Spaces for Sport | The Football Experience by Josh Murphy

Spaces for sport | The Football Experience Research Proposal Joshua Murphy

Motivation

From very early on in my childhood, sport has been influential in my life and has played a significant part in my development. My favourite periods of a typical school day were the times when we were able to let loose in the playground and express ourselves through various means of physical exertion. Jumpers for goalposts, makeshift knitted balls and handpicked teams were all common recurring themes during my school days. Physical activity and competitive match play situations have long been one of my favourite means of social interaction. My ultimate dream as a boy growing up was to play as a professional footballer in front of packed audiences at some of the largest stadiums/venues across the globe.

Introduction

Architecture has been to the forefront in playing a significant role in creating space for sports. Originating with the Ancient Greek athletics tracks and Roman Amphitheatres used for gladiator combat the development has carried on right through to the current era with the modern school fields and playgrounds as well as the ultra-hightech stadia that are being constructed today. These are all examples of spaces for sport. They all share a common trend but use architecture as a tool to portray themselves with their own unique character. Is it possible to clearly define what is a space for games/sports?

The premise of this research proposal will be to explore what is the significance of sport in relation to its architecture? The primary focus will be on the game of football and how this sport can be defined in terms of time and space. Particular emphasis will be placed on the cultural context of the pitch and its relationship with the players and spectators. Using the conceptual framework created by game design theorists, Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman, as a basis, we can begin to understand games through a lens concentrating on three primary schemas: RULES, PLAY and CULTURE. 1 This theory will be further investigated and tested using football to help depict the relationship between oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experience of a space and the sport itself. It is the experiencing body that holds the link between both architecture and sports and it can be said that the human experience is affected by the environment, and vice versa.

The core themes within the proposal could well be applied to all sports and games and the spaces they encompass but the primary focus will be on the sport of football- a national sport in the UK that has become a huge part of so many peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lives. Some cultures use sport to unite the community when the architecture and associated senses combine to give attending individuals, either as spectators or competitors, a certain experience. As humans, we are nothing but what we have experienced and many people, myself included, contain a belief that spaces for sport can give you the ultimate experience.

Salen, K. and Zimmerman, E. 2003, p.96

Through a study of the literature in Game Theory, accompanied by a set of case studies, it will be suggested whether the emotions of the playing experience can continue way beyond the actual play space. The context partnered with the emotions of the players can hold a strong influence on the outcome. Thus, there will be investigations carried out into stadium design by means of personal visits in conjunction with, interviews with players/spectators who regularly participate in or interact with such spaces. In addition, an analysis of other spaces not primarily designed for football including streets, playgrounds, deserted car parks and anywhere that is generally flat enough to allow a game to be played, will be conducted to demonstrate how different environments can still appropriate the same typology. Some of the greatest players in the world today can trace their origins and development to street football which may have been as a result of limited access to their local gymnasium or football club. Wayne Rooney, the current England and Manchester United captain is quoted as saying: ‘I’ve always believed myself to be from the streets in terms of football… I’ve always played on the streets… That is where I learnt to play football.’2

Jumpers, lampposts or garage doors for goalposts. Street kerbs for pitch boundaries. These elements still possess the same meanings as those found on a correctly marked out pitch. Playing a game of football on a street or pitch can create unique and site-specific experiences. Nonetheless, the idea of playing football in non-purpose-built environments like residential streets has become less common in the modern day. Partly due to the safeguarding of children on roads and the economic modernisation gradually ‘devouring’ the old, established playing spaces in cities and towns across the UK; this coincided with the arrival of ‘formal’ coaching methods as the modern replacement of the so-called street ‘chaos’ game. 3

2 3

Burt, 2014 Cartwright, 2013

Figure 1 A photograph from the 1950’s showing a narrow and, populated street giving way to 5 school children for a game of football using jumpers for goalposts

Origin- Football

Records show that as early as 1170, the sport of football was first introduced into England with an account describing how youths visited the fields for a ‘game of ball’. Although, information extracted from military manuals show how in the second and third century BC in China, an exercise called Tsu’ Chu with all the same attributes to football was in existence. A leather skin filled with feathers was used for the ball and small netting fixed onto bamboo canes created two goals either end of the field. Variations of the game also existed in Egypt and Greece exemplifying the long tradition the sport possesses throughout history. 4

