African Defense April 2016 by Jeff McKaughan

African Defense

Promoting strength and security through professionalism and partnership

April 2016

Gender and African Militaries

Dedicated to the African Military Professional

South African National Space Agency AFRICOM’S Logistics Priorities Rotary Wing Outlook AMISOM—Africa’s Peacekeeping Role Model

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African Defense April 2016

South African Puma and Rooivalk helicopters in action as part of a force demonstration at Africa Aerospace & Defence in 2014. The Rooivalk has seen direct action as part of South Africa’s participation with the United Nations in the Democratic Republic of Congo peacekeeping action. There is also reported interest from Nigeria in the attack helicopter. Photo by Jeff McKaughan, African Defense magazine.

What’s Inside

News from Across Africa

African Defense news digest of significant, interesting and thought-provoking insights within the African military and security community.

10 Rotary Wing Capabilities for Africa

In an exclusive interview, African Defense talks to Bell Helicopter on their approach and strategy for new and modernized helicopters suitable for African military requirements.

12 Gender Equality in the South African National Defence Force

A comparative look—with recommendations—on the role of women in the South African military historically, currently and moving into the future. By Lieutenant Colonel NO Mkhwanazi

21 AFRICOM Logistician Looks to Partnerships to Improve African LOG Capacity

African Defense recently had the chance to talk with Major General James C. Vechery, the director of logistics for US Africa Command, to better understand AFRICOM’s strategy and priorities.

24 Space Solutions for the Defense, Aeronautic

and Maritime Sector

The Space Science Directorate of the South African National Space Agency (SANSA) is a prototypical “back room” organisation that is hardly known or noticed by soldiers but critical to effective operations. By Catherine Webster

27 AMISOM: African Union Mission to Somalia

A look at the background politics that led to the formation of AMISOM, and how AMISOM transformed into, arguably, the most successful African-led mission. By Opiyo Oloya, PhD

29 UN Conventional Arms Registry

2014, from jets, tanks, missiles and small arms—Who were Africa’s known suppliers of weapons?

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News from Across Africa C208B Aircraft, Capacity Building within AFRICOM AOR

African, Arab Defense Ministers Focus on Terrorism On March 25, defense ministers and officials of 28 African and Arab countries began a two-day meeting in Egypt to explore military and counter-terrorism cooperation. AfricanNews was reporting that the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CENSAD) members were meeting in the Red Sea resort town of Sharm El-Sheikh, with the Egyptian military deployed to secure the conference. “The situation in the Sahel-Saharan states is very worrying,” said the Nigerien CEN-SAD Secretary General Ibrahim Sani Abani in his opening speech, citing weapons and narcotics trafficking, and jihadist groups such as Boko Haram. “This phenomenon knows no boundaries and no state can protect only itself, it requires a coordinated and concerted response.” In a statement, he had said the meeting would discuss draft agreements on military cooperation and conflict resolution, drugs and arms trafficking. Several of the bloc’s members, including Egypt, are locked in wars with jihadist groups who have killed thousands of people in attacks and taken control of some territories. “Terrorism and extremism presents a strong threat that has spread across all continents,” Egyptian Defense Minister Sedki Sobhi said in a speech, after calling for a moment of silence in honor of the victims of the attacks. The meeting in Sharm was the fifth CEN-SAD defense ministers’ meeting since the bloc’s founding in 1998.

The United States Air Force Life Cycle Management Center announced in late March that it intended to award a sole source commercial contract to Textron Aviation to provide supplies necessary to support the FY16 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) Section 2282 Global, Train and Equip Program; Counterterrorism Partnership Fund (CTPF); Building Partnership Capacity (BPC) Cessna C208B with ISR capability in Africa Command (AFRICOM) and Pacific Command (PACOM). The contract will provide Cessna C208B aircraft, Pratt-Whitney PT-6A-140 engines, and aircraft components, spares, and accessories. Textron Aviation is the only source capable of satisfying the complete requirement as currently requested by AFRICOM and PACOM for pseudo-FMS Section 2282/CTPF cases without the USG experiencing substantial duplication of cost that is not expected to be recovered through competition and unacceptable delays in fulfilling the agency’s requirements. Photo shows Cessna 208B donated to Niger in October 2015)

Rwanda Military Hospital Receives New Blood Testing Equipment On March 24, the Rwanda Military Hospital (RMH) launched the Apheresis technique, a new system of blood separation. The method is a medical procedure that involves taking blood from a donor or patient and separating the blood into individual components so that one particular component that is needed can be removed and the remaining components are then reintroduced back into the bloodstream of the

patient or donor. The launch of the new technology of blood separation in Rwanda was preceded by a four-day training workshop attended by some medics at RMH and one medical doctor from Uganda. The training is aimed at equipping the trainees with the required skills to operate the Apheresis machine. According to Lieutenant Colonel Dr. Fabien Ntaganda (shown in the photo below) a hemato-pathologist at RMH, the new technology is another milestone in the treatment of some cancers and diseases that affect red blood cells, platelet and plasma among others. Patients who suffered from these diseases were offered less and those who afforded expenses resorted to treatment from outside countries like India, South Africa among others; however, this is all set to change. “The introduction of a fully automated apheresis machine is a great step towards the improvement of patients care in the country but also in the region”, he said. Ntaganda further explained that the machine has three main functions namely blood donation, therapeutic apheresis and stem cell harvest for bone marrow transplantation. “Many diseases ranging from minor ones such as malaria to the very complicated ones like cancer can be treated using apheresis technique. Take an example of severe malaria; it attacks red blood cells so this machine has the ability to remove the affected red blood cells and put back the normal ones, this helps in speeding up the healing process,” he explained. The machine works along with other medication, however when the disease is discovered in late stages after becoming chronic, less can be achieved with the treatment. Other countries in the region are also set to benefit from this new blood testing technology introduced at Rwanda Military Hospital as the machine is the first of its

African Defense/April 2016

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African Defense/April 2016

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News from Across Africa kind in the whole of east and central Africa and has the capacity to work on four or five patients a day.

Tunisia Creates National Anti-Terrorism Commission Tunisian Prime Minister Habib Essid described the creation of the National AntiTerrorism Commission in March as part of the approach adopted by the government to counter terrorism in the short and medium term, by neutralizing the dangers threatening democratic transition. In the medium term, the goal of the commission to deal with terrorism will be develop a consensual strategy to isolate terrorism from the factors nourishing it, in line with reinforcing the capacities of security and military institutions, the daily updating of plans and modernization of related legislations. Essid said emphasis was on the commission’s role in raising awareness about the danger of terrorism, through the organization of cultural and educational campaigns and programs in which the civil society components are associated. The commission has a multi-agency structure composed of a representative of the government (president) and representatives of the Ministries of Justice, Interior Affairs, Defence, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Youth, Agriculture, Women, Religious Affairs, Culture and Education. It also includes experts from the intelligence, security and defense agency, the telecommunication agency, the financial analyses commission and an investigating judge specialized in terror cases.

Chinese Supports ECOWAS Standby Force with Military Equipment The government of the People’s Republic of China demonstrated its support for the Economic Community of West African States’ (ECOWAS) Standby Force (ESF) with military equipment to assist in its peacekeeping operations. The donated equipment was formally handed over to the ECOWAS Commission on Thursday, March 24, 2016, at the Mogadishu Cantonment, in

Abuja, Nigeria. In a remark, the Chinese ambassador to Nigeria, Gu Xiaojie said the donation of the non-lethal military equipment was in recognition of the tremendous efforts of ECOWAS towards maintaining peace and stability in the region. The government of China recognized the importance of peaceful coexistence as a prerequisite for economic development and social cohesion, which is the reason China as a member of the United Nations Security Council is playing active role in maintaining peace and stability around the world. The ambassador pointed that the donation of these equipment valued at around $5 million USD, is in line with the 5-point agenda of China in its relationship with Africa, he added that the Chinese people will continue to provide assistance to the region within its capacity and capability. While speaking at the event, the President of the ECOWAS Commission, Kadre Desire Ouedraogo, acknowledged the important role China is playing in the development of West Africa and thanked the government and people of China for the donation of the military equipment to ESF. He said with this equipment ESF will be better positioned to serve the people of the region through rapid deployment in areas of conflicts. The president added that the region is faced with new realities and emerging threats to peace and security, through upsurge in religious extremism, new waves of terrorism attacks and asymmetric warfare. These, amongst others reasons underscores the need to have the ESF task force headquarters elements and the pledged units from members states to be in a high state of operational readiness always. The ability of ESF to effectively deploy with essential logistics required for mission start up is very critical. The ECOWAS president also paid trib-

ute to the government and people of Nigeria for its leading role in ensuring peace and stability in the region. He recalled the initial missions in Liberia and Sierra Leone as well as subsequent missions in other parts of West Africa, which he said Nigeria played a pivotal role and its troops sometimes pay the ultimate price alongside other nation’s contingents. He also appreciated the selfless contributions and sacrifices of members states who have contributed personnel for the ECOWAS Mission in Guinea Bissau (ECOMIB) which would wind down in June. He paid glowing tributes to chiefs of defense staff and other representative from Burkina Faso, Senegal, Togo, Nigeria as well as the inspector general of police of Nigeria.

Nigeria Needs Dedicated Satellite for Military Operations The topic of a dedicated military satellite for Nigerian defense services has come up in the past and more recently by Nigeria’s Air Vice Marshal Tommy Udoh. His remarks came as he led a delegation from the Defence Space Agency to a meeting with Dr. Onu Ogbonnaya, Nigeria’s minister of science and technology. He said that it is so important and sensible to military operations and the Nigerian military should have a dedicated satellite and a space agency of its own. This would require the support of every stakeholder to support the passage of the legislative authority to establish the agency which has passed first reading at the National Assembly. Dr. Onu responded by saying that the government would work very hard in the years to come to strengthen all the structures of the Nigerian space agencies that would help to ensure that a Nigerian was in space within 14 years.

Sudan, UAE Security and Military Cooperation, Sudan Upgrades Special Forces In late March, the Sudanese Minister for Defense met with a military delegation from the United Arab Emirates and he reaffirmed the strength of the historical and common relations between the Sudan and

African Defense/April 2016

iterations as Morocco aims to establish their own demining center of excellence and EOD school within their military. “Moroccans don’t actually have a formal EOD program, so they are utilizing other countries to get their training,” said Staff Sergeant Phil Mayer, an EOD technician with SPMAGTF-CR-AF. “They have requested assistance from us to help create a program so they can eventually create their own EOD technicians and have a formal school for their military.” As reported by Corporal Olivia McDonald

the UAE. Lieutenant General Awad Mohamed Ahmed Bin Aouf, the Sudan Minister for Defense, made the statement during a meeting with a UAE delegation led by Lieutenant General Ugaab Shaheen Al Aali, UAE security and military intelligence chief of staff. The visit came within the context of the contact and military cooperation and training between the two countries. Sudan Upgrades Special Forces Battalion to Brigade President of the Republic of Sudan and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, Field Marshal Omer Al-Bashir, has awarded the Order of Accomplishment to the Special Forces in appreciation of their internal and external participations. This came in his address on March 22 to a celebration held at Al-Markhiyat Military Camp on the occasion of the participation of the Sudanese forces and special forces in the recent North Thunder military exercises in Saudi Arabia. President Al-Bashir also announced upgrading the special forces from a battalion to a brigade. President Al-Bashir has appreciated the external participation of the Sudanese Armed Forces. He appreciated the role of the armed forces in defending the homeland’s security and unity since the year 1955 up to now. He pledged to provide modern equipment and requirements of the armed forces and to improve the salaries of the armed forces. The President of the Republic has referred to the outstanding role of the armed forces in eradicating the rebellion in Darfur.

