THEORY OF HISTORY
JINAL CHAUHAN 2nd YEAR- 4th SEMESTER B.DESIGN- ID - INSD
INDEX 1- REPORT ON ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 2- REPORT ON ROMAN FORUM 3- REPORT ON COLLOSEUM 4- REPORT ON PANTHEON 5- SKETCHES OF COLUMN 6- SKETCHES OF FURNITURE 7- SKETCHES OF MOTIFS
ROMAN GOD AND GODDESSES
JINAL CHAUHAN HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 4TH SEM - INSD
CAELUS The First God of Sky
TELLUS The Goddess of the Earth
JUPITER The Olympian king of the Gods and the Sky
JUNO The Queen of the God and Goddesses of women and marriage
NEPTUNE The God of the Sea
PLUTO The God of the Underworld
VESTA The Goddess of the Hearth (public fires for rituals and cooking)
SATURN The Leader of the Titans
CERES The Goddess of the Harvest
APOLLO The God of the Sun, Music and Art
DIANNA The goddess of the hunt and the moon
VENUS The goddess of the Love
MARS The god of war
MINERVA The goddess of wisdom
VULCAN The god of fire, Blacksmiths
MERCURY The messenger of God
BACCHUS The god of wine
CUPID The god of love
FAUNUS The god of Pastures and woods
JINAL CHAUHAN 2nd YEAR INSD
o A Forum was the main center of a Roman city. Usually located near the physical center of a Roman town, it served as a public area in which commercial, religious, economic, political, legal, and social activities occurred. o Fora were common in all Roman cities, but none were as grand as the fora of Rome itself. o A forum is not unlike a Greek Agora in concept and even design somewhat. It is likely that there was some Greek influence on the concept of a public gathering place for the Romans. o In fact, a Roman forum often included certain physical aspects of a Greek agora, such as the use of porticoes. However, where an agora was maintained as an open public place in a Greek city, Roman fora developed into much more, with greater purpose and use. o They were filled with shops, porticoes, temples, offices, and triumphal arches; and they were where important civic and political announcements were made, as well as where the less tasteful aspects of Roman life occurred, such as prostitution. As the years of Roman history passed, the fora of Rome became quite enclosed, and probably very crowded and chaotic.
o The main forum of the city of Rome was the Forum Romanum. Its placement in the central part of the city dates back to the time of the Tarquin kings, and it was seen fit to build a sewer, the Cloaca Maxima, to provide proper drainage of the marshy land between the Esquiline, Capitoline, and Palatine Hills down to the Tiber River. o With the land properly drained and dry, this area naturally became a central gathering location for the Etruscan inhabitants. When the Roman Republic came to be in 509 B.C., this area retained its public use, and was where processions and elections took place, and eventually where the Roman Senate gathered.Each of these fora had a specific purpose unto themselves. These included the Forum Boarium (the cattle market), and several Imperial Fora. o Roman Emperors such as Augustus and trajan built the Imperial Fora, usually with the spoils of war, in order to celebrate themselves and their victories.
o According to a widely accepted legend, ancient Rome was founded by brothers Romulus and Remus in 753 B.C. After a rising conflict, Romulus killed Remus, became king and named Rome after himself. o The traditional story also credits Romulus with starting an alliance with his rival, Titus Tatius, and making the site of the Roman Forum a neutral meeting zone.
o At first, the Forum essentially served as a marketplace for day-to-day shopping. Over time, it became much more versatile and functional, as public affairs were held in the area. o Historians estimate that the rise of public events in the Roman Forum first took place around 500 B.C., when the Roman Republic started. o The Forum gradually developed, progressed and expanded over many centuries. Statues, arches, basilicas and other buildings were constructed to accommodate the gatherings.
o The Forum was considered the heart of Rome. While there were many other forums in ancient Rome, the Roman Forum was the most significant. o It was a multi-purpose site that accommodated various functions. Events taking place in the Forum included:
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Elections Public speeches Criminal trials Gladiator matches -before the Colosseum was built 5. Social gatherings 6. Business dealings 7. Public meetings 8. Religious ceremonies 9. Educational events 10. Buying, selling and trading of items
o Several important buildings, statues and monuments were located in the Forum. Some temples were built to honor men, and others were dedicated to gods or goddesses.
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o Some of the most well-known structures in the Roman Forum include: 1.
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Senate House: The senate house, known as the “Curia,” served as the council house for the Roman Senate and a site for various political events. It was rebuilt several times, and in the 7th century, the Curia was converted into a church. Temple of Saturn: The first Temple of Saturn was built around 498 B.C. and is considered one of the earliest temples in the Roman Forum. But it was rebuilt years later, and the current ruins date back to roughly 42 B.C. This building was dedicated to Saturn, the god of agriculture, and was used as a treasury—where Rome’s money was managed and kept.
