relates directly to operational effectiveness. Shock mitigating seats, ergonomically designed cockpits, enclosed and semi-enclosed cabins with air-conditioning and heat, galley facilities, fresh water showers and marine toilets are all becoming standard on larger boats,” as Brunswick’s Gibson noted. Taking into account the users of the craft and their mission is perhaps the best way to ensure the vessel meets the customer’s demand. How long will the crew be out for and in what
Photo courtesy of US Navy
in 28- to 45-foot models. “Not only do we offer over a thousand standard options to include propulsion, electronics, seating, heavy duty hull designs, diving support, firefighting etc., we also have the ability to customize our platforms to meet our customer’s diverse and unique requirements. One of the greatest advantages to doing business with BCGP is that it is a one-stop shop. Whether you require a fiberglass platform, aluminum or RHIB, we’ve got you covered,” summarized Philip Gibson, international regional manager for Africa, Middle East, Europe and Asia at BCGP. Silver Ships Inc. offers a variety of vessels ranging from 21 to 65 feet, center consoles or full cabins, inboard or outboard engines. Their craft can be found in the fleets of the US Navy and other agencies as well as in foreign ports. “Our competitiveness with foreign shipyards in securing overseas markets [contracts] stems through our quality of workmanship along with [quality assurance] standards, understanding and implementing design in accordance with industry standards and technical experience,” Scott Clanton, Silver Ships’ Director of Special Projects, noted. Through the US Navy Foreign Military Sales Office, Silver Ships delivered 40-foot riverine patrol boats to the Philippines. On the Edge
During a multinational exercise in the Gulf of Guinea, (Obangame 2010), Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of Congo and US navies worked together to improve and assess communications between countries while conducting multinational maritime interdiction training. Photo Page 18: Tanzania People’s Defense Force sailors pilot their boat to their target vessel during boat-boarding drills during Exercise Cutlass Express 2012.
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conditions are just some of the questions to ask. As Gibson noted, “A great deal of our innovation comes directly from the requirements given to us by our customers. We strive to design and build quality solutions to the very unique and challenging problems facing the men and women who operate in the commercial and government marine environment.” As part of the larger Brunswick Boat Group, BCGP has the advantage of access to enviable technology and resources, and their staff includes naval architects, marine engineers and skilled craftsmen with years of experience.. Partnering for Security As threats evolve, so too do the agencies charged with countering them. “Threats have advanced in capacity and capabilities so have the agencies with littoral, harbor and riverine mission sets. Today’s patrol vessel requires advanced electronics to include navigational equipment, communications and sensors, the ability to mount various weapons systems securely and employ them to optimum advantage,” Gibson explained. A number of African navies have prioritized their maritime security capabilities, both in terms of hardware and training. In their fleet recapitalization effort, since 2007 the Nigerian Navy has added inshore patrol boats, a coastal surveillance system, and offshore patrol vessels to improve policing capability. In 2012, Nigeria acquired the former US Coast Guard high-endurance cutter Chase (WHEC-718), now the Thunder. The country, with requirements for 12 more offshore-patrol boats by the early 2020s,
www.offshorepatrolvesselsafrica.com In partnership with the Nigerian Navy
has ordered two patrol ships from China, and currently smaller, Nigerian-produced patrol boats are entering into service. With maritime threats transcending borders, partnering between nations in terms of operations and equipment is key. Recognizing the cross-border nature of maritime threats, particularly in maritime commerce, Nigeria has partnered with the Republic of Benin, and through Operation Prosperity has enacted a combined patrol agreement. On Africa’s East Coast, more than 20,000 vessels transit the Bab el-Mandeb Strait every year, and Djibouti recently received two assets that will improve their ability to patrol this area. In April, the US Department of State gave the Djiboutian Navy two high-speed coastal patrol boats. These vessels, the Metal Shark 28, will enhance Djibouti’s ability to implement the country’s Regional Maritime Awareness Capability system and automatic identification system receivers, which enhance maritime domain awareness within 100 nautical miles. For the past 10 years, Metal Shark Aluminum Boats has focused its efforts on various branches of the US armed forces, including the Navy, Coast Guard, Army and Air Force, as well as state and local agencies and foreign militaries. Vessels range from 16 to 85 feet, including skiffs, center consoles, mono-hulls, pilot houses and catamarans and can be used for military, riverine, patrol, survey, fire/ rescue, CBRNE and utility missions. On average the number of boats delivered annually is approximately 150, yet the company maintains a “healthy backlog” of orders. When it comes to meeting the needs Offshore Patrol Vessels Africa Conference: 27-28 August 2013 Oil and Gas Maritime Security Focus Day: 29 August 2013 Four Points by Sheraton Hotel, Victoria Island, Lagos, Nigeria
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Keynote speakers and advisory board members include:
• Vice Admiral Dele Joseph Ezeoba, Chief of Naval Staff, Nigerian Navy • Rear Admiral Geoffrey M. Biekro, Chief of Naval Staff, Meet African Chiefs of Navy, including Nigeria, Ghana and Djibouti Ghanaian Navy Network with all the decision-makers in Nigeria’s Navy as they unveil • Rear Admiral Emmanuel Ogbeche Ogbor, Chief of exciting new plans for the future Policy and Plans, Nigerian Navy Hear from the world’s leading experts in maritime security including • Rear Admiral Karl Weisner, Director, Maritime senior admirals from Malaysia, Peru and Pakistan Warfare, South African Navy Understand the rising problems and threats to oil and gas production • Rear Admiral Waseem Akram, Director General, from maritime insecurity and terrorism in the Gulf of Guinea Pakistan Maritime Security Agency Learn about the region’s grand plans to transform its ship building • Colonel Abdourahman Aden Cher, Commandant, capability Djibouti National Navy Explore how capacity building in the region can help to defeat the • Mrs. Nancy Karigithu, Director General, Kenyan rise of piracy, terrorism and smuggling Maritime Authority
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of its clients, Metal Shark emphasizes matching the design with the mission. “The biggest challenges usually involve a vessel not being designed for the appropriate mission. Metal Shark focuses on mission specific factors, visibility, crew comfort, safety, and innovation to deliver a finished product that meets each mission specifically giving the users a platform designed to do what they need it to do,” explained Dean Jones, national sales manager for the company. “One of our biggest strengths is our ability to identify the key components needed for each mission to be completed and then integrate them into the vessel in a seamless way which offers the user unmatchable performance while executing each required mission,” he continued. To stay current and integrate innovation, Metal Shark focuses “on new technology, creativity and the details of each customer’s ever changing missions to determine our model designs, updates, changes, and additions,” Jones concluded. The ability to prevent and respond to maritime incidents is a function of the state’s legal and maritime capabilities. Private maritime security companies too play a role policing Africa’s littorals, although increased regulation is likely on the horizon. In a recent move, Nigeria contracted responsibility for a number of maritime safety and shipping regulations to private companies, removing the Nigerian Maritime Administration from the equation. Piracy, illicit trafficking, oil bunkering, and other criminal activities are likely to continue in African waters, and perpetrators of such acts should expect to see a growing African naval presence as a result.
