Group Masterpaper. CaMau Vietnam Project

Green city, Ca Mau, vietnam 2013 Chien Trinh Dinh - José Higuera Osorio - Victoria Petrovsky Dorien Pelst - Thomas Lenaerts - Sam Khabir Mario Auricchio - Kobe Pillen - Anne-Michèle Zeevaert

MaHS-Mausp 2012-2013

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A written permission of the promotor is also required to use the methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and ]fi jlYd`kk`e^ k_`j glYc`ZXk`fe `e jZ`\ek`ÑZ contests.

All images in this booklet are, unless credits are given, made or drawn by the author.

Green city, Ca Mau, vietnam 2013 Chien Trinh Dinh - José Higuera Osorio - Victoria Petrovsky Dorien Pelst - Thomas Lenaerts - Sam Khabir Mario Auricchio - Kobe Pillen - Anne-Michèle Zeevaert

MaHS-Mausp 2012-2013

“Landscape is a medium, it has been recalled by Corner, Allen, and others, uniquely capable of responding to temporal change, transformation, adaptation, and succession .. These qualities recommend landscape as an analog to contemporary processes of urbanization and as a medium uniquely suited to the open-endedness, indeterminacy, and change demanded by contemporary urban conditions .. As Allen puts it, “landscape is not only a formal model for urbanism today, but perhaps more importantly, a model for process.”” (WALDHEIM, 2006) (1)

BETWEEN TWO TIDES

4

BETWEEN TWO WATERS

14

BETWEEN TWO INFRASTRUCTURES

24

(1) WALDHEIM, C. (ed.)., The landscape urbanism reader, New York : Princeton architectural press, 2006, p.39

between two tides “Water, water, every where, And all the boards did shrink; Water, water, every where, Nor any drop to drink...”

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772- 1834)

The primary idea of the XL scale green city is how the green (vegetal) structures and the aquacultural (farming) production in the territory can be used to help to structure the modernization process in order to achieve a more resilient Cà Mau able to face the imminent sea level rise ensuring food security and livability in the whole region.

4

5

[Ca Mau peninsula. From (15).]

urban sprawl around the cities.

The consequences in the Ca Mau region have been highly challenging, with the succession of productive landscape characterized by the move from rice cultivation and small scale aquaculture production (with a minor presence of orchards) to an economy based mainly in brackish-water shrimp monoaquaculture (3). This switch has led shrimp kf klie `ekf X m`kXc Zfddf[`kp2 Y\e\Ñkj f] which include higher incomes per hectare, jki\e^k_\e`e^ f] k_\ jkXk\ ÑeXeZ`Xc ZXgXZ`kp to invest and the inclusion in global clusters of production. However, the cultivation of shrimp has been increasingly threatened by the very detriments arising from it. Inland conversion of land to intensive farming shrimp ponds has contributed to surface and ground water pollution due to the use of relatively large amount of feed, pesticides and antibiotics (4); loss of mangle ecosystem due to the increments in mangrove forest to change its land use into a more ÅgifÑkXYc\Æ ]leZk`fe * 2 jXc`e\ `ekilj`fe into sweet water-cultivated landscape due to the increment of shrimp farming areas thanks to the Vietnamese governmental resolution 09/NQ-CP (5); oxidation of potential acid sulphate soils, due to the

( Le`k\[ EXk`fej# ÅNfic[ LiYXe`qXk`fe Gifjg\Zkj1 K_\ )'(( I\m`j`feÆ% N\Y _kkg1&&\jX%le%fi^&lelg `e Ale\ ,# )'(*% (2) Nfic[ 9Xeb% N\Y _kkg1&&[XkX%nfic[YXeb%fi^ `e Ale\ , )'(*% (3) BINH, T.N.K.D., VROMANT, Nico, THANH HUNG, Nguyen, HENS, Luc, BOON, E.K, “Land Cover Changes between 1968 and 2003 in Cai Nuoc, Ca DXl G\e`ejlcX# M`\keXdÆ# `e <em`ifed\ek# ;\m\cfgd\ek Xe[ JljkX`eXY`c`kp# Mfc% .# gg% ,(0Ã,*-# )'',% + G?8D K_` 8e_ # BIF<Q<# :Xifc`\e# 9LJ?# J`dfe I%# DFC# 8ik_li G%A%# ÅNXk\i gfcclk`fe Yp `ek\ej`m\ YiXZb`j_ j_i`dg ]Xid`e^ `e jflk_$\Xjk M`\keXd1 :Xlj\j Xe[ fgk`fej ]fi ZfekifcÆ# `e 8^i`ZlckliXc NXk\i DXeX^\d\ek 0.# gg% /.)Ã//)# )'('% (5) HENS, Luc, VROMANT, Nico, THO, Nguyen, HUNG, Nguyen Thanh, “Salination of surface water, groundwater, and soils in the shrimp farming Xi\Xj f] k_\ ZfXjkXc :X` ElfZ [`jki`Zk# Jflk_ M`\keXdÆ# `e @ek\ieXk`feXc AflieXc f] <em`ifed\ekXc Jkl[`\j# Mfc% --# Ef% (# gg% -0Ã/(# )''0% - D@E?# C%H%# KLFE># K%G%# M8E D<EJMFFIK# D%<%=%# 9FLD8 A%# Å:fekXd`eXk`fe f] jli]XZ\ nXk\i Xj X]]\Zk\[ Yp cXe[ lj\ `e XZ`[ jlcg_Xk\ jf`cj `e k_\ D\bfe^ I`m\i ;\ckX# M`\keXdÆ# `e 8^i`Zlckli\# <Zfjpjk\dj Xe[ <em`ifed\ek -(# gg% (0$).# (00.% . C<9<C# Cfl`j# ?F8E> KI@# E^lp\e# J8<E>EFI<<# 8delXp# G8JFE># JlgXiY# 9L8K8D8# LiXjX# K?F8# C\ B`d# Å@e[ljki`Xc KiXej]fidXk`fe Xe[ J_i`dg 8hlXZlckli\ `e K_X`cXe[ Xe[ M`\keXd1 GXk_nXpj kf <Zfcf^`ZXc# JfZ`Xc# Xe[ <Zfefd`Z JljkX`eXY`c`kp6Æ `e 8dY`f *( + # gg% *(($*)*# 2002.

(8) COULTHART, Alan, QUANG, Nguyen, SHARPE, Henry, “Urban Development Strategy. Meeting the challenges of rapid urbanization and the kiXej`k`fe kf X dXib\k fi`\ek\[ \ZfefdpÆ# )''-% N\Y _kkg1&&j`k\i\jfliZ\j%nfic[YXeb%fi^&@EK<8G@E=I8JKIL:K&I\jfliZ\j&LiYXe%g[] `e DXp 12 2013.

0 :X DXl n\Yj`k\% Å:fe^ K_fe^ K`e ;`\e Kl% K`e_ :X DXl%Æ N\Y _kkg1&&nnn%ZXdXl%^fm%me& `e Ale\ , )'(*% (' KI@# Mf B_XZ# Å?p[ifcf^p Xe[ ?p[iXlc`Z @e]iXjkilZkli\ Jpjk\dj `e k_\ D\bfe^ ;\ckX# M`\keXdÆ# `e I<E8L;# =XYi`Z\ >%# BL<EQ<I# :cXl[`X#

6

Soils with saline properties > 6.4g/L

2.56g/L

Acid soils with saline properties

> 6.4g/L

2.56g/L

Peat

2.5

Alluvial soils

10

25km

[Elevations of the peninsula. CHIEN, Trinh Dinh, Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

The Asian continent has been through gigantic demographic changes in the last 50 years, being one of the most drastic rates of displacement of people from villages to cities. Although Asia’s leastdeveloped countries have considerably lower levels of urbanization, these countries are urbanizing faster than the overall Asian rate. In the Vietnam case, the percentage of urban population in the country was 30.4% in 2010, being 44.1% for the south eastern of Asia. While the overall urban population of this region will grow by 2.38% per year between 2010 and 2015, the urban population in Vietnam will grow 3.26% in the same period of time (1).

After the implementation of the Doi Moi gfc`Zp# n_`Z_ nXj f]ÑZ`Xccp X[fgk\[ `e December 1986 this country has become the second economy in the region; leaded by the People's Republic of China (2). This has brought several consequences to the whole country, which is facing a rapid process of transformation from a traditional to a modern globalized society, leading to a fast urbanization never seen before and transforming the society from a water- based network to a roadbased network with the corresponding

[Saline and Acid Sulphate Soils of the peninsula. CHIEN, Trinh Dinh, Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

INTRODUCTION AND CHALLENGES

0

Worlds biggest delta areas

5000 km

[Delta areas in the world. From (13).]

20

10

10

7

[General vision of Ca Mau peninsula. PETROVSKY, Victoria, Cรก Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013. ]

nh

On g

r Ga

Riv er

Hao r Rive Do Dam i

ap

yH r Ba

Rive

n a Lo

r Cu

Rive

Mangrove > 70%

Melaleuca < 30%

SLR +65cm

Maximum annual average erosion distance in bank +70cm

10m

5m

3 - 5m

1 - 2m

0.5 - 1m

R<o`jk`e^ ^i\\e jkilZkli\j Xe[ Òff[`e^ dXg `e :X DXl g\e`ejlcX% CHIEN, Trinh Dinh, Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

Ta u

[Evolution of green structures in Ca Mau peninsula. CHIEN, Trinh Dinh, Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

Ca i

Do c

Riv er

Rive

8

m Tre

<[% ÅK_\ D\bfe^ ;\ckX Jpjk\d% @ek\i[`jZ`gc`eXip 8eXcpj\j f] X I`m\i ;\ckXÆ# Jgi`e^\i <em`ifed\ekXc JZ`\eZ\ Xe[ <e^`e\\i`e^# )'()% (( J@NII$ Jflk_\ie @ejk`klk\ ]fi NXk\i I\jfliZ\j GcXee`e^# Å:c`dXk\ :_Xe^\ JZ\eXi`fj% 8jj\jjd\ek ]fi :X DXl Gifm`eZ\% K\Z_e`ZXc I\gfikÆ# )''/% N\Y _kkg1&&XnjXjj\kj%gXe[X%fi^&[fnecfX[j&m`\keXdV]lccVÑeXcVi\gfik%g[] `e DXp ) )'(*% () K?F ?LE># E^f# Å;`jki`Zk 9Xj\[ :c`dXk\ :_Xe^\ 8jj\jjd\ek Xe[ 8[XgkXk`fe D\Xjli\ ]fi 8^i`Zlckli\ `e :X DXl# M`\keXdÆ# @ejk`klk\ f] D\teorology, Hydrology and Environment, Hanoi, Vietnam, APEC Climate Center, 2012. (* BFEE@E>J# M\iX# Å:Xe K_f# ?fn Kf >ifn6 =cff[ giff] \ogXej`fe `e iXg`[cp liYXe`j`e^ [\ckX Z`k`\j `e k_\ D\bfe^ [\ckX $ k_\ ZXj\ f] :Xe K_fÆ# graduation thesis, TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Urbanism, Graduation Studio Delta Interventions, 2012.

(14) I<E8L;# =XYi`Z\ ># BL<EQ<I# :cXl[`X <[% # ÅK_\ D\bfe^ ;\ckX Jpjk\d% @ek\i[`jZ`gc`eXip 8eXcpj\j f] X I`m\i ;\ckXÆ# Jgi`e^\i JZ`\eZ\"9lj`e\jj Media Dordrecht, 2012.

(15) http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/iotd.html in May 18 2013.

(16) Å>cfYXc J\X C\m\c I`j\ JZ\eXi`fj ]fi k_\ Le`k\[ JkXk\j EXk`feXc :c`dXk\ 8jj\jjd\ekÆ# EF88# )'()% (. HL8E> KI@<L# ?Xp# Å9Xeb <ifj`fe GifZ\jj\j Xcfe^ k_\ Cfn\i D\bfe^ I`m\iÆ# G_; k_\j`j# Le`m\ij`kp f] Jflk_Xdgkfe# =XZlckp f] JfZ`Xc Xe[ Human Sciences, Geography and Environment, 2012.

m Tre

economy, with 42% of Ca Mau´s GDP and is k_\ dX`e \Zfefd`ZXc XZk`m`kp f] k_\ ., f] the population (12). The forest area of Ca Mau `j dX`ecp dXe^ifm\ ]fi\jk //.*/ _X Xe[ melaleuca forest (56900 ha) (11). Mangrove forest is used mainly as a protective system within 1 Km wide coastal belt in the South East and Southern coasts. On the west coast, approximately 2200 ha of new mangrove are missing and should be planted to close the gaps where was previously present and to complete the belt (12).

According with SIWRR- Southern Institute for Water Resources Planning of Vietnam, this complex interaction between two k`[Xc jpjk\dj# kf^\k_\i n`k_ k_\ ÒXk geomorphology of the peninsula, causes the following situations related with the nXk\i cf^`Zj1 8 mXjk Xe[ \ok\e[\[ Òff[ regime driven by the south monsoon (MaySeptember), strong winds and cyclones that can inundate dike routes, residential and agricultural areas, erode banks and contaminate drainage; shortages of fresh water and salinity intrusion from the sea in dry season; Acid Sulphate Soils (ASS) that can produce highly acidic waters in the beginning of the rainy season; drought and increased sediment loadings due to deforestation (11).

er Riv

soil leaching and other cultural practices in the commonly present acid soils that c\X[j kf k_\ XZ`[`ÑZXk`fe f] nXk\i dXb`e^ it unsuitable for domestic purposes (6); and it has led to the rapid and chaotic growth of the urban area of the city as n\cc k_\ g\i`liYXe Xe[ iliXc Xi\Xj .2 / % The province of Ca Mau is a low coastal region in the southern area of Vietnam. It is surrounded by the Gulf of Thailand at the west and by the East Sea, with an area of 5294 Km2, a population of 1214900 people with a density of 229 people/ Km2 (9). Its freshwater sources are by precipitation, le[\i^ifle[ Xhl`]\ij Xe[ jli]XZ\ Òfnj from the Bassac River. With a coastline of (.' Bd cfe^# `k `j `eÒl\eZ\[ Yp knf [`]]\i\ek tidal regimes that drive the saline intrusion into the main canal and creek system mainly through My Thanh, Ganh Hao Rivers from the East Sea and through Song Doc, Cai Lon, Cai Be Rivers and the canals from the West Sea (10). The semidiurnal tidal range of the East Sea in high tide can reach amplitude ranges from 3- 3.5 m. while during low tides varies from 1.8- 2.2 m. The irregular diurnal West Sea tide reaches amplitudes of 0.8 m. approximately (11).

The recent growth Ca Mau´s economy between 2001- 2010 has been about 12%, which is stronger than the previous period (1996- 2000, 8%). The agricultural sector is the most important of the local

Riverine

Peat

Marsh

Basin

[Ecologies of Mangrove areas of Ca Mau peninsula. PETROVSKY, Victoria, Cรก Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013. ]

Fringe

Mangrove marsh

cR

sa

s Ba r

ive

[Dams in the Mekong River. From (14)]

20

10

10

RD\bfe^ I`m\i gifร c\% =ifd (. T

[Geomorphology of Ca Mau peninsula. PETROVSKY, Victoria, Cรก Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013]

9

Sediment trap fence 3 m = 40 pole size 4

TYPE 1

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

STRATEGICAL PROJECTS

3m

TAMING THE WATER + PROTECT AND PRODUCE

(18) VAN CUONG, Chu, BROWN, Sharon (Ed.), “Coastal Rehabilitation and Mangrove Restoration using Melaleuca Fences. Practical Experience ]ifd B`\e >`Xe^ Gifm`eZ\Æ# ;\lkjZ_\ >\j\ccjZ_X]k ] i @ek\ieXk`feXc\ QljXdd\eXiY\`k >@Q >dY?# )'()%

10

Sediment trap fence TYPE 2

[Melaleuca fences design. From (18)]

3 m = 40 pole size 4 x 2 rows = 80 poles

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

4

Melaleuca Pole 4 (diameter 5 cm) Fishing net Bamboo mat Melaleuca support frame

Wave break fence

Seaward side

3m

3m 3 m = 1 pole size 5 + 40 pole size 4

5

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

0.5 m

0.5 m

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

3 m = 18 pole size 5 pushed 2 m into mud

5

Melaleuca Pole 5 (diameter 8 cm)

4

Melaleuca Pole 4 (diameter 5 cm) Melaleuca branches Fishing net Bamboo mat

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Natural Mangrove

Control

Wave break + Sediment trap

[Diversity of species behind the fences.

From (18)]

Mangroves play a key role in coastal protection against extreme natural and climatic conditions as typhoons, tsunamis, Òff[`e^# \ifj`fe gifk\Zk`fe# \kZ% K_\ ki\\j can reduce the height and velocity of incoming waves through the drag forces applied in their radicular system (19), being used as a shelterbelt along the coasts.

At the same time, Melaleuca cajaputi is a native species that grows in the south of Vietnam; it used to be very common in the whole peninsula but with scarce presence at the present time in form of few patches, mainly as a forest reserve.

This species has been used historically as a local construction material, but now is being displaced by the use of concrete.

The coastline defence is made of two different types of fences made mainly of melaleuca poles, with a less proportion of YXdYff dXkk`e^ Xe[ Ñj_ e\kk`e^2 Y\`e^ XYc\ kf i\[lZ\ j`^e`ÑZXekcp k_\ \ifj`fe and to increase the height of the soil.

This fence grants the right conditions for natural regeneration of mangrove forest.

By the time these structures disappear, the soil will be naturally consolidated thanks to the root system of the mangroves (18).

The catching rate of sediments makes the soil grow at a rate of 20 cm/year, turning about a natural growing dyke.

This system utilizes a massive amount of melaleuca wood. In 1 linear Km of coastal protection (wave break fence and sediment trap type 1) is needed 32340 melaleuca poles of 3 different diameters, resulting in a planting average of 12.93 ha per each linear Km of coastal protection. Due to the fact that for the complete construction of the required coastline defence its needs the wood produced by 2199.12 ha in just one harvest, a progressive silvicultural project must be established in order to provide enough material for the construction of the defence.

The proposed scenario shows 4 different plots (two with 150 ha and two with 200 ha) planted every one with 2 years of each fk_\i Xe[ n`k_ k_\ /k_ p\Xi f] k_\ Ñijk planting the beginning of the construction of the coastal defence. In this scenario the n_fc\ ZfXjkc`e\ gifk\Zk`fe ZXe Y\ Ñe`j_\[ *+ p\Xij cXk\i k_Xe k_\ Ñijk gcXek`e^# harvesting every 2 years from different plots using them over and over again .

Number of species

As exposed before, the Ca Mau peninsula is facing several challenges due to different physical, natural, climatic and social variables.

Taming the Water is about planting a natural dike along the coastline and in highly eroded points of rivers with k_\ lj\ f] cfZXc ÒfiX Xe[ cfZXc dXk\i`Xc as melaleuca wood with two different models of fences. These were originally developed by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH in a pilot project in the Kien Giang Province in Vietnam, started in 2010 (20). This strategy can help to deal with the expected sea level rise and climatic oscillations and extremes in the water regime, the management of ASS areas, mangrove and melaleuca reforestation, etc.

5

. min

2 m. min

2m High tide

Seedling pioneer species

1 m. aprox.

Seedling secondary species

YEAR 1 20 cm/ year aprox.

High tide

YEAR 5

High tide

SEDIMENT TRAP 1

[River protection proposal. HIGUERA, Afj # Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

WAVE BREAK

song doc river

Tidal level

Sulfuric horizon 50- 70 cm

uric horizon 70 cm

ORCHARD AND DWELLING

SONG DOC RIVER

MANGROVES

MANGROVES

Rhizophora apiculata + Avicennia alba (P)

Avicennia alba (P)

Avicennia alba (P)

Avicennia alba (P)

CANAL

ORCHARD

POND

Avicennia alba (P) +

Avicennia alba (P) + 25m

Sediment trap 2

Sediment trap 2

[River scheme. LENAERTS Thomas, Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

D

R>ifn`e^ jZ_\d\ f] jf`c Xe[ ÒfiX Y\_`e[ ZfXjkXc gifk\Zk`fe. ?@>L<I8# Afj # Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013. ]

YEAR 0

11

If the same scenario exposed previously jkXik`e^ kf gcXek `e )'(. Xe[ kf Yl`c[ in 2025) is compared with the different expected sea level rise scenarios, by the ending of the coastal defence construction around the whole Ca Mau peninsula (2056) becomes evident that the growing soil can compete with the sea level rise.

With the construction of the coastal defence can be developed several silvicultural projects in places where the presence of ASS is a problem, due to the i\c\Xj\ f] kfo`Z d\kXcj Xe[ XZ`[`ÑZXk`fe f] water. At the same time, availability of fresh water must be considered due to the fact that with the climate change, industrial planting should have plenty availability for not to depend on rainy seasons.

Protect and produce is

a combined

system in order to diversify the aquacultural production and to relieve the high pressure of the high tides.

As we know, Ca Mau is quickly moving forward to intensive shrimp farming. The specialization in one single productas an economical base is highly risky due to the fact that it becomes in a commodity tied kf k_\ dXib\k ÒlZklXk`fej Xe[ Y\ZXlj\ f] the environmental problems that brings as deforestation and water pollution. The =8F )' _Xj `[\ek`Ñ\[ j\m\iXc XhlXZlckli\ products that are suitable for brackishmangrove water with high yields in the markets. These new products can be farmed in big ponds with the combination of a shrimp –mangrove extensive farming which is suitable to have a more diversify production and is a more environmentally friendly approach; as well with the change

of Sand shrimp Metapenaeus ensis for the more resistant, productive and with higher yields in the market White prawn Penaeus indicus. The resultant material of the pond can be used to enhance the high lands as a bigger dyke and to place rain fed orchards, dwellings, etc.

As these ponds are tied to the tidal system, they can reduce the pressure of the high tides coming from the East Sea (3 m) to Ca Mau, placing these type of farming mainly `e k_\ Xi\Xj `eÒl\eZ\[ Yp k_\ >X_e ?Xf River and the Dam Doi River, which are directly connecting Ca Mau city with the East sea. With this type we can create a more resilient Ca Mau - diversifying the production, controlling the tide pressure, relieving the water pollution and enhancing the green structures.

125 100 75 50 25 Years 2

20

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

36

38

40 60 80 100 120 140 160 170 Km 180 Dike construction (Km)

Global mean sea level rise (cm above 1992) 1,2 m

120

2056 (consolidation)

2091 1m

80

0,5 m 40 Observed scenarios

0,2 m

0

-40 1900

12

Year 1950

2000

2050 2025 (construction begining)

2051 (construction ending)

2100

60

50

40

30

20

10 Crustacea

0 Natural Mangrove

Control

Wave break + Sediment trap

Bivalvia Gastropoda

[Number of species behind the fences. From (18)]

150

2

175

Individuals/m

200

[Proposed building scenario and expected sea level rise. ?@>L<I8# Afj # Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013. Partially adapted from (16)]

Planted Area (ha)

[Proposed planting/building scenario. Four plots. ?@>L<I8# Afj # Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

(0 B8K?@I<J8E# B%# Å@dgfikXeZ\ f] DXe^ifm\ <Zfjpjk\dÆ% LELFg\e:flij\NXi\# N\Y nnn%fZn%lel%\[l `e DXiZ_ (0 )'(* )' =8F N\Y nnn%]Xf%fi^&Ñj_\ip&Zflekipj\Zkfi&eXjfVm`\keXd&\e `e DXiZ_ )' )'(*%

Tidal Level

CANAL

DYKE

Tidal Level: 3- 3,5 m

EAST SEA

Rhizophora apiculata (P) + Ceriops decandra

Sediment trap 1

Avicennia alba (P) + Rhizophora apiculata + Avicennia officinalis

Wave break

[Farming typology proposal. ?@>L<I8# Afj # Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

200 M

[Coastal protection proposal. ?@>L<I8# Afj # Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

Rhizophora mucronata (D) + Bruguiera sexangula

EXISTING MANGROVES

housing & orchard

POND

DYKE

ORCHARDS CANAL

EXTENSIVE SHRIMP MANGROVE

STENT

Tidal Level

CANAL DYKE

INTENSIVE SHRIMP FARMING

INTENSIVE SHRIMP FARMING

DYKE

INTENSIVE SHRIMP FARMING

ORCHARDS+ DWELLING

CANAL

Greasyback Shrimp/ Sand Shrimp

OPOSAL

Tidal Level

ORCHARDS+ DWELLING

POND

Orange- spotted Grouper

DYKE

EXTENSIVE SHRIMP MANGROVE

Red Drum Mud Crab

Cobia

Waigeu Sea Perch

White Prawn

Swimming Crab

Saltwater Crocodile

Oysters

ORCHARDS

CANAL

[Existing and farming typology. . ?@>L<I8# Afj # Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

CANAL

100

Sediment trap Type 1

[Proposed farming typology. . ?@>L<I8# Afj # Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

Wave break

Avicennia alba (D) + Avicennia officinalis

DYKE

EXISTING MANGROVES

GULF OF THAILAND

25

[Coastal protection proposal. ?@>L<I8# Afj # Cá Mau Studio, KULeuven 2013.]

Tidal Level: 0,8- 1,2 m

13

between two waters loss of biodiversity

dikes

deforestation

climate change

moblity

pollution

deforestation

food production

population growth

[Challenges Ca Mau, studio Ca Mau 2013]

salinazation urbanization

The city of Ca Mau, Vietnam, in the most southern part of the country is on the verge of massive population growth and urbanization due to booming of the economy. and rural-urban migrations.

Existing and constructed green structures can become a framework to guide urbanization, protect natural resources without depleting the productive landscape and mitigate the growing threat of climate change.

14

15

R9`e^ DXgj :X DXl# j_fn`e^ L D`e_ ]fi\jk# i`Z\ Ñ\c[j# j_i`dg gfe[j Xe[ c`e\Xi fiZ_Xi[$c`m`e^ jkilZkli\j# )'(*T

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The urban region of Cà Mau is changing rapidly, due to new lucrative forms of aquaculture, large-scale industries and the upgrading to 2nd class city.

8k Ñijk# k_\ Z`kp ^i\n Xcfe^ k_\ nXk\i ways, yet recent development tends to be more road-based, as can be seen in the sequence of ring roads in the 2025 master plan. Constructing new roads is a huge investment due to the liquid landscape of the peninsula. At the same time, these new roads tend to accelerate the urbanization of the city and attract new developments.

The expanding city and shrimp business are consuming and polluting the landscape and water system, which is also affected

Yp Zc`dXk\ Z_Xe^\# i\jlck`e^ `e Òff[`e^ and droughts, culminating in a need to redistribute the available water in time.

As can be seen in the graph (2), the total Xdflek f] iX`e `j jl]ÑZ`\ek kf gifm`[\ ]i\j_ water all year long. Uneven distribution forces farmers to switch to shrimp farming in dry season, letting salt water irrigate the landscape. A system of locks tries to preserve some fresh water areas. But the higher yield of the shrimp industry tempts farmers to sabotage the locks and aggravate the saline intrusion. Redistribution of fresh water through vegetal strategies will be one of the key concepts in the design.

(1) MASTER PLAN CA MAU 2025 (2) TUONG, T. P., HOANH, C. T. , Vietnam-Netherlands Mekong Delta Master Plan project (2010/2011), 1986 (3) STUDENTS STUDIO VIETNAM AHO,”Hyper (landscape) urbanism, Cà Mau, Vietnam” (draft version), AHO, Oslo, 2013

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500km

RG_fkf^iXg_j ]ifd Ñ\c[nfib j_fn`e^ gfcclk`fe# nXk\i jZXiZ`kp Xe[ gif[lZk`m\ cXe[jZXg\j# :X DXl jkl[`f )'(*T

Ambitious urbanization

[Ca Mau at the end of N1 and HCM Highway, Thomas Lenaerts, Ca Mau studio 2013]

Between two waters

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[Locks defning fresh and salt water areas, Thomas Lenaerts, Ca Mau studio 2013 (3)]

[Amount of rain VS fresh water demand, Thomas Lenaerts, Ca Mau studio 2013 (2)]

[Ambitious urbanization, from water to road based on master plan 2025, Thomas Lenaerts, Ca Mau studio 2013 (1)]

between two waters fresh/clean water scarcity

Ca Mau is situated inbetween fresh and salt water areas divided by locks.

However, one of the major challenges for the city center is its polluted and neglected water front. Sewage, dead animals, plastic YX^j#%%% Xi\ ÒfXk`e^ `e k_\ i`m\ij# `dg\[`e^ YfXk kiX]ÑZ Xe[ k_\ XkkiXZk`m\e\jj f] the water. Informal settlements are built along and even in the water, making the waterfront inaccessible and degraded since sewage is released directly into the river.

Since Ca Mau is still at the verge of major expansion, areas close to the city and k_\ i`m\i ZXe jk`cc Y\ [\Ñe\[ kf [\Xc n`k_ evironmental and pollution issue. On a kfgf^iXg_`Z dXg n\ ZXe [\Ñe\ X j\k f] (1) STEWART, M., FAIRFULL, S., Mangroves, `e1 Gi`d\]XZk .+-# dXp )''/

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Å%%% k_\i\ lj\[ kf Y\ Ñj_ _\i\%%%Æ - boat operator

lowlands around the city center. These lowlands can be articulated as natural wetlands and green structures to clean, Ñck\i Xe[ jkfi\ nXk\i% I\Zfee\Zk`e^ Xe fc[ river branch, disconnected during french colonial times in favour of a canal, can serve as a combined system of wetlands and sponge forests. Mangroves (1) have the natural capacity to bind metals and pollution. At the same time they can diversify the productive landscape and provide a more environmental friendly alternative to the antibiotics-rich intensive shrimp farming industry that is taking over the peninsula.

RG_fkf^iXg_ Ñ\c[nfibnXk\i gfcclk`fe# :X DXl jkl[`f )'(*T

RG_fkf^iXg_ Ñ\c[nfib# DXik`e CX`ef# :X DXl jkl[`f 8?F )'(*T

Å%%% @ lj\[ kf jn`d `e k_\ i`m\i%%%Æ - Mrs Cao Kieu Phuong

0.0-0.4m

[Topography and lowlands, Dorien Pelst, Ca Mau studio 2013]

0.4-0.8m

[Logo Green City green structures urban form, Sam Khabir, Ca Mau studio 2013]

[Fresh, salt and polluted water, Dorien Pelst, Ca Mau studio 2013]

0.8-2.0m

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Between two waters

To deal with these challenges, distinct though complementary vegetation-based strategies are developed; based upon a reinterpretation of the existing landscape features.

Firstly, along the main tidal waterways, constructed wetlands will treat the pollution from the urban. Other river banks have the continuation of the largescale mangrove structures and can provide fZZXj`feXccp Òff[XYc\ Xi\Xj% Additionally, a selection of drainage canals `e k_\ jflk_ f] k_\ Z`kp `j i\$gifÑc\[ kf _fjk X m\^\kXk`fe$YXj\[ Ñck\i ]fi k_\ X^i`$ & aquaculture activities. Mainly east-west oriented, this strategy offers a resilient system, protecting against the threats of j\XjfeXc Òff[`e^ Xe[ gfjj`Yc\ j\X c\m\c rise.

Large areas in the north (roughly the fresh water area) are reclaimed for reforestation `e fi[\i kf Zi\Xk\ X Åjgfe^`e^Æ d\Z_Xe`jd to collect and store rain water for the urban areas, similar to the process in the nearby U-Minh Forest (1) (2).

While dealing with major water issues and potentially offering new economic or productive opportunities, this new set of vegetation strategies also reinforces the different characters and logics of the area so that it embeds and guides the ongoing urbanization process. Development is concentrated in distinct urban patches, both connected to the vast infrastructural network as well as embedded in the reinforced landscape structures.

(1) LE PHAT QUOI, Inventory of Peatlands in U Minh Ha Region, Ca Mau Province, Viet Nam, 2010 (2) BIGGS, D., Managing a Rebel Landscape: Conservation, Pioneers, and the Revolutionary Past in the U Minh Forest, Vietnam, in: EnvironmenkXc ?`jkfip# Mfc% ('# Ef% * Alc%# )'', # gg% ++/$+.-

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R:FE:<GKJ1 :c\Xej`e^ n\kcXe[j i`m\i YXeb ]fi\jk2 Ñck\i`e^ ZXeXcj2 jgfe^\ ]fi\jkj2 jgXZ\ ]fi nXk\i2 liYXe gXkZ_\j `e X ^i\\e ]iXd\nfib# ;fi`\e G\cjk# :X DXl jkl[`f )'(*T

remediating through a levelled landscape

[Green vision plan for the city of Ca Mau, Dorien Pelst, Ca Mau studio 2013] fresh water

salty water

dirty water

mangrove

filtering canals

sponge forest

wetland

orchard

rice

urban patch

250m

1km

2.5km

1:25.000

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between two waters wetland water treatment

inlet sediment pond 45-75cm

inlet sediment removal (maintenance required!) flow control ephemeral zone organic matter removal (optional)

ephemeral zone 15-20cm

The sections show how the whole system of water treatment, fresh water storage and redistribution work together in a levelled landscape of micro topographies.