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Arch of Titus: This first-century arch was constructed in 81 A.D. by the Emperor Domitian to honor his brother, emperor Titus, who was victorious in the Siege of Jerusalem.
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Temple of Vesta: The Temple of Vesta was a circular-shaped temple that was dedicated to Vesta, the goddess of hearth, home and family.
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The Rostra: The Rostra was a platform that people could stand on to give speeches.
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Temple of Castor and Pollux: Historians believe this temple was completed in about 484 B.C. It was dedicated to the Roman twin demigods, Castor and Pollux, and underwent several construction phases.
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The Sacra Via: This was the main road that ran through the Roman Forum and connected the various important sites. This famous street also stretched to the Colosseum, which was within walking distance of the Forum. It primarily served as a pathway for ceremonies and processions.
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o The Roman Forum was reconstructed many times during its existence. This allowed for various forms of architecture from different eras to merge together. Influence from each period can be seen in the design and construction of the buildings. o Roman architects were greatly influenced by classical Greek designs. But, the Romans also created their own signature structures, such as basilicas, triumphal arches, domes, Roman baths and amphitheaters. Materials ranged from concrete to magnificent marble. o The Roman Forum, and the ruins themselves, also served as a source of inspiration for artists. The famous Giambattista Piranesi, an Italian artist who lived during the 1700s, was known for creating a set of etchings that depicted views of Rome. o Sites in the Forum are also mentioned in historic literature: ancient Rome was, for example, the setting for several of William Shakespeare’s works.
o Over time, many economic and political events began to take place in more elaborate structures to the north of the Forum. o The last major expansion to the Roman Forum, the Basilica of Maxentius, took place during the reign of Constantine in 312 A.D.
o But most of the ancient buildings and sites in the Roman Forum were destroyed in 410 A.D., around the time that the entire Roman Empire began to fall. o During the Middle Ages, the land that was once the great Roman Forum was reduced to a pasture for grazing animals. The area became known as “Campo Vaccino,” or “cattle field” and was essentially an overgrown, neglected field.
Location – IV Templum Pacis Built in – 106–112 AD Built by – Emperor Trajan Type of structure -Imperial fora
• This forum was built on the order of the emperor Trajan with the spoils of war from the conquest of Dacia, which ended in 106. The construction began between 105 and 107, according to the Fasti Ostienses the Forum was inaugurated in 112. Trajan's Column was erected and then inaugurated in 113. • To build this monumental complex, extensive excavations were required: workers eliminated a ridge connecting the Quirinal and Capitoline (Campidoglio) Hills. Over 300,000 cubic meters of soil and rock were excavated and dumped outside the Porta Collina
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The Forum consisted of a sequence of open and enclosed spaces, beginning with the vast portico-lined piazza measuring 300 metres long and 185 metres wide, with exedrae on two sides. The main entrance was at the south end of the piazza, through a triumphal arch at the center commemorating the Dacian Wars, decorated with friezes and statues of Dacian prisoners.The arch was flanked by tall walls built from blocks of Peperino tuff clad entirely in marble, which enclosed the Forum on three sides.
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The tuff walls which enclosed the piazza to the west and east featured exedrae; outside the exedrae, separated by streets, were markets of concentric shape. The three-story eastern market, known as Trajan's Market, buttressed the excavated edge of the Quirinal Hill. The open space of the Forum measured about 300 feet by 380 feet, and was paved entirely in Carrara marble. Via a doorway in the far east wall of the Forum, one gained entry to an open courtyard with a portico, which communicated in turn with the neighboring Forum of Augustus.
• The Forum of Augustus is one of the Imperial forums of Rome, Italy, built by Augustus. • It includes the Temple of Mars Ultor. • The incomplete forum and its temple were inaugurated in 2 BC, 40 years after they were first vowed.
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The triumvir Octavian vowed to build a temple honoring Mars, the Roman God of War, during the battle of Philippi in 42 BC. After winning the battle, with the help of Mark Antony and Lepidus, Octavian had avenged the assassination of his adoptive father Julius Caesar. He became the Princeps of Rome in 27 BC under the name Augustus, and planned for the temple to be built in a new forum named after himself. Augustus used social propaganda by continuing Julius Caesar's will to create a Temple to Mars Ultor "greater than any in existence", by placing it within the Temple, linking himself to his divine adopted father, obtaining a strong link to the Roman population through their love for the deceased dictator.
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These land issues, as well as numerous architectural mishaps, prolonged construction. The incomplete forum and its temple were inaugurated, 40 years after they were first vowed, in 2 BC.[1][3] In 19 AD Tiberius added two triumphal arches either side of the temple in honour of Drusus the Younger and Germanicus and their victories in Germania.