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African Defense/July 2013
Displacement
By Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Patrick Mbite Army of Malawi
Impacts and risks of migration and refugee flows in Africa of interrelated factors have contributed to the significant rise in migration in this century including the increased facility of travel and communication, regional and sub-regional economic disparities, environmental changes, natural disasters, conflict, political instability, and the porous borders, to name but a few. The movement of people—voluntary or forced, legal or undocumented, within or beyond borders, constitutes a complex process presenting some of the most intricate interrelationships of policy concerns for governments. The ILO estimates that the number of labor migrants in Africa today constitutes one fifth of the global total and that by 2025, one in 10 Africans will live and work outside their countries of origin. Given that the number of migrants is rising and that this trend is likely to persist in the foreseeable future, the management of migration has necessarily become one of the critical challenges for states in the new millennium. Throughout its history, Africa has experienced important
migratory movements, both voluntary and forced, which have contributed to its contemporary demographic landscape. In many parts of the continent, communities are found spread across two or three nation-states as movement is often not limited by political boundaries. The focus of this paper is on the intra-regional migrations, its root causes, and its implications for social policy and social service provisioning in the region. Background Over the last decades, deteriorating socio-economic and environmental conditions as well as armed conflicts have resulted in a significant increase in migration, refugee flows and internally displaced persons (IDPs). Conflict and human rights abuse associated with poor governance have become among the key factors that contribute to mass migration and refugee flows in Africa. Equally, domestic strife and civil war frequently produce large population
Photo courtesy of United Nations
Conflict and human rights abuse associated with poor governance have become the key factors that contribute to mass migration in Africa; and it is no coincidence that conflict-ridden countries are often those with severe economic difficulties. Similarly, domestic strife and civil war frequently produce large population dislocations and refugee flows across national boundaries. Population displacements, refugees and migration are not only common phenomena, but are also on the increase in sub-Saharan Africa. Although explanations for the causes include political oppression, economic adversities and environmental degradation, conflicts and wars account for the bulk of sub-Saharan Africa’s refugees and migration in recent years. The United Nations, International Organization for Migration (IOM) and International Labor Organization (ILO) estimate that the number of persons living outside their country of origin has reached 175 million, more than twice the number a generation ago. A series
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dislocations and refugee flows across national boundaries. Significant internal migratory movements, such as ruralurban migration, add to the complexity of the picture. While urbanization is a natural consequence of development, rapid growth of urban populations strain existing urban infrastructures and pose many social and economic challenges to African governments. The focus of this article is to discuss the impact and risks of migration and refugee flows in Africa and their implications and suggest recommendations for social policy and social service provisioning in the regions. Labor Migration Labor migration is a current and historical reality in Africa impacting directly the economies and societies of African countries in many ways. It is known that well-managed migration has the potential to yield significant benefits to origin and destination States. For instance, labor migration has played an important role in filling labor needs in mining, construction, agriculture and other sectors, thus contributing to economic development of many destination countries in Africa. John O. Oucho [in Migration in Southern Africa] asserts that “labor migration has remained significant as economic fortunes change in the sub-region, with the most buoyant economies, those of South Africa, Botswana and Namibia, commanding dominance and thus magnetizing an influx of workers, both skilled and unskilled, as well as undocumented workers.” Conversely, the beneficial feedback effects of migration such as remittances, knowledge and skills transfers, and return migration have in some cases made major contributions to economies of origin countries. However, mismanaged or migration can have serious negative consequences for states and migrant’s well-being, including potential destabilizing effects on national and regional security, and jeopardizing interstate relations. Mismanaged migration can also lead to tensions between host communities and migrants, and give rise to xenophobia, and discrimination as is the case in South Africa between the indigenous and migrants from Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique only to mention a few. According to Ouche,
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“Zimbabweans have migrated all over southern Africa as economic migrants and refugees, or as both, eliciting highly xenophobic responses in host countries.” In Africa, the push-pull framework gives insight into the different forces at work to explain migration. Multiple push factors initiate migration both within the continent and to other regions. For instance, poor socio-economic conditions, low wages, high levels of unemployment, poverty and lack of opportunity are the main economic factors that fuel out-migration. Gurshanran Singh Kainth [in Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences] asserts that, “the basic economic factors which motivate migration may be further classified as ‘push factors’ and ‘pull factors.’ In other words people migrate due to compelling circumstances which pushed them out of the place of origin or they are lured by the attractive conditions in the new place.” In Zimbabwe the most cited reasons for leaving were political reasons, economic crisis and unemployment. Summed up under political reasons, migration included political beatings, persecution, torture and denial of human rights by President Mugabe’s security forces against Mugabe’s opponents. In addition to these perceptions, the structure, character and state of the South African economy, compared to those of other African countries, has been the driving economic mechanism behind migration. Hence, as long as the widespread poverty and high levels of inequality prevail on the continent, South Africa, Botswana and Namibia will continue to attract migrants. It is true that despite the numerous problems that face the majority of blacks in South Africa, for Africans from other parts of the continent, the country is perceived as being the land of increased economic opportunities and hope, especially after the 1994 elections. In addition to these perceptions, the structure and state of the South African economy, compared to those of other African countries has been the driving mechanism behind most illegal migrations. Historically, the mining and agriculture sectors in South Africa have been dependent on migrant labor from southern African countries. Hence, as long as the widespread poverty and high levels of inequality prevail on the