Constructed wetlands will work with the tides by letting the polluted water at high tide, treating it and giving it back to the river or the productive landscape at low tide.

(1) SOUTHERN INSTITUTE FOR WATER RESOURCES PLANNING, STUDY ON CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIOS ASSESSMENT FOR CA MAU PROVINCE, 2008 (2) MELBOURNE WATER, Constructed Wetland Systems Design Guidelines for Developers, Version 3, November 2005

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outlet pond 45-75cm

Being among the lowest coastal areas in the world, sea level rise can have devastating consequences. Predicting Òff[`e^ dXgj j_fn k_\ Òff[\[ Xi\Xj `e case of a sea level rise of 30cm (1). Not only sea level rise but also stronger and more frequent typhoons are forces of nature the peninsula will have to deal with. Therefore coastal mangrove structures have to be maintained and reinforced, since they act as a natural dike: keeping the soil in place and slowing down the storm surges. The green structures provided around the city ZXe Y\ fZZXj`feXccp Òff[\[ fi lj\[ Xj water catchment areas. Therefore giving space to the water and mitigating the effects of climate change.

macrophyte zone

outlet deep (open) aeriation pond with submerged vegetation

5-15cm

macrophyte zone sequence of vegetation bands pollutant treatment

[<o`jk`e^ Xe[ gi\[`Zk\[ Òff[`e^ dXg `e ZXj\ f] *'Zd JCI# \jg\Z`Xccp jflk_ f] :X DXl ( T]

main river tidal system

[Constructed wetland, Thomas Lenaerts, Ca Mau studio 2013 (2)]

water management & treatment

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[Section west and east of the city showing the water management and treatment system, Thomas Lenaerts, Ca Mau studio 2013]

between two infrastrucures

Lj`e^ Xe[ i\hlXc`Ñe^ k_\ \o`jk`e^ ^i\\e jkilZkli\j `e k_\ Z`kp Xj X ^l`[\ ]fi k_\ e\n [\m\cfgd\ek is the core idea of the small scale green city of Cà Mau. Bringing quality within the existing ‘green’ city and extrapolating this quality in the new development between two infrastructures (water and road).

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representative pic/ map for S

Framing Growth Green structures in Ca mau 25

ca mau

[Cà Mau green city]

[Cà Mau green city]

between two infrastructures

=`ijkcp# k_\ Xik`ÑZ`Xc ^i\\e jkilZkli\j# k_\ Yflc\mXi[j introduced by the French (during the colonial times).

These boulevards are giving the streets a structure and identity. Secondly, the micro-patches, small green features in the most dense parts. Thirdly, the inner

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green patches, appearing in the center of bigger building blocks. And fourthly, the larger landscape features colliding with the edge of the city.

These green ‘lines’ (because they are situated in parallel c`e\Xi Ñ^li\j `e k_\ Z`kp Xi\ k_\ kffcj kf [\j`^e n`k_ in the extensions of the city. For example, the rythmic Xe[ jkilZkli`e^ ZfeÑ^liXk`fe f] k_\ Yflc\mXi[ ki\\j is used to guide the new development. Planting is gcXee`e^# Ñijk k_\ ki\\j Xi\ gcXek\[ kf `e[`ZXk\ k_\ Ñ^li\ f] k_\ jki\\kj% @e ]lkli\# n_\e k_\ \ok\ej`fe f] the city is needed, the tree structure can be followed.

[Cà Mau]

Approaching the city of Cà Mau in a green sense, is Ñijk cffb`e^ kf k_\ \o`jk`e^ jkilZkli\j% K_\ Z`kp `j already quite green, spread all over the city. These already existing green structures are used to base the new development on. Four different kinds of green are distingueshed and extrapolated toward the expansion areas of the city.

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[Bing Maps Ca Mau, 2013]

[Bing Maps Ca Mau, 2013]

R^i\\e Ă&#x2018;^li\j :~ DXlT

[analysis map green CĂ Mau]

[implantation sceme, zoom-in areas]

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[boulevard structure Cà Mau]

Xik`ÑZ`Xc ^i\\e jkilZkli\

inside left-over ‘green’

[green patches Cà Mau]

micro-patches

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ca mau between two infrastructures

Using the existing parallel system of water and road infrastructure, the project proposes to concentrate urban development along these strips between (new) roads and the main rivers and canals. By this the liYXe ]fid `j ÒXeb\[ Xe[ j\im\[ Yp k_\j\ lines. This radial pattern is sequenced by (re)constructed landscapes, generating an interplay between green continuities and urban entities.

The vegetation-based strategies developed at the larger scale give the possibility for Ca Mau to develop ‘within the green’.

Complementing and continuing the existing boulevard structure, the green structures are dragged into the city. The major role ^`m\e kf eXkli\ `j kf ÅZfekifcÆ liYXe ^ifnk_ and at the same time ensure a qualitative and attractive environment. Among the three major branches developed East, West and South, each one is dealing with a jg\Z`ÑZ eXkliXc Zfe[`k`fe# i\`e]fiZ`e^ k_\ identity of the development. By bringing the jg\Z`ÑZ cXe[jZXg\ `ekf k_\ liYXe jpjk\d#

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landscape and nature becomes a part of life. Within the eastern development, a natural wetland is introduced as a system of water treatment, as well as an water provider for the orchards. In the South, the sequence is formed by canals coming from the east and enriched with a mangrove structure. Within the development, the river is introduced through ponds and aquaculture. In the West, the city is given form by the mangrove forest, by this the forest is pulled into the building blocks. In the centre of the city, the leftover patches Xi\ i\hlXc`Ñ\[ Xj gif[lZk`m\ X^i\\XYc\ public/semi-public spaces.

In general the green areas are associated kf [`m\ij`Ñ\[ glYc`Z XZk`m`k`\j jlZ_ Xj productivity (orchards, vegetable gardens, ...), cultural, social, educational, etc. The green areas become a facilitator for citylife, providing food, leisure, water treatment and others. Introducing a diversity of green is structuring city, daily life and the whole city-system by providing and structuring.

Garden

Wa ter Fish Pond Developing Living

RZlk Ă&#x2021;e Ă&#x2018;ccT

Kit ch e

nw as te

[masterplan, mid review proposal, April 2013.]

Planting

[planting is planning]

Fo od

[pond synergie]

Fo od

Food orchards

House

fill

cut

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32 R`eÑckiXk`e^ gif[lZk`m\ gXkZ_\jT

[inner city, mid review proposal, Kobe Pillen, April 2013.]

R`eÑckiXk`e^ dXe^ifm\ ]fii\jkT

[west developmnent, mid review proposal,Mario Auricchio, April 2013.]

LIVING WITH THE FORREST

REQUALIFIED CITY GREEN

[water collecting path]

[intimate green street]

R`eÑckiXk`e^ nXk\iT

[south developmnent, mid review, Anne-Michèle Zeevaert, April 2013.]

[following productive landscape]

[east developmnent, mid review proposal, Kobe Pillen, April 2013.]

EAST DEVELOPMENT, LIVING WITH THE AGRICULTURE

LIVING WITH THE WATER

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R\Xjk [\m\cfgde\ek# ÑeXc gifgfjXc# BfY\ G`cc\e# ale\ )'(*%T

[east developmnent, image]

The eastern development is established Y\kn\\e k_\ _`^_nXp Xe[ k_\ i`m\i ÒXeb\[ by a natural wetland structure. This highway is crossing after each other, a river, a development platform, the wetland and in the end, the dense city-center is introduced by housing towers.

Looking a bit closer to the development area, a structure of inner small wetlands are created using the existing topography Xe[ k_\ Zlk Xe[ Ñcc gi`eZ`gc\% A secondary structure is established perpendicular to the highway, two main

boulevards that organize and distribute the new development platform. These two boulevards are both connecting the _`^_nXp kf k_\ i`m\i% 8cfe^ k_\ Ñijk fe\# public services buildings are developed in red. (starting from highway to water) On the left side, a school, the grey spot is a market place that can welcome local events. To establish the crossing point between river and boulevard a small harbor is created to have a strong connection to the river.

A Tower is re-enforcing the place as a landmark. It indicates the development

area and the entrance of the city coming from the river. At the other side, a sport/ community centre is introduced.

The last important elements are the patches of productive landscape within the development: orchards, private or common m\^\kXYc\ ^Xi[\ej Xe[ i`Z\ Ñ\c[j Zfd`e^ ]ifd k_\ cXi^\ cXe[jZXg\ Ñ^li\j jki\jj`e^ the relation between landscape and living).

Productive landscape is a generator of quality providing food security and social Y\e\Ñkj%

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Rjflk_ [\m\cfgde\ek# ÑeXc gifgfjXc# 8ee\$D`Z_ c\ Q\\mX\ik# ale\ )'(*%T

[south developmnent, image]

The development in the south, living with the water, is developed between a main boulevard coming from the city center leading to the south of the peninsula and the canal enhanced by a water-cleaning wetland.

Perpendicularly to these two main infrastructures a system of water rooms enlarge the canal explained by the M scale.

These landscape lines cross the main boulevard along the development platforms creating an integrated landscape system.

These green corridors link the road to the water, working as green windows from the

road generating a physical relation to the canal. Public green spaces such as sport facilities, leisure platforms, cultural and educational equipments or boat-bus stop are concentrated around these corridors giving the possibility for the population to enjoy the landscape.

Looking a bit closer to the development, you can see the development is organised and served by a system of secondary roads in parallel to the main one. That gives the gfjj`Y`c`kp kf b\\g kiX]Ă&#x2018;Z Xe[ Zfdd\iZ`Xc activities along the main roads to give hierarchy to the use of spaces.

Living with water is introducing the link with the canal by permaculture ponds giving water for common vegetable gardens and orchards following the traditional Vietnamese farm systems VAC synergy. VAC is an acronym formed from three Vietnamese words meaning, garden fi fiZ_Xi[# Ă&#x2018;j_ gfe[# Xe[ gflckip j_\[% 8 particular effort have been done to respect the existing topography and to keep as much as possible of the existing ponds.

The same have been done to keep important buildings such as the school.

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Rn\jk [\m\cfgde\ek# ÑeXc gifgfjXc# DXi`f 8li`ZZ_`f# ale\ )'(*%T

[west developmnent, image]

The development in the west is established between two different systems: melaleuca forest and mangrove shrimp farming.

This as a result from the interaction of two different sources: brackish water from the river on the West side and fresh water coming from the East. The lowland is used to create those patches of forest creating a green continuity. All the other areas are used for new development, that are

integrated in this natural system.

Looking more close to the development, the idea is to have taller buildings along the roads housing commercial activities.

The other buildings are organized around a system of open spaces providing private/ semiprivate gardens and orchards used by all inhabitants. Looking at the section, the continuity of the natural/productive character is obvious. This continuity is

helping biodiversity.

The juxtaposition of the street, the melaleuca forest, buildings and orchards in the back of them provide a strong relation between each other. This relation is even more obvious looking at the proximity between the forest and the road, facing the development as a part of it.

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GREEN STRUCTURES FOR A RESILIENT CA MAU (VIETNAM) :ŽƐĠ &ĞƌŶĂŶĚŽ ,ŝŐƵĞƌĂ KƐŽƌŝŽ <h>ĞƵǀĞŶͲ D ,^ ABSTRACT dŚŝƐ ƉĂƉĞƌ ŝƐ ƉĂƌƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŵĂƐƚĞƌ ƚŚĞƐŝƐ ŵĂĚĞ ĂƐ ƉĂƌƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ DĂƐƚĞƌ ŝŶ ,ƵŵĂŶ ^ĞƩůĞŵĞŶƚƐ ƵŶĚĞƌƚĂŬĞŶ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ <ĂƚŚŽůŝĞŬĞ hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚĞŝƚ >ĞƵǀĞŶͲ <h>ĞƵǀĞŶ͘ dŚŝƐ ĚŽĐƵŵĞŶƚ ŝƐ Ă ƐƵƉƉŽƌƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƐƚƵĚŝŽ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƚĂƟŽŶ D h͕ s/ dE D͘ ĂĐŬ ĨƌŽŵ WůĂŶŶŝŶŐ ƚŽ WůĂŶƟŶŐ ŵĂĚĞ ŝŶ :ƵŶĞ ϭϬth ϮϬϭϯ ŝŶ <h >ĞƵǀĞŶ͕ ĞůŐŝƵŵ͖ ǁŚŝĐŚ ǁĂƐ Ă ĚĞƐŝŐŶ ƐƚƵĚŝŽ ĨŽĐƵƐĞĚ ŝŶ ůĂŶĚƐĐĂƉĞ ƵƌďĂŶŝƐŵ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ Ă DĂƵ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ŝŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͘ dŚĞ Ăŝŵ ŽĨ ƚŚŝƐ ƉĂƉĞƌ ŝƐ ƚŽ ŐŝǀĞ Ă ĚĞĞƉĞƌ ĞůƵĐŝĚĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƌĞůĂƚĞĚ ĂƐƉĞĐƚƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂƌ ƐĐĂůĞ ƌĞŐĂƌĚŝŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ŐƌĞĞŶ ƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞƐ͕ ĂƐ Ă ĨƌĂŵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĨƵƚƵƌĞ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĞŶƟƌĞ ƌĞŐŝŽŶ͘ dŚĞ ĮƌƐƚ ƉĂƌƚ ŝƐ ĂŶ ŝŶƚƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƐĞǀĞƌĂů ĂƐƉĞĐƚƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƌĞŐŝŽŶ͕ ƉůĂĐŝŶŐ ŝƚ Ăƚ ƚŚĞ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƚ ĐŽŶƚĞdžƚ ŽĨ ŐƌŽǁŝŶŐ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ͕ ĐŚĂŶŐĞƐ ŝŶ ƵƌďĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶ ƉĂƩĞƌŶƐ͕ ƉŽůůƵƟŽŶ͕ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ͕ ĨƌĞĞ ŵĂƌŬĞƚ ĞĐŽŶŽŵLJ͕ ĞƚĐ͘ ^ĞĐŽŶĚůLJ ŝƚ ǁŝůů ƚĂŬĞ ƉůĂĐĞ Ă ƐŚŽƌƚ ĞdžƉůĂŶĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĞǀŽůƵƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ Ă DĂƵ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ƐŚĂƉŝŶŐ ĨŽƌĐĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ŬĞĞƉ ƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌŝŶŐ ŝƚ ĂŶĚ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ǁŚŽůĞ ůĂŶĚƐĐĂƉĞ͘ dŚĞ ƚŚŝƌĚ ƉĂƌƚ ŝƐ ĂďŽƵƚ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ĐŚĂůůĞŶŐŝŶŐ ĂƐƉĞĐƚ ƚŚĂƚ Ă DĂƵ ĨĂĐĞƐ͕ ĂƐ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĞdžƉĞĐƚĞĚ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ͕ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ŚŝŐŚ ǀƵůŶĞƌĂďŝůŝƚLJ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ƚŽ ĚĞĂů ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚŝƐ ĂůƚĞƌĂƟŽŶ͘ dŚĞ ŶĞdžƚ ƉĂƌƚ ĐŽŶƐŝĚĞƌƐ ƚŚĞ ĐŝĚ ^ƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ^ŽŝůƐ ; ^^Ϳ͕ ǁŚŝĐŚ ŝƐ Ă ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ǁŚŽůĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ƚŚĂƚ ŚĂƐ ďĞĞŶ ĚŝƐƚƵƌďĞĚ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ůĂŶĚ ƵƐĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞƐ ĂŶĚ ĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ƉƌĂĐƟĐĞƐ ƌĞůĂƚĞĚ ǁŝƚŚ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ĂŶĚ ĂƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ĂĐƟǀŝƟĞƐ ǁŝƚŚ ƐĞǀĞƌĞ ŝŵƉůŝĐĂƟŽŶƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂƌ ĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ͘ dŚĞ ĮŌŚ ƐĞĐƟŽŶ ĐŽŶĐĞƌŶƐ ĂďŽƵƚ ƚŚĞ ůŽĐĂů ŇŽƌĂ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƚ ŝŶ Ă DĂƵ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ͕ ŝƚƐ ĞĐŽůŽŐLJ͕ ƵƐĞƐ͕ ĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶ͕ ĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ĂŶĚ ĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐĂů ĂƐƉĞĐƚƐ ĂŶĚ ŵĂŝŶ ĐŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƟĐƐ ŝŶ ŽƌĚĞƌ ƚŽ ĨƌĂŵĞ ƚŚĞ ƐƚƌĂƚĞŐLJ ŽĨ WůĂŶŶŝŶŐͬWůĂŶƟŶŐ͘ dŚĞ ƐŝdžƚŚ ƉĂƌƚ ĞdžĂŵŝŶĞ ƚŚĞ ƐƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĐ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚ ƉƌŽƉŽƐĞĚ ƚŽ ĚĞĂů ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ ĞdžƉůĂŝŶĞĚ ƉƌĞǀŝŽƵƐůLJ͕ ƚŚĞ ƉŽƐƐŝďůĞ ƌĞƉĞƌĐƵƐƐŝŽŶƐ ĂŶĚ ŝŵƉůŝĐĂƟŽŶƐ ƚŚĂƚ ĐĂŶ ďƌŝŶŐ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ǁŚŽůĞ ůĂŶĚƐĐĂƉĞ͘ &ŝŶĂůůLJ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŶĐůƵƐŝŽŶƐ ĐĂŶ ŐŝǀĞ Ă ŚŝŶƚ ŽĨ ŚŽǁ ƚŚŝƐ ƐƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĐ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚ ĐĂŶ ƌĞƐŚĂƉĞ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂƌ ůĂŶĚƐĐĂƉĞ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƉƌŽƉŽƐĞĚ ŐƌŽǁŝŶŐ ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ ƐƚƌĂƚĞŐLJ͘ ůƚŚŽƵŐŚ ŵĂŶLJ ĂƐƉĞĐƚƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚ ĂƌĞ ŶŽƚ ďĞ ĐŽŶƐŝĚĞƌĞĚ ŝŶ ƚŚŝƐ ƉĂƉĞƌ͕ ŝƚ ĐĂŶ ďĞ Ă ƐƚĂƌƚ ĨŽƌ ĨƵƌƚŚĞƌ ŝŶǀĞƐƟŐĂƟŽŶƐ ƌĞŐĂƌĚŝŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ůŽĐĂů ŇŽƌĂ ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ ƐƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĞƐ ŝŶ ŽƌĚĞƌ ƚŽ ĚĞĂů ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ĐŚĂůůĞŶŐĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ƚŚĞ ĨƵƚƵƌĞ ďƌŝŶŐƐ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ŚƵŵĂŶ ĐŝǀŝůŝnjĂƟŽŶ͘

INTRODUCTION dŚĞ ƐŝĂŶ ĐŽŶƟŶĞŶƚ ŚĂƐ ďĞĞŶ ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ŐŝŐĂŶƟĐ ĚĞŵŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐ ĐŚĂŶŐĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ůĂƐƚ ϱϬ LJĞĂƌƐ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ŽŶĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ĚƌĂƐƟĐ ƌĂƚĞƐ ŽĨ ĚŝƐƉůĂĐĞŵĞŶƚ ŽĨ ƉĞŽƉůĞ ĨƌŽŵ ǀŝůůĂŐĞƐ ƚŽ ĐŝƟĞƐ͘ dŚĞ hŶŝƚĞĚ EĂƟŽŶƐ ĞƐƟŵĂƚĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ƵƌďĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶ ŝŶ ƐŝĂ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ϮϬϬϱ ĂŶĚ ϮϬϭϬ ǁŝůů ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ Ăƚ ƌĂƚĞƐ ŽĨ ĂďŽƵƚ Ϯ͘ϱй ĞĂĐŚ LJĞĂƌ͘ tŝƚŚ ƚŚĞƐĞ ƌĂƚĞƐ͕ ŵŽƌĞ ƚŚĂŶ ŚĂůĨ ŽĨ ƐŝĂ͛Ɛ ƚŽƚĂů ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ǁŝůů ůŝǀĞ ŝŶ ƵƌďĂŶ ĂƌĞĂƐ ďLJ ƚŚĞ LJĞĂƌ ϮϬϮϱ͕ ĂŶĚ ďLJ ϮϬϯϬ͕ ŝƚ ŝƐ ĞdžƉĞĐƚĞĚ ƚŚĂƚ ϱϰ͘ϱй ŽĨ ƐŝĂ͛Ɛ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ǁŝůů ďĞ ƵƌďĂŶŝnjĞĚ͘ dŚŝƐ ŵĞĂŶƐ ƚŚĂƚ ďLJ ϮϬϯϬ͕ ŽŶĞ ŽƵƚ ŽĨ ĞǀĞƌLJ ƚǁŽ ƵƌďĂŶ ƌĞƐŝĚĞŶƚƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ǁŽƌůĚ ǁŝůů ďĞ ůŝǀŝŶŐ ŝŶ ƐŝĂ ;hŶ , /d d Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘

ƚŚĞ ŽǀĞƌĂůů ƐŝĂŶ ƌĂƚĞ͘ /Ŷ ƚŚĞ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ĐĂƐĞ͕ ƚŚĞ ƉĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞ ŽĨ ƵƌďĂŶ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĐŽƵŶƚƌLJ ǁĂƐ ϯϬ͘ϰй ŝŶ ϮϬϭϬ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ϰϰ͘ϭй ĨŽƌ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚ ĞĂƐƚĞƌŶ ŽĨ ƐŝĂ͘ tŚŝůĞ ƚŚĞ ŽǀĞƌĂůů ƵƌďĂŶ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚŝƐ ƌĞŐŝŽŶ ǁŝůů ŐƌŽǁ ďLJ Ϯ͘ϯϴй ƉĞƌ LJĞĂƌ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ϮϬϭϬ ĂŶĚ ϮϬϭϱ͕ ƚŚĞ ƵƌďĂŶ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ŝŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ǁŝůů ŐƌŽǁ ϯ͘Ϯϲй ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐĂŵĞ ƉĞƌŝŽĚ ŽĨ ƟŵĞ ;hE͕ ϮϬϭϭͿ͘

ŌĞƌ ƚŚĞ ŝŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ Žŝ DŽŝϭ ƉŽůŝĐLJ͕ ǁŚŝĐŚ ǁĂƐ ŽĸĐŝĂůůLJ ĂĚŽƉƚĞĚ ŝŶ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌ ϭϵϴϲ Ăƚ ƚŚĞ WĂƌƚLJ͛Ɛ ƐŝdžƚŚ ŶĂƟŽŶĂů ĐŽŶŐƌĞƐƐ ĂŶĚ ǁŚŝĐŚ ǁĂƐ ƉƌŝŵĂƌŝůLJ ĚĞƐŝŐŶĞĚ ƚŽ ƚƵƌŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͛Ɛ ĐĞŶƚƌĂůůLJͲƉůĂŶŶĞĚ ĞĐŽŶŽŵLJ ŝŶƚŽ Ă ŵĂƌŬĞƚͲďĂƐĞĚ ŽŶĞ ;,ŽŶŐ͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͕ ƚŚŝƐ ůƚŚŽƵŐŚ ƐŝĂ͛Ɛ ůĞĂƐƚͲĚĞǀĞůŽƉĞĚ ĐŽƵŶƚƌŝĞƐ ĐŽƵŶƚƌLJ ŚĂƐ ďĞĐŽŵĞ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĐŽŶĚ ĞĐŽŶŽŵLJ ŚĂǀĞ ĐŽŶƐŝĚĞƌĂďůLJ ůŽǁĞƌ ůĞǀĞůƐ ŽĨ ƵƌďĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶ͕ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƌĞŐŝŽŶ͖ ůĞĂĚĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ WĞŽƉůĞ͛Ɛ ƚŚĞƐĞ ĐŽƵŶƚƌŝĞƐ ĂƌĞ ƵƌďĂŶŝnjŝŶŐ ĨĂƐƚĞƌ ƚŚĂŶ 1 Renovation.

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ZĞƉƵďůŝĐ ŽĨ ŚŝŶĂ ;tŽƌůĚ ĂŶŬ͕ ϮϬϭϯͿ͘ dŚŝƐ ŚĂƐ ďƌŽƵŐŚƚ ƐĞǀĞƌĂů ĐŽŶƐĞƋƵĞŶĐĞƐ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ǁŚŽůĞ ĐŽƵŶƚƌLJ͕ ǁŚŝĐŚ ŝƐ ĨĂĐŝŶŐ Ă ƌĂƉŝĚ ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ ŽĨ ƚƌĂŶƐĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ ĨƌŽŵ Ă ƚƌĂĚŝƟŽŶĂů ƚŽ Ă ŵŽĚĞƌŶ ŐůŽďĂůŝnjĞĚ ƐŽĐŝĞƚLJ͕ ůĞĂĚŝŶŐ ƚŽ Ă ĨĂƐƚ ƵƌďĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶ ŶĞǀĞƌ ƐĞĞŶ ďĞĨŽƌĞ ĂŶĚ ƚƌĂŶƐĨŽƌŵŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƐŽĐŝĞƚLJ ĨƌŽŵ Ă ǁĂƚĞƌͲ ďĂƐĞĚ ŶĞƚǁŽƌŬ ƚŽ Ă ƌŽĂĚͲ ďĂƐĞĚ ŶĞƚǁŽƌŬ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĐŽƌƌĞƐƉŽŶĚŝŶŐ ƵƌďĂŶ ƐƉƌĂǁů ĂƌŽƵŶĚ ƚŚĞ ĐŝƟĞƐ͘ dŚĞ ĐŽŶƐĞƋƵĞŶĐĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ Ă DĂƵ ƌĞŐŝŽŶ ŚĂǀĞ ďĞĞŶ ŚŝŐŚůLJ ĐŚĂůůĞŶŐŝŶŐ͕ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƐƵĐĐĞƐƐŝŽŶ ŽĨ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟǀĞ ůĂŶĚƐĐĂƉĞ ĐŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝnjĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ŵŽǀĞ ĨƌŽŵ ƌŝĐĞ ĐƵůƟǀĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ƐŵĂůů ƐĐĂůĞ ĂƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ ;ǁŝƚŚ Ă ŵŝŶŽƌ ƉƌĞƐĞŶĐĞ ŽĨ ŽƌĐŚĂƌĚƐͿ ƚŽ ĂŶ ĞĐŽŶŽŵLJ ďĂƐĞĚ ŵĂŝŶůLJ ŝŶ ďƌĂĐŬŝƐŚͲǁĂƚĞƌ ƐŚƌŝŵƉ ŵŽŶŽͲ ĂƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ ; /E, Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϱͿ͘ dŚŝƐ ƐǁŝƚĐŚ ŚĂƐ ůĞĚ ƐŚƌŝŵƉ to ƚƵƌŶ ŝŶƚŽ Ă ǀŝƚĂů ĐŽŵŵŽĚŝƚLJ͖ ďĞŶĞĮƚƐ ŽĨ ǁŚŝĐŚ ŝŶĐůƵĚĞ ŚŝŐŚĞƌ ŝŶĐŽŵĞƐ ƉĞƌ ŚĞĐƚĂƌĞ͕ ƐƚƌĞŶŐƚŚĞŶŝŶŐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƐƚĂƚĞ ĮŶĂŶĐŝĂů ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ ƚŽ ŝŶǀĞƐƚ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ŝŶĐůƵƐŝŽŶ ŝŶ ŐůŽďĂů ĐůƵƐƚĞƌƐ ŽĨ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ͘ ,ŽǁĞǀĞƌ͕ ƚŚĞ ĐƵůƟǀĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƐŚƌŝŵƉ ŚĂƐ ďĞĞŶ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐůLJ ƚŚƌĞĂƚĞŶĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ǀĞƌLJ ĚĞƚƌŝŵĞŶƚƐ ĂƌŝƐŝŶŐ ĨƌŽŵ ŝƚ͘ /ŶůĂŶĚ ĐŽŶǀĞƌƐŝŽŶ ŽĨ ůĂŶĚ ƚŽ ŝŶƚĞŶƐŝǀĞ ĨĂƌŵŝŶŐ ƐŚƌŝŵƉ ƉŽŶĚƐ ŚĂƐ ĐŽŶƚƌŝďƵƚĞĚ ƚŽ ƐƵƌĨĂĐĞ ĂŶĚ ŐƌŽƵŶĚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ƉŽůůƵƟŽŶ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƵƐĞ ŽĨ ƌĞůĂƟǀĞůLJ ůĂƌŐĞ ĂŵŽƵŶƚ ŽĨ ĨĞĞĚ͕ ƉĞƐƟĐŝĚĞƐ ĂŶĚ ĂŶƟďŝŽƟĐƐ ;W, D Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϬͿ͖ ůŽƐƐ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐůĞ ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ŝŶĐƌĞŵĞŶƚƐ ŝŶ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ƚŽ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ŝƚƐ

ůĂŶĚ ƵƐĞ ŝŶƚŽ Ă ŵŽƌĞ ͞ƉƌŽĮƚĂďůĞ͟ ĨƵŶĐƟŽŶ ; /E, Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϱͿ͖ ƐĂůŝŶĞ ŝŶƚƌƵƐŝŽŶ ŝŶƚŽ ƐǁĞĞƚ ǁĂƚĞƌͲĐƵůƟǀĂƚĞĚ ůĂŶĚƐĐĂƉĞ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ŝŶĐƌĞŵĞŶƚ ŽĨ ƐŚƌŝŵƉ ĨĂƌŵŝŶŐ ĂƌĞĂƐ ƚŚĂŶŬƐ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ sŝĞƚŶĂŵĞƐĞ ŐŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚĂů ƌĞƐŽůƵƟŽŶ ϬϵͬEYͲ W ;, E^ Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϵͿ͖ ŽdžŝĚĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƉŽƚĞŶƟĂů ĂĐŝĚ ƐƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ƐŽŝůƐ͕ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƐŽŝů ůĞĂĐŚŝŶŐ ĂŶĚ ŽƚŚĞƌ ĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ƉƌĂĐƟĐĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŵŵŽŶůLJ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƚ ĂĐŝĚ ƐŽŝůƐ ƚŚĂƚ ůĞĂĚƐ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĂĐŝĚŝĮĐĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ǁĂƚĞƌ ŵĂŬŝŶŐ ŝƚ ƵŶƐƵŝƚĂďůĞ ĨŽƌ ĚŽŵĞƐƟĐ ƉƵƌƉŽƐĞƐ ;MINH Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϵϳͿ͖ ĂŶĚ ŝƚ ŚĂƐ ůĞĚ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƌĂƉŝĚ ĂŶĚ ĐŚĂŽƟĐ ŐƌŽǁƚŚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƵƌďĂŶ ĂƌĞĂ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŝƚLJ ĂƐ ǁĞůů ƚŚĞ ƉĞƌŝƵƌďĂŶ ĂŶĚ ƌƵƌĂů ĂƌĞĂƐ ;> > Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϮ͖ Kh>d, Zd Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϲͿ͘ dŚĞ ƉƌŽǀŝŶĐĞ ŽĨ Ă DĂƵ ŝƐ Ă ůŽǁ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƌĞŐŝŽŶ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚĞƌŶ ĂƌĞĂ ŽĨ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͘ /ƚ ŝƐ ƐƵƌƌŽƵŶĚĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ 'ƵůĨ ŽĨ dŚĂŝůĂŶĚ Ăƚ ƚŚĞ ǁĞƐƚ ĂŶĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ĂƐƚ ^ĞĂ͕ ǁŝƚŚ ĂŶ ĂƌĞĂ ŽĨ ϱϮϵϰ Km2͕ Ă ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ϭϮϭϰϵϬϬ ƉĞŽƉůĞ ǁŝƚŚ Ă ĚĞŶƐŝƚLJ ŽĨ ϮϮϵ ƉĞŽƉůĞͬ <ŵ2 ; Ă DĂƵ ǁĞďƐŝƚĞͿ͘ /ƚƐ ĨƌĞƐŚǁĂƚĞƌ ƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ ĂƌĞ ďLJ ƉƌĞĐŝƉŝƚĂƟŽŶ͕ ƵŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚ ĂƋƵŝĨĞƌƐ ĂŶĚ ƐƵƌĨĂĐĞ ŇŽǁƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ĂƐƐĂĐ ZŝǀĞƌ͘ tŝƚŚ Ă ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ ŽĨ ϭϳϬ <ŵ ůŽŶŐ͕ ŝƚ ŝƐ ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞĚ ďLJ ƚǁŽ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ƟĚĂů ƌĞŐŝŵĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ĚƌŝǀĞ ƚŚĞ ƐĂůŝŶĞ ŝŶƚƌƵƐŝŽŶ ŝŶƚŽ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŝŶ ĐĂŶĂů ĂŶĚ ĐƌĞĞŬ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ŵĂŝŶůLJ ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ DLJ dŚĂŶŚ͕ 'ĂŶŚ ,ĂŽ ZŝǀĞƌƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ĂƐƚ ^ĞĂ ĂŶĚ ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ^ŽŶŐ ŽĐ͕ Ăŝ >ŽŶ͕ Ăŝ Ğ ZŝǀĞƌƐ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ĐĂŶĂůƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ tĞƐƚ ^ĞĂ ;dZ/͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ dŚĞ ƐĞŵŝĚŝƵƌŶĂů ƟĚĂů ƌĂŶŐĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĂƐƚ ^ĞĂ ŝŶ

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5000 km Worlds biggest delta areas

Delta areas in the world. From KONNINGS, 2012.