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The Forum of Augustus was among the first of the great public buildings of Rome which disappeared that also explains the rapid loss of the memory of its original name. In the 9th century a Basilian monastery was erected on the podium of the ruined temple.
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The Forum of Augustus was built to both house a temple honouring Mars, and to provide another space for legal proceedings, as the Roman Forum was very crowded.
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The Senate met at the Temple when discussing war and the victorious generals dedicated their spoils from their triumphs to Mars at the altar. Arms or booty recovered from battle were often stored in the Forum as well.
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Another use that Augustus made of the Temple was to store the standards taken by the Parthians from Crassus during his failed campaign, after their retrieval through Augustus' diplomacy in 20 BC, as depicted by the Augustus of Prima Porta. Three Aquilae were lost in 9 AD in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest of the Legions Legio XVII, Legio XVIII and Legio XIX; all three were recovered-one in 14 AD from the Marsi and one in 15 AD from the Bructeri; the 3rd was recovered in 41 AD from the Chauci-and all three placed within the Temple of Mars the Avenger.
COLOSSEUM
JINAL CHAUHAN HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 2nD YEAR- INSD
HISTORY o The Colosseum is the largest amphitheater that the Roman Empire has ever built.
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Larger than the others, higher, it surpasses in size those built in the Roman provinces of the regions of North Africa or those of Eastern Europe.
o The reason is of course the need to show that Rome, the center of the political power of the Empire, has superior equipment to other the world, even belonging to the Empire. o Located on marshy land between the Esquiline and Caelian Hills, it was the first permanent amphitheater to be built in Rome. Its monumental size and grandeur as well as its practical and efficient organization for producing spectacles and controlling the large crowds make it one of the great architectural monuments achieved by the ancient Romans.
THE LARGEST AMPHITHEATER EVER BUILT o With room for up to 50,000 people (some scholars estimate an even larger number of about 80,000). To keep track of a so large audience, each sector and seat had reference numbers which corresponded to those reported on the visitor tickets so that all spectators knew in advance where their places exactly were, not unlike what happens in modern opera houses and sports arenas. o Prominent Roman personalities had their private space, identified with their name or status and not by a number, including a special loge reserved to the emperor and his guests.
o The best positions were in the lower part of the tiered seating space, while the upper rows were reserved for the plebs.
SHAPES AND DIMENSIONS o it is Ovoid, a scientific word for the shape of an egg. It is actually an ellipse with several centers. o This particular form is very accentuated since the ratio between the length and the width is 1:2, that is to say 187,75m long, a width of 155,60 only. o Its height, at the highest point, is 50.75m, a height given between the present ground and the highest point of the construction, without the masts which formerly bristled
the summit.
SHAPES AND DIMENSIONS o The amphitheater is composed of a central arena, terraces, and a facade distant from the terraces. o Moreover nowadays the stands are complete while the facade is not, which allows to see the structure of the building. o The arena is very large, it is 83m long and 48m wide, a ratio of 1:73. o So, not only is the Coliseum flattened, but the bleachers accentuate the flattening, making the arena very oval.
Hypothetical construction stages of the Amphitheater
o A fight between men and wild animals in the Colosseum
o View of the Colosseum arena and cave, today
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Amphitheater was a huge elliptic ring, 52 meters high and with a perimeter of 527 meters.
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Covered with marble and travertine stone slabs and richly decorated with statues, reliefs, frescoes, and a series of gilded bronze shields called clipei
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The perimeter of the building was and still is, marked by 3 rows of 80 large arched openings each, and by a top wall with 40 smaller rectangular openings.
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From bottom to top, the three lower rows are framed by Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian columns respectively, the fourth with more simple pilaster strips.
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In the middle of the amphitheater stand the remains of an oval-shaped arena, whose major and minor axes were 86 meters and 54 meters long respectively, with an area roughly equal to that of 12 tennis courts.
o The three tiers of arcades are faced by three-quarter columns and entablatures, Doric in the first story, Ionic in the second, and Corinthian in the third. Above them is an attic story with Corinthian pilasters and small square window openings in alternate bays. o At the top brackets and sockets carry the masts from which the velarium, a canopy for shade, was suspended. o The construction utilized a careful combination of types: concrete for the foundations, travertine for the piers and arcades, tufa infill between piers for the walls of the lower two levels, and brickfaced concrete used for the upper levels and for most of the vaults.
SEVERAL MATERIALS USED Roman Area: First Of All There Is The Travertino, A Limestone, Then Tuff For The Other Pillars And Radial Walls, Tiles For The Floors Of The Upper Storeys And The Walls For The Vaults. o
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Travertine, a limestone ,is a sedimentary stone made essentially of calcite, deposited by calcareous waters. Its colour is whitish, slightly yellow or reddish. The stone can stand a pressure of 226 Kg. It was used for the main pillars, the ground floor and the external wall. Tuff is a stone produced by the cementing of vulcanic material fallen after eruptions. Its colour is gray, yellowish, greenish or brown. It is used in the preparation of special cements and as a building stone. Tiles and bricks were produced with clay mixed with water and often with sand, straw and finely ground pozzolana. Bricks could be used in wall structures, as roofing and as filling.