continent, South Africa will continue to attract migrants. In addition to economic factors, various political and social factors create fertile grounds for migration. Among these, corruption, poor governance, political instability, conflict and civil strife are major causes of migration. The pushpull factors are intensified by a number of other issues which make migration an attractive option. The need to join relatives, families and friends are among the factors which compound with pushpull factors. The realities of migration in Africa, underscore the need for states to develop comprehensive policies on migration. Such efforts will require enhanced dialogue on sub-regional, regional and pan-African levels. Refugees and Asylum Seekers Refugees and asylum seekers are a diverse group, with one thing in common; they are subject to forced migration and fleeing from persecution in their countries of origin. They can be unaccompanied children, single men and women, single parents, families with children, or older people who have left families behind. Because of this diversity, they have a range of intersectional identities and can experience discrimination because of socio-economic factors. They are always perceived as a threat to the socioeconomic stability of the host country. Increasingly restrictive immigration policies have forced some of the millions of refugees to make use of clandestine means to enter countries, contributing to a distorted impression of asylum seekers and their rights. Repressive laws and practices have aggravated the already difficult conditions facing asylum seekers. They are stigmatized through descriptions such as “illegal,” “they will take our jobs,” and “they’re not like us.” This fuels antiimmigrant and anti-refugee feelings while imposing institutional discrimination often based on racial and religious grounds even though this is not openly stated. Mpho Makhema [in Social Protection for Refugees and Asylum Seekers in the Southern Africa Development Community] asserts that, “due to the assumption that refugees and asylum seekers pose a threat rather than an opportunity for the host country, the twin bases for social
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protection are undermined: that social protection is a human right and that it is also a relationship of mutual benefit between the state and the receiving individual. Where there is no mutuality, it is difficult to construct or maintain the political will to protect social protection rights, whether by government or the population at large.” However, in recognizing the multiplicity of experiences and identities of these groups, it is important to remember that asylum seekers and refugees also experience a range of six distinct problems and inequalities due to their immigration status, and in these situations human rights legislation may be their only protection. For example, South Africa, up until the recent outbreak of xenophobic violence, was one of the rare, relatively stable African countries where refugees could expect their basic rights to be protected. As a result, some refugees come to South Africa for security, whereas others use South Africa as an exit point to greener pastures in other continents. Many refugees lost their family members, belongings, dignity and hope due to the violation of their basic human rights by oppressive states, for example, in Zimbabwe. Whilst in the destination country such as South Africa, most refugees are self-employed and work hard in order to rebuild their shattered lives and regain their dignity. Many refugees work in hairdressing, shoemaking, construction and entertainment industries where they create their own small businesses and employ local people. Housing is a vital area of conflict potential, particularly in informal settlement areas, and one of the most consistent causes of friction in South African society. Competition for resources such as water, sanitation and health services together with employment and business opportunities is also a key dimension to the recent spate of conflict. Further conflict is exacerbated by local practice of preferring non-South African employees, particularly in the domestic, gardening and construction sectors. The lack of a minimum wage in the casual labor sector also means locals are undercut by migrants, triggering unhappiness. In May, 2008, a series of attacks took place all over South Africa. In a clash
African Defense/July 2013
between the poorest of the poor, gangs of local black South Africans descended on informal settlements and shanty towns armed with clubs, machetes and torches, and attacked immigrants from Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe. Locals accused these immigrants of taking jobs and businesses away from them, among other grievances. After the attacks, several foreigners were killed, many injured, and thousands of immigrants were displaced, or were returning to their home countries. Dealing with the aftermath of the attacks has become a large problem for South Africa—prosecuting attackers, accommodating refugees, political damage control and seeking to address root causes of xenophobia. Plus 94 Research asserts that, “South Africa has in the past few weeks been engulfed in barbaric and embarrassing social unrest. Evidence of this violence has been the violence of locals towards foreigners. Characteristics of this xenophobic violence have been murder, causing grievous bodily harm, robbery and intimidation.” Nevertheless, the large numbers of refugees displaced by conflict and other factors, pose serious challenges to states. Strengthening the response to refugee crises requires further efforts at the national level to establish legislative frameworks, policies and structures giving effect to international protection obligations; redoubling efforts to find durable solutions for refugees in collaboration with UNHCR and other national and international partners; and addressing root causes of refugee movements including conflict and political instability. Internally Displaced Persons The displacement of populations within a country often occurs as a result of conflict or natural disasters. For example, armed conflict, drought, generalized insecurity and extensive internal displacement are the main push factors of the crisis in Somalia. The major causes for displacement are conflict, insecurity, economic opportunity, forced evictions, lack of social support and opportunity to return to areas of origin. The IDPs are confronted by special vulnerabilities.