Morocco, US Improve Demining Skills Starting in late February, students from across the Moroccan military branches are working together with U.S. Marines from Special-Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force Crisis Response-Africa (SPMAGTFCR-AF) to build up Morocco’s demining capabilities. The training is part of the US Humanitarian Mine Action Program, formerly called US Humanitarian Demining Program, which has been assisting partner nations in

African Defense/April 2016

developing their mine action capacity since 1988. The program aims to educate and train the host nation on removing explosive remnants of war, or ERW, in post-conflict areas, while relieving human suffering. The Marines also worked alongside Utah Air National Guard and National Guard EOD technicians and engineers, respectively. “In July 2008, Morocco reported that a total of 2,187 casualties (544 killed and 1,643 injured) had been recorded since 1975,” according to the Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor which monitors progress in eliminating landmines, cluster munitions and other ERW around the world. While Morocco, a major non-NATO ally, has not joined the 1997 Mine Ban Treaty, it has been an active observer at an annual Meeting of States Parties and Standing Committee meetings and submitted three volunteer Article 7 reports since 2006 regarding treaty implementation activities. In November of 2009, Morocco reported it had “cleared 561km2 of area, destroying in the process 482 mines, 2,628 ERW, and 22,105 pieces of small arms ammunition.” Beginning in early 2007, Morocco has been engaged in major demining operations including areas outside their borders. As they make these steps toward eliminating these destructive materials, a need arises for Morocco to have their own self-sufficient trainers and formal EOD capabilities. The five-week program was the first phase in which the US military members are testing the Moroccans’ basic EOD level one capabilities and covering effective communication and instructing methods. These soon-to-be instructors will validate their abilities in the follow-on train-the-trainer

Mali Requests Namibian Support in Fighting Terrorists In mid-March, Malian President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta visited Namibia and made a passionate plea for Namibian security assistance on fighting Islamic militants in his country. In 2012, Mali was attacked by terrorists and Namibia was among the first African countries to assist Mali. “It is a gentle request that we are now addressing to Namibia in order to have the support of your country and the sub-region urgently, in line with reviewing the peace mandate in Mali,” he said through an interpreter. “It is really an emergency situation that we are experiencing in Mali. One can see how children are assassinated in our sub-region and how peacekeepers are killed daily. With the G5 countries of the sub-region we are trying to rejuvenate forces and resources in order to face security threats and threats to our common values,” stated the Malian leader. He explained that G5 is a group of countries consisting of Chad, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mauritania and Mali, formed as a military reaction to threats of deadly militancy. Keïta added that they need to improve their forces and resources to gain the support of all parts of Africa so that they overcome the threats and concentrate on the development of their countries, instead of trying to fight terrorists. The Malian president also said that the aim of the visit was to see how the two African countries can come together and deepen their bilateral cooperation in the

News from Across Africa common areas of agriculture. Geingob said he did the same when Ivory Coast was attacked. “We must hold hands and address the issue of terrorism. We would like to acknowledge your leadership in negotiating peace agreements; you are saying you are threatened but we must make sure your efforts succeed. We want people to have peace and deliver good service,” said Geingob. He added that the two African countries should cooperate and address issues of poverty, and provide the basic necessities that their people dearly need. Though Geingob did not promise to send NDF troops to help Mali fight the insurgency, NDF troops have in the past participated in peacekeeping missions across Africa and elsewhere. With contribution from New Era newspaper

India Deploys Maritime Patrol Aircraft to Seychelles India has deployed a P-8I maritime reconnaissance aircraft in the island nation of Seychelles to keep eye on the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of that country. “The aircraft will remain deployed till March 23. Earlier the Indian Navy has sent warships to that country for surveillance,” said an Indian naval source.

Meanwhile, the Indian Navy said in a statement that the deployment of the plane is an indicator of India’s commitment towards ensuring the security of Seychellois EEZ. “This deployment would also assist in curbing illegal activities and piracy as well as contribute towards security and stability in the Indian Ocean region,” it added.

Arrest Over Drone in Uganda Raises Issue of Security Around Military Bases

the deputy commander Kenya Army Major General Johnson Ondieki on his promotion and appointment on March 11, 2016.

Ugandan police recently arrested three men for operating a drone near the Nakasongola Air Base in the Nakasongola District of Uganda. The three, all from Kampala, said they were working for a private developer looking to plant pine tress. The incident brought the military, police and the intelligence community together to talk about the arrest and whether it posed a security risk. The drone, the first many had ever seen, was confiscated.

Nigerian Air Force Uses Drone for Recon Before Strike Director of Nigerian Air Force Public Relations, Group Captain Ayodele Famuyiwa described how Nigerian Air Force Alpha Jets attacked suspected Boko Haram Logistics Base at Allagarno. He also described how the strike took place after “careful” ISR by a NAF unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV). “The mission; carried out in support of surface forces in order to further degrade the fighting capacity of the remnants of the insurgents, was successful as seen in the video of the battlefield damage assessment carried out by the UCAV,” he said. “The target was probably an ammunition depot, a fuel dump or a facility housing other combustible materials. This effort is likely to create certain logistics constraints for the terrorists along the Allagarno axis.” Famuyiwa added that, “This is a followup to other interdiction missions previously carried out in Sambisa Forest, Kumshe, Iza and other suspected terrorists’ hide-outs. “So far, the NAF has carried out a total of 55 missions comprising 14 ISR, 30 interdiction/combat air support and 11 air logistics support missions in the month of March 2016,” he concluded.

New Kenyan Army Sergeant Major The incoming Kenyan Army Sergeant Major (ASM) Warrant Officer One William Ogutu (left in photo) was congratulated by

AMISOM Donates Biometric Equipment to Somali Police The police component of the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) has donated biometric and office equipment to the Somali Police Force. The equipment is meant to help the Somali Police Force (SPF) establish an upto-date biometric database and also aid in the implementation of an efficient personnel and financial management system. The biometric equipment will also be used by the SPF’s Criminal Investigation Department (CID) fight various types of crime, among them, terrorism, kidnapping and robbery with violence, which are a major hindrance in the federal government’s efforts to secure the country. The gadgets will also aid officers in conducting investigations and prosecuting suspects. The equipment was handed over to the Somali Police Force Commissioner, Major General Mohamed Sheikh Hassan Hamud, by AMISOM Deputy Police Commissioner, Christine Alalo. “Normally when rebuilding a collapsed organization, it requires a lot of patience, support and knowledge. I can today say that part of those needs have been addressed. The leadership of the police force will now get the latest registration and finger printing equipment,” said the Somali Police Commissioner. AMISOM has been training SPF officers how to collect personal information using software developed by its experts. The software will be installed in the electronic equipment donated to the SPF. “The equipment donated will enable the Commissioner (SPF) plan for his person-

African Defense/April 2016

nel, that is, whether to recruit or not to recruit, whether they need barracks or not because he will know their numbers. He will also know who to promote and reward,” Deputy Police Commissioner Alalo said, adding there will be no need for paperwork, since the whole process will be computerized.

South African National Defence Industry Council The South African Minister of Defence and Military Veterans, Nosiviwe Mapisa-Nqakula recently launched the National Defence Industry Council (NDIC). The event was attended by the Minister of Small Business Development, Lindiwe Zulu, Deputy Minister of Defence and Military Veterans, Kebby Maphatsoe, Chief of the SANDF, General Solly Shoke, Secretary for Defence, Dr. Sam Gulube, members of the Armscor board, DOD senior officials, captains of defence industry and associates from government and the private sector. Addressing around 300 invited guests, Minister Mapisa-Nqakula described the gathering as a historic occasion. She said: “It was an historic day for the South African defense industry and its formation is based on government’s stated objective of assisting the local defense industry to develop a footprint in the global defense market, while creating jobs, growing the economy and cultivating a strong skills base in the sector locally.” Article by Sergeant Ally Rakoma

Rwanda Peacekeepers Assume Central Africa Republic Presidential Protection In late March, Rwanda Defence Force peacekeepers (Rwanbatt3) serving in the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilisation Mission in the Central African Republic took over from Rwanda’s Police Protection and Support Unit (PSU) the responsibilities of providing security to the Central African Republic (CAR) new elected President, HE Faustin Archange Touadera. Rwanbatt3 will also remain in charge of providing security to the interim President Her Excellence Madame Catherine Samba Panza. The PSU had been in charge of HE Faustin Touadera’s security since 8 January 2016, when CAR elections went into a second runoff. Since then they successfully provided security to the elected president.

African Defense/April 2016

Nigerian Army Aviation Corps to be Operational Soon On April 6, Nigeria Chief of Army Staff, Lieutenant General Tukur Buratai, said the Nigerian Army Aviation Corps would become fully operational before the expiration of the present administration. He said the first batch of pilots undergoing training would graduate in May 2016, while the aviation technicians have completed their training and subsequently deployed to the northeast for the counterinsurgency operation. “So far, the main activities being undertaken are the training of pilots and technicians and also the necessary negotiations for the acquisition of helicopters. “The trainee pilots comprising 10 officers are still undergoing flying course at the International Helicopter Flying School in Enugu and would complete their training before the end of May 2016. “The 20 aviation technicians who recently completed the six months refresher course in aircraft maintenance have been deployed to the northeast and the immediate training of engineers is being considered.” Buratai added that the Army authority had compiled a list of platforms it planned to acquire from Russian, American and Chinese origin including simulators and unmanned aerial vehicles. He said the corps would take-off with any platform the authority was able to acquire in the interim with the target of developing into an effective support to Army operations anywhere in the world.

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Meeting the Regional Helicopter Demand

Before for the Marrakech Air Show, African Defense had the chance to talk with Bell Helicopter about its focus at Marrakech and beyond to the rest of Africa.