Football has only increased in popularity and particularly amongst the working classes who seized the chance to play the sport. For some it was used as a channel to air their grievances. However, due to limited rules the matches were far from civilised and it was often deemed acceptable to punch or violently beat opposing players. In addition, on some occasions, there would be mass volumes of players involved which would often lead to games spiralling out of control. Nonetheless, in 1848, a meeting at Cambridge University finalised a clear set of rules for players to comply with and this essentially marked the beginning of football in England. Teams and leagues were

HISTORY, 2013

being founded all over the country with Britain being instrumental in spreading the game across the world. The first match recorded outside Europe was in 1867 in Argentina amongst several working Englishmen. 5

Understanding the game The “Magic Circle” Space within which any game takes place can be known as the “magic circle”. As players step in and out of the game, they are crossing that boundary that defines the game in time and space. 6 This is known as stepping in or out of the “magic circle”, a term derived from the following passage in Johan Huizinga's book Homo Ludens: ‘All play moves and has its being within a playground marked off beforehand either materially or ideally, deliberately or as a matter of course…. The arena, the card-table, the magic circle, the temple, the stage, the screen, the tennis court, the court of justice, etc., are all in form and function play-grounds, i.e., forbidden spots, isolated, hedged round, hallowed, within which special rules obtain. All are temporary worlds within the ordinary world, dedicated to the performance of an act apart.'7

Whereas more informal forms of play do not have a distinct boundary, for example, a child playing with his/her doll or two people taking part in an arm wrestle and while there may be a frame between playing and not playing, its boundaries are indistinct and permeable. Both can be characterised as placeless whereby the context is not relevant to the outcome. This is in stark contrast to the formalised nature of the large majority of all other games where a site-specific location is required. Using the sport of football as the primary research example, the spaces required to allow for amateur practice of the sport do not have to be pre-determined spaces although they must be adaptable. For instance, school playgrounds, park fields, quiet pedestrianised streets and city squares are all such examples. Professional environments would primarily include designated training pitches or stadiums with all the precise pitch markings. Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman, further built upon Huizinga’s theory, following the publication of their book Rules of Play in 2003. They discuss how there can be a certain relationship between specific games and its surrounding context:

As a system, a game can be considered to have an open or closed relationship to its context. Considered as RULES, a game is closed. Considered as PLAY, a game is both open and closed. Considered as CULTURE, a game is open.8

HISTORY, 2013 Huizinga, 1955 7 Ibid. 8 Salen, K. and Zimmerman, E. 2003, p.96 6

The above quote shows how Salen and Zimmerman consider a game such as football to consist of a standard system of RULES, formal primary schema, even prior to the involvement of the competitors. There is a fundamental mathematical structure to the game that will remain constant no matter where in the world you are. Furthermore, when considered as CULTURE, contextual primary schema, the game can be perceived as partaking in an open relationship with its context, meaning the local surroundings can have an impact on the game. When realising a game to be a PLAY, experiential primary schema, one is purely focusing on human experience and interaction in its many dimensions. 9 The games can, therefore, be considered as either open or closed systems whereby it is possible to look at player performance based inherently on the game ignoring outside influence. On the reverse, players can be seen to bring a great deal from the outside world from expectations to their current state of mind and relationships and so on. It is important to note that games are often a reflection of the players who play them. 10

Rules Play Culture

Figure 2 The three primary schemas represented in a diagram

The Lusory Attitude

To play a game of football, a group of players must first accept the complex set of rules and limitations before they can play. The lusory attitude is the state of mind required to enter into the play of a game. Bernard Suits, philosopher, disagrees with the idea of games and sees them as terribly inefficient and this is reiterated in his book Grasshopper: Games, Life, and Utopia.