However, IDPs have special needs by virtue of their displacement. Generally, en route and even at their final destination, IDPs face violations such as rape, arbitrary arrests, forced recruitment, exploitation, lack of access to basic supplies and services, overcrowding, and other physical violence. Many IDPs are separated from their traditional support mechanisms, including clan protection, which exposes them to vulnerabilities otherwise not encountered. IDPs that traditionally belong to minority clans, once forced outside their traditional clan boundaries, often have little recourse to systems of justice when violations against them take place. IDPs rely on host communities for assistance and support. The current humanitarian crisis has stretched the host community’s own coping mechanisms to the limit, thereby severely restricting their ability to assist. Consequently, IDPs currently face even greater challenges. The Norwegian Refugee Council report asserted that “gender-based violence in Somalia is prevalent in IDP settlements and camps. Women have to walk long distances to collect water, exposing them to the risk of rape and other forms of violence. In the absence of effective protection mechanisms, perpetrators have been able to enter camps and commit sexual assaults against girls and women. Many cases of rape have not been reported because of the associated shame, and there are few support services for victims.” Border Management Effective border management is a key element in any national migration system. The strategic goals of border security are to control the movement of prohibitive and restrictive goods including drugs, weapons, the appropriate use of import and export permits, exchange controls, the movement of persons to eliminate illegal border crossings, human trafficking and smuggling, and the illegal smuggling of goods. In Africa, as in other parts of the world, border management systems are coming under increasing pressure from large flows of persons moving across regions and/or national borders. Specific challenges to border management mechanisms and personnel include
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Migration and the Environment Environmental factors play a growing role in causing population movements, and conversely, migration has an impact on the environment. For instance, internal migration, such as the process of urbanization is sometimes linked to environmental degradation and environmental disasters which force farmers and other rural populations off their land. At the early stages of environmental degradation, farmers reap fewer crops, fishermen catch less fish and pastoralists find ever smaller pastures for their cattle. As earning capacity begins to decline, household members may turn to internal or cross-border migration for work and to generate supplementary income transfers through remittances. The poorest people in developing countries are bearing the burden of the impact of climate change even though they have contributed little or nothing to the problem. The consequences are drastic because they are least equipped to adapt to it. Environmental migration is a reality that can no longer be overlooked. Millions of people have already been displaced as a result of climate change-
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related disasters. People are also moving from places they have long called home because their environment cannot support them anymore. Drought caused by physical and climate changes is a significant cause of livelihood insecurity. Declines in the ability of households to be self-sustaining are related to long term declines in production (i.e., resource degradation), increasing population growth and land shortages. Reduction of arable land, widespread shortage of water, diminishing food and fish stocks, increased flooding and prolonged droughts are already happening in Africa and many parts of the world. Also, the presence of large numbers of displaced persons in refugee camps and IDP hosting areas can have negative effects on local environments. For example, situations of mass displacement can have substantial environmental repercussions as swathes of land have been deforested to set up camps or settlements. Displaced persons resort to unsustainable resource management in order to make ends meet in extraordinary and protracted circumstances. Some development and land conservation initiatives have had similar environmental effects as resettled populations that are poorly equipped with alternative livelihoods or who have been settled in unworkable areas overexploit natural resources. Where affordable housing and sound sanitation are unavailable, migrants take to felling trees and procuring coastal sands for construction material, and to consuming contaminated water and food supplies. IDPs’ homes are often precariously built, in contravention of building codes, and situated on floodplains or sparsely forested hillsides.
Such development not only accelerate deforestation and soil erosion, they also limit the water drainage capacity of increasingly covered surface areas and the population’s ability to access safe, clean water, resulting in further public health deterioration. Another example is the case study of Darfur in Sudan. “While the causes of conflict in Darfur are many and complex, United Nations Environment Program’s (UNEP) environment and conflict analysis found that regional climate variability, water scarcity and the steady loss of fertile land are important underlying factors. The decrease in the availability of fertile land and water has been compounded by the arrival of people displaced from conflictaffected areas in southern Sudan during the civil war. Overgrazing and deforestation have reduced the vegetation cover, leading to a decrease of topsoil volume and quality. The lack of sheltering trees and vegetation has in turn undermined natural defenses against shifting sands. In addition, the region has experienced a marked decline in rainfall. With rapidly increasing human and livestock populations, the weaknesses of institutions governing access to land and water have become more apparent, and some groups have been particularly disadvantaged. As climate change may further compound water and land stresses, Darfur and indeed the entire Sahel region—recently dubbed ground zero for climate change will need to place adaptation at their center of their development and conflict prevention plans. In addition to resolving the long-standing ethnic tensions in Darfur, durable peace will indeed depend on addressing the underlying competition for water and fertile land.”
Photo courtesy of United Nations
building capacities to distinguish between persons having legitimate versus non- legitimate reasons for entry and/ or stay. Elizabeth Collett [in Emerging Transatlantic Security Dilemmas in Border Management] asserts that “the integrity of physical borders remains critical to effective border management. Governments … have made increasing use of technology to monitor their borders, including tools such as … satellites, and radar coverage.” A key challenge is therefore to establish a balance allowing states to meet their humanitarian obligations to refugees and others eligible for protection while concurrently addressing the need to manage borders effectively. Approaches to border management globally have been and will continue to be strongly affected by security concerns. Some regions in the world have been the subject of attacks linked with international terrorist networks and the possibility that they might constitute targets for further assaults, or transit or organizing points for further attacks elsewhere cannot be excluded.