African Defense’s conversation was with Bell Helicopter’s Steve Suttles, vice president of commercial sales, Middle East and Africa, and Rich Harris, director international military marketing development. Q: At Marrakech Air Show, you are exhibiting on your booth NorthStar Aviation’s Bell 407 retrofitted as a light attack helicopter. Are there many commercial aircraft used as light attack helicopters in the region? Suttles: With over 250 commercial Bell Helicopters being used for military missions in Middle East and Africa, we are seeing a growing demand in the region specifically for the Bell 407 retrofitted as a light attack helicopter. We offer a variety of options depending on the customer’s needs for this, including our own in house solution, the Bell 407 GT. Our primary concern is to offer the best solution for our customer and their requirements, whether it be our Bell Helicopter solution or a solution like NorthStar’s, which has proven to be a successful solution. Since 2011, we have delivered 48 aircraft out of the 56 NorthStar has ordered and we are looking forward to many years of collaboration in the future. Q: What about training? What are air forces using to train today and what can Bell Helicopter offer them? Suttles: Our sister company, TRU Simulation + Training provides advanced flight solutions for rotorcraft platforms, for commercial and defense industry customers. They engineer training solutions for key military programs, such as the Bell 407 and the U.S. Future Vertical Lift contender, the V-280

Valor tiltrotor. Our new short light single class Bell 505 Jet Ranger X is a great basic training aircraft for Air Force training schools. The Bell 505 Jet Ranger X is a five-seat aircraft designed for safety, efficiency and reliability through the use of advanced avionics technology. It incorporates proven dynamic components, advanced aerodynamic design, a dual channel FADEC Turbomeca Arrius 2R engine and best-in-class value (USD $1.1 million). For advanced helicopter training, we propose the Bell 407GXP. Combined, we can offer air forces a complete helicopter training solution from basic to advanced training. Harris: We can work with each nation to offer our training and support through the foreign military sale process either in country or through the United States government to offer real life training scenarios and support. Q: Selling helicopters is only the front half of the requirement. Tell me about Bell’s strategy for product support in Africa. How are you working with military and security commands to ensure maintainability and sustainability throughout the entire life cycle of your helicopters? Suttles: We are committed to having resources where customers operate to speed up delivery of service and support, and give customers access to service professionals who are easy to reach, know the operating environment and understand their needs. Bell Helicopter has the largest support network in the industry with over one hundred authorized customer service facilities in 34 countries. We have just announced the opening of a new authorized customer support facility in Egypt, the very first in North Africa at Petroleum Air Services. We

have a second authorized customer service facility in South Africa and we are continuing to invest in our support and services network in Africa to better serve our customers. Ranked number one by customers for 22 consecutive years, Bell Helicopter has earned top honors in Vertical Magazine’s first-ever comprehensive helicopter manufacturer’s survey. We are committed to having resources where customers operate to speed up delivery of service and support, and give customers access to service professionals who are easy to reach, know the operating environment and understand their needs. . Harris: The Foreign Military Sales process includes working collaboratively with the US overnment and Bell Helicopter to develop maintenance, sustainment and training plans to support the intended life-cycle of the aircraft. This includes the ability to communicate back to Bell Helicopter through the program office for support. Q: You recently delivered a Huey II kit to the Colombian Air Force. First tell me about the capabilities of the Huey II kit and then, does a client have to already be a Huey operators or can they acquire the aircraft directly from you? Suttles: Great question and we have a great story to tell regarding our Huey II. We actually delivered 3 complete Huey II aircraft to a Middle Eastern customer earlier this month and we have 15 more in active negotiation. The Bell Huey II Modernization Program is the only original equipment manufacturer (OEM) approved and supported Bell UH-1H performance upgrade available today. The Bell Huey II combines commer-

African Defense/April 2016

this type of aircraft and we will continue to showcase its capabilities around the world. Bell’s AH-1Z Viper is top of class in attack helicopters. Bell Helicopter photo.

Q: What about the V-280 Valor and the African potential? Harris: Similarly, the V-280 is also designed with the range and speed that are results of tiltrotor technology. The aircraft will be agile, with the range to execute long distance missions quickly and efficiently.

cial Bell 212 dynamic components with the reliable Honeywell T53-L-703 engine, leading to an increase in hover performance in hot conditions. In addition, the Bell Huey II upgrade increases the max gross weight to 10,500 pounds, while lowering direct operating costs. Along with the Bell Huey II kit installation, Bell Helicopter refurbishes the Bell UH-1H basic airframe to OEM standards, provides a complete rewire, updates the avionics and offers a comprehensive selection of mission specific kits and customization. Q: How strong is your share of the military rotary wing market in Africa and how are you working to improve that position? Harris: Africa is home to many of our legacy aircraft such as the AH-1 Cobra and UH-1 Huey. The new state of the art military attack and utility aircraft offer the military market even greater capability. We will attend the Marrakesh Airshow and elsewhere to display the warfighting capabilities Bell Helicopter has to offer the region.

They are environmentally hardened platforms, designed and manufactured to perform at the highest levels in almost anyplace on the planet. Corrosion, salt, dirt, dust, the AH-1Z and UH-1Y are designed to perform no matter the conditions. Q: The V-22 obviously combines several advantages of a fixed wing and rotary wing aircraft? Does that specific aircraft have a likely future in Africa? Harris: Africa has vast distances, the Bell Boeing V-22 is the only aircraft with the unique performance capabilities to truly serve in the large distances of the continent. The Osprey can deliver the speed of a fixed wing aircraft while allowing access to remote areas where only a helicopter can land. The V-22 is one of the only aircraft that can fulfill the missions that require great distance to be covered in a short period of time to either a major airport or remote landing site. Africa has many missions that require

Q: Including the Foreign Military Sales program, are there ways you can work with foreign governments to make helicopter acquisition easier on the budget Harris: FMS sales offer countries a total package of capability, security, logistics and training which effectively support efficient life-cycle support. Q: Do you offer specific configured aircraft for head-of-state or other VIP transport? Harris: Bell Helicopter’s military line currently has the V-22 fulfilling an HMX-1 role in the United States. That squadron is tasked with transporting top personnel of the US government. We delivered the first V-22 to the Presidential HMX-1 squadron in 2013 and the last of 12 aircraft in August 2014. The squadron is now at full operational capability and HMX is reaching 1,000 flight hours already on the V-22 fleet. We also have a V-22 commercial configuration offering a new era in VIP transport. The value of responsiveness, security and luxury are represented in this concept.

Q: There’s been interest from several African nations in the Cobra. What advantages does this platform offer over other aircraft in the attack helicopter category? Harris: The AH-1Z Viper provides dramatic improvements in performance over the legacy H-1 products such as the Cobra, including new, marinized airframes wellmatched to significantly more capable state-of-the-art sensors. It shares 85 percent commonality with the utility equivalent the UH-1Y Venom to offer significantly reduced support requirements and costs. Finally, the Yankee and Zulu are easily reconfigurable for a wide array of missions and offer a true expeditionary and maritime capability.

African Defense/April 2016

Building on its legacy airframes, the Huey and Cobra, Bell has modernized these helicopters to a state-of-the-art configuration and added other platforms like the Bell 407, V-22 and V-280 for the African market. Bell Helicopter photo

Gender Equality in the South African National Defence Force

A comparative look—with recommendations—on the role of women in the South African military historically, currently and moving into the future.

The South African government has repeatedly declared its commitment to gender equality. It has not only ratified and signed International Conventions in this regard, but has also made provisions on this in the South African constitution. The Department of Defence (DOD) as a government institution is required to comply with these constitutional imperatives and pursue government policy. Subsequently gender related constitutional imperatives were reaffirmed in the White Paper on Defence and the Defence Review. During apartheid era women particularly African women were oppressed and discriminated against, regarded as dependents and inferior to men confined to domestic chores either as housewives not given equal opportunities as their male counterparts in healthcare, education and job opportunities. This was the case in most militaries around the world including the South African National Defence Force (SANDF). The participation of women in the armed forces has been significantly influenced by the legacy of apartheid. The SANDF started recruitment of women into the military in 1994. In the world today, gender has become an important issue. The growing realization that limitations of women’s access to resources and decision making also limits their ability to develop and exercise their full capabilities for their own benefit and that of society has prompted efforts to provide equal opportunities for men and women. The message has become clear that development cannot take place if it excludes half of the human race (women).

Lieutenant Colonel NO Mkhwanazi South African National Defence Force 12

The question of gender equity in South Africa is a re-awakening, as it includes the definition of the self, the renewal of societal gender relations, and institutional arrangements of understanding gender perspectives and relationships that previously were not possible. Gender equality is a process of ensuring that institutions respond to frameworks that create a conducive environment for women by redressing gender inequalities and fostering the empowerment of women’s development. Gender is a socially and culturally defined concept and the legal principles embodied in it previously supported the exclusions of women from the socio-political processes based on the biological differences between men and women. Further, society promoted the patriarchal domination of women by men. This has resulted in gender discrimination, inequality and perpetuation of the view that women are physically and intellectually inferior to men. The United Nations Development Program suggests that gender equality and women’s empowerment are central to the achievement of the millennium goals, not only as just and desirable ends but also goals for obtaining gender mainstreaming and gender responsive programs. The 1998 SANDF white paper on defense emphasized that the democratic changes post 1994 required fundamental transformation of the economic relations, political structures, culture and values of the South African society to accommodate women. These changes had major implications for the transformation of the SANDF which resulted in the integration process of the statutory and non-statutory forces, namely: South African Defence Force (SADF), Umkhonto we-Sizwe (MK), Azanian Peoples Liberation Army (APLA) and the Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Cis-

kei Armies (TBVC). The integration process further created opportunities for both access and advancement of women in the SANDF as they created an enabling environment to pursue gender objectives and equality for women. While women constituted the majority in the country previously, they were inadequately represented in the SANDF; especially in decision-making structures to effect critical policy changes. zxxxx Gender Equality in the United States Military The United States has more women in its military than any other nation. Over 35,300 women served in the military during the 1991 Operation Desert Storm. Many of them saw action just like their male counterparts, as traditional lines between the front and rear dissolved in the midst of modern weapons technology. Throughout Operation Desert Storm women performed flight operations within the combat zone. A number of women participated in support and rescue assignments that were as physically demanding as combat and involved significant risk of harm. Despite the women’s involvement in these operations, the US defence policy stipulated that they should not be involved in combat. The experience of military women during World War II demonstrated that women are capable of functioning effectively in combat zones under conditions of extreme stress for extended periods. Most women were discharged from the military at the end of World War II and did not receive permanent status in the regular and reserve forces until 1948. However, after much debate Congress passed the 1948 Integration of Women in the Armed Forces Act, which established permanent places for

African Defense/April 2016

women in the regular services at the time. However, their enlistment was limited to 2 percent of the total armed forces and they were restricted to non-combat assignments. Women currently comprise approximately 11 percent of the overall services in the US military, Air Force having the largest percentage, 29 percent and the Marine Corps the smallest, at approximately 5 percent. Although the services vary considerably regarding the opportunities made available to women all of them, until just recently excluded women from all combat designated positions. Since 1974 the Army has been training men and women together but due to complaints of sexual harassment, the Department of Defense has reviewed the concept of joint training of men and women. However, other corrective measures taken to prevent sexual harassment have been put in place, including the establishment of a hotline to enable women to break the silence and report sexual harassment anytime. zxxxx Gender Equality in Namibian Defence Force

After South West African People’s

Organisation (SWAPO) launched its armed struggle on 26 August 1966 at Onghulumbashe forest in northern Namibia, women also joined their male counterparts in the prolonged and bitter struggle. The formation of the SWAPO Women’s Council facilitated women’s involvement in many spheres of the liberation struggle including the leadership of the liberation movement, i.e. some women were members of the Central Committee of the South West African People’s Organization of Namibia and the Military Council of People’s Liberation Army of Namibia. Since the 1970s, the SWAPO Women’s Council has made considerable headway in organising women in the country to join the liberation struggle, particularly the armed struggle. Namibian women played a crucial role in SWAPO right from the early beginning of the armed liberation struggle, and the emancipation of women from sources of oppression both colonial and traditional was central to their aspirations. Women were trained as soldiers in all military fields in the People’s Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN As the struggle developed, PLAN female fighters became specialized in military disciplines such as nursing, artillery marks-

manship, radio communication, air defence guns, sabotage, reconnaissance, intelligence and even as drivers of military vehicles. The role of women did not end with the war, but continued also in the process to independence i.e. in the interim period, demobilization, Constituent Assembly and formulation of new political dispensation. During the implementation of United Nations Resolution 435, the process to independence commenced. The negotiating parties settled on a transitional plan to elections and independence jointly supervised by the United Nations Technical Assistance Group (UNTAG) and the South African administration. This process started with the demobilization of troops and repatriation of refugees to Namibia and eventually ended in the phase of integrating them into society. The International Inter-Parliamentary Union (1998) expressed that Namibian women have been key actors in the liberation struggle. She also adds that since Namibia’s independence in 1990, Namibian women have been contributing very actively to the country’s political and economic development. By 1998, Namibian women had attained the level of 40 percent of elected candidates in local elections and 18 percent