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ŚŝŐŚ ƟĚĞ ĐĂŶ ƌĞĂĐŚ ĂŵƉůŝƚƵĚĞ ƌĂŶŐĞƐ ĨƌŽŵ ϯͲ ϯ͘ϱ ŵ͘ ǁŚŝůĞ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ůŽǁ ƟĚĞƐ ǀĂƌŝĞƐ ĨƌŽŵ ϭ͘ϴͲ Ϯ͘Ϯ ŵ͘ dŚĞ ŝƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌ ĚŝƵƌŶĂů tĞƐƚ ^ĞĂ ƟĚĞ ƌĞĂĐŚĞƐ ĂŵƉůŝƚƵĚĞƐ ŽĨ Ϭ͘ϴ ŵ͘ ĂƉƉƌŽdžŝŵĂƚĞůLJ ;^/tZZ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ dŚĞ ƌĞĐĞŶƚ ŐƌŽǁƚŚ Ă DĂƵDzƐ ĞĐŽŶŽŵLJ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ϮϬϬϭͲ ϮϬϭϬ ŚĂƐ ďĞĞŶ ĂďŽƵƚ ϭϮй͕ ǁŚŝĐŚ ŝƐ ƐƚƌŽŶŐĞƌ ƚŚĂŶ ƚŚĞ ƉƌĞǀŝŽƵƐ ƉĞƌŝŽĚ ;ϭϵϵϲͲ ϮϬϬϬ͕ ϴйͿ͘ dŚĞ ƉƌŽǀŝŶĐŝĂů 'W ƌĞĂĐŚĞĚ h^ΨϭϭϬϳ ŵŝůůŝŽŶ ĂŶĚ ' W ƉĞƌ ĐĂƉŝƚĂ ĂƵŐŵĞŶƚĞĚ ĨƌŽŵ h^ΨϲϰϬ ŝŶ ϮϬϬϲ ƚŽ h^ΨϵϮϯ ŝŶ ϮϬϬϵ͘ dŚĞ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚĞĚ ' W ŐƌŽǁƚŚ ĨŽƌ ƚŚĞ ƉĞƌŝŽĚ ϮϬϭϬͲϮϬϯϬ ŝƐ ϴй ŽŶ ĂǀĞƌĂŐĞ͕ ĂůƚŚŽƵŐŚ ĂŌĞƌ ƚŚĂƚ ƚŚĞ ŐƌŽǁƚŚ ƌĂƚĞ ŵŝŐŚƚ ƌĞĚƵĐĞ ƚŽ ĂƌŽƵŶĚ ϱй ĨŽƌ ϮϬϯϬͲ ϱϬ͘ dŚĞ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ƐĞĐƚŽƌ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ůŽĐĂů ĞĐŽŶŽŵLJ͕ ǁŝƚŚ ϰϮй ŽĨ Ă DĂƵDzƐ ' W ĂŶĚ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŝŶ ĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐĂů ĂĐƟǀŝƚLJ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ϳϱй ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ;d,K ,hE'͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ dŚĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ĂƌĞĂ ŽĨ Ă DĂƵ ŝƐ ŵĂŝŶůLJ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ;ϴϴϳϯϴ ŚĂͿ ĂŶĚ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ;ϱϲϵϬϬ ŚĂͿ ;^/tZZ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ŝƐ ƵƐĞĚ ŵĂŝŶůLJ ĂƐ Ă ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟǀĞ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ǁŝƚŚŝŶ ϭ <ŵ ǁŝĚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ďĞůƚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ^ŽƵƚŚ ĂƐƚ ĂŶĚ ^ŽƵƚŚĞƌŶ ĐŽĂƐƚƐ͘ KŶ ƚŚĞ ǁĞƐƚ ĐŽĂƐƚ͕ ĂƉƉƌŽdžŝŵĂƚĞůLJ ϮϮϬϬ ŚĂ ŽĨ ŶĞǁ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĂƌĞ ŵŝƐƐŝŶŐ ĂŶĚ ƐŚŽƵůĚ ďĞ ƉůĂŶƚĞĚ ƚŽ ĐůŽƐĞ ƚŚĞ ŐĂƉƐ ǁŚĞƌĞ ǁĂƐ ƉƌĞǀŝŽƵƐůLJ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƚ ĂŶĚ ƚŽ ĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞ ƚŚĞ ďĞůƚ ;d,K ,hE'͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘

EVOLUTION OF THE MEKONG RIVER DELTA AND THE CA MAU PENINSULA dŚĞ DĞŬŽŶŐ ZŝǀĞƌ ĞůƚĂ ;DZ Ϳ ŝƐ ĂŵŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƐŝĂŶ ŵĞŐĂͲĚĞůƚĂƐ ĂŶĚ ŝƐ ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞĚ ďLJ ǀĂƌŝŽƵƐ ĨĂĐƚŽƌƐ ŝŶĐůƵĚŝŶŐ ƟĚĞƐ ;ŵĞƐŽͲƟĚĂů ƐLJƐƚĞŵͿ͕ ǁĂǀĞƐ͕ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƐ͕ ŵŽŶƐŽŽŶͲ ĚƌŝǀĞŶ ƌŝǀĞƌ ĚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞ ĂŶĚ ŚƵŵĂŶ ŝŵƉĂĐƚ ;ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ͕ ĮƐŚŝŶŐ͕ ƐĂŶĚ ĚƌĞĚŐŝŶŐ͕ ƚŽƵƌŝƐŵ͕ ĞƚĐ͘Ϳ ;hEs ZZ/ ,d Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϯͿ͘ /Ɛ Ă ĐŽŵďŝŶĞĚ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ;ƌŝǀĞƌͲĚŽŵŝŶĂƚĞĚͬ ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞĚ͕ ǁĂǀĞĚŽŵŝŶĂƚĞĚͬ ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞĚ͕ ƟĚĞĚŽŵŝŶĂƚĞĚͬ ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞĚͿ ǁŝƚŚ ƐĞǀĞƌĂů ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ ĐŚĂŶŐĞƐ ŝŶ ƟŵĞ ;yh Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϬ͖ z D ^,/d Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ dŚĞ DĞŬŽŶŐ ZŝǀĞƌ ŽƌŝŐŝŶĂƚĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ dŝďĞƚĂŶ WůĂƚĞĂƵ͕ ƌƵŶƐ ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ŚŝŶĂ͕ DLJĂŶŵĂƌ͕ dŚĂŝůĂŶĚ͕ >ĂŽƐ͕ ĂŵďŽĚŝĂ͕ ĂŶĚ ĮŶĂůůLJ ĞŶƚĞƌƐ ƚŚĞ ^ŽƵƚŚ ŚŝŶĂ ^ĞĂ ŝŶ ƐŽƵƚŚĞƌŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ǁŝƚŚ Ă ƚŽƚĂů ůĞŶŐƚŚ ŽĨ ϰϳϱϬ <ŵ ĂƉƉƌŽdžŝŵĂƚĞůLJ͘ ƉƉƌŽdžŝŵĂƚĞůLJ ϴϱй ;ϰϳϱ ďŝůůŝŽŶ ŵϯͿ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ ĚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞ ŽĐĐƵƌƐ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ǁĞƚ ƐĞĂƐŽŶ ;DĂLJ ƚŽ KĐƚŽďĞƌͿ͕ ĂŶĚ ϭϱй ;ϳϴ͘ϴ ďŝůůŝŽŶ ŵϯͿ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĚƌLJ ƐĞĂƐŽŶ ;EŽǀĞŵďĞƌ ƚŽ ƉƌŝůͿ͘ dŚĞ ĚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞ ŽĨ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ ŝƐ ϭϲϬ

ĐĐŽƌĚŝŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ^/tZZͲ ^ŽƵƚŚĞƌŶ /ŶƐƟƚƵƚĞ ĨŽƌ tĂƚĞƌ ZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ WůĂŶŶŝŶŐ ŽĨ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕ ƚŚŝƐ ĐŽŵƉůĞdž ŝŶƚĞƌĂĐƟŽŶ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ƚǁŽ ƟĚĂů ƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ͕ ƚŽŐĞƚŚĞƌ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ŇĂƚ ŐĞŽŵŽƌƉŚŽůŽŐLJ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ͕ ĐĂƵƐĞƐ ƚŚĞ ĨŽůůŽǁŝŶŐ ƐŝƚƵĂƟŽŶƐ ƌĞůĂƚĞĚ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ ůŽŐŝĐƐ͗ ǀĂƐƚ ĂŶĚ ĞdžƚĞŶĚĞĚ ŇŽŽĚ ƌĞŐŝŵĞ ĚƌŝǀĞŶ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚ ŵŽŶƐŽŽŶ ;DĂLJͲ ^ĞƉƚĞŵďĞƌͿ͕ ƐƚƌŽŶŐ ǁŝŶĚƐ ĂŶĚ ĐLJĐůŽŶĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ĐĂŶ ŝŶƵŶĚĂƚĞ ĚŝŬĞ ƌŽƵƚĞƐ͕ ƌĞƐŝĚĞŶƟĂů ĂŶĚ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ĂƌĞĂƐ͕ ĞƌŽĚĞ ďĂŶŬƐ ĂŶĚ ĐŽŶƚĂŵŝŶĂƚĞ ĚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞ͖ ƐŚŽƌƚĂŐĞƐ ŽĨ ĨƌĞƐŚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ĂŶĚ ƐĂůŝŶŝƚLJ ŝŶƚƌƵƐŝŽŶ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ ŝŶ ĚƌLJ ƐĞĂƐŽŶ͖ ĐŝĚ ^ƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ^ŽŝůƐ ; ^^Ϳ ƚŚĂƚ ĐĂŶ ƉƌŽĚƵĐĞ ŚŝŐŚůLJ ĂĐŝĚŝĐ ǁĂƚĞƌƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ďĞŐŝŶŶŝŶŐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƌĂŝŶLJ ƐĞĂƐŽŶ͖ ĚƌŽƵŐŚƚ ĂŶĚ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞĚ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ůŽĂĚŝŶŐƐ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ĚĞĨŽƌĞƐƚĂƟŽŶ ;^/tZZ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ Location of dams in the Mekong River. From RENAUD et al, 2012..

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Mekong River Profile from headwaters to mouth. From QUANG TRIEU, 2012.

ac

ss

Ba Ri r ve

20

10

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Scheme of the growing of Ca Mau peninsula. From PETROVSKY, 2013. KULeuven.

4

ŵŝůůŝŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŽŶƐͬLJĞĂƌ ŚĂǀŝŶŐ ŽŶĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŚŝŐŚĞƐƚ ƌĂƚĞƐ ŽĨ ƌĞůĞĂƐĞ ĂĐĐŽƌĚŝŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ŝƚƐ ůĞŶŐƚŚ ĂŶĚ ŇŽǁ ƌĂƚĞ͘ dŚŝƐ ĂŵŽƵŶƚ ŽĨ ĚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞ ŵĂLJ ĚŝŵŝŶŝƐŚ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĞdžŝƐƟŶŐ ĂŶĚ ƉƌŽƉŽƐĞĚ ĚĂŵƐ ĂůŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƌŝǀĞƌ ;yh Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϬ͖ hEs ZZ/ ,d Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϯͿ͘ KǀĞƌ ƚŚĞ ƉĂƐƚ ϯϬϬϬ LJĞĂƌƐ͕ ƚŚĞ ĞǀŽůƵƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ DZ ŚĂƐ ƐŚŽǁŶ Ă ŵŽƌƉŚŽůŽŐŝĐĂů ĂƐLJŵŵĞƚƌLJ͕ ƌĞƐƵůƟŶŐ ŝŶ Ă ĨĂƐƚ ƉƌŽŐƌĂĚĂƟŽŶ ĂƌŽƵŶĚ Ă DĂƵ ĐĂƉĞ͖ ƌĞƐƵůƟŶŐ ŝŶ ϭϲ ŵͬLJĞĂƌ ĂƉƉƌŽdžŝŵĂƚĞůLJ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƌĞŐŝŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ DZ ŵŽƵƚŚ ĂŶĚ Ϯϲ ŵͬLJĞĂƌ ĂƉƉƌŽdž͘ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƟƉ ŽĨ Ă DĂƵ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ͘ ƚ ƚŚĞ ƐĂŵĞ ƟŵĞ ƚŚĞ ĞĂƐƚ ƐŚŽƌĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ŚĂƐ ďĞĞŶ ƵŶĚĞƌ ĞƌŽƐŝŽŶ Ăƚ Ă ƌĂƚĞ ϭ͘ϭ Ŭŵ2ͬLJĞĂƌ͕ ǁŚŝůĞ ƚŚĞ ǁĞƐƚ ƐŚŽƌĞ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƚƐ Ă ƉƌŽŐƌĂĚĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ĂďŽƵƚ ϭ͘Ϯ Ŭŵ2ͬLJĞĂƌ͘ dŚŝƐ ĂƌĞĂ ŝƐ ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚĞĂƐƚ ĂŶĚ ŶŽƌƚŚĞĂƐƚ ƐŝĂŶ DŽŶƐŽŽŶ͕ ŚĂǀŝŶŐ ƚǁŽ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ƐĐĞŶĂƌŝŽƐ ĂŶŶƵĂůůLJ͘ dŚĞ ĮƌƐƚ ŽŶĞ ƚĂŬĞƐ ƉůĂĐĞ ǁŚĞŶ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚǁĞƐƚ ŵŽŶƐŽŽŶ ďƌŝŶŐƐ ƚŚĞ ƉƌĞĐŝƉŝƚĂƟŽŶƐ ;ƚŚĞ ƌĂŝŶLJ ƐĞĂƐŽŶͿ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ DĂLJ ĂŶĚ KĐƚŽďĞƌ͘ DŽƐƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƐƵƐƉĞŶĚĞĚ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ĂƌĞ ĚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞĚ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ DZ ƚŽ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ǁĂƚĞƌƐ͘ dŚĞ ƐĞĐŽŶĚ ŽŶĞ ŽĐĐƵƌƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĚƌLJ ƐĞĂƐŽŶ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ EŽǀĞŵďĞƌ ĂŶĚ Ɖƌŝů͕ ǁŚĞŶ ƟĚĂů ĂƐLJŵŵĞƚƌLJ ;ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƐ ĐĂŶ ƌĞĂĐŚ Ϭ͘ϱϱ ŵͬƐͿ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ƌĞĚƵĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ĨƌĞƐŚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ŇŽǁ ƌĂƚĞ ŐĞŶĞƌĂƚĞ ƐĂůŝŶĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ ŝŶƚƌƵƐŝŽŶ͘ ^ĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ĂƌĞ ĞŝƚŚĞƌ ƉƵŵƉĞĚ ƵƉƐƚƌĞĂŵ Žƌ ƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚĞĚ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚǁĞƐƚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƐ ƐƚƌĞŶŐƚŚĞŶĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ŶŽƌƚŚĞĂƐƚ ŵŽŶƐŽŽŶ͘ Ɛ ƐĂŝĚ ďĞĨŽƌĞ͕ ƚŚĞ Ă DĂƵ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ŝƐ ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ dŚĂŝůĂŶĚ 'ƵůĨ ƟĚĂů ƌĞŐŝŵĞ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ĂƐƚ ƐĞĂ ƟĚĂů ƌĞŐŝŵĞ͕ ĐŽŶǀĞƌŐŝŶŐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚĞƌŶ ƟƉ ŽĨ Ă DĂƵ ĐĂƉĞ͘ ƚ ƚŚŝƐ ƉŽŝŶƚ ůĂƌŐĞƌ ĂŵŽƵŶƚƐ ŽĨ ƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚĞĚ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ĂƌĞ ĂĐĐƵŵƵůĂƚĞĚ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƌĞĚƵĐĞĚ ƟĚĂů ĞŶĞƌŐLJ ĐĂƵƐĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ŵĞĞƟŶŐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƚǁŽ ƟĚĂů ƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ͘ KŶůLJ ĮŶĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ĂƌĞ ĂďůĞ ƚŽ ƉĂƐƐ ƚŚĞ ƟƉ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐĂƉĞ͕ ƌĞĂĐŚŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ǁĞƐƚĞƌŶ ƐŚŽƌĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ;yh Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϬͿ͘ ƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚŝƐ ƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚ ŽĨ ƐŽŝů ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ŝŶůĂŶĚƐ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ͕ ŚŝŐŚ ƉĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞƐ ŽĨ ŽƌŐĂŶŝĐ ŵĂƩĞƌ ĂƌĞ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ;z D ^,/d Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘

ŝƐ ƐƵƐĐĞƉƟďůĞ ƚŽ͕ ĂŶĚ ƵŶĂďůĞ ƚŽ ĐŽƉĞ ǁŝƚŚ͕ ĂĚǀĞƌƐĞ ĞīĞĐƚƐ ŽĨ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ͕ ŝŶĐůƵĚŝŶŐ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ ǀĂƌŝĂďŝůŝƚLJ ĂŶĚ ĞdžƚƌĞŵĞƐ͘ sƵůŶĞƌĂďŝůŝƚLJ ŝƐ Ă ĨƵŶĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌ͕ ŵĂŐŶŝƚƵĚĞ͕ ĂŶĚ ƌĂƚĞ ŽĨ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ĂŶĚ ǀĂƌŝĂƟŽŶ ƚŽ ǁŚŝĐŚ Ă ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ŝƐ ĞdžƉŽƐĞĚ͕ ŝƚƐ ƐĞŶƐŝƟǀŝƚLJ͕ ĂŶĚ ŝƚƐ ĂĚĂƉƟǀĞ ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ͟ ;/W ͕ ϮϬϬϳͿ͘ ůŝŵĂƚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ ŵĂũŽƌ ĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂů ƚŚƌĞĂƚƐ ĨŽƌ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ĐĂƵƐĞĚ ĨŽƌ ŐƌĞĞŶŚŽƵƐĞ ŐĂƐ ĞŵŝƐƐŝŽŶƐ ĨƌŽŵ ŚƵŵĂŶ ĂĐƟǀŝƟĞƐ͘ dŚĞ ĞŶƟƌĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ŝƐ ŚŝŐŚůLJ ǀƵůŶĞƌĂďůĞ ƚŽ ĐůŝŵĂƟĐ ŽƐĐŝůůĂƟŽŶƐ ĂŶĚ ĞdžƚƌĞŵĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ ƌĞŐŝŵĞ͖ ŝƚ ŝƐ ŚŝŐŚůLJ ĞdžƉŽƐĞĚ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ŵŽƌĞ ƐĞƌŝŽƵƐ ĨŽƌ ĐŽƵŶƚƌŝĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ŚĂǀĞ ŚŝŐŚ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ĚĞŶƐŝƟĞƐ ŝŶ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĂŶĚ ůŽǁůĂŶĚƐ ůŝŬĞ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ĐůŝŵĂƟĐ ŽƐĐŝůůĂƟŽŶƐ ůĞĂĚ ƚŽ ƐƚƌŽŶŐĞƌ ŇƵĐƚƵĂƟŽŶƐ ŝŶ ƌĂŝŶĨĂůů ĂŵŽƵŶƚƐ ĂŶĚ ĂŶ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ŝŶ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ ĞdžƚƌĞŵĞƐ ůŝŬĞ ŇŽŽĚƐ ĂŶĚ ĚƌŽƵŐŚƚƐ͘ dŚĞ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ ǁŝůů ĂīĞĐƚ ĚŝƌĞĐƚůLJ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĂƌĞĂƐ͕ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ŝŶĨƌĂƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞ ĐŽƐƚƐ ĂŶĚ ŝŶƵŶĚĂƟŶŐ͕ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƌĞƐƵůƟŶŐ ůŽƐƐ ŽĨ ůĂŶĚ ;D < z͕ Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϭͿ͘ dŚĞ ĚĞĂƚŚ ƚŽůů ďLJ ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ĚŝƐĂƐƚĞƌ ǁŝůů ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ĂůŽŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ƉŽǀĞƌƚLJ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ůŽƐƐ ŽĨ ŝŶĐŽŵĞ ĂŶĚ ŚŽƵƐĞƐ͘ dŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ǀƵůŶĞƌĂďůĞ ŐƌŽƵƉ ŝŶĐůƵĚĞƐ ĨĂƌŵĞƌƐ͕ ĞƚŚŶŝĐ ŵŝŶŽƌŝƚLJ͕ ĐŚŝůĚƌĞŶ͕ ǁŽŵĞŶ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ĞůĚĞƌůLJ͘ dŚĞ ŵĂŝŶ ŝŵƉĂĐƚƐ ǁŝůů ďĞ ĂƌŽƵŶĚ ƚŚĞ ZĞĚ ZŝǀĞƌ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ DĞŬŽŶŐ ĚĞůƚĂƐ ;dŚĞ DĞŬŽŶŐ ĚĞůƚĂ ŝƐ ĂůŵŽƐƚ ďĞůŽǁ ϱ ŵ͘ ĂďŽǀĞ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ŽŶĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ǀƵůŶĞƌĂďůĞ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ǁŽƌůĚͿ͘ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ ǁŝůů ƉƌŽďĂďůLJ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ƐĂůƚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ŝŶƚƌƵƐŝŽŶ͕ ǁŚŝĐŚ ŝƐ ďĞĨŽƌĞ ŶŽǁ Ă ƉƌŽďůĞŵ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶƐ ŽĨ ĐĂŶĂůƐ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ĨƌĞƐŚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ĞdžƚƌĂĐƟŽŶ ĨŽƌ ĚƌŝŶŬŝŶŐ ĂŶĚ ŝƌƌŝŐĂƟŽŶ ;D < z Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϭ͖ DŝŶŝƐƚƌLJ ŽĨ EĂƚƵƌĂů ZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϬͿ͘ ůů ƚŚĞƐĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞƐ ǁŝůů ĂīĞĐƚ ƚŚĞ ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ͘ ŚĂŶŐĞƐ ŝŶ ŐƌŽǁŝŶŐ ƉĞƌŝŽĚƐ͕ ĐƌŽƉ ĐĂůĞŶĚĂƌƐ ĂŶĚ ĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶ ǁŝůů ƚĂŬĞ ƉůĂĐĞ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƌŝƐŬ ŽĨ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐ ƉĞƐƚƐ ĂŶĚ ǀŝƌƵƐĞƐ ĂŶĚ ƐŽŵĞ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ĐĂŶ ďĞĐŽŵĞ ůŽĐĂůůLJ ĞdžƟŶĐƚ ĂƐ Ă ƌĞƐƵůƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐŝŶŐ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͘ ZŝĐĞ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ ŝƐ ƉƌĞĚŝĐƚĞĚ ƚŽ ĚĞĐƌĞĂƐĞ ŝŶ ϵй ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ǁŚŽůĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ĂīĞĐƚĞĚ ƚŽŽ ĨƌƵŝƚ ĂŶĚ ĨƌĞƐŚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ĂƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ ;DŝŶŝƐƚƌLJ ŽĨ EĂƚƵƌĂů ZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ Ğƚ Ăů͕ CLIMATE CHANGE ϮϬϭϬͿ͘ Ɛ ƚŚĞ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ƐĞĐƚŽƌ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ůŽĐĂů ĞĐŽŶŽŵLJ͕ ĂŶLJ ŶĞŐĂƟǀĞ ůŝŵĂƚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ǀƵůŶĞƌĂďŝůŝƚLJ ŝƐ ĚĞĮŶĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ /W ĂƐ ͞ƚŚĞ ĚĞŐƌĞĞ ƚŽ ǁŚŝĐŚ Ă ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ŝŵƉĂĐƚ ŽŶ ƚŚĞƐĞ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ ǁŝůů ĂīĞĐƚ ĞŶŽƌŵŽƵƐůLJ ƚŚĞ ůŝǀĞůŝŚŽŽĚƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŽƉůĞ ĂŶĚ 5

ƚŚĞ ƌĞŐŝŽŶĂů ĂŶĚ ŶĂƟŽŶĂů ĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĞƐ͖ ǁŝƚŚ ĐĂƌĞ͘ ƚŚĞ ĐŚĂůůĞŶŐĞ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ůŽĐĂů ĂŶĚ ŶĂƟŽŶĂů ĨŽŽĚ dŚĞ ŚĂnjĂƌĚ ŽĨ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ ĐĂŶ ĐŽŵĞ ĨƌŽŵ ƐĞĐƵƌŝƚLJ͘ ƚŚƌĞĞ ƌĞůĂƚĞĚ ƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ͗ LJ ŽŶĞ ŚĂŶĚ͕ ƚŚĞ >ŽƐƐ ŽĨ ŚŽƵƐŝŶŐ ŝƐ ĂŶŽƚŚĞƌ ŵĂũŽƌ ŝŵƉĂĐƚ ƐLJƐƚĞŵĂƟĐ ŝŶĐƌĞŵĞŶƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŐƌĞĞŶ ŚŽƵƐĞ ŽĨ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ͘ ƵĞ ƚŽ ĞīĞĐƚ ĂůŽŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ŐƌĂĚƵĂů ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ůŝŵŝƚĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ŚŝŐŚ ůĂŶĚ ĂƌĞĂƐ ;ŵŽƐƚůLJ ŝŶ ŐůŽďĂů ĂǀĞƌĂŐĞ ƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞ ŽĨ ŚĞĂƌƚŚ͘ DŽƐƚ ƌƵƌĂů ĂƌĞĂƐͿ͕ ďƵŝůĚŝŶŐ ŝŶ ŚŝŐŚĞƌ ƉůĂĐĞƐ ǁŝůů ďĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŐůŽďĂů ƚŚĞƌŵĂů ĞŶĞƌŐLJ ŝƐ ĐŽůůĞĐƚĞĚ ŝŶ ĚŝĸĐƵůƚ͘ WŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ůŝǀŝŶŐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĂƌĞĂƐ ƚŚĞ ŽĐĞĂŶƐ͖ ƚŚĞƌĞĨŽƌĞ ĂŶ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ŝŶ ŐůŽďĂů ĂƌĞ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ǀƵůŶĞƌĂďůĞ ƚŽ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞ ǁŝůů ƌĞƐƵůƚ ŝŶ ǁĂƌŵĞƌ ŽĐĞĂŶƐ͘ ŝŵƉĂĐƚƐ͘ dŚŝƐ ĐĂŶ ĐĂƵƐĞ ĂŶ ĞdžƉĂŶƐŝŽŶ ŽĨ ƐĞĂ ǁĂƚĞƌ ǀŽůƵŵĞ͕ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ďLJ ϭ ƚŽ ϯ ůŝŵĂƚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ŝƐ ĂůƐŽ ĞdžƉĞĐƚĞĚ ƚŽ ĂīĞĐƚ ŵ͘ /Ĩ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞƐ ďLJ ϭŵ͕ ĂƌŽƵŶĚ ϱ͘ϯй ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶDzƐ ŚĞĂůƚŚ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĨĂĐƚ ƚŚĂƚ ƚŚĞ ŽĨ ůĂŶĚ͕ ϭϬ͘ϴй ŽĨ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ͕ ϭϬ͘Ϯй ŽĨ ' W͕ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ŽĨ ƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞ ĐĂŶ ŵĂŬĞ ĞĂƐŝĞƌ ϭϬ͘ϵй ŽĨ ƵƌďĂŶ ĂƌĞĂ͕ ϳ͘Ϯй ŽĨ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ƚŚĞ ŐƌŽǁƚŚ ĂŶĚ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚ ŽĨ ƐĞǀĞƌĂů ĂƌĞĂ͕ ĂŶĚ Ϯϴ͘ϵй ŽĨ ůŽǁ ŐƌŽƵŶĚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ǁŚŽůĞ ǀŝƌƵƐĞƐ ĂŶĚ ǀĞĐƚŽƌƐ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƌĞƐƵůƚ ŽĨ ŚŝŐŚĞƌ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ǁŝůů ďĞ ĂīĞĐƚĞĚ ;/W ͕ ϮϬϬϳͿ͘ LJ ƚŚĞ ŝŶĐŝĚĞŶĐĞƐ ŽĨ ĚŝƐĞĂƐĞƐ ĂƐ ŵĂůĂƌŝĂ Žƌ ĚĞŶŐƵĞ͘ Ca Mau Provincial Vulnerability Synthesis 30 ,ŽƩĞƌ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞƐ͕ ŚŝŐŚĞƌ ƐƵŶ ƌĂĚŝĂƟŽŶƐ͕ ĂďƌƵƉƚ ǁĞĂƚŚĞƌ ĐŚĂŶŐĞƐ ĂƌĞ ĨĂĐƚŽƌƐ ƚŚĂƚ ĐĂŶ 20 ĐĂƵƐĞ ĚŝƌĞĐƚ ŚĂƌŵ ƚŽ ŚƵŵĂŶ ŚĞĂůƚŚ ƐƵĐŚ ĂƐ ůŽƐƐ ŽĨ ǁĂƚĞƌ ďĂůĂŶĐĞ ĂŶĚ ƐĂůƚ͕ ŚŝŐŚĞƌ ƌŝƐŬƐ 10 ǁŝƚŚ ĐĂƌĚŝŽǀĂƐĐƵůĂƌ ĚŝƐĞĂƐĞƐ ŝŶ ĞůĚĞƌ ƉĞŽƉůĞ ;ŚŽƚ ĂŶĚ ŵŽŝƐƚ ǁĞĂƚŚĞƌͿ͕ ƐŬŝŶ ŵĞůĂŶŽŵĂ͕ ĞƚĐ͘ ;DŝŶŝƐƚƌLJ ŽĨ EĂƚƵƌĂů ZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϬͿ͘ dŚŝƐ ǁŝůů ƌĞƋƵŝƌĞ ŶĞǁ ůŽŶŐ ƚĞƌŵ ƐƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĞƐ ĨŽƌ ƉƵďůŝĐ ŚĞĂůƚŚ

Impacts Sector SeƩlements & PopulaƟŽŶ

Erosion & Sedimentation

t

Flooding & Inundation

tt

Salinity

tt

Storm Surge

t

Overall ProtecƟon Medium

t

Minor and/or well controlled

tt

Intermediate and/or partly controlled

Poverty & Income

t

tt

ttt

t

High

ttt

Major but largely controlled

Agriculture & Livelihoods

tt

ttt

ttt

t

High

tttt

Major and largely uncontrolled

Industry & Energy

t

t

tt

t

High

TransportaƟon

t

t

tt

t

High

Ca Mau ditrict vulnerability synthesis. From MACKAY et al, 2011.