African Defense/July 2013
Linking Migration and Environment to Conflict The growth in urban violence is one way in which climate change related migration may contribute to instability. However, when migration (environmental or not) is linked to conflict, it is never the only, and usually not the most important, factor causing violence. For instance, the targets of South Africa’s xenophobic riots were mostly African (and some internal) migrants, but the riots were a response to frustrations over unemployment and poor service delivery by the state, combined with a xenophobic view on immigration inherited from the Apartheid period. This made immigrants easy targets for the venting of anger, rather than the cause of urban violence. “Migration is generally considered to be the intermediate stage which links environmental degradation and disasters to conflict [Homer Dixon, 1991 and 1994]. As mass relocations are presumed to occur in response to degradation, conflict may erupt in receiving areas in response to competition, as environmental migrants may burden the economic and resource base of the receiving area and promote contests over resources; … as developing economies are reliant on the environment for survival and if resources are scarce, environmental migrants may possibly join antagonizing groups or intensify the violence through any of the above conditions [Reuveny, 2000: 657-659]. Conflicts can occur over the direct use of scarce resources including land, forests, and water. These ensue when local demand for resources exceeds the available supply or when one form of resource use places pressure on other uses. Such situations are compounded by demographic pressures and disasters such as drought and flooding. Unless local institutions or practices mitigate competing interests, these tensions can lead to forced migration or violent conflict at the local level. Darfur demonstrates how the steady loss of fertile land, coupled with rapidly increasing human and livestock populations have driven the region to war. Ted Dagne [in Sudan: The Crisis in Darfur] explained that “at the core of the conflict is a struggle for control of resources. The large nomadic Arab ethnic groups … farming communities of Darfur for water
African Defense/July 2013
and grazing, often triggering armed conflict between the two groups.” The conflict and crisis in Darfur has had an unprecedented impact on migration and mobility, restricting and blocking physical movement of people and livestock with dire consequences for their livelihoods. Solutions Establishing regular, transparent and comprehensive labor migration policies, legislation and structures at the national and regional levels can result in significant benefits for states of origin and destination. There is need to build national capacity to manage labor migration by developing national labor migration policies and legislation consistent with overall population policy and government structures to manage labor migration. Promote respect for, and protection of, the rights of labor migrants including combating discrimination and xenophobia through civic education and awarenessraising activities. Facilitate the integration of migrant workers in the labor market. Set up national and sub-regional social dialogue mechanisms to address migrant worker issues. Refugee and asylum seeker protection is a central aspect of international, regional, and national efforts to protect persons fleeing persecution. Therefore, states are encouraged to adopt and incorporate into national policies the international instruments pertaining to the protection of refugees. • Train relevant law enforcement officials who have first contact with refugees (immigration officers, customs and police) in the obligations set forth in relevant international instruments, to enable appropriate and humane screening of refugees and asylum-seekers at borders and referral to the competent authorities. • Establish focal points within relevant ministries and devise national contingency plans in order to enhance capacities to address situations of mass displacement as well as mass return in a timely, efficient and appropriate manner. • Safeguard the human security needs of refugees (physical, material, legal and health), especially in the context
of refugee camps and with particular attention to the needs of vulnerable groups (women, children, disabled and the elderly), while at the same time ensuring that refugees are aware of national laws, regulations and their obligations to abide by these. • Increase local protection capacities through the involvement of civil society, for example by engaging NGOs in the provision of legal and social counseling to refugees, and public information campaigns to counter xenophobia. • Engage in public information and awareness campaigns on the plight and rights of refugees including the contribution refugees can make to the development of host communities, in order to counter increasing xenophobic tendencies and foster tolerance and understanding. Situations of displacement become protracted when the causes of displacement are not addressed or remain unresolved, for instance in conflict situations where continuing conditions of insecurity prevent refugees and internally displaced persons from returning home. For example, Somalia is the worst offender for refugees and internally displaced persons, economic decline, human rights and security apparatus. The absence of a permanent national government has led to ongoing civil violence, economic hardship, poor social conditions and the displacement of thousands of Somali citizens. An upsurge of civil violence in the southern part of the nation has created further destabilization and threatens any potential improvements to Somalia’s condition. Coupled with famine and violence, the precarious situation prevents refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia to return home. Protracted displacement situations have adverse consequences for the lives of refugees and IDPs who are at risk of suffering material, social and cultural deprivation in camp settings for prolonged periods of time. States are recommended to: • Adopt measures to enhance self-sufficiency of refugees and IDPs residing in camps, including, granting rights to employment, access to land, free-