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African Defense/April 2016

in the Namibian Parliament (International Inter-Parliamentary Union). However, not everyone has hailed this achievement. With independence, women in Namibia hoped that their return out of exile would provide impetus to the women movement inside Namibia. It has been reported that although the projected force levels of the new Namibian army are low, numbering about 5,000, no women had been incorporated. Many women were reintegrated in various government institutions, but female ex-combatants were not employed in strategic positions. Employed ex-PLAN combatants felt that the reintegration process was successful because it united former warring parties into one unified defense force. While that might be true, the integration process favored ex-combatants who were living in cities and those in the rural areas were left to fend for themselves. A large number of the latter were female ex-combatants. Meanwhile, those female ex-combatants employed in the municipalities, especially in the city of Windhoek, are entitled to do jobs of the laborers but the salary they receive is equivalent to cleaners’ salaries. These female ex-combatants feel that they are ill treated on the account of gender and excombatants status. Women participated in the revolutionary struggle and were trained in all military fields. Women’s contribution continued even after the war, they played a big role during independence of Namibia. zxxxx Gender Equality in the Former South African Defence Force In 1970 a decision was taken by the former South African Defence Force Defence Council to appoint women in the military, in order to release men for operational duties. According to the Sunday Times, 12 April 1971, the Army Women’s College in George was later established in 1971 to train women separately within the SADF. At the opening ceremony of the college, the then President P.W. Botha described this recruitment of white women as an act of faith in the women of South Africa and a manifestation of faith that the civilian population was preparing, in a an organized way, a national wall against military threats as well as emergencies and national disasters. Although the Defence Act (Act 44 of 1957) as amended did not contain any discriminatory sections against women on

any ground, white women were restricted to developing their career aspirations within the support musterings of the military such as finance, personnel, logistics, intelligence, medical services and welfare. They were not appointed to positions which could result in close combat or positions of high foreign exposure, for example as military attachés. The exclusion of women in combat roles is not supported showing that women were marginalized and not given equal opportunities in the former SADF during apartheid era; evidence shows that women are as capable as their male counterparts. This differed from the role of mainly black women serving in Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), the revolutionary force of the African National Congress, and African Peoples Liberation Army (APLA) where they serveed in many frontline positions. Many of these women, now integrated into the SANDF, have come out strongly in favor of gender equality. Unlike many European countries, the recent expanded role of women in the South African armed forces has not been due to a shortage of qualified men, or due to a perceived threat to the nation, a shift to an all-volunteer force or change in mission definition. The driving force since 1994 has been legislative and incidentally has coincided with the shift to an all-volunteer force and in mission focus as peacekeeping, humanitarian aid and internal deployment become the most likely roles of the SANDF. It is evident that women played a significant role in the revolutionary movements fighting for social and political change. zxxxx South African Liberation Movement Armies Women in Umkhoto we Sizwe (MK) and APLA were subjected to the same training as their male counterparts, and were involved in combat. This was in line with the policies of the African National Congress and Pan African Congress. The ANC policies were based on the principles of freedom and equality for all, as well as the promotion of non-sexism. Thus women were actively involved in the four pillars in which the struggle for democracy was waged i.e. mass democratic movement, ANC/MK underground structures, mobilization of the international community, and military activities. The extent of their involvement can only be judged in terms of the overall struggle for democracy. The history, culture and level of de-

velopment within society often shape the different views. In South Africa, for example in contrast to the liberal feminism of western societies, the feminist stance among mainly African women is associated with the revolutionary struggle leaning towards socialist feminism, asserting the equal right of women to take up arms with men against repression and injustice. Widespread acceptance of the legitimacy of the armed struggle and the notion of a just war means that the Western connection between feminism and paciﬁsm is loosened in the South African context. For black women, women’s rights remain submissive to the issue of race and the social, political and economic oppression they experience. Only recently have women begun to challenge this triple repression, but even so this has not been from a feminist perspective aimed at empowering women, but rather at liberating them. Currently, the women’s movement in South Africa is growing in stature with a number of women participating in politics at both the national and regional level, pushing for a wide range of gender reforms through various gender forums and gender commissions. Acknowledgement has been given to the plight of women in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 and a Commission for Gender Equality was established in 1997 to develop an inventory of legislation which discriminates against women. Areas of concern are the need to amend patriarchal customary rules, develop gender-sensitive policies and laws, institutionalize means to reduce violence against women and integrate gender considerations into macro-economic planning and national budgets. An Office of the Status of Women has been established in the office of the Deputy President tasked to establish gender units within the various state departments, including the SANDF, to monitor and audit the progress of gender equality. The reform of policy relating to women in the military is legally and politically driven rather than through the intervention of any particular feminist lobby demanding equal rights for women. Only recently has a small, but active feminist voice emerged among the senior female officer ranks pressing for greater participation of women in decision-making and greater sensitivity to gender. These voices will no doubt gain more momentum once the Gender Forums initiated in 1997 are established and begin to address the gender issues that limit

African Defense/April 2016

women’s career advancement. The historical overview of women’s involvement in the armed forces indicates that given the opportunity, women can also play an active role in armed formations. Therefore the defense of a country should not be regarded as an exclusive male prerogative. zxxxx Gender Equality Policy of the SANDF According to the White Paper on Defence the SANDF acknowledges the right of women to serve in all ranks and positions, including combat roles. The White Paper on Defence further stipulates that in order to secure the legitimacy of the armed forces the SANDF is committed to the goal of overcoming the legacy of racial and gender discrimination. Furthermore, it states that it will ensure that the SANDF and its leadership in particular, is broadly representative of the South African population. In pursuance of this policy, a gender sub-directorate has been established within the Equal Opportunities Chief Directorate in Pretoria. It has been tasked, amongst other things, to monitor the advancement of women and to ensure that they are properly represented, and also ensure that women

have every opportunity to participate equally with male counterparts and liaise internationally with other organizations. The SANDF is one of the few armed forces in the world which accepts the right of women to serve in combat. There are women crews in the Artillery and Armoured Corps of the Army, and the Air Force has women trainee pilots. The 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 South African Infantry Battalions deploy women infantry personnel as part of their contingent on external operational duties in Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic. This increased to 13 percent in 2000, rising rapidly to 20 percent by January 2002 largely due to the legislative pressures for gender equality. The racial gender proﬁle also changed signiﬁcantly. In 1994, when the new SANDF was formed, there were only 712 African women mainly from the former MK and APLA, compared to 5,714 white women serving in the military. By January 2000, white women comprised only 25 percent of the total number of women in the military, compared to 61 percent African, just over 1 percent Indian and 12 percent Coloured. However, a disproportionate number of white women held senior

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ranks, given that some have served in the former SADF since the early 1970s. As the number of African women serving in the SANDF increases, this has brought to the fore a number of cultural considerations, hitherto unknown to the former white male dominated SADF. The social construction of gender, the importance attached to gender differences and cultural interpretations of gender has considerable implications for the inclusion and participation of women. The SANDF has the highest number of women in Africa within its ranks, only one gender officer has been appointed at Defence Headquarter’s level to address gender related issues and formulate policies in this regard. Unless additional similar appointments are made across the arms of service to address this issue, the SANDF may be seen as only paying lip service to constitutional and legislative requirements. Institutional arrangements and monitoring mechanisms must be established to ensure that women have every opportunity to participate equally with male counterparts. The greater the emphasis on attribution by gender, the more limited women’s participation, the more democratic the social values, the greater women’s par-

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ticipation in the military. Although South African women are experiencing a sense of liberation brought about by the removal of discriminatory legislation, they are still subject to cultural encapsulation specifically within the context of customary law. In fact, Section 211 of the Constitution of the RSA reinforces the importance granted to the preservation of cultural traditions of the various groups that make up society. Yet, many of these traditions or customs are based on gender attribution and subordination. African women remain subject to a patriarchal system that relegates them to a subordinate position economically, politically and socially. Despite legislative provisions prohibiting discrimination based on gender in the Bill of Rights, African women particularly within the rural context are still treated as minors, have limited access to land and property and are subservient to their husbands. These cultural values invariably spill over to gender relations within the armed forces as can be seen from the results of a survey conducted by the Directorate Social Work (DSW) among members of the SANDF. Almost half 46.5 percent of the men responded that it is natural for males to have control over women, that wives should do what their husbands tell them 41 percent and that a man must do whatever he needs to do including using violence to ensure that his wife behaves properly. In recent years there has been a dramatic impact on the gender profile of the SANDF; for example, in 1989 only 10 percent of the uniformed members serving in the military were women. This increased to 13 percent in 2000, rising rapidly to 20 percent by January 2002 largely due to the legislative pressures for gender equality. The racial gender profile also changed significantly. In 1994, when the new SANDF was formed, there were only 712 African women mainly from the former MK, compared to 5,714 white women serving in the military. By January 2000, white women comprised only 25 per cent of the total number of women in the military, compared to 61 percent African, just over 1 percent Indian and 12 percent Coloured. However, a disproportionate number of white women hold senior ranks, given that some have served in the former SADF since the early 1970s. As the number of African women serving in the SANDF increases, this has brought to the fore a number of cultural considerations, hitherto unknown to the former white male- dominated SADF. The so-

cial construction of gender, the importance attached to gender differences and cultural interpretations of gender has considerable implications for the inclusion and participation of women in the military. The SANDF has the highest number of women post 1994 as compared to other defense forces in Africa; the White paper on Defence and Defence Review advocate for gender related constitutionally imperatives. zxxxx Maternity Benefits According to DoD policy no. 05/1996, women are entitled to leave for confinement. Special leave with full pay is granted for confinement for a period of four months. The policy on maternity benefits stipulates that women be considered for normal promotion during absence on maternity leave for a period of up to 12 months. The South African Military Health Service’s policy on pregnancy encourages women to report their condition. However, the mere reporting by women of their pregnancy condition is not enough. Specific guidelines should be developed on how pregnant women should participate during courses, including the physical and psychological aspects. Although there is policy with regard to maternity benefits, this policy is not sufficiently comprehensive, missing issues such as the type and duration of training pregnant women undergo. The supervision of these women is left to the discretion of the instructors and the training institution’s interpretation of the policy. No monitoring mechanisms are in place to ensure that women are not withdrawn unnecessarily. Also the question of how long a mother should be given to bond with the child before being nominated to a course has not been addressed. The policy on maternity benefits has gaps that can lead to misunderstanding in the SANDF. zxxxx Military Health Benefits In the SANDF male members are entitled to free medical services for their legal wives and dependent children. Married women, however, are not entitled to this benefit for their dependents. This issue of medical benefits for the dependents of married women in the SANDF has been under discussion for some time. The amendment to the General Regulations of the SANDF in this regard was approved by the Department of Public Service and Administration and State Expenditure as well as the Minister of

Defence. They were published in the Government Gazette on September 1998. These amendments make provision for medical benefits for a member of the Permanent Force and of the Auxiliary service and such members’ dependents but exclude the dependents of members in the Short-term Service (STS) and the Service Corps. The actual implementation of this policy has yet to happen. When addressing this issue, the question to be examined should not be women’s eligibility to be considered as breadwinners, but their right as members of the SANDF to access all benefits enjoyed by their male counterparts. When one examines SANDF policy with regards to gender equality, one realizes that although women have been given legal equality this has not automatically guaranteed them equal treatment in terms of medical benefits. zxxxx Pension Benefits In the past there was a differentiation between the pension contributions of married and/or single men and women. In the new dispensation all members contribute equally after changes in regulations by the government’s pension fund and the finance department. The implementation of this policy is seen as a practical measure to ensure gender equality in pension benefits. In the past, women in the same rank as men did not receive equal benefits. The repercussions of the past discrepancies are now being felt by women who apply for voluntary severance packages from the military. The many years of contributing less than their male counterparts have meant that they receive a smaller voluntary severance package. zxxxx Suitability for Combat Roles As is the case in other armed forces, once women participate in the military in greater numbers and in certain non-traditional roles, the debate shifts to concerns regarding their utilization in certain capacities. Should they be permitted to serve in all combat specialties? Should this be voluntary or compulsory? Are women physically and psychologically suited for combat? What effect will women have on cohesion, morale and ultimately operational effectiveness? Then there are the uniquely female concerns such as the effect of pregnancy on deployability, parental and family concerns and sexual harassment.