6

ŽƚŚĞƌ ŚĂŶĚ͕ ƚŚĞ ŝĐĞďĞƌŐƐ ŝŶ 'ƌĞĞŶůĂŶĚ ĂŶĚ tĞƐƚ ŶƚĂƌĐƟĐ ĂƌĞ ŵĞůƟŶŐ ĨĂƐƚĞƌ ƚŚĂŶ ďĞĨŽƌĞ͕ ƵƉ ƚŽ ŽǀĞƌ ϭ ŵ͘ Ă ŵŽŶƚŚ ŝŶ ƐŽŵĞ ĂƌĞĂƐ͘ dŚŝƐ ƉŚĞŶŽŵĞŶŽŶ ĐŽƵůĚ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ďLJ ϱ ŵ͘ dŚĞ ƚŚŝƌĚ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐ ƵƐĞ ĂŶĚ ĞdžƚƌĂĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƵŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚ ǁĂƚĞƌ͕ ĞƐƉĞĐŝĂůůLJ ƵŶĚĞƌ ďŝŐ ĐŝƟĞƐ͕ ǁŚŝĐŚ ĐĂŶ ŵĂŬĞ ůĂŶĚ ƐƵƌĨĂĐĞƐ ƐŝŶŬ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ůŽƐƐ ŽĨ ŚƵŵŝĚŝƚLJ ;^/tZZ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ ŽĂƐƚĂů ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ ;ŝŶĐůƵĚŝŶŐ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐͿ ĂƌĞ ŚŝŐŚůLJ ǀƵůŶĞƌĂďůĞ ƚŽ ůŝŵĂƚĞ ŚĂŶŐĞ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƐŽĐŝĂů ĂŶĚ ĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐ ƉƌĞƐƐƵƌĞ ĂŶĚ ŝƚƐ ůŽĐĂůŝnjĂƟŽŶ ŝŶ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞƐ͘ dŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵ ŝƐ ĞdžƉĞĐƚĞĚ ƚŽ ďĞ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ĂīĞĐƚĞĚ͕ ŚĂǀŝŶŐ Ă ůĂƌŐĞ ĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐĂů ĂŶĚ ƐŽĐŝĂů ŝŵƉĂĐƚ ;z H Ͳ Z E / / Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϵϴ͖ D < Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘

ACID SULPHATE SOILS dŚĞƐĞ ƐŽŝůƐ ĂƌĞ ǀĞƌLJ ĐŽŵŵŽŶ ŝŶ ŵŽƐƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƚƌŽƉŝĐĂů ĂŶĚ ƐƵď ƚƌŽƉŝĐĂů ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĂƌĞĂƐ ǁŝƚŚ Ă ŚŝŐŚ ƉƌĞƐĞŶĐĞ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ Ă DĂƵ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ĂƌĞ ƐŽŝůƐ ǁŝƚŚ Ă W, ďĞůŽǁ ϰ ĐĂƵƐĞĚ ďLJ ŽdžŝĚĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƉLJƌŝƚĞ ;&Ğ2^Ϳ͘ dŚĞ ĂĐĐƵŵƵůĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚŝƐ ŵŝŶĞƌĂů ŝƐ ƚŚĂŶŬƐ ƚŽ Ă ĐŽŵďŝŶĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ĨĂĐƚŽƌƐ ƚŚĂƚ ŽĐĐƵƌ ŽŶůLJ ŝŶ ƚƌŽƉŝĐĂů ĂŶĚ ƐƵď ƚƌŽƉŝĐĂů ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĂƌĞĂƐ͘ dŚĞ ƐƵůƉŚƵƌ ŽĨ ƉLJƌŝƚĞ ŝƐ ĚĞƌŝǀĞĚ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ƐƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ŝŶ ƐĞĂ ǁĂƚĞƌ͕ ƌĞĚƵĐĞĚ ďŝŽůŽŐŝĐĂůůLJ ƚŽ ƐƵůƉŚŝĚĞ ŝŶ ĂŶĂĞƌŽďŝĐ ŵƵĚ͘ dŚĞ ĨĞƌƌŽƵƐ ŝƌŽŶ ;&Ğ2+Ϳ ŝƐ ĚĞƌŝǀĞĚ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ƌĞĚƵĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ŝŶƐŽůƵďůĞ ĨĞƌƌŝĐ ĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ǁĞĂƚŚĞƌŝŶŐ ĐůĂLJ͘ dŚĞƌĞďLJ͕ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŵďŝŶĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƐƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ĨƌŽŵ ƐĞĂ ǁĂƚĞƌ͕ ŽƌŐĂŶŝĐ ŵĂƩĞƌ ĨƌŽŵ ƉůĂŶƚ ŐƌŽǁƚŚ͕ ƚŚĞ ĂŶĂĞƌŽďŝĐ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ƉƌĞƐĞŶĐĞ ŽĨ ĨĞƌƌŽƵƐ ŝƌŽŶ ŐŝǀĞƐ ĂƐ Ă ƌĞƐƵůƚ ƚŚĞ ĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ĂĐĐƵŵƵůĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƉLJƌŝƚĞ ŝŶ ƚƌŽƉŝĐĂů ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ǁĞƚůĂŶĚƐ ; dd E E E Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϴϲͿ͘ tŚĞŶ ƉLJƌŝƚĞ ĂĐĐƵŵƵůĂƚĞƐ ƌĞŵĂŝŶƐ ŝŶ ǁĂƚĞƌůŽŐŐĞĚ ƐŽŝůƐ͕ ŝƐ ĐĂůůĞĚ ͞ƉŽƚĞŶƟĂů͟ ĐŝĚ ^ƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ^ŽŝůƐ ; ^^Ϳ͕ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĂƚ ƚŚĞLJ ǁŝůů ŽŶůLJ ƉƌŽĚƵĐĞ ĂĐŝĚŝĮĐĂƟŽŶ ǁŚĞŶ ŽdžŝĚŝƐĞĚ͘ tŚĞŶ ƚŚĞƐĞ ƐŽŝůƐ ďĞĐŽŵĞ ĚƌLJ͕ ƚŚĞ ƉLJƌŝƚĞ ŽdžŝĚŝƐĞƐ ƚŽ ĨŽƌŵ ƐƵůƉŚƵƌŝĐ ĂĐŝĚ ;,2^KϰͿ ĐŽŶƚĂŵŝŶĂƟŶŐ ƚŚĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ ĚƌĂŝŶŝŶŐ ĨƌŽŵ ŝƚ͘ Ƶƚ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŝŶ ĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂů ŝŵƉĂĐƚ ĐŽŵĞƐ ĨƌŽŵ ŚŝŐŚůLJ ƚŽdžŝĐ ůĞǀĞů ŽĨ ĂůƵŵŝŶŝƵŵ ĂŶĚ ĨĞƌƌŽƵƐ ŝƌŽŶ͕ ǁŚŝĐŚ ĂƌĞ ĂůƐŽ ůĞĂĐŚĞĚ ĨƌŽŵ ^^͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ƵŶĂǀĂŝůĂďůĞ ĨŽƌ ƉůĂŶƚ ƵƉƚĂŬĞ ;ǁŝƚŚ ƐƚƌŽŶŐ ĐŽŶƐĞƋƵĞŶĐĞƐ ĨŽƌ ƉůĂŶƚ ŐƌŽǁƚŚ ƌĂƚĞƐͿ ĂŶĚ ĂƌĞ ƚŽdžŝĐ ĨŽƌ ƚŚĞ

ĂƋƵĂƟĐ ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵ ; h <dKE Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϵϵͿ͘

THE LOCAL FLORA. MANGROVES What are the Mangroves?

DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĂƌĞ ƟĚĂů ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ĐŽŵŵŽŶůLJ ŽďƐĞƌǀĞĚ ĂůŽŶŐ ĨŽƵŶĚ ŝŶ ƐŚĞůƚĞƌĞĚ ĞƐƚƵĂƌŝĞƐ ĂŶĚ ĂůŽŶŐ ƌŝǀĞƌ ďĂŶŬƐ ĂŶĚ ůĂŐŽŽŶƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƚƌŽƉŝĐƐ ĂŶĚ ƐƵďƚƌŽƉŝĐƐ͘ ^ŝƚƵĂƚĞĚ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ůĂŶĚ ĂŶĚ ƐĞĂ͕ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ŝƐ ŚŽƐƚ ƚŽ ƐŽŵĞ ϲϵ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ŽĨ ƉůĂŶƚƐ ĐĂůůĞĚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ƉůĂŶƚƐ ĂƌĞ ĂĚĂƉƚĞĚ ƚŽ ůŽƐĞ ǁĞƚ ƐŽŝůƐ͕ ƐĂůŝŶĞ ŚĂďŝƚĂƚƐ ;ŚĂůŽƉŚLJƚĞƐͿ ĂŶĚ ƉĞƌŝŽĚŝĐ ƟĚĂů ƐƵďŵĞƌŐĞŶĐĞ ;D Z , E ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ dŚĞ ƚĞƌŵ ͚ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ͛ ĚĞƐĐƌŝďĞƐ ďŽƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ƉůĂŶƚ ĨĂŵŝůŝĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ŚĂǀĞ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉĞĚ ƐƉĞĐŝĂůŝnjĞĚ ĂĚĂƉƚĂƟŽŶƐ ƚŽ ůŝǀĞ ŝŶ ƚŚŝƐ ƟĚĂů ĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ͘ dŚĞ ĞdžĂĐƚ ŶƵŵďĞƌ ŽĨ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ŝƐ ƐƟůů ƵŶĚĞƌ ĚŝƐĐƵƐƐŝŽŶ ĂŶĚ ƌĂŶŐĞƐ ĨƌŽŵ ϱϬ ƚŽ ϳϬ ĂĐĐŽƌĚŝŶŐ ƚŽ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ĐůĂƐƐŝĮĐĂƟŽŶƐ ;& K͕ ϮϬϬϳͿ͘ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĂƌĞ ĂŵŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ĂŶĚ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟǀĞ ƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ǁŽƌůĚ͕ ƉƌŽǀŝĚŝŶŐ ĨŽŽĚ ĂŶĚ ŶƵƌƐĞƌLJ ŐƌŽƵŶĚƐ ĨŽƌ ŵĂŶLJ ĐŽŵŵĞƌĐŝĂůůLJ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ĂƋƵĂƟĐ ĂŶĚ ƚĞƌƌĞƐƚƌŝĂů ĂŶŝŵĂůƐ͖ ƐƚĂďŝůŝnjŝŶŐ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞƐ ĂŶĚ ƉůĂLJŝŶŐ ĂŶ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ƐŽĐŝŽͲ ĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐ ƌŽůĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĚǁĞůůĞƌƐ ;d,/ ^ E Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϵϯͿ͘ dŚĞ ĐŽŵƉĞƟƟŽŶ ĨŽƌ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ůĂŶĚ ƵƐĞ ĂŶĚ ŽǀĞƌĞdžƉůŽŝƚĂƟŽŶ ŚĂǀĞ ƌĞĚƵĐĞĚ Žƌ ĚĞŐƌĂĚĞĚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĐŽǀĞƌĂŐĞ ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚŽƵƚ ŵƵĐŚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞŝƌ ĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶ͕ ĞƐƉĞĐŝĂůůLJ ŝŶ ^ŽƵƚŚͲĞĂƐƚ ƐŝĂ͘ ůƚŚŽƵŐŚ ƟŵďĞƌ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ ǁĂƐ ƚŚĞ ŝŶŝƟĂů ŵŽƟǀĂƟŽŶ ĨŽƌ ĞĂƌůLJ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƌĞĨŽƌĞƐƚĂƟŽŶ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐ͕ ďĞŶĞĮƚƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ĂŐĂŝŶƐƚ ĞƌŽƐŝŽŶ ĂŶĚ ĞdžƚƌĞŵĞ ǁĞĂƚŚĞƌ ĞǀĞŶƚƐ ĂŶĚ ĚŝƌĞĐƚ ŝŵƉƌŽǀĞŵĞŶƚƐ ŝŶ ůŝǀĞůŝŚŽŽĚƐ ĂŶĚ ĨŽŽĚ ƐĞĐƵƌŝƚLJ ŚĂǀĞ ďĞĞŶ ƉĞƌĐĞŝǀĞĚ ŵŽƌĞ ƌĞĐĞŶƚůLJ ĂƐ ũƵƐƟĮĐĂƟŽŶƐ ĨŽƌ ƌĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶ ĞīŽƌƚƐ ;t >dKE Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϲͿ͘ Growth and morphology DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĂƌĞ ĞĂƐŝůLJ ĚŝƐƟŶŐƵŝƐŚĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞŝƌ ƌŽŽƚ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ͕ ŚŝŐŚůLJ ĂĚĂƉƚĞĚ ƚŽ ŝƚƐ ŚĂďŝƚĂƚ͘ dŚĞ ĂďŽǀĞͲ ŐƌŽƵŶĚ ƉĂƌƚƐ ;ƉŶĞƵŵĂƚŽƉŚŽƌĞƐͿ ĂůůŽǁƐ ŐĂƐ ĞdžĐŚĂŶŐĞ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ďĞůŽǁͲ ŐƌŽƵŶĚ ƉĂƌƚƐ͘ dŚĞ ŐƌŽǁƚŚ ƌĂƚĞ ǀĂƌŝĞƐ ĂŵŽŶŐ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ LJŝĞůĚ ǀĂůƵĂďůĞ ƟŵďĞƌ ƚŚĞ ƐůŽǁĞƐƚ͘ ͘'͕͘ Bruguiera gymnorrhiza ĂƩĂŝŶƐ Ă ŚĞŝŐŚƚ 7

Soils with saline properties > 6.4g/L

2.56g/L

Acid soils with saline properties

> 6.4g/L

2.56g/L

Peat

2.5

Alluvial soils

10

25km

dS l h S l S l S l Acid Sulphate Soils- aline Soils. From TRINH, 2013, KULeuven.

8

ŽĨ ϵͲϭϮ ŵ ĂŶĚ Ă ŐŝƌƚŚ ŽĨ ϮϯͲϯϬ Đŵ ŝŶ ϭϱ LJĞĂƌƐ͘ /Ŷ dŚĂŝůĂŶĚ͕ ZŚŝnjŽƉŚŽƌĂ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ĂƩĂŝŶ ϭϰͲϭϴ ŵ ŝŶ ŚĞŝŐŚƚ ĂŶĚ ϰϱͲϳϱ Đŵ ŝŶ ŐŝƌƚŚ ŝŶ Ă ƉĞƌŝŽĚ ŽĨ ϮϬͲϯϬ LJĞĂƌƐ ;D Z , E ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ ZĞƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ

DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ŚĂǀĞ ŶŽ ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ ĨŽƌ ǀĞŐĞƚĂƟǀĞ ƌĞŐĞŶĞƌĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ŶŽ ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ ĨŽƌ ǀĞŐĞƚĂƟǀĞ ĚŝƐƉĞƌƐĂů͘ dŚĞŝƌ ĚŝƐƉĞƌƐŝŽŶ ĂŶĚ ĞƐƚĂďůŝƐŚŵĞŶƚ Ăƚ Ă ĚŝƐƚĂŶĐĞ ĂƌĞ ĚŽŶĞ ďLJ ŇŽĂƟŶŐ ƐĞĞĚƐ Žƌ ƐĞĞĚůŝŶŐƐ ;ƉƌŽƉĂŐƵůĞƐͿ͘ ůů ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĂƌĞ ĚŝƐƉĞƌƐĞĚ ďLJ ǁĂƚĞƌ͕ ŚĂǀŝŶŐ

m Tre er R iv m Tre

Ri

Ca i

Ta u

er G Riv

On

g

anh

Do

c

ve r

Ri

ve r

Hao am

er D Riv i

Do

ap

er Riv

yH Ba

ua er C Riv

Mangrove > 70%

Melaleuca < 30%

Lon

SLR +65cm

Maximum annual average erosion distance in bank +70cm

10m

5m

3 - 5m

1 - 2m

0.5 - 1m

Current green structures- River erosion. From TRINH, 2013, KULeuven.

9

ƚŚĞ ƉƌŽƉĂŐƵůĞ ƐŽŵĞ ŝŶŝƟĂů ĂďŝůŝƚLJ ƚŽ ŇŽĂƚ ƌĞĐŽŐŶŝnjĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƵŶĚ ŽĨ ĨƌĞƐŚ ŵƵĚ ƵƉ ƚŽ ϳϱ ĐĞŶƟŵĞƚƌĞƐ ŚŝŐŚ ĂƌŽƵŶĚ ƚŚĞŝƌ ĞŶƚƌĂŶĐĞƐ͘ ;D Z , E ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ďƵƌƌŽǁŝŶŐ ĂĐƟǀŝƟĞƐ ŚĞůƉ ƚŽ ŵŝdž ƚŚĞ ƐŽŝůƐ Physiology ĂŶĚ ƚŽ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ƚŚĞŝƌ ƐƵƌĨĂĐĞ ĐŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƟĐƐ͘ ;D Z , E ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ ŐĂŝŶƐƚ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŵŵŽŶ ƐĞŶƐĞ͕ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĂƌĞ ŶŽƚ ǀĞƌLJ ĨŽŶĚ ŽĨ ƐĂůŝŶĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ƚŚŝƐ Ă Importance of Mangrove Ecosystem ƉŚLJƐŝŽůŽŐŝĐĂů ƐƚƌĞƐƐ ĨĂĐƚŽƌ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ƉůĂŶƚƐ ŚĂǀĞ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉĞĚ ƐĞǀĞƌĂů ŵĞĐŚĂŶŝƐŵƐ ƚŽ ĐŽƉĞ ǁŝƚŚ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ĂƌĞ ĂŶ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƚŚŝƐ ƐƚƌĞƐƐ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ Ă ĐŽŵƉĞƟƟǀĞ ĂĚǀĂŶƚĂŐĞ ƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞ͘ ǀĂƐƚ ŵĂũŽƌŝƚLJ ŽĨ ŚƵŵĂŶ ŽǀĞƌ ŽƚŚĞƌ ƉůĂŶƚƐ͖ ŚĂǀŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĂďŝůŝƚLJ ƚŽ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ůŝǀĞƐ ŝŶ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĂƌĞĂƐ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ŽďƚĂŝŶ ĨƌĞƐŚǁĂƚĞƌ ƌĞƋƵŝƌĞĚ ĨŽƌ ƉŚLJƐŝŽůŽŐŝĐĂů ƐŽƵƌĐĞ ŽĨ ŚŝŐŚůLJ ǀĂůƵĞĚ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƚƐ ĂŶĚ ĮƐŚĞƌŝĞƐ ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐĞƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ƉŽƌĞͲǁĂƚĞƌ ƐƵƌƌŽƵŶĚŝŶŐ ƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ ;< d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯďͿ͘ ůƚŚŽƵŐŚ ƚŚĞ ĂďƐŽƌďŝŶŐ ƌŽŽƚƐ͘ ůŝƩůĞ ĂŵŽƵŶƚ ŽĨ ƐĂůƚ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƟĞƐ ĂŶĚ ƐĐŝĞŶƟƐƚƐ ŚĂǀĞ ŝƐ ƚĂŬĞŶ ƵƉ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ƚƌĞĞ ĂŶĚ ǁŝůů ĂĐĐƵŵƵůĂƚĞ͕ ƌĞĐŽŐŶŝnjĞĚ ƚŚĞ ǀĂůƵĞ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ͕ ƉŽůŝĐLJ ĞdžĐƌĞƟŶŐ ŝƚ ǀŝĂ ůĞĂĨ ŐůĂŶĚƐ͕ ƌŽŽƚƐ ŐůĂŶĚƐ Žƌ ŵĂŬĞƌƐ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ŐĞŶĞƌĂů ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJ ŚĂǀĞ ŶŽƚ ďLJ ůŽŽƐĞ ŽĨ ƉĂƌƚƐ͖ ŵĂŝŶůLJ ůĞĂǀĞƐ͘ ^Ăůƚ ŝŶ ŚŝŐŚ ƌĞĐŽŐŶŝnjĞĚ ƚŚĞ ǀĂƌŝĞƚLJ ŽĨ ƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŽīĞƌĞĚ ĐŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƟŽŶƐ ŝƐ ƉůĂŶƚ ƟƐƐƵĞƐ ŝƐ ƚŽdžŝĐ ĂŶĚ ďLJ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ͘ dŚŝƐ ŵĞĂŶ ƚŚĂƚ ƚŚĞƐĞ ŵƵƐƚ ďĞ ůĂƌŐĞůLJ ĞdžĐůƵĚĞĚ ;D Z , E ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ĂƌĞ ĐŽŵƉĞƟŶŐ ĨŽƌ ƐƉĂĐĞ ǁŝƚŚ ŵŽƌĞ ͚ƉƌŽĮƚĂďůĞ͛ ƵƐĞƐ ĂƐ ƵƌďĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶ͕ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ Biological Environment ĂŶĚ ĂƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ͕ ĂƐ ǁĞůů ĂƐ ƚŚĞ ŽǀĞƌ ĞdžƉůŽŝƚĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƌLJ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƚƐ ĂŶĚ ĐŚĂŶŐĞƐ Ɛ ƐĂŝĚ ďĞĨŽƌĞ͕ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĂƌĞ ĨŽƵŶĚ ŝŶ ŝŶƚĞƌ ŝŶ ǁĂƚĞƌ ƋƵĂůŝƚLJ͖ ƌĞƐƵůƟŶŐ ŝŶ ǁŽƌůĚǁŝĚĞ ůŽƐƐĞƐ ƟĚĂů ǁĞƚůĂŶĚƐ͘ dŚŝƐ ĞĐŽůŽŐLJ ŚĂƐ ŶŽƚ ƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĂů ŽĨ ĂƉƉƌŽdžŝŵĂƚĞůLJ ϯϯй ďLJ ĂƌĞĂ ŝŶ ϱϬ LJĞĂƌƐ ĂŶĂůŽŐƵĞƐ Ăƚ ŚŝŐŚĞƌ ůĂƟƚƵĚĞƐ͕ ǁŚĞƌĞ ƐĂůƚ ĞƐƉĞĐŝĂůůLJ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚ ĞĂƐƚ ŽĨ ƐŝĂ ;t >dKE ŵĂƌƐŚĞƐ ŽĐĐƵƉLJ ƐŝŵŝůĂƌ ĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂů Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϲͿ͘ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͘ /ƚ ƐĞĞŵƐ ƚŽ ďĞ Ă ĐůĞĂƌ ƉĂƩĞƌŶ ĂŵŽŶŐ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƐĞĞĚůŝŶŐƐ ǁŚĞŶ ƚŚĞLJ ƐĞƩůĞ͘ ĐŽŶŽŵŝĐ ďĞŶĞĮƚƐ͗ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ƐƵƉƉůLJ WƌŽƉĂŐƵůĞƐ ŽĨ Ă ĐĞƌƚĂŝŶ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ĂƌĞ ƐƉĞĐŝĂůŝƐĞĚ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ĂŶĚ ĮƐŚĞƌLJ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƚƐ͘ ƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ŝŶ ĐŽůŽŶŝƐŝŶŐ ƉĂƌƟĐƵůĂƌ ĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚƐ ;ƉŝŽŶĞĞƌ ŚŝŐŚ ĐĂůŽƌŝĮĐ ǀĂůƵĞƐ͕ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ǁŽŽĚ ŝƐ ƵƐĞĚ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐͿ͘ 'ƌĂnjŝŶŐ ŝƐ ĂůƐŽ Ă ĐŽŵŵŽŶ ĨĞĂƚƵƌĞ ŝŶ ƚŽ ŵĂŬĞ ĐŚĂƌĐŽĂů ĂŶĚ ĮƌĞǁŽŽĚ͘ dŚŝƐ ǁŽŽĚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ͘ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽůŝĂŐĞ ŝƐ ŐƌĂnjĞĚ ŚĂƐ ŚŝŐŚ ĐŽŶƚĞŶƚ ŽĨ ƚĂŶŶŝŶ͕ ŵĂŬŝŶŐ ĚƵƌĂďůĞ ďLJ ĐĂƩůĞ͕ ƐŚĞĞƉ͕ ŐŽĂƚƐ͕ ĐĂŵĞůƐ͕ ŝƐŽƉŽĚƐ ĂŶĚ ƟŵďĞƌ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ƚƌĞĞƐ ĂƩƌĂĐƚ ŚŽŶĞLJ ďĞĞƐ ĐƌĂďƐ͘ dŚĞ ůĂƚĞƐƚ ĂƌĞ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ŝŶ ƌĞǁŽƌŬŝŶŐ ĨĂĐŝůŝƚĂƟŶŐ ĂƉŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ ĂĐƟǀŝƟĞƐ ŝŶ ƐŽŵĞ ĂƌĞĂƐ͕ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ĂŵŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ͘ DƵĚ ƉƌŽĚƵĐŝŶŐ ŚŝŐŚ ƋƵĂůŝƚLJ ŚŽŶĞLJ ĂĐĐŽƌĚŝŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ůŽďƐƚĞƌƐ ;Thalassia anomalaͿ ďƵŝůĚ ůĂƌŐĞ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ͘ Avicennia ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ƚƵŶŶĞůůŝŶŐ ďƵƌƌŽǁƐ ǁŚŝĐŚ ĂƌĞ ŐĞŶĞƌĂůůLJ Country South of Vietnam

Item of value WƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ĂŐĂŝŶƐƚ ĞdžͲ ƚƌĞŵĞ ǁĞĂƚŚĞƌ ĞǀĞŶƚƐ

Cost (US$/ha/year)

Author, year

ϱϬϬϬ

dƌŝ Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϵϴ

'ůŽďĂů

&ŽƌĞƐƚƌLJ ĂŶĚ ĮƐŚĞƌŝĞƐ ďĞŶĞĮƚƐ

ϱϬϬͲ ϮϱϬϬ

ŽŶƐƚĂŶnjĂ Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϵϳ

Idem Idem Idem Idem Idem Idem

ŝƐƚƵƌďĂŶĐĞ ƌĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶ Waste tratement ,ĂďŝƚĂƚ &ŽŽĚ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ ZĂǁ ŵĂƚĞƌŝĂůƐ ZĞĐƌĞĂƟŽŶ

ϭϴϯϵ ϲϲϵϲ ϭϲϵ ϰϲϲ ϭϲϮ ϲϱϴ

Idem Idem Idem Idem Idem Idem

Estimates values of mangroves. Adapted from KATHIRESAN, 2013b.

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ĂƌĞ Ă ĐŚĞĂƉ ĂŶĚ ŶƵƚƌŝƟǀĞ ĨĞĞĚ ĨŽƌ ŐƌĂnjŝŶŐ ŵĂŵŵĂůƐ͕ ǀĞƌLJ ĐŽŵŵŽŶ ŝŶ /ŶĚŝĂ͕ WĂŬŝƐƚĂŶ ĂŶĚ /ŶĚŽŶĞƐŝĂ͘ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĞdžƚƌĂĐƚƐ ĂƌĞ ƵƐĞĚ ŝŶ ŝŶĚŝŐĞŶŽƵƐ ŵĞĚŝĐŝŶĞ ŝŶ Ăůů ƉůĂĐĞƐ ǁŚĞƌĞ ƚŚĞLJ ĞdžŝƐƚ͕ ŚĂǀŝŶŐ Ă ƉŽƚĞŶƟĂů ĨŽƌ ŚƵŵĂŶ͕ ĂŶŝŵĂů ĂŶĚ ƉůĂŶƚƐ ƉĂƚŚŽŐĞŶƐ ;< d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯďͿ͘ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĐĂŶ ĂůƐŽ ƉƌŽǀŝĚĞ ƐĞĞĚƐ ĨŽƌ ĂƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ ŝŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĞƐ͘ t >dKE Ğƚ Ăů ;ϮϬϬϲͿ ŝŶ ƚŚĞŝƌ ƐƚƵĚŝŽ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƐŽĐŝŽĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐ ŝŵƉĂĐƚƐ ŽĨ Ă ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJůĞĚ ƌĞĨŽƌĞƐƚĂƟŽŶ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ WŚŝůŝƉƉŝŶĞƐ ƐƵŐŐĞƐƚ ƚŚĂƚ ĮƐŚ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ ƌĞůĂƚĞĚ ƚŽ ƌĞƉůĂŶƚĞĚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ǁĂƐ ϱϳϴʹϮϱϲϴ ŬŐ ŚĂͬLJƌ ;h^Ψ ϰϲϯʹϮϮϭϱ ŚĂͬLJƌͿ͕ ǁŚŝĐŚ ĐĂŶ ĞƋƵĂů ƚŚĂƚ ŽĨ ďƌĂĐŬŝƐŚͲǁĂƚĞƌ ĂƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ ƉŽŶĚƐ͘ dŚĞ ƌĞƉůĂŶƚĞĚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĂůƐŽ ƐƵƉƉůŝĞĚ ĂĚĚŝƟŽŶĂů ƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐ ƉƌŽǀŝĚŝŶŐ ĂŶ ŝŶĐŽŵĞ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŽƵƌŝƐŵ ŽĨ h^Ψ ϰϭ ŚĂͬLJƌ ĂŶĚ ĨƌŽŵ ƐƵƐƚĂŝŶĂďůLJͲ ŚĂƌǀĞƐƚĞĚ ƟŵďĞƌ ŽĨ h^Ψ ϲϬ ŚĂͬLJƌ͘ dŚĞƌĞĨŽƌĞ ƚŚĞ ƚŽƚĂů ĚŝƌĞĐƚ ĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐ ďĞŶĞĮƚƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ƌĞƉůĂŶƚĞĚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ǁĂƐ h^Ψ ϱϲϰʹϮϯϭϲ ŚĂͬLJƌ ĚĞƉĞŶĚŝŶŐ ŽŶ ǁŚĂƚ ƉĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĂŶĚ ƐŚŽƌĞůŝŶĞ ĐĂƚĐŚĞƐ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĂƐƐŽĐŝĂƚĞĚ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ǁĞƌĞ ĂƩƌŝďƵƚĂďůĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƌĞƉůĂŶƚĞĚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ;ϭϬʹϴϬйͿ ;t >dKE Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϲͿ͘ ^ĞĞ ŶŶĞdž tŚLJ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ͍ ĐŽůŽŐŝĐĂů ƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐ͗ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ƉŽƐƐĞƐƐ ŵĞĐŚĂŶŝƐŵƐ ƚŽ ĚĞĂů ǁŝƚŚ ŝŶƚĞŶƐĞ ƐƵŶůŝŐŚƚ ƌĂLJƐ ĂŶĚ ƐŽůĂƌ hsͲ ƌĂĚŝĂƟŽŶ͘ dŚĞŝƌ ĨŽůŝĂŐĞ ƉƌŽĚƵĐĞƐ ŇĂǀŽŶŽŝĚƐ2 ƚŚĂƚ ƐĞƌǀĞ ĂƐ hsͲƐĐƌĞĞŶ ĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ Įdž ŐƌĞĂƚĞƌ ĂŵŽƵŶƚ ŽĨ KϮ ƉĞƌ ƵŶŝƚ ĂƌĞĂ ƚŚĂŶ ƉŚLJƚŽƉůĂŶŬƚŽŶ ĚŽ ŝŶ ƚƌŽƉŝĐĂů ŽĐĞĂŶƐ ;< d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯďͿ͘ Z /E ;ϮϬϬϮͿ ĞƐƟŵĂƚĞĚ ƚŚĂƚ Ă ůŽƐƐ ŽĨ ĂďŽƵƚ ϯϱй ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƚŽƚĂů ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ǁŽƌůĚ ŚĂƐ ƌĞƐƵůƚĞĚ ŝŶ Ă ŶĞƚ ůŽƐƐ ŽĨ ϯ͘ϴ dž ϭϬϭϰŐ ƐƚŽƌĞĚ ĂƐ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ďŝŽŵĂƐƐ͘ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĂůƐŽ ĐĂŶ ĨŽƌŵ Ă ƐŚĞůƚĞƌďĞůƚ ĂŐĂŝŶƐƚ ĐLJĐůŽŶĞƐ ĂŶĚ ƐƚŽƌŵƐ͕ ǁŚŝĐŚ ŚĂƐ ŐĞŶĞƌĂƚĞĚ ĂǁĂƌĞŶĞƐƐ ĂŵŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ůŽĐĂů ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƟĞƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶĐĞ ŽĨ ƚŚŝƐ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ĂƐ ƉƌŽƚĞĐƚŽƌƐ

ŽĨ ůŝĨĞ ĂŶĚ ƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJ͘ dŚĞLJ ŚĂǀĞ ĂŶ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ƌŽůĞ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĂƩĞŶƵĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ŽĐĞĂŶŝĐ ǁĂǀĞƐ ĂƐ ǁĞůů ĂƐ ǁŝŶĚďƌĞĂŬĞƌƐ ;D Z , E ͕ ϮϬϬϴ͖ < d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯďͿ͘ dŚĞ ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ ŽĨ ŇŽŽĚ ĐŽŶƚƌŽůůŝŶŐ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ŝƐ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƉŚLJƐŝĐĂů ĐŽŶĮŐƵƌĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞŝƌ ƌŽŽƚ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞŝƌ ĂďŝůŝƚLJ ƚŽ ƉƌŽŵŽƚĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶ͕ ĐĂƚĐŚŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ďLJ ŝŶŚŝďŝƟŶŐ ƟĚĂů ŇŽǁƐ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĨƌŝĐƟŽŶ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƌŽŽƚ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ͘ dŚĞ ƉĂƌƟĐůĞƐ ĂƌĞ ĐĂƌƌŝĞĚ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ ǁĂƚĞƌ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ĂƌƌŝǀŝŶŐ ƟĚĞ ĂŶĚ ůĞŌ ďĞŚŝŶĚ ĂŶĚ ƐĞƩůŝŶŐ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ůŽǁ ƟĚĞ͕ ŵŽƐƚ ůŝŬĞůLJ ďĞĐĂƵƐĞ ƚŚĞ ƚƵƌďƵůĞŶĐĞ ĂŶĚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ǀĞůŽĐŝƚLJ ŝƐ ƌĞĚƵĐĞĚ ĂŶĚ ďĞŝŶŐ ĂďůĞ ƚŽ ĐĂƚĐŚ ĂďŽƵƚ ϴϬй ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ƌĞƐƵůƟŶŐ ŝŶ Ă ƌŝƐĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƐƵďƐƚƌĂƚĞ ĨƌŽŵ Ϭ͘ϭ ĐŵͬLJĞĂƌ ;&hZh< t Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϵϳͿ ƚŽ Ϭ͘ϴ ĐŵͬLJĞĂƌ ;< d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯďͿ͘ ƚ ƚŚĞ ƐĂŵĞ ƟŵĞ͕ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĐĂŶ ĐĂƚĐŚ ĂďŽƵƚ Ϯϴй ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƌŝǀĞƌŝŶĞ ĮŶĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ŝŶŇŽǁ͘ dŚĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ƚƌĂƉƉŝŶŐ ĞĸĐŝĞŶĐLJ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ŝƐ Ă ĨƵŶĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƟĚĂů ĚLJŶĂŵŝĐƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ǁĞƚůĂŶĚƐ͕ ĚĞƉĞŶĚŝŶŐ ŵĂŝŶůLJ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŵƉůĞdžŝƟĞƐ ŝŶǀŽůǀĞĚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĞdžĐŚĂŶŐĞ ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ĐůŽƐĞƌ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĂƌĞĂƐ ;< d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯď͖ s/ dKZ͕ ϮϬϬϰͿ͘ dŚŝƐ ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ ĐĂŶ ǀĂƌLJ ƌĞůĂƚĞĚ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ƚLJƉĞƐ ŽĨ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ͕ ƌŝǀĞƌŝŶĞ͕ ďĂƐŝŶ ĂŶĚ ĨƌŝŶŐĞ ƚLJƉĞƐ͘ dŚĞ ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ ĨĂůůƐ ŝŶ ĚĞĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐ ŽƌĚĞƌ͗ ZŝǀĞƌŝŶĞͲ ďĂƐŝŶͲ ĨƌŝŶŐĞ͘ dŚĞ ƌŝǀĞƌ ĚŽŵŝŶĂƚĞĚ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ŐĞƚƐ ĂůůŽĐŚƚŚŽŶŽƵƐ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ƐƵƉƉůLJ͕ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ƋƵĂŶƟƚLJ ŽĨ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ĚĞƉŽƐŝƚĞĚ ŝƐ Ă ĨƵŶĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐĂƚĐŚŵĞŶƚƐ ƐŝnjĞ͘ dŚĞ ĨƌŝŶŐĞ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ͕ ĂƐ ŝƐ ƟĚĞ ĚŽŵŝŶĂƚĞĚ͕ ĐŽŶƚĂŝŶƐ ĂďƵŶĚĂŶƚ ĂůůŽĐŚƚŚŽŶŽƵƐ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ĚŝƐƚƵƌďĞĚ ďLJ ƟĚĞƐ͘ ĞƐŝĚĞ ƚŚŝƐ͕ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĐŽŶƚƌŽů ƚŚĞ ĞŶƚƌĂŶĐĞ ŽĨ ƐĂůƚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ŝŶůĂŶĚ ĂŶĚ ƉƌŽƚĞĐƚ

2 Flavonoid refers to Organic compound, any member of a class of biological pigments containing no nitrogen that are found in many plants. They include anthoxanthins, which give yellow colours to flower petals and anthocyanins, responsible for the red colouring of buds and young shoots and the fM F K hi purple and purple-red colours of autumn lea- Mecanisms of sedimentation induced by mangroves. From KATHIRESAN, 2003, 2012. ves. (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2013).