To relate Suits theory to football you could argue that if the aim is to simply win the game and score more goals than the opposition then they should use their hands and commit foul play to ensure victory by any means possible almost as it was in the 18th century. Instead, though, the players play the game through a nerve-racking, dramatic and timely process for the pleasure and entertainment of the spectators and for themselves. The players play to the rules due to a healthy attitude towards the act of game playing with a clear openness to the possibility of taking such indirect means to accomplish a goal.11 Suits also describes such other sports as bowling, boxing and golf in this manner stating them to not be technically intelligent that "In anything but a game the gratuitous introduction

Ibid. p.117 Salen, K. and Zimmerman, E. 2003, p.108 11 Ibid. p.109 10

of unnecessary obstacles to the achievement of an end is regarded as a decidedly irrational thing to do, whereas in games it appears to be an absolutely essential thing to do."12

Similarly, to how Huizinga describes the act of arm wrestling or a child playing with his/her doll whereby the context plays no relevance. Paul Weiss argues in his book, Sport: A Philosophic Enquiry, the sports place should have ‘a normal set of conditions', where there is no interference with climate, surface or outside interference- ‘in short no deviations from a standard situation'.13 Speaking on behalf of myself as a football fan, this is a dystopian dream that the ideal stadium would be characterised by ‘placelessness’ whereby there is a simple plane surface with no spectators. This would diminish the drama and theatrical aspects of a sports event likening it more to the experience of being alone on a treadmill where not a single word is spoken to those around you. This creates a sterile place that is de-populated to ensure no home advantage is induced by spectator performance. 14 Surely, the same fun and enjoyment that children once got out of sports in the playground environment will be lost?

In many cultures a stadium (a universal architectural form of the modern city) could be considered as the place where the largest amount of people can have a similar experience most frequently. It can be said that as humans we are nothing but what we have experienced. It is the accumulation of certain experiences that can shape us as players or spectators. 15 The memories that remain in our minds based on these experiences can either be positive, negative or mixed. Nonetheless, when more and more individuals repeat certain experiences in the same place such as a stadium- the greater that venue and that kind of experience will figure in the construction of the individual.16

Case Studies- Stadia Old Trafford, nicknamed the ‘Theatre of Dreams’, is home to Manchester United (“United”) and is considered to be one of the most iconic stadiums in the world. It has developed a formidable reputation, especially under the football team manager Sir Alex Ferguson’s reign but this is not simply down to the bricks and mortar that make up the architecture of the 106-year-old venue. It was more about the illustrious names that would line up in the colours of United accompanied by Ferguson on the touchline that created an atmosphere whereby opposing teams would be intimidated even before the game had started. Relating Salen and Zimmerman’s theory that a game can be considered as PLAY and as a primary experiential schema focused on human experience, United were victorious more often than not and as a result, the players and spectators endured repeated positive experiences. Therefore, the games can be considered more so as open than closed systems. The question is whether outside influences and prior expectations affected a player’s performance. To further aid this research theory- interviews with players who have previously played at Old Trafford would be beneficial.

Suits, 2005, p. 38-9 Weiss, 1969, p. 105 14 Vertinsky, P. and Bale, J. 2004, p. 1 15 Ibid. p. 25 16 Ibid. p. 25 13

Dating back to the origin of stadium design, with the Ancient Greek athletic tracks and the Roman colosseum, these buildings were simply appropriated as monofunctional arenas for which spectators could view an event. Nowadays, the impressive stadiums throughout the UK (e.g. Old Trafford and Arsenal’s Emirates Stadium) are multi-functional business facilities.

When investigating stadiums, it is important to understand that they can also play a deeper role within the wider community to create a powerful visual landscape of the city. Considering the sense of sight to be a key human receptor, there are several processes of seeing and it is the architecture of a stadium that can strongly impact each process.17 Firstly, initial impressions when approaching the urban stadium are of a hypermarket rather than a ‘football ground’ which invites the word ‘tradium’ rather than ‘stadium’. 18 Old Trafford has become far more than just a space for sport. Is this right? Should such spaces for sport be able to facilitate so many functions? Or are we losing the unique, special characteristics that a stadium should possess and detracting away from its primary function?

Figure 3 The unimpeded view of a spectator at Old Trafford

Secondly, all modern stadia have been designed internally to enhance spectator experiences and constructed in such a way that sight lines are unimpeded. This is not the case with all stadiums and as an example Goodison Park, England (Everton) uses the post and beam method of construction to support the roof as opposed to using cantilevered roofs (see figure. 3). As a result, certain areas will have partially obstructed views affecting the spectator experience.