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zxxxx Implementing Gender Equality Implementing gender equality in South Africa, there are no provisions limiting the career path of women in the SANDF and it is among the most liberal nations in this regard. Whereas prior to 1994 women were only permitted to serve in support roles, they may now be trained and serve in all ranks. Women officers, who were previously excluded from studying at the Military Academy, now comprise almost a third of the student body and in 1999, the predominantly male student body elected the first female to serve in the prestigious position of student captain. Yet, despite the formal provisions allowing women to serve in any position, opinion is divided both within society and the military on whether women should serve in combat roles. In an opinion poll conducted by the Institute for Security Studies and the Human Sciences Research Council in 1996 testing public opinion on the question ‘should women be allowed to volunteer for combat duty’, society was almost equally divided on women serving in the frontline. Similarly, within the SANDF during the same period the Centre for Military Studies conducted a survey testing SANDF officers opinions to the question whether women should be allowed to do combat duty in the frontline. Of these officers, 40 percent were in favor, 12 percent unsure and 48 percent disagreed. With women now serving in combat roles, a more recent survey conducted by the SANDF’s Equal Opportunities Chief Directorate (EOCD) in February/March 2013 among all military personnel revealed some interesting findings. When military women were asked whether they would go into frontline combat if given the chance, most black African women 75 percent and Coloured women 58 percent said they would compared to 34 percent of whites. Similar findings were reported by race when asked whether they would be willing to trade a supportive role for a combat role. Opinion was divided on whether women should only receive such assignments if they choose, 41 percent supporting the volunteer option, compared to 47 percent who felt it should be compulsory for all, with the remainder

being unsure. What is apparent is that white women’s views are similar to western trends in that they want the choice to serve in combat roles, while African women appear more prepared to serve in the frontline. More women are willing to serve in combat roles, this may possibly be attributed to the role of women in the revolutionary struggle and also the fact that white women appear less willing to serve beyond the borders of South Africa

37 percent and whites 30 percent expressing the opinion that women do not have the physical capability to serve in combat. These sentiments were most strongly held by African men, as 60 percent of African women felt they had the physical ability to perform in combat. This is an important point in race/gender relations within the South African context, given the subordinate role of women within traditional African culture.

zxxxx Genetic Suitability for Combat Roles

zxxxx Impact on Social and Task Cohesion

Even where women meet the job speciﬁcations and have the ability to serve in combat, opinion remains divided especially in those positions where physical demands may exceed the physiological capabilities of women. To overcome this, most countries are striving towards gender-neutral policies that specify which specialties (combat and non-combat) require muscular strength, endurance and cardiovascular capacity. This has been the policy adopted by the SANDF. Currently, men and women receive the same training and there is no genderspeciﬁc training policy, although gender separation does take place during basic training. This was introduced after the SA Army Gymnasium found increasing rates of stress fractures in the lower leg and pelvis among women, ascribed mainly to the differences in the length of their stride and height compared to men. In general, women are more positive about their capabilities than men. The EOCD survey revealed that while only 28 percent of women felt they did not have the ability to serve in demanding combat roles, 41 percent of males held this view. Once again the views differed by race, with more Africans 42 percent than Coloureds

Another argument frequently raised against the inclusion of women in combat units is their potential effect on male bonding and the subsequent impact on cohesion and morale. The same sentiments hold true in South Africa, as shown by the EOCD survey results where 56 per cent of males and a remarkable 47 percent of females supported the view that the integration of women would have a detrimental effect on unit cohesion, morale, male bonding and operational effectiveness. In general, Africans 56 percent felt more strongly than whites 49 per cent that this was so. This may seem contradictory given the role played by African women in the ANC’s liberation army, but can be explained by yet another division within the SANDF, namely the attitudes of members of the former black homeland or TBVC armies. According to the Department of Defence personnel statistics there were virtually no women from the TBVC defense forces integrated into the new SANDF. The virtual absence of women from these ranks signiﬁes that their lack of exposure to the capabilities of women, together with cultural considerations, probably inﬂuenced their attitudes. In this regard, I would venture to say that given the racial

South Africa is at the forefront of African militaries in gender equality across all of its services. (South Africa MoD photo)

African Defense/April 2016

tension that exists within the SANDF, social and task cohesion is stronger by race than by gender. Concerning social cohesion, the overriding factor is differences in culture and language between whites and blacks. As regards task cohesion which is associated with the ability of the unit to harness the collective, knowledge, skills and experience of all members to meet unit objectives, it relates to perceived differences in standards and levels of training. Within the SANDF there are some serious differences by race on the impact of affirmative action on operational effectiveness. Many white officers feel resentment towards what they see as the promotion of inexperienced blacks to positions not on merit but on race. The EOCD survey not only substantiates this, but shows that these sentiments are on the increase, particularly among whites and Coloureds who are of the opinion that affirmative action, which includes the rapid advancement of women, has a negative effect on the SANDF’s effectiveness. Whereas perceived double standards for men and women have been one of the factors affecting morale and cohesion in western armed forces, within South Africa the impact is clearly linked to race and gender, with the emphasis on race.

zxxxx Female Concerns In The SANDF One of the most contentious issues within the SANDF is the issue of pregnancy and childcare and the creation of a more woman-friendly environment within the SANDF. Women in the military and the Deputy Minister of Defence have been forthright in stating that pregnancy must not be used against them, but must be taken into consideration when planning and deploying women. This is bound to pose a challenge to the SANDF. As means of comparison, during the Gulf War it was found that women were three times less deployable than men, primarily due to pregnancy. In this regard, it is of interest to note the EOCD ﬁnding regarding the effect which the admission of women into combat situations will have on mothers with small children, pregnancy and sexual harassment. Almost 50 percent of respondents expressed their concern about the effect mothers with small children at home, pregnancy and sexual harassment may have on combat situations, with only 31 percent expressing no concern and the remainder being unsure. More women 56 percent than men 46 percent had their reservations about these issues. Comparative to previous ﬁndings on willing-

ness to serve in combat, white women 64 percent and Coloured women 61 percent were more concerned than African females 31 percent about the impact these issues would have on the assignment to positions that might involve a high probability of direct combat. One should question the implication of these ﬁndings, given the fact that African women have more children than whites, are often single parents and primary breadwinners in their families. Single parents are seen as the greatest burden to the military because of the restrictions childcare places on the parent. In South Africa, the majority of black women carry the full share of household responsibilities, although this appears to be changing in urban households. The extended families associated with traditional African culture may provide the support base, alleviating women from their childcare responsibilities while deployed. For decades, African women have been separated from their children in search of employment, leaving their children in the care of the elderly or relatives, something few white women have had to deal with. This may explain why black African women may be more willing to be deployed for longer periods.

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On the other hand, with the breakdown of these traditional values and a growing number of single women serving in the SANDF, the full impact of pregnancy and childcare responsibilities on deployability is still to be seen. International findings indicate that the impact of pregnancy on deployability is especially high in units that are disproportionately female or understaffed. Pregnancy will no doubt pose definite challenges for those responsible for future force preparation and force deployment. zxxxx Sexual Harrassment and Abuse of Women Sexual harassment is another issue associated with female integration. Within the SANDF, both sexual and gender harassment is a rising concern. Reports are that black women experience sexual and gender harassment more frequently in the workplace than whites. Not only is harassment from male colleagues said to be widespread, but in gaining employment women are expected to provide sexual favors to prospective employers. Similar rumors exist within the SANDF, although the extent of both gender and sexual harassment within the ranks is unknown, nor whether there is any variance by race, rank, gender or work environment. What has evoked far greater concern is the increase in incidents of rape and violence against women within the SANDF, a reflection of trends evident in broader society. While internationally the abuse of women is discussed mainly within the context of female combatants and prisoners of war, women and particularly black women are the disproportionate victims of violence within South African society. A recent national study on the experiences of 1,000 women in metropolitan, urban and rural South Africa indicated that 63 percent of women had experienced sexual abuse. The average reported rape cases increased by 23 percent between 1994 and 1997 and these trends continue unabated. The Department of Defence has formulated a policy on Violence against Women and Children that declares not only to reduce conflict against women and children during armed conflicts, but within the SANDF, among its members and their dependents. The safety of women is a grave concern not only when leaving the unit late at night, but also when deployed in the field in remote and isolated circumstances offering little protection and privacy. These

concerns are justified, in light of recent findings within the SANDF that 37 percent of female employees and 30 percent of military wives report having been subject to abuse or a violent relationship. No aspect of human security is as vital as the security from physical violence, and where women are unsafe in their own homes, one has to raise questions about their safety during deployment where their vulnerability is so much greater. African conflicts in particular are associated with rape, plunder and murder a reality which women serving in the SANDF will have to face as South Africa takes part in regional peacekeeping. In Africa, with HIV/AIDS infection being as high as 60-70 per cent among some Sub-Saharan armed forces, the deployment of women becomes even more condemning. Evidence from Rwanda shows how HIV-infected soldiers raped and used HIV as a weapon of war in the ethnic conflict between Hutus and Tutsis. Such realities bring to the fore another security dimension associated with the deployment of women on the African continent that stretches way beyond the politics of gender integration associated with western societies. Gender based violence cases in the SANDF are rarely heard and often gone unreported for fear of victimization. zxxxx Barriers To Women Advancement A barrier to women’s advancement refers to attitudes and conditions in the work place that makes it difficult for women to advance. Patriarchal Society The patriarchal nature of South African society is the root cause of gender inequality. Therefore to challenge patriarchy and to dispute the idea that men are the only dominant figures in the family and society should not be seen as fighting against male privilege or an attempt to destroy African tradition, subvert Afrikaner ideals or undermine European values. The fact of the matter is that patriarchy dehumanizes men and neutralizes women across the color line. Stereotyping Owing to socio-cultural factors, stereotyped conceptions of women continue to exist within the DoD. This manifests itself in the form of women not being taken seriously and in sexist jokes or remarks that may be shared in social functions or meetings.