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dom of movement and other socialeconomic rights when possible. • Ensure that refugees and IDPs have access to education and skills training in order to facilitate their eventual integration or reintegration into host and/or home communities. • Use voluntary repatriation through reintegration, rehabilitation, reconstruction mechanisms. • Call upon the international community to expand humanitarian agencies to assist governments in fulfilling obligations towards the internally displaced, and ensure access to highly insecure areas where humanitarian assistance is inhibited, for example by means of humanitarian corridors. Effective border management is a key element in any national migration system. In Africa, as in other parts of the world, border management systems are coming under increasing pressure from large flows of persons, including irregular and mixed flows, moving across region and/or national borders. Therefore, there is need to: • Strengthen national laws regulating migration including through the creation of clear, transparent categories for admission/expulsion and clear eligibility criteria for protection. Improve the capacities of border management mechanisms and personnel by optimizing new border management technologies and providing technical training for those involved in border management and migration policy. • Provide adequate information about the requirements, challenges and opportunities of migration for the population in general and particularly for potential labor migrants before they cross borders. • Strengthen co-operation between states’ sub-regional and regional agencies, and the international community in particular in the area of law enforcement, sharing migrationrelated data and information, training and sustained dialogue. • Enhance the role of African Union (AU) as well as other sub-regional and regional agencies in mobilizing financial and technical resources, harmonizing policies and programs
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of action, and coordinating activities of member states for effective border management. • Strengthen inter-state dialogue, and regional cooperation for effective management of state borders. Urban-rural migrations worsen environmental degradation in rural areas. An expanding population increases the demand on soils and intensifies deforestation as inhabitants clear forest land for fuel wood and shelter. Environmental considerations can play an increasingly important role in the formulation of policies on migration and the environment. States are encouraged to incorporate environmental considerations in the formulation of national and regional migration management policies to better address environment related causes of migratory movements as well as the impact migratory movements have on the environment. Counter environmental degradation caused by large protracted presence of displaced persons, for example by means of implementing relevant and targeted environmental protection programs including periodic review of ecosystem impacts and remedial measures to mitigate such impacts. Effective management of environmental migration is essential to ensuring human security, health and well-being and to facilitating sustainable development. With more informed action and multi-stakeholder cooperation, societies around the world will be better able to achieve these objectives. Conflict is a root cause of forced displacement. Displacement caused by conflict has destabilizing effects on national and regional security, with adverse consequences for the ability of host nations to provide protection to refugees and security to their own nationals. Since forced displacement is closely linked to conflict, both as a consequence and as a potential cause of further conflict, challenges posed by refugee and IDP movements must necessarily be addressed within the broader context of political and institutional efforts at the national, regional and continent-wide levels aimed at strengthening political dialogue and institutions, and at preventing and managing conflict.
Adaptation measures by reducing the impact of climate change can lessen the need to migrate as well as reduce the risk of conflict. Alongside information and infrastructure measures, addressing general factors of conflict and forced migration can also contribute to vulnerability reduction and adaptation. Financial resources must also be made available for countries to deal with problems of climate change-related displacements. Build the Necessary Capacity Migration in Africa is and has historically been characterized by complex flows arising from a combination of root causes that include conflict, poverty, drought, political repression, forced repatriation, and forced resettlement. It is evident that conflict, extreme poverty and poor governance have been and continue to be key driving forces for African migration. Without peace and stability, increased food security, infrastructure, and employment opportunities, it can be anticipated that migration flows in Africa will continue. It is a fairly likely estimation that migration flows in Africa will continue to increase due to political instability, limited employment and education opportunities, poverty, overpopulation and food scarcity. As migration involves origin, transit and destination countries, inter-state, inter and intra-regional cooperation are crucial for the management of migration. As a result, governments should look for collective solutions to migration through bilateral, multilateral and regional agreements and dialogue in a manner that benefits all parties involved in migration: the country of origin, the destination country and the migrants themselves. Migration management requires information and its systemic use. Member states should encourage research to generate information, identify problems and devise appropriate responses and strategies. Migration management requires capacity and adequate infrastructure. Member states should encourage capacity building programs to effectively manage migration by investing on training and awareness raising as well as putting in place adequate infrastructure and technology.
African Defense/July 2013
Imperative of Appropriate Sea Power for African Nations African navies who understand the power of sea power are on the move; Their political leaders and policy makers should catch the mood; Maritime business investors and shippers should join the group; Together, they should liberate Africa from plunderers for their good. Olutunde Oladimeji
Several sobriquets describe African security and development conditions today. Africa is a continent of growth and conflicts; Africa is a continent of promise and plunder; Africa is continent of plenty and poverty; Africa is a powerhouse of resources without adequate sea protection. The recent expression of optimism about Africa by the Japanese Prime Minister, Shinzo Abe, that Africa is becoming the engine room for economic development in the 21st century, provided domestic unrest and terrorism do not unhinge that hope, is reinforced by a serious warning from Ghana’s President John Dramani Mahama that “All of West Africa is under threat from Islamist extremists and could succumb to insurgents unless the continent unites to ensure stability in the region.” African political and policy makers, especially, need to get critically serious about putting in place credible but appropriate sea power in their defense and maritime security system. This is given the close link between sea control and the economic and political wellbeing and, indeed, survival of these nations. The statistics are overwhelming:
By Olutunde Oladimeji African Defense/July 2013