11

ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ;< d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯďͿ͘ dŚĞ ŵĂŝŶ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶĐĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĂĚũĂĐĞŶƚ ŵĂƌŝŶĞ ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵ ŝƐ ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ƚŚĞ ĞdžƉŽƌƚ ŽĨ ĚĞĂĚ ŽƌŐĂŶŝĐ ŵĂƚĞƌŝĂů͕ ŵŽƟǀĂƟŶŐ Ă ĐŽŵƉůĞdž ĨŽŽĚǁĞď ;D Z , E ͕ ϮϬϬϴ͖ < d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯďͿ͘ dŚĞ ĚĞƚĂĐŚĞĚ ƉĂƌƚƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƉůĂŶƚƐ ĂƌĞ ĚĞĐŽŵƉŽƐĞĚ ďLJ ŵŝĐƌŽ ŽƌŐĂŶŝƐŵƐ ǁŚĞŶ ĨĂůů ŽŶ ƚŚĞ ŇŽŽƌ͘ /Ŷ ƚŚŝƐ ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ ŶƵƚƌŝĞŶƚƐ ĂƌĞ ƌĞůĞĂƐĞĚ ǁŚŝĐŚ ĞŶƌŝĐŚ ƚŚĞ ƐƵƌƌŽƵŶĚŝŶŐ ǁĂƚĞƌƐ͘ dŚŝƐ ĚĞĐŽŵƉŽƐĞĚ ŽƌŐĂŶŝĐ ŵĂƩĞƌ ĂůŽŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ŵŝĐƌŽďŝĂů ďŝŽŵĂƐƐ ŝƐ ĂŶ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ͕ ƐĞƌǀŝŶŐ ĂƐ Ă ŶƵƚƌŝƟŽƵƐ ĨŽŽĚ ĨŽƌ Ă ǀĂƌŝĞƚLJ ŽĨ ŽƌŐĂŶŝƐŵƐ͘ dŚĞ ŝŶŇƵdž ŽĨ ŶƵƚƌŝĞŶƚƐ ŐĞŶĞƌĂƚĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ƐƵƉƉŽƌƚƐ ŵĂŶLJ ŽƚŚĞƌ ƐĞŶƐŝƟǀĞ ŚĂďŝƚĂƚƐ ;< d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯďͿ͘ &Žƌ ĞǀĞƌLJ ŚĞĐƚĂƌĞ ŽĨ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ĐůĞĂƌĞĚ͕ ŶĞĂƌďLJ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĮƐŚĞƌŝĞƐ ůŽƐĞ ĂƉƉƌŽdžŝŵĂƚĞůLJ ϰϴϬ ŬŐ ŽĨ ĮƐŚ ƉĞƌ LJĞĂƌ ;DĂĐ<ŝŶŶŽŶ ĂŶĚ DĂĐ<ŝŶŶŽŶ͕

ƚŚĞ ƵŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ;< d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯďͿ͘ dŚĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƚ ŝŶ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĂƌĞĂƐ ŚĂǀĞ ƚŚĞ ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ ƚŽ ƌĞƚĂŝŶ ŶƵƚƌŝĞŶƚƐ͕ ƌĞĐLJĐůŝŶŐ ĐĂƌďŽŶ͕ ŶŝƚƌŽŐĞŶ ĂŶĚ ƐƵůƉŚƵƌ͖ ďĞŝŶŐ ŽŶĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĨĞǁ ďŝŽƟĐ ƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ ƚŚĂƚ ƌĞĐLJĐůĞ ƐƵůƉŚƵƌ ĞĸĐŝĞŶƚůLJ ŝŶ ŶĂƚƵƌĞ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ĂůƐŽ ŚĂǀĞ ƚŚĞ ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ ƚŽ ĂďƐŽƌď ůĂƌŐĞ ĂŵŽƵŶƚƐ ŽĨ ƉŽůůƵƚĂŶƚƐ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ĨĞĂƐŝďůĞ ƚŽ ƵƐĞ ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƚĞĚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ǁĞƚůĂŶĚƐ ĂƐ Ă ƐĞĐŽŶĚĂƌLJ ƚƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚ ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ ĨŽƌ ŵƵŶŝĐŝƉĂů ǁĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌ ;th Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϴ͖ < d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯďͿ ĂŶĚ ƚŽ ĂďƐŽƌď ĂŶĚ ŚŽůĚ ŚĞĂǀLJ ŵĞƚĂůƐ͘ dŚĞ ŽdžLJŐĞŶ ĞdžƵĚĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ƵŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚ ƐƵƉƉŽƌƚƐ ƚŚĞ ĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ŝƌŽŶ ƉůĂƋƵĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƌŽŽƚ ƐƵƌĨĂĐĞƐ͕ ĂǀŽŝĚŝŶŐ ŵĞƚĂůƐ ƚŽ ĞŶƚĞƌ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƌŽŽƚ ĐĞůůƐ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ŵĞƚĂůƐ ĂƌĞ ƉƌĞĐŝƉŝƚĂƚĞĚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĨŽƌŵ ŽĨ ƐƚĂďůĞ ŵĞƚĂůƐ ƐƵůƉŚŝĚĞƐ ƵŶĚĞƌ ĂŶŽdžŝĐ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͘ DĞƚĂůƐ ůŝŬĞ DĞƌĐƵƌLJ ;,ŐͿ ƚŚĂƚ ĐĂŶŶŽƚ ĨŽƌŵ ƐƵůƉŚŝĚĞƐ ĂƌĞ ŝŵŵŽďŝůŝnjĞĚ ŝŶ ŽƌŐĂŶŝĐ ĐŽŵƉůĞdžĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ

Mangrove Litter Fall

Leaching of Nutrients

Crab Consumption

Decomposition

Land R un-O ff

Nutrient Retention

Dissolved Nutrients

Phytoplankton

Microbial Biomass

Nutrient Regeneration

Sea G rass

: Epiphytes

Faeces/Death

Benthic Algae

Particulate matter & Sedim ent

Land Run-O ff

Small Invertebrates

Detritus

Larvae & Juveniles of Fin & Shell Fishes

Im migration of Larvae

Phytoplankton Based Material

Em igration of Sub-Adults

Adult prawns/ Fishes in O ffshore

Foodweb scheme in a mangrove ecosystem. From KATHIRESAN and BINGHAM, 2001 in KATHIRESAN 2012.

12

Country/ area

Most recent reliable estimate ha

Ref. year

1980

1990

ha

ha

Annual change 1980–1990 ha

Annual change 1990–2000

ha

ha

100

1992

150

–5

–4

476 215

1995

428 000

460 000

3 200

0.7

Brunei Darussalam

18 418

1996

18 400

18 400

0

0

18 400

0

Cambodia

72 835

1997

91 200

82 400

–880

–1.0

73 600

–880

China

22 480

2001

34 157

28 344

–581

–1.8

22 955

–539

India

446 100

2003

506 700

467 000

–3 970

–0.8

448 200

–1 880

Indonesia

3 062 30

2003

4 200 000 3 500 000

–70 000

–1.8

3 150 000

19 234

1997

27 500

22 500

800

2005

800

800

Iran, Islamic Republic of Japan Kuwait

–500

476 000

–2.0

0

90

%

Bangladesh

Bahrain

10

%

2000

0

19 100

–1 1 600

ha

–1.0

–340

800

ha

%

90

0

0

0

0

18 400

0

0

–1.1

69 200

–880

–1.2

–2.1

22 480

–95

–0.4

–0.4

448 000

–40

n.s.

2 900 000

–50 000

–1.6

19 000

–20

–0.1

800

0

0

0

–1.0 –1.6

0

0

5

2004

n.s.

n.s.

n/a

n/a

n.s.

Malaysia

564 971

2005

674 000

642 000

–3 200

–0.5

589 500

Maldives

n.a. a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

Myanmar

518 646

1999

555 500

536 100

1 088

1995

2000

2 000

0

Pakistan

158 000

2001

345 000

207 000

–13 800

–5.0

158 000

–4 900

–2.7

Philippines

247 362

2003

295 000

273 000

–2 200

–0.8

250 000

–2 300

–0.9

500

199

0

0

500

0

0

500

0

0

20 000

–100

–0.5

20 000

0

0

20 000

0

0

Oman

Qatar Saudi Arabia Singapore

20 400

1985

50 21 000

50

n/a –1 940

n/a –0.3 0

n.a.

516 700 1000

n/a

Annual change 2000–2005

476 000

0.3

–35 000

2005

–5 250 n/a –1 940 –100

n/a –0.8 n/a –0.4 –6.7

5

n/a

–4 900

–0.8

n.a.

n/a

n/a

507 000

–1 940

–0.4

1 000

0

0

157 000

–200

–0.1

240 000

–2 000

–0.8

500

1990

1790

50

–129

–12.0

500

0

500

0

0

Sri Lanka

9 530

1996

9 600

9 30

–30

–0.3

9 000

–30

–0.3

8 800

–40

–0.4

Thailand

244 085

2000

280 000

250 200

–2 980

–1.1

244 100

–610

–0.2

240 000

–82

–0.3

1 802

2000

4250

3 000

–125

–3.4

1 800

–120

–5.0

1 800

0

0

Timor-Leste United Arab Emirates Viet Nam Yemen

Asia

0

n/a

565 000

4 000

1999

3500

3 800

30

0.8

4 000

20

0.5

4 100

20

0.5

157 500

2000

269 150

213 500

–5 565

–2.3

157 500

–5 600

–3.0

157 000

–100

–0.1

900

0

927

1993

6 047 798

2002

–5

–0.5

900

7 769 197 6 741 394 –102 780

1000

95

–1.41

6 162 645

–5 –57 875

–0.5 –0.89

5 857 575 –61 014

0 –1.01

Note: n.a. = not available; n/a = not applicable; n.s. = not significant.

Status and trends in mangrove areas. From FAO, 2007.

ϭϵϴϲ ŝŶ & K͕ ϮϬϬϳͿ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ĂǀĞƌĂŐĞ LJŝĞůĚ ŽĨ ĮƐŚ ĂŶĚ ƐŚĞůůĮƐŚ ŝŶ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĂƌĞĂƐ ŝƐ ĂďŽƵƚ ϵϬ ŬŐ ƉĞƌ ŚĞĐƚĂƌĞ͕ ǁŝƚŚ ŵĂdžŝŵƵŵ LJŝĞůĚ ŽĨ ƵƉ ƚŽ ϮϮϱ ŬŐ ƉĞƌ ŚĞĐƚĂƌĞ ;& K͕ ϮϬϬϳͿ͘

LJ ƚŚĞ ŽƚŚĞƌ ŚĂŶĚ͕ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ŚĂƐ ďĞĞŶ ĞdžƉůŽŝƚĞĚ ĨŽƌ ƚŚĞŝƌ ƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ Žƌ ƌĞƉůĂĐĞĚ ďLJ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂů Žƌ ĂƋƵĂ ĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ƵƐĞƐ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŝŶ ĐĂƵƐĞƐ ŽĨ ůŽƐƐ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĂƌĞĂ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ĐŽŶǀĞƌƐŝŽŶ ƚŽ ŽƚŚĞƌ ƵƐĞƐ ƐƵĐŚ ĂƐ ƐŚƌŝŵƉ Mangroves in Vietnam ƉŽŶĚƐ͕ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ͕ ƐĂůƚ ƉĂŶƐ ĂŶĚ ŚƵŵĂŶ ƐĞƩůĞŵĞŶƚƐ͘ ůƚŚŽƵŐŚ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ŚĂƐ ŽŶůLJ ƚŚĞ dŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵ ŝŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ŚĂƐ Ϯ͘ϲϴй ŽĨ ƚŽƚĂů ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĂƌĞĂ ŝŶ ƐŝĂ ;ϭϱϳϬϬϬ ǀĂƌŝĞĚ ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ƟŵĞ͕ ďLJ ŽŶĞ ŚĂŶĚ ĚƵĞ ŵĂŝŶůLJ ŚĂ ŝŶ ϮϬϬϬͿ͕ ŝƚ ŚĂƐ ďĞĞŶ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƟŶŐ ŶĞŐĂƟǀĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƚǁŽ /ŶĚŽĐŚŝŶĂ ǁĂƌƐ ĂŶĚ ŝŶ ƉĂƌƟĐƵůĂƌ ƌĂƚĞƐ ŽĨ ůŽƐƐ ŽĨ ĂƌĞĂ ƐŝŶĐĞ ϭϵϵϬDzƐϯ ;& K͕ ϮϬϬϳͿ͘ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƵƐĞ ŽĨ ŚĞƌďŝĐŝĚĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŶĂƉĂůŵ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ tĂƌ ;ϭϵϲϮͲ ϭϵϳϭͿ͘ dŚŝƐ ƌĞƐƵůƚĞĚ ŝŶ ƉĂƌƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĞīĞĐƚƐ ŽĨ ŚƵŵĂŶ ĂĐƟǀŝƟĞƐ͕ ƚŚĞ ĚĞƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ŶĞĂƌůLJ ϰϬй ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĂƌĞ ƐƵƐĐĞƉƟďůĞ ƚŽ ĐŚĂŶŐĞƐ ŝŶ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚ ŽĨ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͘ dŚĞƌĞ ĂƌĞ ůŝƐƚĞĚ Ăƚ ůĞĂƐƚ Ϯϳ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ 3 Due to the fact that reliable data ǁŚŽůĞ ĐŽƵŶƚƌLJ ;& K͕ ϮϬϬϳͿ͘ about mangrove coverage is only available since 1990´s.

13

ĐůŝŵĂƟĐ͕ ĞĚĂƉŚŝĐ ĂŶĚ ŚLJĚƌŽůŽŐŝĐĂů ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͘ ĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ĞdžƚĞŶƐŝŽŶ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ;d,/ dŚĞ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶĐĞƐ ĐƌĞĂƚĞĚ ďLJ ŐĞŽŐƌĂƉŚŝĐĂů ^ E Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϵϯͿ͘ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ ĂƌĞ ĂůƐŽ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ͖ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŶƐĞƋƵĞŶĐĞƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞƐĞ ĨĂĐƚŽƌƐ ĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĞ ƚŚĞ dŚĞ ŐŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚ ŽĨ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ƐŝŐŶĞĚ ŝŶ

CLIMATIC FACTORS

Temperature

dLJƉŝĐĂů ƌĞƐƉŽŶƐĞƐ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƚŽ ĚĞĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐ ƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐ ƚŚĞƌŵĂů ĂŵƉůŝƚƵĚĞƐ ĂƌĞ ƌĞĚƵĐƟŽŶƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ŶƵŵďĞƌ ŽĨ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŚĞŝŐŚƚ ĂŶĚ ƐŝnjĞ ŽĨ ƚƌĞĞƐ͘

Rainfall

ZĂŝŶ ƌĞŐƵůĂƚĞƐ ƐĂůƚ ĐŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ŝƐ ĂŶ ĞdžƚƌĂ ƐŽƵƌĐĞ ŽĨ ĨƌĞƐŚ ǁĂƚĞƌ͕ ĨĂǀŽƵƌŝŶŐ ƚŚĞŝƌ ƉŚLJƐŝŽůŽŐŝĐĂů ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐĞƐ͘ Ɛ ƐŽƵƚŚǁĞƐƚ ŵŽŶƐŽŽŶƐ ĨƌŽŵ /ŶĚŝĂŶ KĐĞĂŶ ďƌŝŶŐ ŚĞĂǀLJ ƌĂŝŶƐ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ƐƵŵŵĞƌ͕ ŵŽƐƚ ĚĞŶƐĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ĐĂŶ ďĞ ĨŽƵŶĚ ŝŶ Ă DĂƵ ĐĂƉĞ ;ϮϬϬϬͲ ϮϮϬϬ ŵŵͬLJĞĂƌ ǁŝƚŚ ϭϮϬͲ ϭϱϬ ƌĂŝŶLJ ĚĂLJƐͬLJĞĂƌ͘

Winds

dŚĞ ŶŽƌƚŚĞĂƐƚ ŵŽŶƐŽŽŶƐ ĨƌŽŵ ĂƐƚ ^ĞĂ ; ĞĐĞŵďĞƌͲ ƉƌŝůͿ ĐĂƵƐĞ ŚĞĂǀLJ ĞƌŽƐŝŽŶ ĂůŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚ ĨƌŽŵ sƵŶŐ dĂƵ ƚŽ Ă DĂƵ ĐĂƉĞ͕ ĂīĞĐƟŶŐ ƚŚĞ ŐƌŽǁƚŚ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ͘

Tides

HIDROLOGICAL FACTORS

Ocean currents

dŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚ ŽĨ Ă DĂƵ ƌĞĐĞŝǀĞƐ ŵŝdžĞĚ ƐĞŵŝ ĚŝƵƌŶĂů ĂŶĚ ĚŝƵƌŶĂů ƟĚĞƐ͘ dŚĞ ůĂƐƚ ŝƐ ůĞƐƐ ĨĂǀŽƵƌĂďůĞ ĨŽƌ ƚŚĞ ŐƌŽǁƚŚ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĚŽƵďůĞ ƉĞƌŝŽĚ ŽĨ ŝŶƵŶĚĂƟŽŶ ƚŚĂƚ ƌĞƋƵŝƌĞƐ ŚŝŐŚ ƐƚŽƌĂŐĞ ŽĨ ŽdžLJŐĞŶ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƌŽŽƚƐ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ůŽŶŐĞƌ ƉĞƌŝŽĚ ŽĨ ĞdžƉŽƐƵƌĞ ƚŽ ƐƵŶůŝŐŚƚ ƚŚĂƚ ĐĂƵƐĞƐ ĞǀĂƉŽƚƌĂŶƐƉŝƌĂƟŽŶ͘ ,ĞŶĐĞ͕ ŝŶ Ă DĂƵ ĂƌĞĂƐ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉ ŵƵĐŚ ďĞƩĞƌ ƚŚĂŶ ƚŚŽƐĞ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ŶŽƌƚŚ ƚŚĂŶŬƐ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƐŽŝů ƌŝĐŚŶĞƐƐ͘ >ĂƌŐĞƌ ƟĚĂů ĂŵƉůŝƚƵĚĞƐ ŵŝŶŝŵŝnjĞ ƐĞĞĚ ĂŶĚ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ƐĞƩůĞŵĞŶƚ͘ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƐĞĞĚƐ ĂƌĞ ƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚĞĚ ŝŶƚŽ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ŵĂŝŶůLJ ďLJ ĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƐ ƵŶĚĞƌ ƚŚĞ ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞ ŽĨ ǁŝŶĚƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ /ŶĚŝĂŶ KĐĞĂŶ ;DŽŶƐŽŽŶƐͿ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ƐƵƌĨĂĐĞ ƐĞĂ ĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƐ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚǁĞƐƚ ĂŶĚ ĞĂƐƚ ŵŽŶƐŽŽŶƐ ;:ƵŶĞ ƚŽ EŽǀĞŵďĞƌͿ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ƚŚĞŝƌ ĚŝƌĞĐƟŽŶ Ăƚ ůĂƟƚƵĚĞ ϭϮ͕ ĐĂƵƐŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ĐŽŵƉŽƐŝƟŽŶƐ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ŶŽƌƚŚ ĂŶĚ ƐŽƵƚŚ ŽĨ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͘

ƌŝŶŐ ŶĞĐĞƐƐĂƌLJ ŶƵƚƌŝĞŶƚƐ ĂŶĚ ĂůůƵǀŝƵŵ ĂŶĚ ĚŝůƵƚĞƐ ƚŚĞ ƐĂůƚ Fresh water currents ǁĂƚĞƌ ĐƌĞĂƟŶŐ ďƌĂĐŬŝƐŚ ǁĂƚĞƌ͘ /ƚDzƐ ƵŶƵƐƵĂů ĨŽƌ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƚŽ ŐƌŽǁ ŝŶ ƉůĂĐĞƐ ŽĨ ůĂĐŬŝŶŐ ĨƌĞƐŚ ǁĂƚĞƌ͘ Salinity

DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ŐƌŽǁ ǁĞůů ŝŶ ƉůĂĐĞƐ ůŝŬĞ Ă DĂƵ ĂƉĞ ǁŚĞƌĞ ƚŚĞ ƐĂůƚ ĐŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƟŽŶ ŝƐ ŵŽĚĞƌĂƚĞ͕ ĂďŽƵƚ ϮϮͲ Ϯϲ ƉƉƚ͘

Coastal erosion

ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ ĐĂŶ ĂĐĐĞůĞƌĂƚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĞƌŽƐŝŽŶ͘ ^ƚƌŽŶŐ ǁĂǀĞƐ ĐĂŶ ĚĞƉŽƐŝƚ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ŝŶ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĂƌĞĂƐ͕ ĐŽǀĞƌŝŶŐ ƉŶĞƵͲ ŵĂƚŽƉŚŽƌĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŬŝůůŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƚƌĞĞƐ͘

^ŽŝůƐ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĂƌĞĂƐ ĂƌĞ ĨŽƌŵĞĚ ďLJ ĂůůƵǀŝƵŵ ĨƌŽŵ ƌŝǀͲ ĞƌƐ ĂŶĚ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ͘ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ƐƵƌǀŝǀĞ ŽŶ ĚŝĨͲ SOILS ĨĞƌĞŶƚ ǁĂƚĞƌůŽŐŐĞĚ ĂŶĚ ĂŶĂĞƌŽďŝĐ ƐƵďƐƚƌĂƚĞ ďƵƚ ƚŚĞLJ ŐƌŽǁ ďĞƐƚ ŝŶ Ɛŝůƚ ĐůĂLJ ƐŽŝůƐ͘ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉ ŝŶ ƐŚĂůůŽǁ ĂŶĚ ĐĂůŵĞĚ ǁĂƚĞƌƐ͘ ůŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐĞŶƚƌĂů ƉĂƌƚ ŽĨ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ƚŚĞƌĞ ĂƌĞ ĂůŵŽƐƚ ŶŽ TOPOGRAPHY ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ ŝƐ ƵŶĞǀĞŶ ĂŶĚ ƵŶƉƌŽƚĞĐƚĞĚ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ǁĂǀĞ ĂĐƟŽŶ͘ Factors affecting the mangrove distribution in Vietnam. Adapted from THI SAN et al, 1993.

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Associated effects of mangrove loose. From SANDILYAN et al, 2012.

ϭϵϴϵ ƚŚĞ ZĂŵƐĂƌ ŽŶǀĞŶƟŽŶ ŽŶ tĞƚůĂŶĚƐ͕ ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŶŐ ϴϰϵϴϮ ŚĂ ŝŶ ĮǀĞ ĚĞƐŝŐŶĂƚĞĚ ƐŝƚĞƐ͘ KŶĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞƐĞ ƐŝƚĞƐ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ DƵŝ Ă DĂƵ EĂƟŽŶĂů WĂƌŬ͕ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚĞƌŶ ƟƉ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ͘

THE LOCAL FLORA. MELALEUCA

ƚŚĞ &ůŽƌŝĚĂ ĞǀĞƌŐůĂĚĞƐ ŝŶ h^ ͘ dŚĞ ƐŚŽǁLJ ƉĂƌƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƚƌĞĞ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ ŇŽǁĞƌ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƐƚĂŵĞŶƐ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ŶŽƚŽƌŝŽƵƐ ƉĂƌƚ ŽĨ ŝƚ͘ dŚŝƐ ͞ŇŽǁĞƌ͟ ŝƐ ƌĞĂůůLJ ĂŶ ŝŶŇŽƌĞƐĐĞŶĐĞ ĨŽƌŵĞĚ ďLJ Ă ĐůƵƐƚĞƌ ŽĨ ƐŵĂůů ŇŽǁĞƌƐ ; EW^ ͕ ϮϬϭϯͿ͘ ZĞƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ

ŌĞƌ ŇŽǁĞƌŝŶŐ͕ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂƐ ƉƌŽĚƵĐĞ ƐĞĞĚ ĐĂƉƐƵůĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ƌĞŵĂŝŶ ǁŝƚŚŝŶ ŝƚ ŝŶĚĞĮŶŝƚĞůLJ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ĞĂƐŝůLJ ĐŽůůĞĐƚĞĚ Ăƚ ĂŶLJ ƟŵĞ͘ dŚŝƐ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ DĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ŝƐ Ă ŐĞŶƵƐ ŽĨ ƉůĂŶƚƐ ŽĨ ĂƌŽƵŶĚ ϭϳϬ ŚĂǀĞ ĐĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ ĨŽƌ ǀĞŐĞƚĂƟǀĞ ƌĞŐĞŶĞƌĂƟŽŶ͕ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ DLJƌƚůĞ ĨĂŵŝůLJ ;DLJƌƚĂĐĞĂĞͿ͘ ďĞŝŶŐ ĞĂƐLJ ƚŽ ƉƌŽƉĂŐĂƚĞ ; EW^ ͕ ϮϬϭϯͿ͘ dŚĞ ŵĂũŽƌŝƚLJ ŽĨ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ĂƌĞ ĞŶĚĞŵŝĐ ĨƌŽŵ ƵƐƚƌĂůŝĂ͕ ďƵƚ ƐĞǀĞƌĂů ŽĐĐƵƌ ŵŽƌĞ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ŶŽƌƚŚ Biological Environment ;/ŶĚŽŶĞƐŝĂ͕ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕ DĂůĂLJƐŝĂ͕ ĞƚĐ͕Ϳ͘ dŚĞ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ƚƌĞĞƐ ĂƌĞ ĐŽŵŵŽŶůLJ ŬŶŽǁŶ ĂƐ DĞůĂůĞƵĐĂƐ ĂƌĞ ĨŽƵŶĚ ĂůŽŶŐ ǁĂƚĞƌĐŽƵƌƐĞƐ Žƌ ͞ƉĂƉĞƌďĂĐŬƐ͕͟ ͞ŚŽŶĞLJ ŵLJƌƚůĞƐ͟ Žƌ ͞ƚĞĂ ƚƌĞĞ͘͟ ĂůŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĞĚŐĞƐ ŽĨ ŶŽŶ ƟĚĂů ǁĞƚůĂŶĚƐ ŶĞĂƌ ; EW^ ͕ ϮϬϭϯͿ͘ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĂƌĞĂƐ͘ dŚĞLJ ĐĂŶ ŐƌŽǁ ŝŶ ƚĞŵƉŽƌĂƌŝůLJ ŝŶƵŶĚĂƚĞĚ ǁŝƚŚ ĨƌĞƐŚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ĂƌĞĂƐ ĨŽƌ ƵƉ ƚŽ Growth and morphology ƚŚƌĞĞ ƚŽ Ɛŝdž ŵŽŶƚŚƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ LJĞĂƌ ĂŶĚ ŝŶ ĂƌŝĚ ƌĞŐŝŽŶƐ͘ dŚĞLJ ĂƌĞ ĂďůĞ ƚŽ ĂĚĂƉƚ ƚŽ ĂůŵŽƐƚ Ăůů DĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ĂƌĞ ƉůĂŶƚƐ ŽĨ ŽƉĞŶ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ͕ ǁŽŽĚůĂŶĚ ƌĞŐŝŽŶƐ ŽĨ ŚŽƚ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ ǁŝƚŚ ĂǀĞƌĂŐĞ ŵŽŶƚŚůLJ Žƌ ƐŚƌƵďůĂŶĚ͕ ǀĞƌLJ ƉŽƉƵůĂƌ ĨŽƌ ŐĂƌĚĞŶƐ ĂŶĚ ƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞƐ ƌĂŶŐŝŶŐ ĨƌŽŵ Ϯϯ ƚŽ ϮϳϬ ͘ ůĂŶĚƐĐĂƉŝŶŐ ŝŶ ƐĞǀĞƌĂů ƉĂƌƚƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ǁŽƌůĚ͘ ƵĞ dŚĞLJ ĂůƐŽ ŐƌŽǁ ŝŶ ĂƌĞĂƐ ŽĨ ĐŽůĚ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŽ ƚŚŝƐ͕ Melaleuca quinquenervia ;Ă ůĂƌŐĞ ƚƌĞĞ ǁŝŶƚĞƌƐ ŽĨ ƌĞůĂƟǀĞůLJ ůŽǁ ĂǀĞƌĂŐĞ ŵŽŶƚŚůLJ ĨƌŽŵ ƵƐƚƌĂůŝĂͿ ŚĂƐ ďĞĐŽŵĞ Ă ƐĞƌŝŽƵƐ ƉĞƐƚ ŝŶ ƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞƐ ŽĨ ϭϯ ;Yh E' dZhE'͕ ϮϬϬϵͿ͘ 15 What is the Melaleuca?

dŚĞƐĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ƉƌŽǀŝĚĞ Ă ǀĂůƵĂďůĞ ŶĞƐƟŶŐ Žƌ ƌŽŽƐƟŶŐ ƐŝƚĞƐ ĨŽƌ Ă ŶƵŵďĞƌ ŽĨ ďĂƚƐ ĂŶĚ ďŝƌĚƐ ĂŶĚ ďĞŝŶŐ ĂŶ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ĨŽŽĚ ƐŽƵƌĐĞ ĨŽƌ ŵŝŐƌĂƚŽƌLJ ďŝƌĚƐ͘ ;d,K ,hE'͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ Importance of Melaleuca Ecosystem

ƚŚŝƐ ŚĂďŝƚĂƚ͘ ƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚŝƐ͕ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ĐŽŵƉŽƐŝƟŽŶ ŝƐ ŵƵĐŚ ƐŝŵƉůĞ ŝŶ ĐŽŵƉĂƌŝƐŽŶ ǁŝƚŚ ŽƚŚĞƌ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵ ĂƐ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ;sh d E͕ ϮϬϭϭͿ͘ ^ŵĂůů ƉŽƐƚƐ ĂŶĚ ƉŽůĞƐ ĂƌĞ ƚŚĞ ŚŝƐƚŽƌŝĐĂů ŵĂŝŶ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƚƐ ĨƌŽŵ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ͕ ďƵƚ ƚŚĞ ƉƌŝĐĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞƐĞ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƚƐ ĂƌĞ ǀĞƌLJ ƵŶƐƚĂďůĞ͕ ĚƌŽƉƉŝŶŐ ĨƌŽŵ ϭϱϬϬϬ ƚŽ ϭϭϬϬϬ sE ƉĞƌ ƉŽůĞ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƉĞƌŝŽĚ ĨƌŽŵ ϮϬϬϯ ƚŽ ϮϬϬϲ͘ &ůƵĐƚƵĂƟŽŶƐ ĂƌĞ ƌĞƐƵůƚ ŽĨ ĚĞĐůŝŶŝŶŐ ŵĂƌŬĞƚƐ͕ ůĂĐŬ ŽĨ ůŽŶŐ ƚĞƌŵ ƉŽůŝĐŝĞƐ͕ ƉůĂŶŶŝŶŐ͕ ůŽǁ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƚ ƋƵĂůŝƚLJ ĂŶĚ ŝŶĂĚĞƋƵĂƚĞ ƌŝƐŬ ŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ͘ dƌĂĚŝƟŽŶĂůůLJ͕ ƉůĂŶƚĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ŝƐ ƉƌĂĐƟĐĞĚ Ăƚ ǀĞƌLJ ŚŝŐŚ ƐƚŽĐŬŝŶŐƐ ;ϭϬϬϬϬ ƐƚĞŵƐͬŚĂ Žƌ ŐƌĞĂƚĞƌͿ ƚŽ ƉƌŽĚƵĐĞ ŐƌĞĂƚ ŶƵŵďĞƌƐ ŽĨ ƐŵĂůů ƐŝnjĞ ƉŽƐƚƐ ĂŶĚ ƉŽůĞƐ ĨŽƌ ŐĞŶĞƌĂů ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶ ƉƵƌƉŽƐĞ ;d,K ,hE'͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ ĂŶĚ ƉŽŽƌ ŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ͖ ŐŝǀŝŶŐ ĂƐ Ă ƌĞƐƵůƚ ŝƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌ ƋƵĂůŝƟĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ǁŽŽĚ͘ ĞĐůŝŶĞ ŝƐ ĂůƐŽ ĂƐƐŽĐŝĂƚĞĚ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ŽĨ ůĂŶĚ ƵƐĞ ƚŽ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ͖ ƚŽ ƌŝĐĞ ĮĞůĚƐ ŵĂŝŶůLJ ;^/DW^KE͕ ϮϬϬϵ͖ d,K ,hE'͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ Ɛ ƐĂŝĚ ďĞĨŽƌĞ͕ ƚŚĞƐĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ĂƌĞ ŶĂƚƵƌĂůůLJ ĂĚĂƉƚĞĚ ƚŽ ŐƌŽǁ ŝŶ ĐŝĚŝĐ ^ƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ^ŽŝůƐ͕ ŝŶ ǁŚŝĐŚ ŽƚŚĞƌ ƚLJƉĞƐ ŽĨ LJŝĞůĚƐ ŚĂǀĞ ůŽǁĞƌ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶƐ ƚŚĂŶ ŝŶ ŽƉƟŵĂů ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ ; h <dKE Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϵϵͿ͘

DĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ĂƌĞ ƉĂƌƟĐƵůĂƌůLJ ǁĞůů ĂĚĂƉƚĞĚ ƚŽ ĚŝĸĐƵůƚ ĞĚĂƉŚŝĐ ĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ ĂƐ ŝŶƵŶĚĂƟŶŐ ĐŝĚ ^ƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ^ŽŝůƐ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ƉůĂLJ ĂŶ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ƌŽůĞ ŝŶ ĮůƚĞƌŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ ƚŚĂƚ ŇŽǁƐ ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ƚŚĞŵ͕ ĐĂƚĐŚŝŶŐ ŝƚ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ƌĂŝŶLJ ƐĞĂƐŽŶ ĂŶĚ ƌĞůĞĂƐŝŶŐ ŝƚ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ĚƌLJ ƐĞĂƐŽŶ ;d,K ,hE'͕ ϮϬϭϮ͖ ^/DW^KE͕ ϮϬϬϵͿ͘ sĞƌLJ ĨĞǁ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ŚĂǀĞ Ă ĐŽŵŵĞƌĐŝĂů ƵƐĞ͘ dŚĞ ƟŵďĞƌ ŽĨ Melaleuca leucadendra and Melaleuca quinquenervia ŚĂƐ ďĞĞŶ ƵƐĞĚ ĂƐ ĨĞŶĐĞ ƉŽƐƚƐ͕ ƌĂŝůǁĂLJ ƐůĞĞƉĞƌƐ͕ ĞƚĐ͖͘ ďĞŝŶŐ ĂůƐŽ ƵƐĞĨƵů ŝŶ ŚŽŶĞLJ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ͘ Melaleuca alternifolia ŝƐ ĂůƐŽ ƵƐĞĚ ĨŽƌ dĞĂ dƌĞĞ Kŝů͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ƐŝŐŶŝĮĐĂŶƚ ƵƐĞ ĨŽƌ ƚŚŝƐ ĨĂŵŝůLJ͘ dŚŝƐ Žŝů ŝƐ ǀĂůƵĂďůĞ ĂƐ ŐĞƌŵŝĐŝĚĞ ĂŶĚ ƵƐĞĚ ŝŶ ƐĞǀĞƌĂů ďĞĂƵƚLJ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƚƐ ; EW^ ͕ ϮϬϭϯͿ͘ /ƚƐ ǁŽŽĚ ŝƐ ǀĞƌLJ ƌĞƐŝƐƚĂŶƚ ƚŽ ǁĞƚ ĂŶĚ ŵƵĚĚLJ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ ;s E hKE'͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞƌĞDzƐ ƐŽŵĞ ĞdžŝƐƟŶŐ ĞǀŝĚĞŶĐĞ ƉŽŝŶƟŶŐ ƚŚĂƚ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ĐĂŶ ĂĐƚ ĂƐ ĂŶ ĂŵĞůŝŽƌĂƟǀĞ ŵĞĐŚĂŶŝƐŵ ŝŶ ĐŝĚ ^ƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ^Žŝů ĂƌĞĂƐ͕ ƌĞĚƵĐŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ůĞǀĞůƐ ŽĨ ƚŽdžŝĐ ĂůƵŵŝŶŝƵŵ STRATEGIC PROJECT. TAMING THE WATER ĂŶĚ ŝƌŽŶ ŝŽŶƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ ŝŶ ǁŚŝĐŚ ŝƚ ŝƐ ŐƌŽǁŶ Ɛ ĞdžƉŽƐĞĚ ďĞĨŽƌĞ͕ ƚŚĞ Ă DĂƵ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ; h <dKE Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϵϵͿ͘ ŝƐ ĨĂĐŝŶŐ ƐĞǀĞƌĂů ĐŚĂůůĞŶŐĞƐ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ Melaleuca in Vietnam ƉŚLJƐŝĐĂů͕ ŶĂƚƵƌĂů͕ ĐůŝŵĂƟĐ ĂŶĚ ƐŽĐŝĂů ǀĂƌŝĂďůĞƐ͘ dŚĞ ĨŽůůŽǁŝŶŐ ƉĂŐĞƐ ĂƌĞ ƌĞůĂƚĞĚ ƚŽ ŽŶĞ DĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ Ă DĂƵ ĂƌĞ Ă ƵŶŝƋƵĞ ƐƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĐ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚ ǁŚŝĐŚ ůŽŽŬƐ ĨŽƌ ƵŶĚĞƌƚĂŬŝŶŐ ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵ ƚŚĂƚ ŽŶĐĞ ĐŽǀĞƌĞĚ ĞdžƚĞŶƐŝǀĞ ƐŽŵĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĚĞƐĐƌŝďĞĚ ƐŝƚƵĂƟŽŶƐ ŝŶ ŽƌĚĞƌ ƚŽ ĂƌĞĂƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ Melaleuca ƌĞƐŚĂƉĞ ƚŚĞ ĐƵƌƌĞŶƚ ůĂŶĚƐĐĂƉĞ ŝŶƚŽ Ă ŵŽƌĞ ĐĂũĂƉƵƟ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ĐŽŵŵŽŶ ŶĂƟǀĞ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ƌĞƐŝůŝĞŶƚ ŽŶĞ͘ in south of Vietnam ;s E hKE'͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ KǀĞƌ ƚŚĞ LJĞĂƌƐ ĂƐ Ă ƌĞƐƵůƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƵŶƉůĂŶŶĞĚ dĂŵŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ tĂƚĞƌ ŝƐ ĂďŽƵƚ ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ Ă ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ƵƐĞ ŽĨ ĮƌĞ͕ ǁĂƌĨĂƌĞ ĂĐƟǀŝƟĞƐ͕ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐ ĚŝŬĞ ĂůŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ ĂŶĚ ŝŶ ŚŝŐŚůLJ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ƉƌĞƐƐƵƌĞƐ͕ ĞƚĐ͕͘ ƚŚĞƐĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ĞƌŽĚĞĚ ƉŽŝŶƚƐ ŽĨ ƌŝǀĞƌƐ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƵƐĞ ŽĨ ŚĂǀĞ ďĞĞŶ ƌĞĚƵĐĞĚ ŝŶ ĞdžƚĞŶƚ ĂŶĚ ĚŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ ůŽĐĂů ŇŽƌĂ ĂŶĚ ůŽĐĂů ŵĂƚĞƌŝĂů ĂƐ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ;^/DW^KE͕ ϮϬϬϵͿ͘ /ƚ ĐĂŶ ďĞ ĐŽŶƐŝĚĞƌĞĚ ůŝŬĞ Ă ǁŽŽĚ ǁŝƚŚ ƚǁŽ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ŵŽĚĞůƐ ŽĨ ĨĞŶĐĞƐ͘ ŵƵůƟƉƵƌƉŽƐĞ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ĐĂƉĂďůĞ ƚŽ ĂĚĂƉƚ dŚĞƐĞ ǁĞƌĞ ŽƌŝŐŝŶĂůůLJ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ƚŽ ĚŝǀĞƌƐĞ ĞĐŽůŽŐŝĐĂů njŽŶĞƐ ;Yh E' dZhE'͕ ĞƵƚƐĐŚĞ 'ĞƐĞůůƐĐŚĂŌ Ĩƺƌ /ŶƚĞƌŶĂƟŽŶĂůĞ ϮϬϬϵͿ͘ DĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ŝŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ŚĂƐ Ăƚ ƵƐĂŵŵĞŶĂƌďĞŝƚ ;'/ Ϳ 'ŵď, ŝŶ Ă ƉŝůŽƚ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚ ůĞĂƐƚ ϰ ǀĂƌŝĞƟĞƐ ĂƐ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ <ŝĞŶ 'ŝĂŶŐ WƌŽǀŝŶĐĞ ŝŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕ ƐƚĂƌƚĞĚ ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƟĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ĂƌĞ ĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƚĞĚ ŶĂƚƵƌĂůůLJ ŽŶ ŝŶ ϮϬϭϬ ;s E hKE'͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ dŚŝƐ ƐƚƌĂƚĞŐLJ ĐĂŶ ĂĐŝĚ ƐŽŝů ŝŶ DĞŬŽŶŐ ĚĞůƚĂ͘ Ɛ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ŚĞůƉ ƚŽ ĚĞĂů ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĞdžƉĞĐƚĞĚ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵ ĞƐƚĂďůŝƐŚĞĚ ƵŶĚĞƌ ƚLJƉŝĐĂů ĂůƵŵ ĂŶĚ ĐůŝŵĂƟĐ ŽƐĐŝůůĂƟŽŶƐ ĂŶĚ ĞdžƚƌĞŵĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ŝŶƵŶĚĂƚĞĚ ĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ ; ĐŝĚ ^ƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ^ŽŝůƐͿ͕ ǁĂƚĞƌ ƌĞŐŝŵĞ͕ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ ŽĨ ^^ ĂƌĞĂƐ͕ ŽŶůLJ ƐŽŵĞ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ĐŽƵůĚ ĂĚĂƉƚ ĂŶĚ ƐƵƌǀŝǀĞ ƚŽ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĂŶĚ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ƌĞĨŽƌĞƐƚĂƟŽŶ͕ ĞƚĐ͘ 16

Background

ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ ƉƌŽƉĂŐƵůĞƐ͕ ĐŽůůĞĐƚĞĚ ƐĞĞĚůŝŶŐƐ Žƌ ĐƵůƟǀĂƚĞĚ ƐĞĞĚůŝŶŐƐ ƚŚĂƚ ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ƌĞĐƌƵŝƚŵĞŶƚ Ɛ ƐƚĂƚĞĚ ĞĂƌůŝĞƌ͕ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ƉůĂLJ Ă ŬĞLJ ƌŽůĞ ǁŝůů ŶŽƚ ƉƌŽǀŝĚĞ ƚŚĞ ƋƵĂŶƟƚLJ ŽĨ ƐƵĐĐĞƐƐĨƵůůLJ ŝŶ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ĂŐĂŝŶƐƚ ĞdžƚƌĞŵĞ ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ĞƐƚĂďůŝƐŚĞĚ ƐĞĞĚůŝŶŐƐ ;> t/^ Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϲͿ͘ ĂŶĚ ĐůŝŵĂƟĐ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ ĂƐ ƚLJƉŚŽŽŶƐ͕ ƚƐƵŶĂŵŝƐ͕ ŇŽŽĚŝŶŐ͕ ĞƌŽƐŝŽŶ ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ͕ ĞƚĐ͘ dŚĞ ƚƌĞĞƐ Ɛ ƐĂŝĚ ďĞĨŽƌĞ͕ DĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ĐĂũĂƉƵƟ ŝƐ Ă ŶĂƟǀĞ ĐĂŶ ƌĞĚƵĐĞ ƚŚĞ ŚĞŝŐŚƚ ĂŶĚ ǀĞůŽĐŝƚLJ ŽĨ ŝŶĐŽŵŝŶŐ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ŐƌŽǁƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐŽƵƚŚ ŽĨ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͖ ǁĂǀĞƐ ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ ƚŚĞ ĚƌĂŐ ĨŽƌĐĞƐ ĂƉƉůŝĞĚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞŝƌ ŝƚ ƵƐĞĚ ƚŽ ďĞ ǀĞƌLJ ĐŽŵŵŽŶ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ǁŚŽůĞ ƌĂĚŝĐƵůĂƌ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ;< d,/Z ^ E͕ ϮϬϭϯďͿ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ďƵƚ ǁŝƚŚ ƐĐĂƌĐĞ ƉƌĞƐĞŶĐĞ Ăƚ ƚŚĞ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƚ ƟŵĞ ŝŶ ĨŽƌŵ ŽĨ ĨĞǁ ƉĂƚĐŚĞƐ͕ ŵĂŝŶůLJ ƵƐĞĚ ĂƐ Ă ƐŚĞůƚĞƌďĞůƚ ĂůŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚƐ͘ ĂƐ Ă ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ƌĞƐĞƌǀĞ͘ dŚŝƐ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ŚĂƐ ďĞĞŶ ƵƐĞĚ &ŽƌĞƐƚ ƌĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶ ƉƌŽŐƌĂŵƐ ŚĂǀĞ ďĞĞŶ ŚŝƐƚŽƌŝĐĂůůLJ ĂƐ Ă ůŽĐĂů ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶ ŵĂƚĞƌŝĂů͕ ƉƌĞǀŝŽƵƐůLJ ĐĂƌƌŝĞĚ ŝŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ĂŶĚ Ăůů ĂƌŽƵŶĚ ďƵƚ ŶŽǁ ŝƐ ďĞŝŶŐ ĚŝƐƉůĂĐĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ƵƐĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ǁŽƌůĚ͕ ŵŽƐƚ ĂƩĞŵƉƚƐ ŽŌĞŶ ĨĂŝůŝŶŐ ĐŽŶĐƌĞƚĞ͘ dŚĞ ĚƌŽƉ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĚĞŵĂŶĚ ĂůŽŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞůLJ Žƌ ĨĂŝů ƚŽ ĂĐŚŝĞǀĞ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŝŶ ŐŽĂůƐ ;> t/^ Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϬϲ͖ D Z , E ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ ďŽƵƚ Sediment trap fence ϱϴϬ ŚĂ ŽŶ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂǁĂƌĚ ƐŝĚĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĚLJŬĞ ŝŶ ,Ă 3 m = 40 pole size 4 dŝŶŚ ƉƌŽǀŝŶĐĞ ǁĂƐ ƉůĂŶƚĞĚ ǁŝƚŚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ TYPE 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ϭϵϴϵ ĂŶĚ ϭϵϵϯ ŝŶ ŽƌĚĞƌ ƚŽ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉ 3m Ă ŐƌĞĞŶ ďĂƌƌŝĞƌ ĨŽƌ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ǁŝƚŚ ƐƵƌǀŝǀĂů ƌĂƚĞƐ ĂƌŽƵŶĚ ϰϬй ;D Z , E ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ &ƌŽŵ ϮϬϬϬ ƚŽ ϮϬϭϬ͕ ƚŚĞ ϲϲϭ ƉƌŽŐƌĂŵ ŝŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĞĚ ŝŶ <ŝĞŶ 'ŝĂŶŐ ƉůĂŶƚĞĚ ϱϬϬ ŚĂ ĂƉƉƌŽdžŝŵĂƚĞůLJ ŽĨ ŶĞǁ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ǁŝƚŚ ƐŝŶŐůĞ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ;Avicennia alba or Rhizophora apiculataͿ ǁŝƚŚ Ă ƐƵƌǀŝǀĂů ƌĂƚĞ ŽĨ ϱϬй ; h< Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϬ ŝŶ s E hKE'͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ dŚĞƐĞ ĨĂŝůƵƌĞƐ ĂƌĞ ŽŌĞŶ ĂƩƌŝďƵƚĞĚ ƚŽ ŝŶĂƉƉƌŽƉƌŝĂƚĞ Wave break fence Seaward side ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ƐĞůĞĐƟŽŶ͕ ŝŶĂƉƉƌŽƉƌŝĂƚĞ ƐŝƚĞ ƐĞůĞĐƟŽŶ ;D Z , E ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͕ ƉŽŽƌ ƋƵĂůŝƚLJ ƐĞĞĚůŝŶŐƐ 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ĂŶĚ ůĂĐŬ ŽĨ ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƐĞĞĚůŝŶŐƐ ĨƌŽŵ ŵĞĐŚĂŶŝĐĂů ĨŽƌĐĞƐ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ŝŶŝƟĂů ƐƚĂŐĞƐ ŽĨ ŐƌŽǁƚŚ ĂŌĞƌ ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ ;s E hKE'͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 ͘Ő͕͘ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ WŚŝůŝƉƉŝŶĞƐ͕ ƚŚĞ ĨĂǀŽƵƌĞĚ ďƵƚ ƵŶƐƵŝƚĂďůĞ ZŚŝnjŽƉŚŽƌĂ ƐƐƉ͘ ŝƐ ƉůĂŶƚĞĚ ŝŶ ƐĂŶĚLJ 5 ƐƵďƐƚƌĂƚĞƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĞdžƉŽƐĞĚ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ ŝŶƐƚĞĂĚ 4 ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ƉŝŽŶĞĞƌƐ ǀŝĐĞŶŶŝĂ ƐƐƉ͘ ĂŶĚ ^ŽŶŶĞƌĂƟĂ ƐƐƉ͘ ůƐŽ ǁŝƚŚ ůŽǁ ƐƵƌǀŝǀĂů ƌĂƚĞƐ ;D Z , E ͕ ϮϬϬϴͿ͘ ĐĐŽƌĚŝŶŐ ƚŽ > t/^͕ ϮϬϬϲ͕ ŝŶ ŽƌĚĞƌ ƚŽ ĂĐŚŝĞǀĞ Ă ƐƵĐĐĞƐƐĨƵů ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ Sediment trap fence ƌĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶ͕ ĮǀĞ ŵĂŝŶ ƐƚĞƉƐ ĂƌĞ ŶĞĐĞƐƐĂƌLJ͗ TYPE 2 3 m = 40 pole size 4 x 2 rows = 80 poles ϭ͘ ƵŶĚĞƌƐƚĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ĂƵƚŽĞĐŽůŽŐLJ ;ŝŶĚŝǀŝĚƵĂů 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ĞĐŽůŽŐLJͿ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ŶĂƚƵƌĂůůLJ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐŝƚĞ͕ Ϯ͘ ƵŶĚĞƌƐƚĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ŶŽƌŵĂů ;ŶĂƚƵƌĂůͿ ŚLJĚƌŽůŽŐLJ ƉĂƩĞƌŶƐ ƚŚĂƚ 4 Melaleuca Pole 4 ĐŽŶƚƌŽů ƚŚĞ ĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ĂƵƚŽĞĐŽůŽŐLJ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ Fishing net ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ͕ ϯ͘ ĐĂůĐƵůĂƚĞ ŵŽĚŝĮĐĂƟŽŶƐ Bamboo mat ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŽƌŝŐŝŶĂů ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ ŝŶ Melaleuca support frame ŽƌĚĞƌ ƚŽ ƉƌĞǀĞŶƚ ƐĞĐŽŶĚĂƌLJ ƐƵĐĐĞƐƐŝŽŶ͕ ϰ͘ ĚĞƐŝŐŶ ƚŚĞ ƌĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶ ƉƌŽŐƌĂŵ ƚŽ ƌĞƐƚŽƌĞ ƚŚĞ Fences design. From VAN COUNG, 2012. ĂƉƉƌŽƉƌŝĂƚĞ ŚLJĚƌŽůŽŐLJ ĂŶĚ ϱ͘ hƟůŝnjĞ ĂĐƚƵĂů 3m

3m

3 m = 1 pole size 5 + 40 pole size 4

0.5 m

0.5 m

3 m = 18 pole size 5 pushed 2 m into mud

Melaleuca Pole 5 (diameter 8 cm) Melaleuca Pole 4 (diameter 5 cm) Melaleuca branches Fishing net

Bamboo mat

(diameter 5 cm)

17

ŽƚŚĞƌƐ ŵŽƟǀĞƐ ĞdžƉůĂŝŶĞĚ ďĞĨŽƌĞ ŚĂǀĞ ŚĞůƉĞĚ ŶŽƌŵĂůůLJ͕ ƉƌĞǀĞŶƟŶŐ ƐŵŽƚŚĞƌŝŶŐ ƐĞĞĚůŝŶŐƐ͘ ƚŽ ƌĞĚƵĐĞ ŝƚƐ ŵĂƌŬĞƚ ǀĂůƵĞ͘ dŚŝƐ ĨĞŶĐĞ ŐƌĂŶƚƐ ƚŚĞ ƌŝŐŚƚ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ ĨŽƌ ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ƌĞŐĞŶĞƌĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ĂŶĚ ŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƟĐƐ ŝƐ ƉůĂĐĞĚ ƉĂƌĂůůĞů ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ ǁŚĞƌĞ ƚŚĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ ĚĞƉƚŚ ŝŶ ŚŝŐŚ ƟĚĞ ŝƐ ĂďŽƵƚ ϱϬ Đŵ͘ /ƚ ŝƐ dŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ ŝƐ ŵĂĚĞ ŽĨ ƚǁŽ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ŵĂĚĞ ǁŝƚŚ ƐŵĂůůĞƌ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ƉŽůĞƐ ƚĂŶ ƚŚĞ ƚLJƉĞƐ ŽĨ ĨĞŶĐĞƐ ŵĂĚĞ ŵĂŝŶůLJ ŽĨ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ǁĂǀĞ ďƌĞĂŬ ĨĞŶĐĞ ĂŶĚ ďĂŵ͘ ƉŽůĞƐ͕ ǁŝƚŚ Ă ůĞƐƐ ƉƌŽƉŽƌƟŽŶ ŽĨ ďĂŵ ŵĂƫŶŐ ĂŶĚ ĮƐŚ ŶĞƫŶŐ͖ ďĞŝŶŐ ĂďůĞ ƚŽ ƌĞĚƵĐĞ dŚĞ ƌŝǀĞƌůŝŶĞ ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ ŝƐ ŵĂĚĞ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƐŝŐŶŝĮĐĂŶƚůLJ ƚŚĞ ĞƌŽƐŝŽŶ ĂŶĚ ƚŽ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ƚƌĂƉ ƚLJƉĞ Ϯ͕ ǁŽƌŬŝŶŐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐĂŵĞ ŚĞŝŐŚƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƐŽŝů͘ dŚĞ ĞdžƚĞƌŶĂů ĨĞŶĐĞ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ ǁĂLJ ƚŚĂƚ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ͕ ďƵƚ ǁŝƚŚ Ă tĂǀĞ ƌĞĂŬ &ĞŶĐĞ͕ ŵĂĚĞ ŽĨ ƚǁŽ ƌŽǁƐ ŽĨ ƐŝŶŐůĞ ĨĞŶĐĞ ƉůĂĐĞĚ ŝŶ ŚŝŐŚůLJ ĞƌŽĚĞĚ ƐƉŽƚƐ ŝŶ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ƉŽůĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ďƌĂŶĐŚĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƌŝǀĞƌƐ ĂŶĚ ĐĂŶĂůƐ͘ dŚŝƐ ĨĞŶĐĞ ŝƐ ĂůƐŽ ŵĂĚĞ ǁŝƚŚ ŵŝĚĚůĞ ƚŚĂƚ ĂƌĞ ĂďůĞ ƚŽ ŵŽǀĞ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ǁĂǀĞƐ ƐŵĂůů ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ƉŽůĞ ;ĂƐ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ƚƌĂƉ ĂďƐŽƌďŝŶŐ ƉĂƌƚ ŽĨ ŝƚƐ ĞŶĞƌŐLJ͘ EŽƌŵĂůůLJ͕ ƚŚĞƐĞ ƚLJƉĞ ϭͿ͕ ďĂŵ ĂŶĚ ĮƐŚ ŶĞƫŶŐ͘ DĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ďƌĂŶĐŚĞƐ ĂƌĞ ĐŽŶƐŝĚĞƌĞĚ ĂƐ ƌĞƐŝĚƵĂů ǁŽŽĚ͕ ǁŽŽĚ ĐĂŶ ĞŶĚƵƌĞ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ϭϬ ƚŽ ϭϱ LJĞĂƌƐ ŝŶ ďĞŝŶŐ ďƵƌŶĞĚ ĂŌĞƌ ƚŚĞ ƚŚŝŶŶŝŶŐ͘ ǀĞƌLJ ƉŽůĞ ŝƐ ǁĞƚ ĂŶĚ ŵƵĚĚLJ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ͘ LJ ƚŚĞ ƟŵĞ ƚŚĞƐĞ ϯ ŵĞƚĞƌƐ ŚĞŝŐŚƚ ĂŶĚ ŝƐ ƉƵƐŚĞĚ Ϯ ŵĞƚĞƌƐ ŝŶƚŽ ƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞƐ ĚŝƐĂƉƉĞĂƌ͕ ƚŚĞ ƐŽŝů ǁŝůů ďĞ ŶĂƚƵƌĂůůLJ ƚŚĞ ŵƵĚ͘ dŚŝƐ ĞdžƚĞƌŶĂů ƌŽǁ ŝƐ ƉůĂĐĞĚ ƉĂƌĂůůĞů ƚŽ ĐŽŶƐŽůŝĚĂƚĞĚ ƚŚĂŶŬƐ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƌŽŽƚ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚ ĂŶĚ ǁŚĞƌĞ ƚŚĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ ĚĞƉƚŚ ŝŶ ŚŝŐŚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ;s E hKE'͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ ƟĚĞ ŝƐ ĂďŽƵƚ ϭ ŵ͕ ƌĞĚƵĐŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƐƚƌĞŶŐƚŚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ǁĂǀĞ ĞŶĞƌŐLJ ŚŝƫŶŐ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƐŚŽƌĞƐ ĂƐƐŝƐƟŶŐ ĞŚŝŶĚ ŽĨ ĞǀĞƌLJ ĨĞŶĐĞ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ƚLJƉĞƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƐƚĂďŝůŝnjĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ͘ dŚĞ ŝŶƚĞƌŶĂů ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƐĞĞĚůŝŶŐƐ ĂƌĞ ƉůĂŶƚĞĚ͕ ŐŝǀŝŶŐ ĨĞŶĐĞ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ ^ĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ dƌĂƉ ƚLJƉĞ ϭ͕ ĚĞƐŝŐŶĞĚ ƉƌŝŽƌŝƚLJ ƚŽ ƉŝŽŶĞĞƌ ;ĐŽůŽŶŝnjĞƌƐͿ ĂŶĚ ĚŽŵŝŶĂŶƚ ƚŽ ƚƌĂƉ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ĚĞƉŽƐŝƚĞĚ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ǁĂǀĞƐ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ĂĐĐŽƌĚŝŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƉůĂĐĞ ǁŚĞƌĞ ƚŚĞ ;ŵĂŝŶůLJ ŝŶ ǁĞƚ ƐĞĂƐŽŶͿ ĂůůŽǁŝŶŐ ƚŽ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉ ĨĞŶĐĞ ŝƐ ďƵŝůƚ͘ ^ƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĐ ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ ĐĂŶ ĂůƐŽ ĞŶŽƵŐŚ ƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞ ƚŽ ĞŶĂďůĞ ƚŚĞ ƌŽŽƚ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ŽĨ ďĞ ĚŽŶĞ ŝŶ ŽƌĚĞƌ ƚŽ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞ ƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶƐ ƐĞĞĚůŝŶŐ ĂŶĚ ƐĞĞĚ ĂŶĐŚŽƌ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐŽŝů ĂŶ ŐƌŽǁ ŽĨ ĞŶĚĂŶŐĞƌĞĚ Žƌ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟǀĞ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ͘ dŚŝƐ YEAR 0

. min

2 m. min

2m High tide

Seedling pioneer species

1 m. aprox.

Seedling secondary species

YEAR 1 20 cm/ year aprox.

High tide

YEAR 5

High tide

WAVE BREAK

SEDIMENT TRAP 1

Growing scheme.

18

Average Sediment Accumulation per Treatment (m) over 1 year

0.3

Wet season SW Monsoon

Dry season NE Monsoon 0.25 0.2

Sep 2011

Aug 2011

Jul 2011

Jun 2011

May 2011

Apr 2011

-0.1

Feb 2011

-0.05

Mar 2011

0 Jan 2011

Wave Break + Trap Fence

0.05

Dec 2010

Control

0.1

Nov 2010

Accumulation (m)

0.15

Date

Sediment elevation over time. Adapted from VAN COUNG, 2012.

70

9 8

60

7

40 2

5 4

Individuals/m

Number of species

50

6

3 2

30

20

10

1 0 Natural Mangrove

Control

Wave break + Sediment trap

Crustacea

0 Natural Mangrove

Control

Wave break + Sediment trap

Bivalvia Gastropoda

Species diversity. Adapted from VAN COUNG, 2012.