True advancement towards equality requires fundamental social and cultural change in interpersonal relationships between women and men, which eliminates practices based on ideas of superiority or inferiority of one sex in relation to the other. Training The report on the Qualitative Research Findings of the Study on Gender Equality in the SANDF conducted in 1997 indicates that most women in all rank groups across all arms of service expressed that although they are subjected to the same training with their male counterparts, they do not receive the same recognition. They feel that the work done by women must be seen in the same light as work done by men. Tasks given to women should be on merit and not based on the fact that they are women. Promotion and leadership appointments must be done based on merit zxxxx Recommendations It is recommended that; • Recruitment policies and practices in the US military should encourage and ensure the presence of women in all musterings. Quotas must be allocated. • During recruitment women who are potential applicants should be notified of real risks which both men and women will face especially in combat role in order to make informed decisions. • The SANDF needs to formulate a comprehensive policy on maternity benefits so that these issues are addressed amicably. • Gender desks are established across the arms of service in order to promote and monitor gender equality. Yearly gender conferences should also be organized to give feedback on current issues and achievements in terms of policy implementation. • The SANDF should encourage and support all women across the race to participate in external deployments. • Gender sensitivity education should be included in civic education to address various issues requiring change of attitude from members of the SANDF. • An enabling environment and support structures for female soldiers must be developed in order to enable them to combine soldier and mother role. • The SANDF should establish a hotline as a corrective measure in order for women to break the silence.

African Defense/April 2016

AFRICOM Logisticians Look to Partnerships to Improve African LOG Capacity AFRICOM’s J4 Directorate is continually looking for ways to partner with the broad spectrum of stakeholders to synchronize and optimize logistics in order to achieve objectives and enterprise logistics goals. African Defense recently had the chance to talk with Major General James C. Vechery, the director of logistics for US Africa Command, to better understand AFRICOM’s strategy and priorities. African Defense: Could we start with a little background about AFRICOM’s logistics office? What kind of commander’s guidance do you work with, what are the primary challenges to being the youngest combatant command—with such a large AOR, and what are you doing to enhance the message of what AFRICOM logistics brings to its African partners? Vechery: The AFRICOM commander recently signed the Theater Campaign Plan (TCP) which is a 5-year plan that drives the actions for AFRICOM on the African continent. It is nested under the AFRICOM Theater Strategy which provides strategic direction with a 10-year horizon. As an economy of force combatant command, we need to carefully apply the precious resources we are entrusted with to advance the AFRICOM TCP and Strategy. AFRICOM J4 (Directorate for Logistics) is a team of approximately 70 dedicated individuals that provide strategic and operational logistics focus to the AFRICOM area

African Defense/April 2016

of responsibility (AOR) by working closely with Combined Joint Task Force Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA), our Special Operations Command-Africa (SOCAF), four service components, and the larger Joint Logistics Enterprise (JLEnt). African Defense: There were several exercise in early 2016—Flintlock and Cutlass Express—come to mind. Tell me about the logistics efforts, challenges and solutions to putting US forces into country, coordinating partner nation participation and managing the logistics aspects of diverse militaries within the same training space. Vechery: Exercises are a key component of our Theater Campaign Plan as they serve as one of the ways we accomplish our mission with security force assistance (SFA) as our decisive effort. As a strategic COCOM, we work through the partners mentioned above. As an example, Flintlock 2016 concluded at the end of February. SOCAF is the lead organization that does all the heavy

lifting to ensure it is successful from a logistical perspective. We use a tool called the acquisition cross servicing agreement (ACSA) to exchange logistics support, supplies and services with the host nation and participating countries. Likewise, the closing ceremony for Obangame Express was held at the end of March in Cameroon, and we enjoyed many accomplishments there as well. African Defense: How does AFRICOM and the partner nations measure the value of an event during the review phase? Are there metrics that help drive the value proposition? Vechery: I would defer you to our J7 who oversees the exercise program for the command, but yes there is a very detailed process that includes defining exercise objectives along with measurement criteria in the planning phase.

African Defense: A year ago June, the African Union and the African Center for Strategic Studies co-host the Africa Logistics Forum. What were the take-aways—and or action items—from the event, what are the current action items as a result, and how to do sustain that momentum? Vechery: This is a cornerstone event for AFRICOM J4. The information below was largely taken directly from the Africa Logistics Forum Program Summary. The Africa Logistics Forum 2015 (ALF2015) was held from 23-25 June, 2015 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ALF built upon the foundation that was laid during the African Logistics Capacity Development (ALCD) seminar held in the same location from 27-30 April, 2014. The forum examined and explored logistics challenges in Africa’s security sector with a goal to strengthen strategic leadership and implementation of logistics initiatives required to support crises

response across Africa. Co-sponsored by AFRICOM, there were a total of 80 participants representing 38 African nations, five European countries, Canada, United States and representatives from the African Union (AU), European Union and United Nations. The three priorities that emerged from the forum included: An AU Continental Movement Coordination Center (CMCC) is the first priority; the African Union will lead the strategic lift working group supporting implementation of the CMCC concept ahead of Amani Africa II in South Africa Development of a continental logistics base (CLB) is the second priority; a working group led by the African Union was established to support implementing the CLB concept For the third priority, AU PSOD will lead efforts to ensure policy for contingent-

Major General James C. Vechery Director of Logistics US Africa Command Major General James C. Vechery is the director for logistics, US Africa Command, Stuttgart, Germany. He is the principal logistics adviser to the Commander, US Africa Command, and is responsible for executig all DoD logistics activities in the 53-country US Africa Command area of responsibility, with a particular focus on deployment, distribution, supply, medical, contracting and engineering. Vechery was commissioned in 1988 as a distinguished graduate from Air Force ROTC following his graduation from the University of Maryland. He has held command positions at the squadron level and twice at the wing level. He has extensive operational flying experience, including several deployments supporting Operations Enduring Freedom, Iraqi Freedom, Southern Watch and Northern Watch. His staff assignments include serving as the major command regional director of operations, Tanker Airlift Control Center; chief of airlift manning, Headquarters Air Mobility Command; programmer for C-5 Mobility Forces, Headquarters US Air Force; chief, Global Force Management Operations, chief Air Force legislative affairs, United States Transportation Command; deputy director of operations, and deputy director of strategic plans, requirements, and programs at Headquarters Air Mobility Command. Vechery is a command pilot with more than 3,000 hours in the T-37, T-38, C5A/B, KC-135R/T, and C-37A. Prior to assuming his current position, he served as the director, COMISAF Liaison for the U.S. Embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan. His major awards and decorations include: Defense Superior Service Medal; Legion of Merit with oak leaf cluster; Bronze Star; Defense Meritorious Service Medal with oak leaf cluster; Meritorious Service Medal with two oak leaf clusters Air Medal; Aerial Achievement Medal with two oak leaf clusters; Joint Service Commendation Medal; Air Force Commendation Medal with oak leaf cluster; and the Air Force Achievement Medal with two oak leaf clusters. 22

owned equipment (COE) matches the types of missions AU members are conducting (e.g. Somalia) via a separate working group Upon conclusion of the ALF 2015, there was general consensus on an agreed upon way ahead. Specifically, the AU PSOD, in partnership and with support from the U.S. Africa Command, will continue to convene a bi-monthly Africa Logistics Council (ALC). The council, comprised of stakeholders from the AU, regional communities and International partners, will coordinate the efforts of several working groups to develop action plans for the attainment of identified objectives. African Defense: Is there another similar event planned? Vechery: Yes, the Africa Logistics Forum is planned to be an annual event. Planning is in full stride for this year’s event which will be held at the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) in Accra in April. Our goal this year is to have representatives from all African countries along with international partner countries and organizations that have a vested interest in African logistics. We are also planning to include the regional economic communities as a focus for this year’s event to tie in the regional aspect to the continental strategy. African Defense: I’ve heard that the response to the Ebola crisis in West Africa was described to then US Defense Secretary Gates as a logistics mission with a medical component because there was so much that needed to be done to get the medical response in place. Vechery: That is absolutely correct! In fact, logistics was one of four lines of effort for Operation United Assistance (OUA), which was the military operation supporting USAID which was designated as the lead federal agent for the United States response to the Ebola crisis. This was a logistics heavy operation as a speedy response was absolutely critical to saving lives. The Joint Logistics Enterprise came together in an amazing way and quickly established the primary aerial/sea port of debarkation in Monrovia, Liberia and an intermediate staging base in Dakar, Senegal to help set the theater logistically.

African Defense/April 2016

In my assessment, this mission was an overwhelming success and clearly demonstrated what is achievable when we all work together towards a common goal as today Liberia is Ebola free.

In the end, our biggest logistics issue was personal protective equipment for the care givers, as this supply was vital to ensuring the well-being of those who would ultimately help defeat Ebola.

African Defense: From a technology/equipment/gear perspective what are the kinds of things you need to have at the ready to be able to push a port/airport opening capability that would be the first step to a response—medical, humanitarian, peacekeeping or otherwise?

African Defense: In late 2015, you described the AFRICOM support for the Democratic Republic of Congo’s Defence Logistics School? Tell me how the US assisted—then and now. Either with specifics or without, are there other examples in Africa where AFRICOM is helping to either establish or increase logistics capacity at an institutional level?

Vechery: The most important capability from a logistics perspective is logistic enabling capability. As an example, US Transportation Command has an organization called Joint Task Force Port Opening (JTF-PO) which provides a unique capability to open airfields and seaports within 48 hours of a phone call from a combatant command. For the first time in history, we had two JTF-POs deployed at the same time during Operation United Assistance. This capability was enhanced with two Defense Logistics Agency deployable depot expeditionary teams that forward deployed to begin preparation for the flow of sustainment supplies.

African Defense/April 2016

Vechery: This is absolutely a true success story, but AFRICOM cannot take the credit for this achievement as the real heroes here is our Army component, United States Army Africa. I would respectfully defer to them to provide information on this security force assistance accomplishment. African Defense: The African Standby Forces that are coming together have established a logistics base. Was any assistance requested from AFRICOM in developing that complex?

Vechery: As mentioned a few minutes ago, the continental logistics base is the number two logistics priority for the African Union coming out of the Africa Logistics Forum. We did participate in an initial operational assessment last November to support development of the CLB in Douala, Cameroon. We plan to participate with other partner organizations in future assessments to support the African Union in this key capability area. African Defense: Is there any interest in Africa for shared capacity arrangements much like the NATO Strategic Airlift Capability? Have there ever been such conversations that you are aware of? Vechery: Yes, as mentioned above this is the number one priority for the African Union and great progress has been made as they were able to stand up an initial operational capability prior to exercise Amani Africa II. This was very successful, but I defer to the African Union and our European Union partners who deserve the real credit for making such huge strides to develop processes enhancing strategic lift capability and capacity on the continent.