• Over 90 percent of global sea trade is moved by sea; • Over 70 percent of crude oil goes by sea; • Oil producing countries like Nigeria depend on oil revenue for about 90 percent of their budget which is now seriously threatened by massive economic hemorrhage caused across the Gulf of Guinea by oil theft, illegal bunkering, kidnapping, piracy and unregulated fishing; • About 90 percent of the geese that lay the golden eggs are offshore and in coastal approaches; • About 90 percent of the total trade of Africa is seaborne; • At least 10,000 ships ply the waters off Africa on any given day according to the South African Maritime Safety Authority. We can safely assert that the universal guideline of “90 percent by sea” for sea power planning, by maritime nations, takes into account the close connection between the navies and maritime commerce as is the case of the Royal Navy. What is true of these maritime nations is true of all coastal nations of Africa. African response to maritime threats is to develop their maritime power or naval power to a level where Africa will
no longer be easy prey to external and internal threats. As Ronnie Kasrils MP, South African Minister for Intelligence Services told the Sea Power for Africa Symposium (SEAPAS) in 2005, “That does not mean building massive navies. It does mean developing the maritime and naval strength to control our waters, to protect our maritime assets and interests and to discourage adventures by foreign actors, be they states or non-state groups such as international terrorists, narcotics smugglers, illegal immigration or mercenaries.” But despite these strong arguments and warning by African naval leaders and their supporting foreign advocates of sea power about the dangers of not investing maximally in building the navies, coastguards and other maritime security agencies, political leaders and policy makers are in many cases so totally distracted by political and security conflicts on land that sea management and control are not accorded priority. It is dangerous for African nations to be seduced by the happenings on land and forget their almost total dependence on the sea for survival. Inadequate sea power to defend their sovereignty, protect their maritime resources and maritime trade, is one of the critical self-inflicted lacks of most African coastal nations. It is heartening that against all odds,
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the Nigerian and South African navies are taking the lead to pull all possible strings to orchestrate cooperation and collaboration to give Africa the appropriate sea power. Smaller navies and coast guards in Sub-Saharan Africa are gradually joining the bandwagon of the sea power orchestra at sea for the benefit of their nations. Since 2005, when South Africa hosted the first edition of the SEAPAS, it has become the premier platform for raising and discussing maritime security issues common to Africa. The initiative was influenced by the United States Navy annual International Sea Power Symposium in the US Naval War College, Rhode Island. It is usually a conclave of distinguished admirals, heads of navies from across the globe or their representatives, sea power researchers and strategists. Topics at the American symposium were usually global and largely from the US and global perspectives. African naval issues were often peripheral to the core interests of the sponsors. While attending the 2004 International Sea Power Symposium in the US, four heads of African navies— South Africa, Nigeria, Ghana and Kenya—re-discovered a spirit of African camaraderie. “Why can’t we start a regular sea power symposium to address many maritime and naval issues of particular urgent concern and relevance to Africa?” they reasoned among themselves. So far three editions of the SEAPAS have been organized—2005 in South Africa, 2006 in Nigeria, 2009 again in South Africa. At the time of writing the fourth edition is scheduled for Senegal. The initiatives by African naval leaders have moved from the conference halls into operations contacts with joint training and exercises by neighboring navies supported by AFRICOM and EU navies. It is also noteworthy that the AU, ECOWAS, ECCAS and other sub-regional groups are beginning to show more interest in maritime matters. In addition, the Nigerian Navy (NN) has begun another initiative by breaking the jinx of total dependence on foreign sources for its platforms, from small craft to capital ships. In June 2012 the NN commissioned the first home-built patrol craft, NNS Andoni, and is planning to
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build a second, slightly bigger one in the Naval Dockyard in Lagos. In her first year in commission, Andoni has proven to be cost-effective, given its participation and many exercises and counter-piracy patrols. To further give sea surveillance teeth to the NN and other navies in the continent, a program of acquiring offshore patrol vessels (OPVs) which had been suspended for many decades in pursuit of prestige acquisitions, is now being given priority attention, through partnership to build them at home. This local shipbuilding initiative is part of the NN strategy to break loose from what Rear Admiral GJ Jonah NN refers to as triple trap in their efforts to acquire technology: • What is developed abroad may not suit us. • What suits us may be denied. • What is not denied may be unaffordable. To bring the OPV campaign home to African naval leaders and planners, a three-day OPV Africa conference is being co-sponsored by the Nigerian Navy from August 27-29, 2013 in Lagos. The conference is expected to cover: • Anti-piracy operations • Cost-effective OPV and naval systems acquisition • Multilateral and innovative protection of offshore oil assets • Technology transfer and development of domestic shipbuilding capabilities • International best practice in OPV operations
Having an appropriate and credible sea power require some balancing act. As Geoffrey Till in The Future of British Sea Power said, “You do not know before it happens, whether your contingency is going to bring you up against submarines, or aircraft, or mines, or the need for commandos to storm a defended beach. Only a balanced force of maritime skills avoids the foreclosing of options both political and military.” And in contemplating to balance the fleet, consideration should be given to what may not be the state of the art in terms of sophistication but which will get the job done. This is why the use local resources should be encouraging. At the 3rd edition of SEAPAS in Cape Town, March 2009, Chief of South African Navy, Vice Admiral Johannes Mudimu said: “The will to empower the navies of Africa is lacking. We as navy leaders must collectively speak with one voice and impress upon our political leaders the need to invest in adequately equipped navies to ensure maritime security in our waters and the eradication of threats.” The African political leaders should listen to the wisdom of their admirals.
Olutunde Oladimeji is a retired commodore of the Nigerian Navy. He is a 1972 graduate of Mass Communication, University of Lagos and a Masters degree in International Relations from OAU University, Ile-Ife. He served in the Nigerian Navy for 22 years as Director of Naval Information and Plans before retiring in 1994.
The NNS Andoni, commissioned in June 2012, was the first home-built naval vessel in service with the Nigerian Navy. The photo on page 27 shows the boat at sea.