Species density. Adapted from VAN COUNG, 2012.

ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ĂůůŽǁƐ ĂŶŝŵĂůƐ ƚŽ ŵŽǀĞ ĨƌĞĞůLJ ŝŶ ĂŶĚ ŽƵƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŝŶǀŽůǀĞĚ ĂƌĞĂƐ͕ ŐĞƫŶŐ ĐůŽƐĞ Ăƚ ƚŚĞ ďĞŶƚŚŽƐϰ ĚŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ ĂŶĚ ĚĞŶƐŝƚLJ ĨŽƵŶĚ ŝŶ ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ĂƌĞĂƐ͘ dŚĞ ƉůĂŶƚĞĚ ƐĞĞĚůŝŶŐƐ ŚĂǀĞ Ă ƐƵƌǀŝǀĂů ƌĂƚĞ Ăƚ ĂƌŽƵŶĚ ϴϮй ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ ĂŶĚ ϱϳй ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƌŝǀĞƌůŝŶĞ ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ŚŝŐŚĞƌ ƚŚĂŶ ŵŽƐƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĨŽƌŵĞƌ ƌĞĨŽƌĞƐƚĂƟŽŶ ĂƩĞŵƉƚƐ͘

ĐĂƉĂďůĞ ƚŽ ƉƌŽĚƵĐĞ ƚŚĞ ŚŝŐŚ ĂŵŽƵŶƚ ŽĨ ǁŽŽĚ ŶĞĞĚĞĚ͘ /Ŷ Ă DĂƵ͕ ƚŚĞƌĞ ŝƐ ĂůƌĞĂĚLJ ϭϳϬ Ŭŵ ŽĨ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ ǁŝƚŚŽƵƚ ĂŶLJ ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ ŵŽƌĞ ƚŚĂŶ ƚŚĞ ĞdžŝƐƟŶŐ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ƚŚĂƚ ŶĞĞĚ ƚŽ ďĞ ƉƌŽƚĞĐƚĞĚ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ͘ dĂŬŝŶŐ ĂƐ Ă ďĂƐĞ ƚŚĞ ĂǀĂŝůĂďůĞ ŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ ƌĞĨĞƌƌĞĚ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĞƵĐĂůLJƉƚƵƐ ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ ;Ă ƌĞůĂƚĞĚ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ƐĂŵĞ ĨĂŵŝůLJ͕ DLJƌƚĂĐĞĂĞͿ ǁŚŝĐŚ ŚĂƐ ĂůƌĞĂĚLJ Ă ǁŽŽĚ ŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉĞĚ ǁŽƌůĚǁŝĚĞ ĂŶĚ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ůĂĐŬ ŽĨ ŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ ĨŽƵŶĚ ƌĞĨĞƌƌĞĚ ƚŽ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ͕ ŝƚ ĐĂŶ ďĞ ĂƐƐƵŵĞĚ ƚŚĂƚ ǁŝƚŚ ĂŶ ŝŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂůŝnjĞĚ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ĐĂŶ ďĞ ƉƌŽĚƵĐĞĚ ϮϱϬϬ ƉŽůĞƐͬŚĂ ǁŝƚŚ Ă ŚĂƌǀĞƐƚ ĞǀĞƌLJ ϴ LJĞĂƌƐ ;<&^͕ ϮϬϬϵͿ͘ /Ŷ ϭ ůŝŶĞĂƌ <ŵ ŽĨ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ;ǁĂǀĞ ďƌĞĂŬ ĨĞŶĐĞ ĂŶĚ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ƚƌĂƉ ƚLJƉĞ ϭͿ ŝƐ ŶĞĞĚĞĚ ϯϮϯϰϬ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ƉŽůĞƐ ŽĨ ϯ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ĚŝĂŵĞƚĞƌƐ͕ ƌĞƐƵůƟŶŐ ŝŶ Ă ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ ĂǀĞƌĂŐĞ ŽĨ ϭϮ͘ϵϯ ŚĂ ƉĞƌ ĞĂĐŚ ůŝŶĞĂƌ <ŵ ŽĨ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ͘ ƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĨĂĐƚ ƚŚĂƚ ĨŽƌ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞ ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶ 19

dŚĞ ĐĂƚĐŚŝŶŐ ƌĂƚĞ ŽĨ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚƐ ŵĂŬĞƐ ƚŚĞ ƐŽŝů ŐƌŽǁ Ăƚ Ă ƌĂƚĞ ŽĨ ϮϬ ĐŵͬLJĞĂƌ͕ ƚƵƌŶŝŶŐ ĂďŽƵƚ Ă ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ŐƌŽǁŝŶŐ ĚLJŬĞ͘ dŚŝƐ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ƵƟůŝnjĞƐ Ă ŵĂƐƐŝǀĞ ĂŵŽƵŶƚ ŽĨ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ǁŽŽĚ͘ tŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƉƌĞƐĞŶƚ ůŽǁ LJŝĞůĚƐ ĂŶĚ ŝƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌ ŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ ŝŶ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ƉůĂŶƟŶŐƐ͕ ŝƐ ŶŽƚ ƉŽƐƐŝďůĞ ƚŽ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉ ĂŶ ŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJ 4 Benthos is referred to the assemblage of organisms inhabiting the seafloor. (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2013).

Tidal Level: 3- 3,5 m

EXISTING MANGROVES

CANAL

Rhizophora apiculata (P) + Ceriops decandra 25

100

EAST SEA

Sediment trap 1

Avicennia alba (P) + Rhizophora apiculata + Avicennia officinalis

Wave break

200 M

East coast elevation. Current condition and scenario in the 5th year of the project.

Tidal Level: 0,8- 1,2 m

Wave break

25

100

Avicennia alba (D) + Avicennia officinalis

Sediment trap Type 1

DYKE

EXISTING MANGROVES

GULF OF THAILAND

Rhizophora mucronata (D) + Bruguiera sexangula

200 M

West coast elevation. Current condition and scenario in the 5th year of the project.

Sulfuric horizon 50- 70 cm

Tidal level

Avicennia alba (P) + Avicennia alba (P) + Avicennia officinalis Avicennia alba (P) Avicennia officinalis

Sediment trap 2

EXISTING MANGROVES

25

Sediment trap 2

GANH HAO RIVER

100

Sulfuric horizon 70- 100 cm Avicennia alba (P) Avicennia alba (P) + Avicennia officinalis Avicennia alba (P)

EXISTING MANGROVES

200 M

Gan Hao River elevation. Current condition and scenario in the 5th year of the project.

ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƌĞƋƵŝƌĞĚ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ ŝƚƐ ŶĞĞĚƐ ƚŚĞ ǁŽŽĚ ƉƌŽĚƵĐĞĚ ďLJ Ϯϭϵϵ͘ϭϮ ŚĂ ŝŶ ũƵƐƚ ŽŶĞ ŚĂƌǀĞƐƚ͕ Ă ƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐŝǀĞ ƐŝůǀŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ƉƌŽũĞĐƚ ŵƵƐƚ ďĞ ĞƐƚĂďůŝƐŚĞĚ ŝŶ ŽƌĚĞƌ ƚŽ ƉƌŽǀŝĚĞ ĞŶŽƵŐŚ ŵĂƚĞƌŝĂů ĨŽƌ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ͘

ŝƐ ĐŽŵƉĂƌĞĚ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ĞdžƉĞĐƚĞĚ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ ƐĐĞŶĂƌŝŽƐ͕ ďLJ ƚŚĞ ĞŶĚŝŶŐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶ ĂƌŽƵŶĚ ƚŚĞ ǁŚŽůĞ Ă DĂƵ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ;ϮϬϱϲͿ ďĞĐŽŵĞƐ ĞǀŝĚĞŶƚ ƚŚĂƚ ƚŚĞ ŐƌŽǁŝŶŐ ƐŽŝů ĐĂŶ ĐŽŵƉĞƚĞ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ͘​͘

dŚĞ ƉƌŽƉŽƐĞĚ ƐĐĞŶĂƌŝŽ ƐŚŽǁƐ ϰ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ƉůŽƚƐ ;ƚǁŽ ǁŝƚŚ ϭϱϬ ŚĂ ĂŶĚ ƚǁŽ ǁŝƚŚ ϮϬϬ ŚĂͿ ƉůĂŶƚĞĚ ĞǀĞƌLJ ŽŶĞ ǁŝƚŚ Ϯ LJĞĂƌƐ ŽĨ ĞĂĐŚ ŽƚŚĞƌ ĂŶĚ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ϴth LJĞĂƌ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĮƌƐƚ ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ ƚŚĞ ďĞŐŝŶŶŝŶŐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ͘ /Ŷ ƚŚŝƐ ƐĐĞŶĂƌŝŽ ƚŚĞ ǁŚŽůĞ ĐŽĂƐƚůŝŶĞ ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ĐĂŶ ďĞ ĮŶŝƐŚĞĚ ϯϰ LJĞĂƌƐ ůĂƚĞƌ ƚŚĂŶ ƚŚĞ ĮƌƐƚ ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ͕ ŚĂƌǀĞƐƟŶŐ ĞǀĞƌLJ Ϯ LJĞĂƌƐ ĨƌŽŵ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ƉůŽƚƐ ƵƐŝŶŐ ƚŚĞŵ ŽǀĞƌ ĂŶĚ ŽǀĞƌ ĂŐĂŝŶ͘

tŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ ĐĂŶ ďĞ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉĞĚ ƐĞǀĞƌĂů ƐŝůǀŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂů ƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐ ŝŶ ƉůĂĐĞƐ ǁŚĞƌĞ ƚŚĞ ƉƌĞƐĞŶĐĞ ŽĨ ^^ ŝƐ Ă ƉƌŽďůĞŵ͕ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƌĞůĞĂƐĞ ŽĨ ƚŽdžŝĐ ŵĞƚĂůƐ ĂŶĚ ĂĐŝĚŝĮĐĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ǁĂƚĞƌ͘ ƚ ƚŚĞ ƐĂŵĞ ƟŵĞ͕ ĂǀĂŝůĂďŝůŝƚLJ ŽĨ ĨƌĞƐŚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ŵƵƐƚ ďĞ ĐŽŶƐŝĚĞƌĞĚ ĚƵĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĨĂĐƚ ƚŚĂƚ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ͕ ŝŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂů ƉůĂŶƟŶŐ ƐŚŽƵůĚ ŚĂǀĞ ƉůĞŶƚLJ ĂǀĂŝůĂďŝůŝƚLJ ŽĨ ĨƌĞƐŚ ǁĂƚĞƌ ĨŽƌ ŶŽƚ ƚŽ ĚĞƉĞŶĚ ŽŶ ƌĂŝŶLJ ƐĞĂƐŽŶƐ͘

/Ĩ ƚŚĞ ƐĂŵĞ ƐĐĞŶĂƌŝŽ ĞdžƉŽƐĞĚ ƉƌĞǀŝŽƵƐůLJ dŚĞ ƉŚĂƐŝŶŐ ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ;ƐƚĂƌƟŶŐ ƚŽ ƉůĂŶƚ ŝŶ ϮϬϭϳ ĂŶĚ ƚŽ ďƵŝůĚ ŝŶ ϮϬϮϱͿ ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ĐĂŶ ƉƌŽǀŝĚĞ Ă ƐƚĂďůĞ ŵĂƌŬĞƚ ĨŽƌ 20

Planted Area (ha) 200 175 150 125 100 75 50 25 Years 2

20

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

36

38

40 60 80 100 120 140 160 170 Km 180 Dike construction (Km)

Planting/ harvesting/ building proposed scenario.

Global mean sea level rise (cm above 1992) 1,2 m

120

2056 (consolidation)

2091 1m

80

0,5 m 40 Observed scenarios

0,2 m

0

-40 1900

Year 1950

2000

2050 2025 (construction begining)

2100

2051 (construction ending)

Proposed scenario and Sea LEvel Rise. Adapted from NOAA, 2012.

ƚŚĞ ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ǁŽŽĚ ĨŽƌ ŵĂŶLJ LJĞĂƌƐ͕ ŐŝǀŝŶŐ ĞŶŽƵŐŚ ƟŵĞ ƚŽ ĂĐƋƵŝƌĞ ƚŚĞ ͞ŬŶŽǁ ŚŽǁ͟ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ĂƉƉƌŽƉƌŝĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐLJ ƚŽ ďĞ ĂďůĞ ƚŽ ĐŽŵƉĞƚĞ ŝŶ ůŽĐĂů ĂŶĚ ŝŶƚĞƌŶĂƟŽŶĂů ŵĂƌŬĞƚƐ͘ Expected Response to Sea Level Rise ůƚŚŽƵŐŚ ƐŽŵĞ ĂƵƚŚŽƌƐ ĂƌŐƵĞ ƚŚĂƚ ŝŶĐƌĞŵĞŶƚƐ ŝŶ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ϭϮ ĂŶĚ Ϯϳ Đŵ ĞǀĞƌLJ ϭϬϬ LJĞĂƌƐ ĐĂŶ ŵĂŬĞ ĐŽůůĂƉƐĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĞĐŽƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ͕ ƚŚĞƌĞ ĂƌĞ ƐƚƌŽŶŐ ĞǀŝĚĞŶĐĞƐ ƐŚŽǁŝŶŐ ƚŚĂƚ ƚŚĞƐĞ ǁŽŶDzƚ ďĞ ĂīĞĐƚĞĚ ǁŝƚŚ ƌŝƐĞƐ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ϱϬ ĂŶĚ ϴϬ Đŵ ĞǀĞƌLJ ϭϬϬ LJĞĂƌƐ͘ ƵƌŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ůĂƐƚ ŚĂůĨ ĚĞĐĂĚĞ͕ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ŝŶ <ĞLJ tĞƐƚ͕ &ůŽƌŝĚĂ ŚĂǀĞ ďĞĞŶ ĞdžƉĂŶĚŝŶŐ ŝŶƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ ĂŶĚ ŝŶůĂŶĚƐ͕ ŝŶ ƐƉŝƚĞ ŽĨ LJĞĂƌůLJ ŚƵƌƌŝĐĂŶĞƐ ĂŶĚ Ă ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ ŽĨ Ϯϯ Đŵ ĞǀĞƌLJ ϭϬϬ LJĞĂƌƐ ;z H Ͳ Z E / / Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϭϵϵϴͿ͘ ŶĂůLJƐŝƐ ŽĨ ƐƚƌĂƟŐƌĂƉŚLJ ĂŶĚ ĐŚƌŽŶŽůŽŐLJ ŽĨ ,ŽůŽĐĞŶĞ ĚĞƉŽƐŝƚƐ ŽŶ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƐŚŽƌĞůŝŶĞƐ ŚĂǀĞ ďĞĞŶ

ƵƐĞĚ ƚŽ ƉƌŽǀĞ ƚŚĂƚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƐŚŽƌĞůŝŶĞƐ ŚĂǀĞ ƉĞƌƐŝƐƚĞĚ ƵŶĚĞƌ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ ƌĂƚĞƐ ĂďŽƵƚ ϭϬͲ ϭϱ ŵŵͬLJĞĂƌ ;D < Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ dŚĞ ƌĞƐƉŽŶƐĞ ŽĨ Ă ĐŽŵďŝŶĞĚ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ĂƐ Ă DĂƵ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ;ƌŝǀĞƌͲĚŽŵŝŶĂƚĞĚͬ ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞĚ͕ ǁĂǀĞĚŽŵŝŶĂƚĞĚͬ ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞĚ͕ ƟĚĞĚŽŵŝŶĂƚĞĚͬ ŝŶŇƵĞŶĐĞĚͿ ůĂƌŐĞůLJ ĚĞƉĞŶĚƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ƐƵƉƉůLJ ĂŶĚ ĐĂƚĐŚŵĞŶƚ ĚĞƉŽƐŝƚĞĚ ŝŶ ŐƌŽǁŝŶŐ ĂƌĞĂƐ͘ ^ĞĚŝŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶ ďƵĚŐĞƚƐ ĞƋƵĂů ƚŽ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ ŵĂLJ ĞŶĂďůĞ ŝŶƚĞƌƟĚĂů ĂƌĞĂƐ ƚŽ ƌĞŵĂŝŶ ƌĞůĂƟǀĞůLJ ƐƚĂďůĞ ;^/tZZ͕ ϮϬϬϴ͖ D < Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ͘ dŚŝƐ ĐŽŶĮƌŵƐ ƚŚĂƚ ƟĚĂů ŝŶƵŶĚĂƟŽŶ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŝŶ ĨĂĐƚŽƌ ŝŶ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ njŽŶŝŶŐ ƌĞŐĂƌĚŝŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ͘ ŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ͕ ǁŝƚŚŽƵƚ ƉƌĞƐĞŶĐĞ ŽĨ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ƉŚLJƐŝĐĂů ďĂƌƌŝĞƌƐ ĐĂŶ ďĞ ĂďůĞ ƚŽ ŵŝŐƌĂƚĞ ŝŶƚŽ ŝŶůĂŶĚƐ ŵĂŬŝŶŐ ƉŽƐƐŝďůĞ Ă ƌĞĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ ĂůŽŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ƚŚĂŶŬƐ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ ƚŽůĞƌĂŶĐĞƐ ĂŶĚ ĂƵƚŽĞĐŽůŽŐŝĞƐ ŽĨ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ 21

20

10

Proposed plots for silvicultural project.

10

Proposed plots for melaleuca planting.

ƐƉĞĐŝĞƐ͘ ĐĐŽƌĚŝŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ <ŝƌǁĂŶ Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϬ ƌĞƐŝůŝĞŶĐĞ ŽĨ ƚŚŝƐ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ǁŝůů ďĞ ;ŝŶ D < Ğƚ Ăů͕ ϮϬϭϮͿ ͞ǁĞƚůĂŶĚ ƌĞƐŝůŝĞŶĐĞ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞĚ͕ ƉƌŽǀŝĚŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ŶĂƚƵƌĂů ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ ƚŽ ŵĂLJ ďĞ ĞdžŚĂƵƐƚĞĚ ƵŶĚĞƌ ƌĂƚĞƐ ŽĨ ƐĞĂͲůĞǀĞů ĂůůŽǁ Ă ͞ŶĂƚƵƌĂů͟ ŐƌŽǁ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ͘ rise of ŽŶůLJ Ă ĨĞǁ ŵŝůůŝŵĞƚƌĞƐ ƉĞƌ LJĞĂƌ ǁŚĞŶ ƐƵƐƉĞŶĚĞĚ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ĐŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƟŽŶƐ ĂƌĞ ůŽǁ͕ ǁŚŝůĞ ǁĞƚůĂŶĚƐ ŵĂLJ ŵĂƚĐŚ ƐĞĂͲůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ ŽĨ ƐĞǀĞƌĂů ĐĞŶƟŵĞƚƌĞƐ ƉĞƌ LJĞĂƌ ǁŚĞŶ ƐƵƐƉĞŶĚĞĚ sĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ĐŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƟŽŶƐ ĂƌĞ ŚŝŐŚ͘ KŶůLJ those ǁĞƚůĂŶĚƐ ǁŝƚŚ ƟĚĂů ƌĂŶŐĞƐ ĞdžĐĞĞĚŝŶŐ ϯ ŵ ĂŶĚ ŚŝŐŚ ƐƵƐƉĞŶĚĞĚ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ĐŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƟŽŶƐ ŵĂLJ surǀŝǀĞ ƌĂƚĞƐ ĞdžĐĞĞĚŝŶŐ ϮϬ ŵŵͬLJĞĂƌ͙͟ dŚŝƐ ŝŶĚŝĐĂƚĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ŝŶ Ă DĂƵ ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ĐĂŶ ďĞ ĂďůĞ ƚŽ ĚĞĂů ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĞdžƉĞĐƚĞĚ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ ǁŝƚŚŽƵƚ ĂŶLJ ŽƚŚĞƌ ŝŶƚĞƌǀĞŶƟŽŶ͕ ďĞŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ĞĂƐƚ ĐŽĂƐƚ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƌĞ ƌĞƐŝůŝĞŶƚ͘ tŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ Possible mangrove response to Sea Level Risse. ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ĚĞĨĞŶĐĞ͕ ƚŚĞ From HASHIMOTO, 2001 in SIWRR, 2008.

22

EW^ Ͳ ƵƐƚƌĂůŝĂŶ EĂƟǀĞ WůĂŶƚƐ ^ŽĐŝĞƚLJ͘ tĞď ŚƩƉ͗ͬ​ͬĂƐŐĂƉ͘ŽƌŐ͘ĂƵͬŵĞůĂůĞƵĐ͘Śƚŵů ŝŶ :ƵŶĞ ϭϮ dŚĞ ƌĞƐƵůƚ ŽĨ ƚŚŝƐ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚ ŝƐ Ă ƐƚƌĂƚĞŐLJ ƚŽ ĐŽƉĞ ϮϬϭϯ͘

CONCLUSIONS

ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀĞů ƌŝƐĞ Ăƚ Ă ƉĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ ƐĐĂůĞ͕ ƉƌŽǀŝĚŝŶŐ Ă ƌĞƐŝůŝĞŶƚ ůŝǀŝŶŐ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ dd E E E ͕ dĂƐŶĞĞ͕ s , ZKd z E͕ ^ŽƌĂͲ ƚŚĂƚ ĂĐƚ ůŝŬĞ Ă ƐŽŌ ĚLJŬĞ ĂŶĚ ƉƌŽǀŝĚĞƐ ƚŚĞ ƐŝƚŚ͕ ͞ ĐŝĚ ^ƵůĨĂƚĞ ^ŽŝůƐ͗ dŚĞŝƌ ŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƟĐƐ͕ 'ĞŶͲ ĞƐŝƐ͕ ŵĞůŝŽƌĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ hƟůŝnjĂƟŽŶ͕͟ ŝŶ Southeast ĨŽůůŽǁŝŶŐ ƋƵĂůŝƟĞƐ͗ Asian Studies, sŽů͘ Ϯϰ͕ EŽ͘Ϯ͕ ϭϵϴϲ͘

x dŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ŝƐ ďƵŝůƚ ǁŝƚŚ ůŽĐĂů ĂŶĚ ĞĂƐŝůLJ ĂǀĂŝůĂďůĞ ŵĂƚĞƌŝĂůƐ͕ ŶŽŶ ƐƉĞĐŝĂůŝnjĞĚ ůĂďŽƵƌ ĂŶĚ ŝƐ ŵƵĐŚ ĐŚĞĂƉĞƌ ƚŚĂŶ ƚŚĞ ŶŽƌŵĂů ŚĂƌĚ ĚLJŬĞ ƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ͘

/E,͕ d͘E͘<͘ ͕͘ sZKD Ed͕ EŝĐŽ͕ d, E, ,hE'͕ EŐƵLJĞŶ͕ , E^͕ >ƵĐ͕ KKE͕ ͘<͕ ͞>ĂŶĚ ŽǀĞƌ ŚĂŶŐĞƐ ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ ϭϵϲϴ ĂŶĚ ϮϬϬϯ ŝŶ Ăŝ EƵŽĐ͕ Ă DĂƵ WĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂ͕ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕͟ ŝŶ Environment, Development and Sustainability͕ sŽů͘ ϳ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϱϭϵʹϱϯϲ͕ ϮϬϬϱ͘

x WƌŽĚƵĐĞƐ ŵŝŶŝŵĂů ĚŝƐƚƵƌďĂŶĐĞ ƚŽ ƚŚĞ ƟĚĂů ƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ͕ ĂůůŽǁŝŶŐ ƚŽ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ h <dKE͕ ^ĞďĂƐƟĂŶ d͕͘ h͕ EŐƵLJĞŶ͕ h dh͕ EŐƵLJĞŶ͕ YhzE,͕ ,Ă YƵLJ͕ ͞dŚĞ ŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ĨŽƌĞƐƚ ƚŽ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉ ͞ŶĂƚƵƌĂůůLJ͘͟ x ŶŚĂŶĐĞƐ ĂŶĚ ƌĞƋƵĂůŝĮĞƐ ƚŚĞ ĞdžŝƐƟŶŐ ŐƌĞĞŶ ƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞƐ ĂůŽŶŐ ĐŽĂƐƚƐ ĂŶĚ ƌŝǀĞƌƐ͕ ŝŶĐƌĞĂƐŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐĂů ĂŶĚ ĞĐŽůŽŐŝĐĂů ƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĨŽƌĞƐƚƐ ĐĂŶ ŽīĞƌ͕ ĂƐ ƚŚĞ ƌĞůĂƟŽŶ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ďĞŶƚŚŝĐ ĨĂƵŶĂ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ĐůĞĂŶŝŶŐ ǁĂƚĞƌ ĨƵŶĐƟŽŶƐ ĂŵŽŶŐ ŽƚŚĞƌƐ͘

<ĞLJ tĞƚůĂŶĚ ^ŝƚĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ DĞŬŽŶŐ ĞůƚĂ͕͟ ŽŶƐĞƌͲ ǀĂƟŽŶ ZĞƉŽƌƚ EƵŵďĞƌ ϭϮ͕ ŝƌĚ>ŝĨĞ /ŶƚĞƌŶĂƟŽŶĂů͕ ZŽLJĂů EĞƚŚĞƌůĂŶĚƐ ŵďĂƐƐLJ͕ ϭϵϵϵ͘

Ă DĂƵ ǁĞďƐŝƚĞ͘ ͞ ŽŶŐ dŚŽŶŐ dŝŶ ŝĞŶ dƵ͘ dŝŶŚ Ă DĂƵ͘͟ tĞď ŚƩƉ͗ͬ​ͬǁǁǁ͘ĐĂŵĂƵ͘ŐŽǀ͘ǀŶͬ ŝŶ :ƵŶĞ ϱ ϮϬϭϯ͘

Z /E͕ :͕͘ ͞sĂƌŝĂďŝůŝƚLJ ĂŶĚ ĐŽŶƚƌŽů ŽĨ ĐĂƌďŽŶ ĐŽŶƐƵŵƉƟŽŶ͕ ĞdžƉŽƌƚ͕ ĂŶĚ ĂĐĐƵŵƵůĂƟŽŶ ŝŶ ŵĂƌŝŶĞ x 'ŝǀĞƐ Ă ĨĞĂƐŝďůĞ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟǀĞ ĂůƚĞƌŶĂƟǀĞ ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƟĞƐ͟ ŝŶ Limnology and Oceanography͕ ǁŝƚŚ ƚŚĞ ĐŝĚŝĐ ^ƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ^ŽŝůƐ ; ^^Ϳ sŽů͘ ϰϳ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϭϭͲϮϮ͕ ϮϬϬϮ͘

ƉƌŽŵŽƟŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĐŚĂŶŐĞ ĨƌŽŵ ůŽǁ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟǀŝƚLJ ĨĂƌŵŝŶŐ ƚŽ Ă ŵŽƌĞ ƐƵŝƚĂďůĞ ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ͕ ĂůůŽǁŝŶŐ ƚƌĂƉƉŝŶŐ ƚŽdžŝĐ ŵĞƚĂůƐ ĂŶĚ ĂůůĞǀŝĂƟŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĞīĞĐƚƐ ŝŶƚŽ ƚŚĞ ĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ͘

Kh>d, Zd͕ ůĂŶ͕ Yh E'͕ EŐƵLJĞŶ͕ ^, ZW ͕ ,ĞŶƌLJ͕ ͞hƌďĂŶ ĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚ ^ƚƌĂƚĞŐLJ͘ DĞĞƚͲ ŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĐŚĂůůĞŶŐĞƐ ŽĨ ƌĂƉŝĚ ƵƌďĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ ƚƌĂŶƐŝƟŽŶ ƚŽ Ă ŵĂƌŬĞƚ ŽƌŝĞŶƚĞĚ ĞĐŽŶŽŵLJ͕͟ ϮϬϬϲ͘ tĞď ŚƩƉ͗ͬ​ͬƐŝƚĞƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ͘ǁŽƌůĚďĂŶŬ͘ŽƌŐͬ/Ed Ͳ W/E&Z ^dZh dͬZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐͬhƌďĂŶ͘ƉĚĨ ŝŶ DĂLJ ϭϮ x WƌŽǀŝĚĞƐ Ă ƐƚĂďůĞ ŵĂƌŬĞƚ ĨŽƌ ƚŚŝƐ ŶĞǁ ϮϬϭϯ͘

ƉƌŽĚƵĐƟǀĞ ĂůƚĞƌŶĂƟǀĞ ;ŵĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ ǁŽŽĚͿ ŐŝǀŝŶŐ ƟŵĞ ĚƵƌŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ƚŽ ŐĞƚ ƚŚĞ ͞ŬŶŽǁ ŚŽǁ͟ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJ ŝŶ ŽƌĚĞƌ ƚŽ ŵĂŬĞ ŝƚ ĐŽŵƉĞƟƟǀĞ Ăƚ ŝŶƚĞƌŶĂƟŽŶĂů ƐƉŚĞƌĞƐ͘

ŶĐLJĐůŽƉčĚŝĂ ƌŝƚĂŶŶŝĐĂ͕ ͞ ŶĐLJĐůŽƉčĚŝĂ ƌŝƚĂŶͲ ŶŝĐĂ KŶůŝŶĞ ĐĂĚĞŵŝĐ ĚŝƟŽŶ͕͟ ŶĐLJĐůŽƉčĚŝĂ ƌŝͲ ƚĂŶŶŝĐĂ /ŶĐ͕͘ ϮϬϭϯ͘ tĞď :ƵŶĞ Ϭϵ ϮϬϭϯ͘ & K &ŽƌĞƐƚƌLJ WĂƉĞƌ͕ ͞dŚĞ tŽƌůĚDzƐ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ͘ ϭϵϴϬͲ ϮϬϬϱ͕͟ sŽů͘ ϭϱϯ͕ ϮϬϬϳ͘

x 'ŝǀĞƐ ĂŶ ĂůƚĞƌŶĂƟǀĞ ƚŽ ĚŝǀĞƌƐŝĨLJ &hZh< t ͕ <͕͘ tK> E^</͕ ͕͘ Dh >> Z͕ ,͕͘ ƚŚĞ ĂƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ ƌĞůĂƚĞĚ ĞĐŽŶŽŵLJ͕ ͞ ƵƌƌĞŶƚƐ ĂŶĚ ^ĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ dƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚ ŝŶ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ŝŶƚƌŽĚƵĐŝŶŐ ĂŶŽƚŚĞƌ ĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐ ĂĐƟǀŝƚLJ͘ &ŽƌĞƐƚƐ͕͟ ŝŶ Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science dŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů ƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ ĐĂŶ ďĞ Ă ƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐŝǀĞ ĂŶĚ ĨĞĂƐŝďůĞ ĂůƚĞƌŶĂƟǀĞ ƚŚĂƚ ĐĂŶ ĚĞĂů ǁŝƚŚ ƐŽŵĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŵŽƐƚ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ĐŚĂůůĞŶŐĞƐ ƚŚĂƚ ƚŚĞ Ă DĂƵ ƌĞŐŝŽŶ ŝƐ ĨĂĐŝŶŐ͘ dŚĞ ƌŽůĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŐŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚ ;ůŽĐĂů ĂŶĚ ĐĞŶƚƌĂůͿ ŝƐ ĐƌƵĐŝĂů ƚŽ ŐŝǀĞ ƚŚĞ ŶĞĐĞƐƐĂƌLJ ĐŽŶĚŝƟŽŶƐ ƚŚĂƚ ĐĂŶ ĂůůŽǁ ƐƚĂƌƚ ƚŚĞ ƐƚƌĂƚĞŐLJ͘

sŽů͘ ϰϰ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϯϬϭʹϯϭϬ͕ ϭϵϵϳ͘ , E^͕ >ƵĐ͕ sZKD Ed͕ EŝĐŽ͕ d,K͕ EŐƵLJĞŶ͕ ,hE'͕ EŐƵLJĞŶ dŚĂŶŚ͕ ͞^ĂůŝŶĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƐƵƌĨĂĐĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ͕ ŐƌŽƵŶĚǁĂƚĞƌ͕ ĂŶĚ ƐŽŝůƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ƐŚƌŝŵƉ ĨĂƌŵŝŶŐ ĂƌͲ ĞĂƐ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ĐŽĂƐƚĂů Ăŝ EƵŽĐ ĚŝƐƚƌŝĐƚ͕ ^ŽƵƚŚ sŝĞƚͲ ŶĂŵ͕͟ ŝŶ /ŶƚĞƌŶĂƟŽŶĂů :ŽƵƌŶĂů ŽĨ ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂů Studies͕ sŽů͘ ϲϲ͕ EŽ͘ ϭ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϲϵʹϴϭ͕ ϮϬϬϵ͘