Space Solutions for the Defense, Aeronautic and Maritime Sector

The South African National Space Agency supports the South African National Defence Forces across the spectrum strategic needs. The Space Science Directorate of the South African National Space Agency (SANSA) is a prototypical “back room” organisation that is hardly known or noticed by soldiers but critical to effective operations and, indeed, also to the ability of civilian aviators and mariners to go about their business safely. Key elements of any military operation are knowing where you are and where you are going, and being able to communicate. The former requires magnetic compasses and regular updating of maps and charts to take into account changing magnetic inclination and declination. The latter requires effective radio communications and, in a large theatre, high frequency (HF) communications in particular—which can be affected by “space weather”—must be taken into account when planning communications for an operation. SANSA’s Hermanus facility supports the South African National Defence Force, as well as other clients, in both respects. zxxxx Magnetic Technology The earth’s magnetic field is a key factor for accurate navigation and long-range weapons delivery, and is unfortunately not a static, unchanging phenomenon. SANSA

provides an annual update of magnetic inclination and declination to enable charts and maps to be updated. Magnetism is also relevant in other respects, the most obvious being the integration and calibration of magnetic compasses and other equipment with dynamic platforms such as aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), ships or combat vehicles. The magnetic signature of a platform can also be a critical factor, for instance a war-

ship transiting potentially mined waters, as well as landmines or improvised explosive devices that use a magnetic sensor as a trigger or selective trigger. SANSA assists the SANDF and the defence industry with identification and calibration of the magnetic signature of aircraft, UAVs and other dynamic platforms prior to magnetic sensors being integrated with these platforms, as well as carrying out calibration and evaluation of systems containing magnetometers, and conducting magnetic field measurements and management. zxxxx Not Just a Patch of Grass

By Catherine Webster 24

To the untrained eye, it is a patch of grassland next to an airport. For SANSA’s specialists and the airline industry, it is the site for a vital tool for the calibration of aircraft compasses.

African Defense/April 2016

Known as a compass swing base, these approximately 100 m diameter patches of flat veld covered by concrete are located near all major airports in South Africa and help to keep thousands of aircraft on track every month. South Africa’s 11 certified compass swing bases are built and surveyed by the Applied Science and Technology unit at SANSA in Hermanus. SANSA assists the SAAF with compass swinging, training staff in compass swing procedures, calibration and maintenance of compasses, magnetic navigation ground support and geomagnetic data and field modelling. These services are also available to the civil aviation industry.

weather operational service to government, industry and the public. The centre conducts real-time monitoring and forecasting of space weather and provides a range of services to the Defence Force and other clients. Among them: • T-Index predictions: the ionospheric index that indicates the highest frequencies that will be reflected, a critical input for HF propagation software and communications planning. • Solar activity and geomagnetic activity indices for frequency prediction. • Daily and weekly HF prediction graphs for different signal paths, special frequency prediction and plots of signal-to-noise

ratios, take-off angles and maximum useable frequencies versus time. • Daily space weather bulletins. • Space weather warnings and alerts The Space Weather Centre also presents training courses addressing the impact of space weather on HF communications and trains users on how to generate frequency predictions themselves. For more information see www.sansa.org.za or contact spacesci-info@sansa.org.za Catherine Webster is a communications practitioner with SANSA Space Science.

zxxxx Weather in Space Space weather is described as events on the Sun and in the interplanetary space that affect technologies on Earth and in space. While space weather has influenced the Earth throughout its history, the impacts on climate and modern technological infrastructures are still poorly understood. Due to the increasingly interconnected and interdependent technological systems operating in space, on aircraft and on the ground, space weather can negatively impact numerous sectors, leading to a cascade of operational failures. Research has shown that the defence, communications, navigation, aviation, and energy sectors are most vulnerable to space weather effects. Adverse space weather can impact systems such as power grids, high frequency radio communication, GPS, mobile telephones, satellites, avionics, aircraft navigation and communication systems. Space weather monitoring is essential for the improved understanding and forewarning of solar events that could lead to severe space weather on Earth. Although impending space weather cannot be halted, constant monitoring allows for industries that may be affected to go on standby and provides important scientific information to utilise in making necessary decisions. SANSA operates the Space Weather Regional Warning Centre for Africa, under the International Space Environment Service (ISES), which aims to coordinate global space weather activities. The SANSA Space Weather Centre was established in 2010 with the mandate to develop space weather capabilities within South Africa, improve the understanding and awareness of space weather within Africa and provide a space

African Defense/April 2016

AMISOM: African Union Mission to Somalia

By Opiyo Oloya, PhD

The new peacemaking model for Africa

“The African Union (AU) mission to Somalia is likely DOA ‘dead on arrival’ for reasons beyond the control of well-meaning African countries like Uganda and Burundi that have pledged troops to help stabilize the impoverished nation racked by 15 years of vicious factional warfare.” I penned that brutal assessment in a newspaper article on February 20, 2007, in response to news that the United Nations Security Council had authorized an African peacekeeping mission to Somalia. The pessimistically scathing article, which appeared in the New Vision newspaper in Uganda, came two weeks before the first troops from Uganda set foot in Somalia on the morning of March 6, 2007. While I turned to other issues, the troops never forgot my dire prediction that they would perish on arrival in Mogadishu. Three and half years later, in August 2010, AMISOM commanders invited me to Mogadishu to remind me that not only did the mission survive that first day in Mogadishu, but made gains confronting the insurgency in Mogadishu. So, with egg on my face, I began researching why my prediction fell flat. The result of that effort is contained in my new book, Black Hawks Rising (Helion & Company Publisher, UK, April 2016). In it, I follow the background politics that led to the formation of AMISOM, and how AMISOM transformed what I imagined would be a disaster into, arguably, the most successful African-led mission in the history of conflict interventions on continental Africa. Understandably, hindsight negatively influenced my view on how AMISOM would fare in Somalia. One of the factors that caused the catastrophic failure of the US-led United Task Force (UNITAF), later replaced by United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM II) mission in 19931995 was the lack of clarity of the mission. Ostensibly a humanitarian mission to help clear the path for food aid to reach starving Somali people in the countryside, UNOSOM II soon morphed into a peacemaking agenda requiring international troops to

African Defense/April 2016

disarm various Somali militias, the largest led by General Faraah Aidid. The inevitable clashes pitted international troops against Somalia militias. The Somali militias won. For AMISOM to succeed where others failed, it was critical that from the outset the goal of the mission was crystal clear to everyone at the UN and AU, and from the top commanders to the lowest rank and file. What exactly was the mission supposed to accomplish? For its part, the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1744 of February 20, 2007, unanimously mandated AMISOM under Chapter 7 with the authority to “take all measures, as appropriate, to carry out support for dialogue and reconciliation by assisting with the free movement, safe passage and protection of all those involved in a national reconciliation congress involving all stakeholders, including political leaders, clan leaders, religious leaders and representatives of civil society.” Yes, the mission could use force, but left unclear were the circumstances of when. As I wrote then, “What are the multinational [African] troops supposed to do once bullets start flying from all sides?” Already, even in those early days, Ethiopian National Defence Forces (ENDF) were taking a lot of fire from the insurgents that seemed to sprout overnight after the ENDF entered Mogadishu in December 2006. Indeed, mortar shells fired by insurgents rudely interrupted the welcome ceremony for AMISOM troops at Aden Abdulle Airport on March 6. Under the prevailing conditions of extreme hostility, dialogue between the various Somali groups was not possible. From March 2007 to early 2009, even as it took almost daily fire from insurgents, AMISOM troops were mostly content with remaining bunkered in the immediate vicinity of Aden Abdulle Airport, Mogadishu Seaport, Kilometer 4 (KM-4) junction at the city center, and the presidential palace at Villa Somalia. AMISOM spokesman at the time, Major Barigye Ba-Hoku perfectly encapsulated the stay-out-of-trouble unwritten rule of engagement (ROE), explaining that

“insurgents could have a party in front of our gate and we couldn’t do anything unless they attacked us first.” With the appointment of General Nathan Mugisha as force commander in April 2009, however, AMISOM began to actively transform into a peacemaking mission. Mugisha, a veteran of Uganda’s bush war against the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), believed in creating “breathing space” for the mission to carry out its mandate and, accordingly, interpreted UNSC 1744 more generously in favor of taking pre-emptive military initiatives against the insurgents. The twin bombing of AMISOM’s base at Halaane on September 17, 2009, that killed 17 soldiers including Burundi’s Major General Juvenal Niyoyunguruza, was a key turning point for the mission. From what was mostly seen as a classic peacekeeping mission, with troops rattling around in white vehicles, trying to secure agreements among the warring Somali parties without themselves getting drawn into the conflict, the AU troops confronted the insurgents, actively controlling the environment in Mogadishu. In August 2010 al-Shabaab launched the Ramadan offensive meant to push AMISOM out of the city altogether. Instead, the African troops took the fight to the insurgents, wresting away key areas of Mogadishu, forcing al-Shabaab to withdraw from Mogadishu in the early morning of August 6, 2011. Shortly after, the campaign was launched to expand the area of control to the rest of Somalia beginning September 2011 to September 2014. There were other factors at play that gave AMISOM a fighting chance, setting it for success rather than utter failure. The responsive and flexible international support, notably from the US, European Union and the UN, was a huge boost. Unlike other African-led missions, AMISOM was not hobbled by lack of resources and equipment. On May 26, 2009, the Security Council took the boldest step by passing resolution 1872 which guaranteed a logistical support package of equipment and services

Opiyo Oloya, PhD Born and raised in Gulu in northern Uganda, Opiyo Oloya is an educator, researcher and published author. He completed his BA Hons and Bachelor of Education at Queen’s University, Kingston; M.ED at University of Ottawa and PhD at York University. His book, Child to Soldier, was the culmination of research conducted among Acholi children abducted by the LRA in northern Uganda.

for the mission, and encouraged members to contribute to the United Nations Trust Fund for AMISOM. The funds and corollary support were to be administered by the UN Support Office for AMISOM based, at first, in Nairobi and subsequently moved to Mogadishu. It was the boost AMISOM needed to transform into a robust force capable of taking on al-Shabaab. The United States, a powerful member of the UN Security Council, meanwhile was an unrelenting cheerleader and lobbyist for AMISOM. Although no fan of big UN-style peacekeeping that tended to balloon in cost overruns, the US was decidedly in support of AMISOM from the beginning. Presumably, the administration of President George W. Bush felt partly responsible for the Somali debacle following the Ethiopian invasion, which it supported. Whatever the motivation, the US State Department guided many of the Security Council resolutions on AMISOM, steering debates in different fora including the International Contact Group to round up support and resources for the mission from reluctant or indifferent members. Where fierce US opposition doomed AMISOM’s predecessor, the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development Peace Support Mission to Somalia in 2005, now American support was the crucial ingredient for the success of AMISOM. Furthermore, when it came to supporting AMISOM, the AU, too, showed signs of renewed energy. The Peace and Security Council, a little known AU department, was instrumental in developing AMISOM and, in turn, showcasing the capabilities to pull together the experiences, skills and expertise required to manage and support a peace mission of this magnitude. Under the leadership of Algerian diplomat Said Djinnit, the department oversaw the creation and deployment of AMISOM in 2007. On March