African Defense/July 2013
Capability Profiles Viking Air Limited 1959 de Havilland Way Sidney, BC V8L 5V5 Canada www.vikingair.com (250) 656-7227 (250) 656-0673 Fax The Viking Twin Otter Guardian 400 aircraft is ideally suited for the African landscape due to its robust design and ability to reliably operate in extreme environments. With its rugged airframe and STOL (Short Take Off and Landing) capabilities, the Guardian 400 can operate on any terrain, including unimproved air strips, gravel, sand, and when equipped with optional float configuration, fresh and salt water-based operations as well. The Guardian 400 can be configured for multiple roles such as critical infrastructure support, surveillance, environmental survey and data collection, search and rescue, parachute operations, medical evacuation, and other specialized government operations. A medium range military variant of the Series 400, the Guardian 400 has been developed as a versatile airframe that can be customized for unique mission use. This flexible architecture combined with low acquisition and operating costs allows operators to mix and match sensors and interior layouts to meet their specific mission profiles. The Guardian 400 has a modern sensor package and can be outfitted with an electrooptical and infrared imaging turret, 360 degree digital color radar system, extended range internal patrol tank, four crew
observation stations, air operable cargo door, search light, galley, and lavatory. When equipped with gross weight increase to 14,000lbs, the Guardian 400 can operate with additional fuel and extended range for operational sorties over ten hours in duration. The basic aircraft comes equipped with Pratt & Whitney PT6A-34 engines, fully integrated Honeywell Primus Apex digital avionics suite, use of composite materials, and other general modernization items to improve safety and reduce empty weight. Overall, approximately 800 changes to the original Twin Otter design have been incorporated to modify and improve upon the legacy production model, but like its predecessor, the Guardian 400 will continue to operate from remote and unimproved airfields due to its robust design, equalized maintenance program, and dependability of the Pratt & Whitney engines, world renowned for their reliability in varied operating environments. Commercial versions of the new Twin Otter Series 400 are already in service in mainland Africa, located in Libya and Nigeria for use as crew carriers to support the oil and gas industry, as well in Uganda at a flight training and air charter operation. A 19-passenger regional commuter version of the new Series 400 Twin Otter is also in operation in the Seychelles Islands. Legacy Twin Otter aircraft are currently in operation in Madagascar, Tanzania, and Kenya, and in past, have been part of many African nation air force fleets as well as United Nations operations in Africa.
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Professional Development Suggested Readings
Towards an African Peace and Security Regime Continental Embeddedness, Transnational Linkages, Strategic Relevance Edited by Ulf Engel and João Gomes Porto Ashgate Publishing 276 pages, Hardback ISBN 978-0-7546-7604-1 At the core of this book is the African peace and security architecture (APSA), and is the second in a planned undetermined series of publications following looking at the challenges and solutions that can bring stability and positive growth. With direction and guidance from the African Union, many of the foundation elements of APSA have been formalized and institutionalized. The editors rightfully note that while there has been progress at the highest levels, tangible results at a national level have been harder to measure and quantify. Towards an African Peace and Secu-
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rity Regime takes a case study approach, grouping individual articles together in three focus areas. The collected authors represent a inclusive band of subject matter experts and critical thinkers that write from the realities of day and not the abstract of what could be. The 11 chapters are divided into three parts: Continental Embeddedness, Transnational Linkages and Strategic Relevance. Continental embeddedness looks at the norms, values and processes required for the gradual coming into shape of the peace and security regime (involving the African Union and the regional economic communities). Transnational Linkages includes a reflection on the role of major African powers as well as the wider collective security environment (in particular the United Nations). Strategic Relevance discusses themes and processes of a more strategic nature to gauge the long-term adequacy and relevance of APSA itself. The editors have done an excellent job of weaving together the individual
chapters together to advance the theme of coordinating common, guiding directives across the continent. The book looks at the African Union’s role, which to date has been over-arching but has lacked will to take a more direct and impactful role. Instead of the feel of a collection of similar but disjointed abstracts, each chapter within each section is well-developed to push the debate forward. As described in the introduction, “Many of the pillars of the APSA have either already been implemented or are currently in an advanced stage of implementation with the full operationalization of APSA expected during 2015. There is therefore some degree of clarity on the pillars’ roles and mandates, as well as on the way they are expected to interact with each other. Yet, a key challenge identified in our 2010 volume still pertains: While there seems to be considerable legal agreement on many of the principles that underlie the architecture, the same cannot be said as regards practice according to many of the standards of behavior (norms) agreed upon.”
Cuba & Angola Fighting for Africa’s Freedom and Our Own Edited by Mary-Alice Waters Pathfinder Press 144 pages, Soft Cover ISBN 978-1-60488-046-5 Part of “The Cuban Revolution in World Politics” series, Cuba & Angola delivers a trove of articles, speeches and writings from, among others, Fidel Castro, Raúl Castro and Nelson Mandela, divided into five chapters. The fifteen authored pieces, plus one article setting the Cuba’s background and interest in the region.
The content makes for interesting reading and the perspectives delivered in the words of key players in the political and military actions up until about 1991 offer insight into policies and decisions were driving the times. The book does not pretend to offer a balanced historical look at Angola and Southwest Africa during the war there, but the format—their words, not a historian’s—gives authenticity to the work.
African Defense/July 2013
NETWORKING OPPORTUNITIES | CONFERENCE | WORKSHOPS | EXHIBITION
MCSA MARITIME & COASTAL SECURITY AFRICA 2013
African military spend has increased by 8.6% in the past year, with a substantial percentage allocated to strengthening maritime defence forces.
Secure your share of the growth in this lucrative market. To secure your participation today, contact Marcel du Toit on +27 21 700 3545 or marcel.dutoit@spintelligent.com for a customized sponsorship and/or exhibition proposal.
25 – 27 November 2013
Cape Town International Convention Centre Cape Town, South Africa www.maritimesecurityafrica.com Platinum sponsor:
African Defense/July 2013
Gold sponsor:
Bronze sponsors:
Networking lunch sponsor:
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African Defense/July 2013