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,KE'͕ ,ŝĞƉ >Ğ͕ ͞WĞƌĨŽƌŵĂŶĐĞͲďĂƐĞĚ >ĞŐŝƟŵĂĐLJ͗ ŐƵŝĚĞ͕͟ tZhͬ dh ͕ ĞůƚĂƌĞƐ͕ ϮϬϬϴ͘ dŚĞ ĂƐĞ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ŽŵŵƵŶŝƐƚ WĂƌƚLJ ŽĨ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ ĂŶĚ Žŝ DŽŝ͕͟ ŝŶ Contemporary Southeast Asia sŽů͘ ϯϰ͕ D/E,͕ >͘Y͕͘ dhKE'͕ d͘W͕͘ s E D E^sKKZd͕ D͘ ͘&͕͘ KhD :͕͘ ͞ ŽŶƚĂŵŝŶĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƐƵƌĨĂĐĞ ǁĂͲ EŽ͘ Ϯ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϭϰϱͲϭϳϮ͕ ϮϬϭϮ͘ ƚĞƌ ĂƐ ĂīĞĐƚĞĚ ďLJ ůĂŶĚ ƵƐĞ ŝŶ ĂĐŝĚ ƐƵůƉŚĂƚĞ ƐŽŝůƐ ŝŶ /W ͕ /Ed Z'Ks ZED Ed > W E > KE >/D d ƚŚĞ DĞŬŽŶŐ ZŝǀĞƌ ĞůƚĂ͕ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕͟ ŝŶ Agriculture, , E' ͕ ͞ ůŝŵĂƚĞ ŚĂŶŐĞ ϮϬϬϳͲ /ŵƉĂĐƚƐ͕ ĚĂƉͲ Ecosystems and Environment ϲϭ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϭϵͲϮϳ͕ ϭϵϵϳ͘ ƚĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ sƵůŶĞƌĂďŝůŝƚLJ͘ ŽŶƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶ ŽĨ tŽƌŬŝŶŐ 'ƌŽƵƉ // ƚŽ ƚŚĞ &ŽƵƌƚŚ ƐƐĞƐƐŵĞŶƚ ZĞƉŽƌƚ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ DŝŶŝƐƚƌLJ ŽĨ EĂƚƵƌĂů ZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ͘ /ŶƚĞƌŐŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚĂů WĂŶĞů ŽĨ ůŝŵĂƚĞ ŚĂŶŐĞ͘͟ ^ƵďͲ/ŶƐƟƚƵƚĞ ŽĨ ,LJĚƌŽŵĞƚĞŽƌŽůŽŐLJ ĂŶĚ ĂŵďƌŝĚŐĞ͕ ϮϬϬϳ͘ tĞď ŚƩƉ͗ͬ​ͬǁǁǁ͘ŝƉĐĐ͘ĐŚͬƉƵďůŝͲ ĐĂƟŽŶƐͺĂŶĚͺĚĂƚĂͬĂƌϰͬǁŐϮͬĞŶͬĐŽŶƚĞŶƚƐ͘Śƚŵů ŝŶ ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ ŽĨ ^ŽƵƚŚ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕ ͞ ůŝŵĂƚĞ ŚĂŶŐĞ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ DĞŬŽŶŐ ĞůƚĂ͘ ůŝŵĂƚĞ ƐĐĞŶĂƌŝŽƐ͕ ƐĞĂ ůĞǀͲ :ƵŶĞ ϱ ϮϬϭϯ͘ Ğů ƌŝƐĞ͕ ŽƚŚĞƌ ĞīĞĐƚƐ͕͟ sŝĞƚŶĂŵͲEĞƚŚĞƌůĂŶĚƐ DĞͲ < d,/Z ^ E͕ <͕͘ ͞WŽůŝĐLJ ĂŶĚ ^ƵƐƚĂŝŶĂďůĞ DĂŶĂŐĞͲ ŬŽŶŐ ĞůƚĂ DĂƐƚĞƌƉůĂŶ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚ͕ ϮϬϭϬ͘ tĞď ŚƩƉ͗ͬ​ͬ ŵĞŶƚ ^ƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĞƐ͗ ZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶ dĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐŝĞƐ͘͟ hEͲ ǁǁǁ͘ƉĂƌƚŶĞƌƐǀŽŽƌǁĂƚĞƌ͘ŶůͬǁƉͲĐŽŶƚĞŶƚͬƵƉͲ hKƉĞŶ ŽƵƌƐĞtĂƌĞ͕ tĞď ǁǁǁ͘ŽĐǁ͘ƵŶƵ͘ĞĚƵ in ůŽĂĚƐͬϮϬϭϭͬϬϲͬ >/D d Ͳ , E' ͲĮŶĂůͲĚƌĂŌ͘ƉĚĨ ŝŶ :ƵŶĞ ϱ ϮϬϭϯ͘ DĂƌĐŚ ϭϵ ϮϬϭϯĂ͘ W, D dŚŝ ŶŚ ͕ <ZK ͕ ĂƌŽůŝĞŶ͕ h^,͕ ^ŝŵŽŶ Z͕͘ DK>͕ ƌƚŚƵƌ W͘:͕͘ ͞tĂƚĞƌ ƉŽůůƵƟŽŶ ďLJ ŝŶƚĞŶƐŝǀĞ ďƌĂĐŬŝƐŚ ƐŚƌŝŵƉ ĨĂƌŵŝŶŐ ŝŶ ƐŽƵƚŚͲĞĂƐƚ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͗ ĂƵƐĞƐ ĂŶĚ ŽƉƟŽŶƐ ĨŽƌ ĐŽŶƚƌŽů͕͟ ŝŶ Agricultural < Ez &KZ ^d ^ Zs/ Ͳ <&^͕ ͞ 'ƵŝĚĞ ƚŽ KŶͲ&Ăƌŵ tĂƚĞƌ DĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ ϵϳ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϴϳϮʹϴϴϮ͕ ϮϬϭϬ͘ ƵĐĂůLJƉƚƵƐ͕͟ ϮϬϬϵ͘ Yh E' dZ/ h͕ ,ĂLJ͕ ͞ ĂŶŬ ƌŽƐŝŽŶ WƌŽĐĞƐƐĞƐ ĂůŽŶŐ > >͕ >ŽƵŝƐ͕ ,K E' dZ/͕ EŐƵLJĞŶ͕ ^ E'EKZͲ ƚŚĞ >ŽǁĞƌ DĞŬŽŶŐ ZŝǀĞƌ͕͟ WŚ ƚŚĞƐŝƐ͕ hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ ͕ ŵŶƵĂLJ͕ W ^KE'͕ ^ƵƉĂƌď͕ h d D ͕ hƌĂƐĂ͕ ŽĨ ^ŽƵƚŚĂŵƉƚŽŶ͕ &ĂĐƵůƚLJ ŽĨ ^ŽĐŝĂů ĂŶĚ ,ƵŵĂŶ ^ĐŝͲ d,K ͕ >Ğ <ŝŵ͕ ͞/ŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂů dƌĂŶƐĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ĞŶĐĞƐ͕ 'ĞŽŐƌĂƉŚLJ ĂŶĚ ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ͕ ϮϬϭϮ͘ ^ŚƌŝŵƉ ƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ ŝŶ dŚĂŝůĂŶĚ ĂŶĚ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͗ WĂƚŚǁĂLJƐ ƚŽ ĐŽůŽŐŝĐĂů͕ ^ŽĐŝĂů͕ ĂŶĚ ĐŽŶŽŵŝĐ ^ƵƐͲ Yh E' dZhE'͕ EŐƵLJĞŶ͕ ͞DĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ dŝŵďĞƌͲ ZĞͲ ƐŽƵƌĐĞ ƉŽƚĞŶƟĂů ĂŶĚ ŝƚƐ ĐƵƌƌĞŶƚ ƵƐĞ ŝŶ <ŝĞŶ 'ŝĂŶŐ ƚĂŝŶĂďŝůŝƚLJ͍͟ ŝŶ ŵďŝŽ ϯϭ;ϰͿ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϯϭϭͲϯϮϯ͕ ϮϬϬϮ͘ WƌŽǀŝŶĐĞ͕͟ ĞƵƚƐĐŚĞ 'ĞƐĞůůƐĐŚĂŌ ĨƵĞƌ dĞĐŚŶŝƐĐŚĞ > t/^͕ Z͘Z͕͘ ZKtE͕ ĞŶ͖ Yh ZdK͕ ͞&ŝǀĞ ^ƚĞƉƐ ƚŽ ƵƐĂŵŵĞŶĂƌďĞŝƚ ;'d Ϳ 'ŵď,͕ ϮϬϬϵ͘ ^ƵĐĐĞƐƐĨƵů ĐŽůŽŐŝĐĂů ZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶ ŽĨ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ͕͟ ůĨƌĞĚŽ͕ EZ/',d͕ :ŝŵ͕ KZ d^͕ ůĂŝŶĞ͕ WZ/D s Ͳ Z E h ͕ &ĂďƌŝĐĞ '͕ <h E Z͕ ůĂƵĚŝĂ ; Ě͘Ϳ͕ ͞dŚĞ Z ͕ :ƵƌŐĞŶŶĞ͕ Z s/^, E< Z͕ d͕͘ /s ^d E> z͕ DĞŬŽŶŐ ĞůƚĂ ^LJƐƚĞŵ͘ /ŶƚĞƌĚŝƐĐŝƉůŝŶĂƌLJ ŶĂůLJƐĞƐ KƐǁŝŶ͕ : D >h /E͕ ZŝŐŶŽůĚĂ ; Ě͘Ϳ͕ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ŽĨ Ă ZŝǀĞƌ ĞůƚĂ͕͟ ^ƉƌŝŶŐĞƌ ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞн ƵƐŝŶĞƐƐ DĞͲ ĐƟŽŶ WƌŽũĞĐƚ͕ zĂLJĂƐĂŶ ŬĂƌ ZƵŵƉƵƚ >ĂƵƚ͕ ϮϬϬϲ͘ ĚŝĂ ŽƌĚƌĞĐŚƚ͕ ϮϬϭϮ͘ < d,/Z ^ E͕ <͕͘ ͞/ŵƉŽƌƚĂŶĐĞ ŽĨ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĐŽͲ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ͘͟ hEhKƉĞŶ ŽƵƌƐĞtĂƌĞ͕ tĞď ǁǁǁ͘ŽĐǁ͘ ƵŶƵ͘ĞĚƵ ŝŶ DĂƌĐŚ ϭϵ ϮϬϭϯď͘

D < ͕ <ĂƌĞŶ͕ ZK' Z^͕ <ĞƌƌLJůĞĞ͕ ^ /Ed/> E͕ EĞŝů͕ ZĞƐƉŽŶƐĞ ŽĨ ^Ăůƚ DĂƌƐŚ ĂŶĚ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ tĞƚͲ ůĂŶĚƐ ƚŽ ŚĂŶŐĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŵŽƐƉŚĞƌŝĐ K Ϯ ͕ ůŝŵĂƚĞ͕ ĂŶĚ ^ĞĂ >ĞǀĞů͟ ŝŶ 'ůŽďĂů ŚĂŶŐĞ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ &ƵŶĐƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶ ŽĨ tĞƚůĂŶĚƐ͕ D/ > dKE͕ ĞƚŚ ͘ ; Ě͘Ϳ͕ ^ƉƌŝŶŐĞƌ ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞн ƵƐŝŶĞƐƐ DĞĚŝĂ ŽƌͲ ĚƌĞĐŚƚ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϲϯͲ ϵϲ͕ ϮϬϭϮ͘ D < z͕ WĞƚĞƌ͕ Zh^^ >>͕ DŝĐŚĂĞů͕ ͞^ŽĐŝĂůŝƐƚ ReͲ ƉƵďůŝĐ ŽĨ sŝĞƚ EĂŵ͗ ůŝŵĂƚĞ ŚĂŶŐĞ /ŵƉĂĐƚ ĂŶĚ ĚĂƉƚĂƟŽŶ ^ƚƵĚLJ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ DĞŬŽŶŐ ĞůƚĂ͕͟ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ /ŶƐƟƚƵƚĞ ŽĨ DĞƚĞŽƌŽůŽŐLJ͕ ,LJĚƌŽůŽŐLJ ĂŶĚ ŶǀŝƌŽŶͲ ŵĞŶƚ ;/D, EͿ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ Ă DĂƵ WĞŽƉůĞƐ ŽŵŵŝƚͲ ƚĞĞ͕ ϮϬϭϭ͘

^ E />z E ^͕͘ < d,/Z ^ E͕ <͕͘ ͞DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ĐŽŶͲ ƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶ͗ Ă ŐůŽďĂů ƉĞƌƐƉĞĐƟǀĞ͟ ŝŶ Biodiversity ĂŶĚ ŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶ͕ ϮϬϭϮ͘ ^/DW^KE͕ :ŽŚŶ͕ ͞/ŵƉƌŽǀŝŶŐ WƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ /ŶͲ ĐŽŵĞ ƚŽ &ĂƌŵĞƌƐ ĨƌŽŵ DĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ͕͟ ĞƵƚƐĐŚĞ 'ĞͲ ƐĞůůƐĐŚĂŌ ĨƵĞƌ dĞĐŚŶŝƐĐŚĞ ƵƐĂŵŵĞŶĂƌďĞŝƚ ;'d Ϳ 'ŵď,͕ ϮϬϬϵ͘ ^/tZZͲ ^ŽƵƚŚĞƌŶ /ŶƐƟƚƵƚĞ ĨŽƌ tĂƚĞƌ ZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ WůĂŶŶŝŶŐ͕ ͞ ůŝŵĂƚĞ ŚĂŶŐĞ ^ĐĞŶĂƌŝŽƐ͘ ƐƐĞƐƐŵĞŶƚ ĨŽƌ Ă DĂƵ WƌŽǀŝŶĐĞ͘ dĞĐŚŶŝĐĂů ZĞƉŽƌƚ͕͟ ϮϬϬϴ͘ ŚƩƉ͗ͬ​ͬĂǁƐĂƐƐĞƚƐ͘ƉĂŶĚĂ͘ŽƌŐͬĚŽǁŶůŽĂĚƐͬ tĞď ǀŝĞƚŶĂŵͺĨƵůůͺĮŶĂůͺƌĞƉŽƌƚ͘ƉĚĨ ŝŶ DĂLJ Ϯ ϮϬϭϯ͘

D Z , E ͕ DĂƌĐĞů͕ ͞DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ƌĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶ d,/ ^ E͕ ,ŽĂŶŐ͕ ,KE'͕ WŚĂŶ EŐƵLJĞŶ͕ ͞DĂŶŐƌŽͲ ŝŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͘ <ĞLJ ĐŽŶƐŝĚĞƌĂƟŽŶƐ ĂŶĚ Ă ƉƌĂĐƟĐĂů ǀĞƐ ŽĨ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͟/h E͕ ϭϵϵϯ͘

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d,K ,hE'͕ EŐŽ͕ ͞ ŝƐƚƌŝĐƚ ĂƐĞĚ ůŝŵĂƚĞ ŚĂŶŐĞ ƐƐĞƐƐŵĞŶƚ ĂŶĚ ĚĂƉƚĂƟŽŶ DĞĂƐƵƌĞ ĨŽƌ ŐƌŝĐƵůͲ ƚƵƌĞ ŝŶ Ă DĂƵ͕ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕͟ /ŶƐƟƚƵƚĞ ŽĨ DĞƚĞŽƌŽůŽͲ ŐLJ͕ ,LJĚƌŽůŽŐLJ ĂŶĚ ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ͕ ,ĂŶŽŝ͕ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕ W ůŝŵĂƚĞ ĞŶƚĞƌ͕ ϮϬϭϮ͘

tŽƌůĚ ĂŶŬ͘ tĞď ŚƩƉ͗ͬ​ͬĚĂƚĂ͘ǁŽƌůĚďĂŶŬ͘ŽƌŐ ŝŶ :ƵŶĞ ϱ ϮϬϭϯ͘

th͕ z͕͘ ,hE'͕ ͕͘ d D͕ E͘&͘z͕͘ W/͕ E͕͘ tKE'͕ D͘,͕͘ ͞ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƚĞĚ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ǁĞƚůĂŶĚ ĂƐ ƐĞĐŽŶĚͲ ĂƌLJ ƚƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚ ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ĨŽƌ ŵƵŶŝĐŝƉĂů ǁĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌ͕͟ dZ/͕ sŽ <ŚĂĐ͕ ͞,LJĚƌŽůŽŐLJ ĂŶĚ ,LJĚƌĂƵůŝĐ /ŶĨƌĂƐƚƌƵĐͲ in Ecological Engineering sŽů͘ ϯϰ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϭϯϳʹϭϰϲ͕ ƚƵƌĞ ^LJƐƚĞŵƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ DĞŬŽŶŐ ĞůƚĂ͕ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕͟ ŝŶ ϮϬϬϴ͘ Z E h ͕ &ĂďƌŝĐĞ '͕͘ <h E Z͕ ůĂƵĚŝĂ͕ ; Ě͘Ϳ ͞The Mekong Delta System. Interdisciplinary Analyses yh ͕ ƵŽ͕ >/h͕ :͘ WĂƵů͕ D ^d Z͕ ĂǀĞ͕ E'hz E͕ of a River Delta͕͟ ^ƉƌŝŶŐĞƌ ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂů ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞ >ĂƉ sĂŶ͕ K E,d ͕ dŚŝ <ŝŵ͕ ͞>ĂƚĞ ,ŽůŽĐĞŶĞ ǀŽͲ ůƵƟŽŶ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ DĞŬŽŶŐ ^ƵďĂƋƵĞŽƵƐ ĞůƚĂ͕ ^ŽƵƚŚͲ ĂŶĚ ŶŐŝŶĞĞƌŝŶŐ͕ ϮϬϭϮ͘ ĞƌŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕͟ ŝŶ Marine Geology Ϯϲϵ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϰϲʹϲϬ͕ hŶŝƚĞĚ EĂƟŽŶƐ ,ƵŵĂŶ ^ĞƩůĞŵĞŶƚƐ WƌŽŐƌĂŵŵĞ ϮϬϭϬ͘ ;hŶ , /d dͿ͕ hŶŝƚĞĚ EĂƟŽŶƐ ĐŽŶŽŵŝĐ ĂŶĚ ^ŽĐŝĂů ŽŵŵŝƐƐŝŽŶ ĨŽƌ ƐŝĂ ĂŶĚ ƚŚĞ WĂĐŝĮĐ ;hE ^ WͿ, z D ^,/d ͕ ^ŚŽƚĂ͕ d DhZ ͕ dŽƌƵ͕ ^ /dK͕ zŽƐŚŝŬŝ͕ “,ŽƵƐŝŶŐ ƚŚĞ ƉŽŽƌ ŝŶ ƐŝĂŶ ĐŝƟĞƐ͕ hƌďĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶ͗ E'hz E͕ s͘ >ĂƉ͕ K E,͕ d͘<͘ dĂ͕ d D E͕ DĂƌŬ dŚĞ ƌŽůĞ ƚŚĞ ƉŽŽƌ ƉůĂLJ ŝŶ ƵƌďĂŶ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚ͕͟ ͕ D d^hDKdK͕ ĂŶ͕ ͞KƌŝŐŝŶ ĂŶĚ ĞǀŽůƵƟŽŶ ŽĨ /ŶͲ EĂŝƌŽďŝ͗ hŶŝƚĞĚ EĂƟŽŶƐ ,ƵŵĂŶ ^ĞƩůĞŵĞŶƚƐ WƌŽͲ ƚĞƌĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƚĂƌLJ ĚĞůƚĂ ƉůĂŝŶƐ͖ ŝŶƐŝŐŚƚƐ ĨƌŽŵ DĞŬŽŶŐ ŐƌĂŵŵĞ͕ sŽů͘ ϭ͕ ϮϬϬϴ͘ tĞď ŚƩƉ͗ͬ​ͬǁǁǁ͘ƵŶŚĂͲ ZŝǀĞƌ ĚĞůƚĂ͟ ŝŶ Geology sŽů͘ ϰϬ EŽ͘ ϰ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϯϬϯʹϯϬϲ͕ ďŝƚĂƚ͘ŽƌŐͬƉŵƐƐͬůŝƐƚ/ƚĞŵ ĞƚĂŝůƐ͘ĂƐƉdž͍ƉƵďůŝĐĂƚŝŽͲ ϮϬϭϮ͘ Ŷ/ сϮϱϮϲ ŝŶ Ɖƌŝů ϰ ϮϬϭϯ͘ z H Ͳ Z E / / ͕ ůĞũĂŶĚƌŽ͕ dt/>> z͕ ZŽďĞƌƚ Z͕͘ hŶŝƚĞĚ EĂƟŽŶƐ͕ ͞tŽƌůĚ hƌďĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶ WƌŽƐƉĞĐƚƐ͗ > Z Ͳ KD1E'h ͕ ŶĂ >ĂƵƌĂ͕ ͞>ŽƐ ĐŽƐŝƐƚĞŵĂƐ dŚĞ ϮϬϭϭ ZĞǀŝƐŝŽŶ͘͟ tĞď ŚƩƉ͗ͬ​ͬĞƐĂ͘ƵŶ͘ŽƌŐͬƵŶƵƉ ĚĞ DĂŶŐůĂƌ &ƌĞŶƚĞ Ăů ĂŵďŝŽ ůŝŵĄƟĐŽ 'ůŽďĂů͕͟ ŝŶ Madera y Bosques ϰ;ϮͿ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϯͲϭϵ͕ ϭϵϵϴ͘ ŝŶ :ƵŶĞ ϱ͕ ϮϬϭϯ͘ hEs ZZ/ ,d͕ ĂŶŝĞů͕ ^ h /F^</͕ tŝƚŽůĚ͕ ^d dͲ d '' Z͕ : 'K /F^</͕ <Ăƌů ZŽďĞƌƚ͕ d,hz E > ͕ yƵĂŶ͕ t <tKE'͕ >ĂǀĂů >ŝŽŶŐ͕ ͞DŽĚĞƌŶ ƐĞĚͲ ŝŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ ŵŽƌƉŚŽůŽŐLJ ŽĨ ƚŚĞ ƐƵďĂƋƵĞŽƵƐ DĞŬŽŶŐ ĞůƚĂ͕ ^ŽƵƚŚĞƌŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕͟ ŝŶ 'ůŽďĂů ĂŶĚ WůĂŶĞƚĂƌLJ ŚĂŶŐĞ͕ ϮϬϭϯ͘ tĞď ŚƩƉ͗ͬ​ͬĚdž͘ĚŽŝ͘ ŽƌŐͬϭϬ͘ϭϬϭϲͬũ͘ŐůŽƉůĂĐŚĂ͘ϮϬϭϮ͘ϭϮ͘ϬϬϵ s E hKE'͕ ŚƵ͕ ZKtE͕ ^ŚĂƌŽŶ ; Ě͘Ϳ͕ ͞ ŽĂƐƚͲ Ăů ZĞŚĂďŝůŝƚĂƟŽŶ ĂŶĚ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞ ZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶ ƵƐŝŶŐ DĞůĂůĞƵĐĂ &ĞŶĐĞƐ͘ WƌĂĐƟĐĂů džƉĞƌŝĞŶĐĞ ĨƌŽŵ <ŝĞŶ 'ŝĂŶŐ WƌŽǀŝŶĐĞ͕͟ ĞƵƚƐĐŚĞ 'ĞƐĞůůƐĐŚĂŌ Ĩƺƌ /ŶƚĞƌͲ ŶĂƟŽŶĂůĞ ƵƐĂŵŵĞŶĂƌďĞŝƚ ;'/ Ϳ 'ŵď,͕ ϮϬϭϮ͘ s/ dKZ͕ ^͕͘ 'K> hh͕ z͕͘ tK> E^</͕ ͕͘ Z/ ,Ͳ DKE ͕ Z͘,͕͘ ͞&ŝŶĞ ƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚ ƚƌĂƉƉŝŶŐ ŝŶ ƚǁŽ ŵĂŶŐƌŽǀĞͲĨƌŝŶŐĞĚ ĞƐƚƵĂƌŝĞƐ ĞdžƉŽƐĞĚ ƚŽ ĐŽŶͲ ƚƌĂƐƟŶŐ ůĂŶĚͲƵƐĞ ŝŶƚĞŶƐŝƚLJ͕ WĂůĂƵ͕ DŝĐƌŽŶĞƐŝĂ͕͟ ŝŶ tĞƚůĂŶĚƐ ĐŽůŽŐLJ ĂŶĚ DĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ sŽů͘ ϭϮ͕ ƉƉ͘ ϮϳϳʹϮϴϯ͕ ϮϬϬϰ͘ sh d E͕ WŚƵŽŶŐ ; Ě͘Ϳ͕ ͞&ŽƌĞƐƚ ĐŽůŽŐŝĐĂů ^ƚƌĂƟĮͲ ĐĂƟŽŶ ŝŶ sŝĞƚŶĂŵ͕͟ Z & ͕ hE Z ͕ & K͕ ϮϬϭϭ͘ t >dKE͕ DĂƌŬ͕ ^ DKEd Ͳd E͕ 'ŝƐĞůůĞ͕ WZ/D Ͳ s Z ͕ :ƵƌŐĞŶŶĞ͕ t Z ^Ͳ:KE ^͕ 'ĂƌĞƚŚ ĂŶĚ > s z͕ >ĞǁŝƐ͕ ͞ ƌĞ DĂŶŐƌŽǀĞƐ ǁŽƌƚŚ ƌĞƉůĂŶƟŶŐ͍ dŚĞ ĚŝƌĞĐƚ ĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐ ďĞŶĞĮƚƐ ŽĨ Ă ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJ ďĂƐĞĚ ƌĞĨŽƌĞƐƚĂƟŽŶ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚ͟ ŝŶ Environmental ConservaƟŽŶ sŽů͘ ϯϯ ;ϰͿ͕ ϮϬϬϲ͘

25

Annex 1.

WHY MANGROVES?

Fodder, timbers and pulpwood.

1 ha

Direct beneficts

Rhizophoraceae ssp.

13,3 t/year

Natural tannin (no market)

Tannins, medicines, adhesives, etc.

1 ha

Local fauna habitat and production.

1 ha

7740 Kg/ year

90- 225 Kg/year

Manis javanica Cyprinidae ssp.

Herpestes javanicus Crocodylus porosus

Prionailurus bengalensis Varanus salvator

Pseudibis gigantea (locally extinted)

Mycteria cinerea (locally extinted)

Pantera tigris (locally extinted)

Bubalus arnee (locally extinted)

And many, many others...

26

Rhizophoraceae ssp.

Co2 Co2

CO2 storage.

C burial rate= 580 g/m2/year

Ecological beneficts Land forming and conservation.

0,1- 0,8 cm/ year Expected sea level rise: 0,6- 0,8 cm/year

Water cleaning.

1 ha

0,5- 0,3 ha farming

Protective beneficts

Wind breaking.

10 m

2 Km/h 50 Km/h 0,25 m

Wave attenuation.

30 trees/ 100 m2 15 cm

3m

1,5 m

100 Km/ h

50 Km/ h 200 m

27

Annex 2.

MANGROVES OF THE SOUTH OF VIETNAM ACANTHACEAE Acanthus ebracteatus

Loam, clay soil. normal or equinoctial tides.

ACANTHACEAE

Acanthus ilicifolius f normal or equinoctial tides.

Natural regeneration.

Protection of lagoons and estuaries.

AIZOCEAE

Firm mud or wet sandy mud.

Sesuvium portulacastrum

tial tides.

ARCEAE

Loam soil under S. caseolaris or

Cryptocoryne ciliata

Nypa canopy. normal or equinoctial tides.

AVICENNIACEAE Avicennia

Deep mud.

alba

PI ON Protection of lagoons laggoons and n estuaries.

EngaEsea Dyke protection along sea and Ran aquaculture farms. all high tides. tide ides..

AVICENNIACEAE

Sandy mud.

Avicennia lanata

PI ON E

normal high higg tides. hi

ER

AVICENNIACEAE

Avicennia marina all high and spring tides.

PI ON lagoons and estuaries. aries. ies.

E Natural regeneration. egene

Coastal protection tectio on aand protection of Harvest of forest products. sources

ER

Dyke protection along sea sea and and aquaculture farms.

Loam clay and degraded soils.

AVICENNIACEAE

PI ON Protection of lagoons gooE ns and an estuaries.

Coastal and dyke protection ottE ecR tio on aalong andspring ngg ttides. i id

Greening of barren coasts.

Natural regeneration.

sea and aquaculture farms.

Harvest of forest products.

28

BIGNONIACEAE Dolichandrone

spathacea

Loam clay. or equinoctial tides.

COMBRETACEAE Lumnitzetra

littorea or equinoctial tides.

COMBRETACEAE

Lumnitzetra racemosa or equinoctial tides.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Excoecaria agallocha or equinoctial tides.

Natural regeneration.

Dyke protection along sea and aquaculture farms.

MELIACEAE

Xylocarpus granatum mal high and normal or equinoctial tides.

Harvest of forest products.

MELIACEAE Xylocarpus

moluccensis

Clay. or equinoctial tides.

MYRSINACEAE

Aegiceras corniculatum

Wet sandy, sandy mud. high and spring tides.

Natural regeneration.

PALMAE

Nypa fructicans normal or equinoctial tides.

29

PALMAE

Phoenix paludosa soil. noctial tides.

PTERIDACEAE

Firm mud, in clearings.

Acrotichum aureum

normal or equinoctial tides.

RHIZOPHORACEAE

Loam, sandy mud, foot of limes-

Brugiera gymnorrhiza

PI ON spring tides.

E tone.

Harvest of forest products. resources.

RHIZOPHORACEAE Brugiera

H2S

ER

sea and and Dyke protection alongg sea aquaculture farms.

Restoration of mining areas.

Firm mud.

cylindrica

PI ON goo oE ns and Protection of lagoons EaanrRdeaestuaries.

Restoration of miningg areas. s. spring tides. dess.

H2S RHIZOPHORACEAE

PI Oof mining Restoration of minin mini m NEng areas.

ER normall high high tides. hig tid

H2S RHIZOPHORACEAE Brugiera

sexangula

Loam.

PI ON E

spring ttides. ides es.

Restoration of of mining minin mini m ng areas.

ER

S 2 RHIZOPHORACEAE Ceriops

Firm mud.

decandra

PI ON minin mini m ng areas.

Restoration off mining EEa R normal o orr eequinoctial qui u no uin tides.

H2S RHIZOPHORACEAE

Firm mud under Rhizo canopy.

Ceriops tagal

PI ON ion along io aE long sea and Dyke protection aquaculture farms. ER spring tid tides. deess. de

Harvest of forest products.

H2S

Greening of barren coasts. s

Restoration of mining areas.

30

RHIZOPHORACEAE Kandelia

candel

Loam, sandy mud.

Restoration of mining areas.

PI OtioNn aagainst Coastal protection EgyaciElones.tidal waters, erosion and ccyclones.

Resestu d estuaProtection of lagoons and

Harvest of forest products.

ries.

spring tides. dess. des.

H2S

RHIZOPHORACEAE Rhizhophora

apiculata

medium high igg and spring tides.

PI O waters, erosion n aand n Nd cycyclones.

EyacnEl d estuaProtection of lagoonss and Resessteua and ries. Dyke protection alongg sea Coastal pr protection pro otection against tidal

H2S

Harvest of forest products. cts. t

Restoration of mining areas.

RHIZOPHORACEAE Rhizhophora

mucronata

PI ON E

Harvest of forest products. ucts. areaas Restoration of mining areas.

2

RHIZOPHORACEAE Rhizhophora

aquaculture farms.

S

stylosaa

equinoctial tiall tides. tid des Coastal protection against tidal waters, and wate ters, erosion er er cyclones.

Protection of lagoons and nd estuaries. estu es

ER

Dyke protection along sea and aquaculture farms.

PI ON lagoons and Protection off lagoons estuaries.

EngEasea sea and Dyke protection along Ran aquaculture farms. spring tides. ides. ide es.

Restoration of miningg areas. areas

H2S

RUBIACEAE

Schyphiphora hydrophyllacea acea

Sandy mud. or equinoctial tides.

SONNERATIACEAE

Sonneratia alba mal high tides.

Coastal protection against tidal waters, erosion and cyclones.

Harvest of forest products.

SONNERATIACEAE Sonneratia

caseolariss mal or equinoctial tides.

Protection of lagoons and estuaries.

Dyke protection along sea and aquaculture farms.

SONNERATIACEAE

Sonneratia ovata or equinoctial tides.

31

STERCULACEAE

Heritiera litoralis

Sandy loam. or equinoctial tides.

PIONEER: Pioneer species.

H2S: Acidophilus species.

32