6, 2007, the first day AMISOM deployed to Somalia, Ambassador Djinnit brimmed with optimism as he welcomed into his office in Addis Ababa, Somalia representative to the AU, Abdikarin Farah, for the signing of the status of mission agreement. Djinnit expressed confidence that other AU members would step forward quickly to contribute troops to support the mission. While that did not happen by the time Djinnit departed from the role a year later, it did not stop his successors from working to increase support for the mission. Djinnit’s successor Ambassador Ramtane Lamamra, also an Algerian oversaw AMISOM’s transformation from a benign peacekeeping mission to a robust and lethal peacemaking forces that took on Somali insurgents. Under Ambassador Lamamra’s five-year leadership, the AU Peace and Security Council grew into a finely tuned bureaucracy making quick decisions at short notice, pulling together various stakeholders and troops contributing countries under one roof in Addis Ababa, writing critical reports on AMISOM’s progress in the field, liaising with various AU members, and keeping connected with the all-important United Nations Security Council on whose directives AMISOM was being funded and provided the resources it needed to do its work. On October 12, 2013 in Addis Ababa, following his appointment as the Foreign Minister of Algeria on 11 September 2013, Ambassador Lamamra was succeeded by, yet another Algerian, Ambassador Smail Chergui. At the helm Ambassador Chergui supported AMISOM’s coordination of and training of Somali troops and police. Perhaps one of the least acknowledged factors that contributed to the success of the AMISOM mission was the quality of the leadership that Uganda People’s Defence Forces (UPDF) provided in laying the foundation for the later stages of the campaign to defeat the insurgents. Troops from Uganda were mostly experienced veterans of the war in northern Uganda and, in some cases, were fresh off combat with the LRA. Although, at first, handicapped by restrictive rules of engagement, Uganda troops were not afraid to engage the insurgents. Following the lead of Uganda troops, Burundi troops began to fashion their own unique way of countering the attacks. More importantly, with its emphasis of reaching the mind and hearts of the Somali population, Ugandan troops set the doctrinal tone for troops from other

nations. An anecdotal story that grew into a myth occurred on the fourth day after the UPDF landed in Mogadishu. Commanders of Ugandan troops were confronted with a dilemma—what to do with a civilian child stricken with cholera, and brought into the army base for treatment. The UN and AU rule forbade use of medicine meant for troops to treat civilians. In the end, the commanders fell back on their training that demanded that civilians get the same care as troops. The child was treated and, when his family returned home with the cured child, news spread and, the next morning, hordes of Mogadishu sick invaded AMISOM camp. Ugandan senior commanders decided to open an outpatient clinic for civilians that, in time, treated patients from all over Somalia. Obviously, the humanitarian gestures shown by AMISOM bought huge goodwill from the population that began providing valuable human intelligence on the activities of the insurgents. AMISOM-run clinics became part of the military campaign to defeat the insurgents, treating new patients in every town that fell under the control of the continental force. But there were many painful setbacks. Some of the high casualties that AMISOM absorbed in recent months, for example, were avoidable. The attacks on Burundi troops in Leego on June 26, 2015, on Uganda troops in Janaale on September 3, 2015 and on Kenyan troops based at El Adde on January 15, 2016 followed the same pattern—an early dawn suicide explosion at the gate to the AU detachment, followed by insurgent fighters swarming over the perimeter. In Leego, Burundi troops were performing early morning worship when the attack began, catching many without weapons. Despite these setbacks, the many visits over the years to Somalia to research Black Hawks Rising, convinced me that with time, skills, experience, commitment and resources, AMISOM is mostly successful. As a template on which to model future continental, even global peacemaking missions, AMISOM offers enormous learning opportunity. Over time, supported by committed UN leadership, the firm support of international partners including the EU, AU and permanent members of UNSC like the US, and the strong leadership of the commanders and troops on the ground, the mission evolved, bringing clarity to what needed to be accomplished. Somalia is a much better place today than it was in March 2007.

African Defense/April 2016

UN Conventional Arms Registry

2014, from jets, tanks, missiles and small armsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Who were Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s known suppliers of weapons?

Importer Exporter Algeria Bulgaria Algeria Bulgaria Algeria Bulgaria Algeria Bulgaria Algeria Germany Algeria Italy Algeria Italy Algeria Serbia Algeria Serbia Algeria Ukraine

Weapon Quantity Light machine gun 117 12.7 mm heavy machine gun 55 23 mm heavy machine gun 17 Under barrel grenade launcher 135 TPz Fuchs armored vehicle 32 Pistol 28,500 Rifle/carbine 495 Small arms (other) 2,190 Small arms (other) 34 R-27 missile 18

Angola Angola Angola Angola Angola Angola Angola Angola Angola Angola Angola

Bulgaria MTLB armored vehicle Bulgaria Assault rifle Bulgaria Light machine gun Bulgaria 23 mm heavy machine gun Bulgaria RPG-7 Bulgaria Under barrel grenade launcher Portugal Pistol Portugal Rifle/carbine Serbia Light machine gun Serbia Small arms (other) Slovakia Pistol

8 10,000 2000 20 1,000 1,000 25 56 35,050 200 500

Botswana Botswana

UK UK

Rifle/carbine Grenade launcher

1 28

Burkina Faso Serbia Burkina Faso Turkey

Pistol Pistol

200 2,355

Burundi Burundi

Bulgaria Serbia

Automatic grenade launcher Recoilless rifle

50 8

Cameroon Cameroon Cameroon

Serbia Serbia Serbia

Light machine gun Light machine gun Grenade launcher

17,810 1,628 500

Cape Verde Cape Verde Cape Verde

Canada Portugal Portugal

Assault rifle Pistol Rifle/carbine

12 13 7

Importer Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt

Exporter Serbia Serbia Serbia Serbia Serbia Serbia UK US US US

Weapon Quantity Light machine gun 5,180 Small arms (other) 105 Light machine gun 598 Grenade launcher 802 Mortar (smaller than 75 mm) 60 Small arms (other) 39,231 Jeep J8 (demo) 1 M1A1 tank 5 AH-64D attack helicopter 10 Rolling airframe missile 139

Equatorial Guinea

Slovakia

Small arms (other)

Ghana Ghana

Hungary Hungary

Assault rifle SG 553 737 Under barrel grenade launcher 72

Kenya Czech Rep. Pistol Kenya Czech Rep. Assault rifle Kenya Greece Rifle/carbine G3A3 Kenya Italy Pistol Kenya Italy Rifle/carbine Kenya Serbia 155mm M03 artillery gun Kenya Serbia Light machine gun Kenya Serbia Recoilless rifle Kenya Serbia Small arms (other) Kenya Switzerland Rifle/carbine Kenya Turkey Pistol Kenya UK Pistol Kenya UK Rifle/carbine Kenya UK Small arms (other) Kenya UK Small arms (other) Kenya UK Assault rifle Kenya UK Light machine gun Kenya UK Grenade launcher Kenya US Bell 212 attack helicopter

2 3 5 112 65 6 2 2 1 10 51 87 102 150 361 1,254 3 1 1

Libya Turkey Pistol

4,504 190 200 1,050 2,200

CAR Serbia Pistol

Chad

MiG-29

Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar

Comoros UK Comoros UK Comoros UK Comoros UK Comoros UK

Pistol Rifle/carbine Shotgun Small arms (other) Assault rifle

220 200 600 600 3,000

Malawi Bulgaria 81 mm mortar Malawi Bulgaria RPG-7 Malawi Bulgaria 60 mm mortar Malawi Serbia Pistol Malawi Serbia Light machine gun

8 10 9 10 20

Democratic Rep. Congo DRC DRC DRC

Pistol Submachine gun Assault rifle Light machine gun

2 1 2 1

Mali Mali Mali Mali Mali Mali Mali

Germany Submachine gun Germany Assault rifle Italy Rifle/carbine Poland Missiles/missile launcher Serbia Pistol Serbia Light machine gun Slovakia Light machine gun

25 110 40 24 3 3 100

Mauritius Mauritius Mauritius Mauritius

Italy UK UK UK

Rifle/carbine Rifle/carbine Small arms (other) Assault rifle

13 500 850 2,000

Morocco Italy Morocco Italy Morocco UK

Pistol Rifle/carbine Small arms (other)

803 2,989 2

Mozambique Portugal Mozambique Portugal

Rifle/carbine Pistol

2 1

Ukraine

Ukraine Ukraine Ukraine Ukraine

Egypt Bulgaria Submachine gun Egypt Bulgaria Assault rifles Egypt Bulgaria Light machine gun Egypt Bulgaria Under barrel grenade launcher Egypt Czech Rep. Pistol Egypt Czech Rep. Rifle/carbine Egypt Czech Rep. Assault rifle Egypt Czech Rep. Under barrel grenade launcher Egypt Italy Pistol Egypt Italy Rifle/carbine Egypt Italy Assault rifle Egypt Serbia Pistol Egypt Serbia Light machine gun

African Defense/April 2016

21 10,500 300 100 29,005 2 8 2 30,001 4,000 3,185 57,552 5,180

UK UK UK UK

Pistol Rifle/carbine Small arms (other) Assault rifle

Importer Exporter Namibia Czech Rep. Namibia Finland Namibia Italy Namibia Italy Namibia UK

Weapon Quantity Pistol 350 Sniper rifle 6 Pistol 65 Rifle/carbine 40 Small arms (other) 2

Netherlands South Africa Rifle/carbine

Nigeria Nigeria Nigeria Nigeria Nigeria Nigeria Nigeria Nigeria

Assault rifle armored vehicle Assault rifle Assault rifle T-72 tank BTR-4EN armored vehicle D-30 artillery gun Mi-24V attack helicopter

3,000 8 1,006 4 12 10 6 2

Pistol

Rifle/carbine

Bulgaria Czech Rep. Poland UK Ukraine Ukraine Ukraine Ukraine

Sao Tome and Principe Portugal Sao Tome and Principe Portugal

Senegal Bulgaria 120 mm mortar Senegal Bulgaria Pistols Senegal Bulgaria Rifles/carbines Senegal Bulgaria Assault rifle

8 50 10 50

Serbia

South Africa Under barrel grenade launcher 10

Seychelles Seychelles

Serbia UK

Light machine gun Assault rifle

16 6

Somalia

Slovakia

Assault rifle

3,210

South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa

Canada Croatia Czech Rep. Czech Rep. Finland Germany Italy Italy Portugal Serbia Serbia Slovakia Turkey Turkey UK UK UK UK UK UK UK

Assault rifle Pistol Rifle/carbine Assault rifle Sniper rifle Submachine gun Pistol Rifle/carbine Rifle/carbine Rifle/carbine Submachine gun Pistol Pistol Under barrel grenade launcher Pistol Rifle/carbine Small arms (other) Submachine gun Assault rifle Light machine gun Grenade launcher

304 250 94 10 131 5 1,017 2,286 640 20 70 77 2,690 1 783 1,000 1,000 1 6,703 1 1

South Sudan Ukraine South Sudan Ukraine

Light machine gun Heavy machine gun

830 62

Sudan Sudan

Mi-8 attack helicopter Mi-24R attack helicopter

2 1

Pistol Rifle/carbine Rifle/carbine Pistol

303 3 1 300

Belarus Belarus

Tanzania Italy Tanzania Italy Tanzania Netherlands Tanzania Turkey

Tunisia Croatia Pistol Tunisia Czech Rep. Small arms (other) Tunisia Italy Pistol Tunisia Italy Rifle/carbine Tunisia Turkey Pistol

1,000 2 7 283 4

Uganda Uganda Uganda Uganda

Assault rifle Light machine gun Light machine gun Submachine gun

10,000 500 100 3,000

Pistol Rifle/carbine Pistol Rifle/carbine Small arms (other)

31 35 30 2 2

Bulgaria Serbia Slovakia Ukraine

Zambia Italy Zambia Italy Zambia Turkey Zambia UK Zambia UK

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