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ELEVATIONS
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PANTHEON- ROMAN
JINAL CHAUHAN 2nd YEAR - INSD
THE PANTHEON One of the wonders of the ancient world and one of Rome’s most popular tourist attractions. It was once used as a temple to honor all gods and now used as a Roman Catholic church Pantheon in Greek means “to honor all gods” The inscription on the pantheon reads: “M.AGRIPPA.L.F.COS.TERTIVM.FECIT” which translates to “Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, Consul for the third time, built this”
HISTORY Pantheon was first built by Augustus’s general Marcus Agrippa in 27BC and later reconstructed by Emperor Hadrian in 125 AD In 608 AD the Byzantine Emperor Phocas gave the building to Pope Boniface IV, who converted it to a Christian church, that was dedicated to “St. Mary and the Martyrs” In the early 17TH century, Pope urban VII removed the bronze beams of the portico, using the bronze to construct the canopy that covers he altar at St. Peter’s basilica
ARCHITECTURE The most striking thing about the Pantheon is the unity of the Building It is a Marvel of architecture harmony and proportion
The design of the Pantheon is based on classical architecture. A simple, yet elegant style, classical architecture incorporates clean lines and subtle accents in the form of metal decorations or carvings
Plan and elevation Diameter- 142ft internally Wall thickness- 20ft
PLAN
Height- 140ft Roof us a hemispherical dome
ELEVATION
PANTHEON DOME & OCULUS A disk of daylight, a circle of golden sunlight would suspend itself on the ceiling and revolve around the dome- telling the time and hour of the day. Hadrian also incorporated into his design a visualization of himself enthroned directly under the Pantheon’s oculus – a near-deity around whom the Roman Empire, the universe, the sun, and the heavens obediently revolved.
MATERIALS
Layers of red brickwork cover the outside rounded walls of the rotunda supporting the dome.
Small access holes can be observed occasionally along the wall and were mostly likely used during construction to frame interior voids.
The main entrance is thoroughly impressive: double bronze doors, are 21 feet high (6.4 meters).
The beams in the roof structure of the porch are wooden. They were substituted for bronze members stripped-out by those in later years for reuse in other metal crafts.
Professional Roman surveyors located the inlaid marble floor to conform to a convex contour, which drained away the rain from the oculus for hundreds of years.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE •
The Pantheon is a marvel of construction ingenuity- the result of a century of experimentation with the use of advanced building elements such as the relieving arch, vaulting rib, lightweight caementa, and step rings.
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These elements were incorporated into a structural system that has allowed the largest unreinforced concrete dome ever built to stand for almost two millennia.
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The dome’s components are a tribute to the creativity of the design. For example, the oculus (otherwise known as the “open eye”) serves to reduce loading at the top.
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The construction technique applied to the dome involved applying thinner and lighter concrete at greater heights- the highest part incorporating volcanic pumice as aggregate.
FOUNDATION •
It sits in a circular trench 26 feet (8 meters) in diameter and 15 feet (4.5 meters) deep for the rotunda’s foundation and rectangular trenches for the portico and the connector.
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The trenches are lined with timber forms and held together with pozzolana cement – a powerful Roman cement created by the combination of grounded lime and a volcanic earth abundant Italy.
FOUNDATION • The material used to create a structure’s foundation includes brickwork, masonry, and/or concrete. Positioned under the base of a wall or column, it serves to transfer loads into the soil in a uniform manner and is designed to transition a structural design into the soil.
COLUMNS •
Grey granite columns. Standing at 39 feet (11.8 meters) tall and five feet (1.5 meters) in diameter, each column weighs 60 tons and supports additional loading from the roof structure above.
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A column is an upright beam and a linear element- the bearing capacity is mainly provided by bending moment action.
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Most columns are used to create a load path for forces created by the weight of materials used on roof to the foundation in the ground. A strong construction stone, the granite within the columns of the pantheon
ARCHES •
Romans were able to design and construct massive structural supports and elements within the Pantheon.
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The purpose of the arches in the Pantheon are less obvious than at the Coliseum, but it can be presumed that they were probably used in the wall as means of consolidating the materials in construction and controlling settlement as the concrete cured so that the construction of the Pantheon’s outer walls could proceed upward quickly without a great lag time between stories.
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Thus, it is easy to see the traces of the Pantheon’s outer walls are lines with arches within the masonry, testaments to the effectiveness of the arch as a shape that can bear loading and redistribute it into the foundation if properly aligned in the vertical direction
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