17 18

Vertinsky, P. and Bale, J. 2004, p. 27 Ibid. p. 27

Lastly, the façade of a stadium can conduct a strong statement regarding the building’s place in space and time and whether the building is enclosed or not can reflect a certain character. 19 For example, in one instance you have Old Trafford which is completely encircled to divorce the stadium experience from the reality of the world around it. This contrast with the more open stadiums that allow players and spectators to share a visual connection with the surrounding buildings and landscape. Such examples include Wrigley Field in Chicago and the Estádio Municipal de Braga in Braga.

Figure 4 Estádio Municipal de Braga- an example of a stadium that can be considered with regards to CULTURE, A contextual primary schema whereby the local surroundings can influence the game.

Vertinsky, P. and Bale, J. 2004, p. 28

Figure 5 Initial impressions when approaching the rurally located stadium suggest simple forms and two stands that almost appear to be in direct competition.

Figure 3 & 4 exemplify a modern-day stadium embracing its rural context. The build is carved into the face of the Monte Castro Quarry which overlooks the city of Braga. The architectural design is simple yet effective with a sensitive approach taken to adapt the aesthetics to the context of the site. To compensate for the fragmented stands, a sense of wholeness was created via the steel rings stretching the width of the pitch attaching one canopy-style roof to the other. 20

Rod Sheard, one of the most experienced architects within the sports sector and senior principal at Populous Architects, opened up his book The Stadium: Architecture for the New Global Culture, by stating: “A stadium, more than any other building type in history, has the ability to shape a town or city. A stadium is able to put a community on the map, establishing an identity and providing a focal point in the landscape… Stadia are the most ‘viewed’ buildings in history and have the power to change people’s lives: they represent a nations pride and aspirations.

Consequently, the stadium will become the most important building any community can own, and if it is used widely, it will be the most useful urban planning tool a city can possess. In the last 150 years, since sport was codified and professionalised, there has been a dramatic shift to urbanisation, from the country to the city, and the meteoric rise in the popularity of sport has been the consequence…”21

It will be interesting to meet with Rod Sheard to fully understand his view on stadiums. The quote above demonstrates how he believes their role has become far greater than just spaces for sport. They now have become almost symbols for a city. This is certainly true when you look at a city like Dublin with Croke Park Stadium-

20 21

Architecture.com, 2016 Sheard, Powell and Bingham-Hall, 2005, p. 7

built specifically to host only Irish sports- the city draws to a standstill when a sports event is occurring with large volumes of patriotic fans ascending for the stadium. It will be interesting to note the key criteria Populous has for stadium design and how they appropriate stadiums in cities as not just sports arenas but on a wider scale as urban planning tools.

Nonetheless, it is very important to note that this research proposal is not focusing solely on stadiums but the other spaces, as previously mentioned, that can allow for such a sport as football to be played. The investigations will aim to discover how a game of football with closed rules can be experienced differently across all cultures creating unique experiences.

Methodology

Figure 6 A group of children playing ball in the Brazilian favelas After reviewing all secondary data using a range of information sources, it was possible to compile a list of key people who hold strong influences and theories on the topic:

Rod Sheard : Experienced architect in the sports sector

Katie Salen & Eric Zimmerman : Game design theorists

Bernard Suits: Philosopher

Paul Weiss: Philosopher

Johan Huizinga: Historian and founder of modern cultural history

To further aid the investigation, study trips to Africa and South America should demonstrate how other cultures can appropriate this same typology but in vastly different manners to adapt to the context. The passion for football in Brazil is huge and their famous favelas have given birth to some of the greatest football players to this day. The

game is stripped down to its essence and played in a tropical climate where the players are often bare footed and shirtless. Players tend to develop greater ball control as a result of playing in such raw and honest environments. More so than any other urban area, favelas are perceived to be the most flexible and adaptable in their use drawing comparisons to modern day, multi-functional stadiums. Through visiting and analysing these spaces within their context, the aim will be to find out what makes for the perfect space for football in order to deliver optimal performance and experience?

In addition, surveys and questionnaires will be distributed targeting as many professional and amateur football players to discover the feelings and emotions they can get from playing in certain stadiums or the more normal environments. Particular emphasis will be placed on the spatial experience both physically and emotionally within these structures and whether the context can impact or reflect on their game performance. Over a 1-3-year period, the aim is to receive back a minimum of 100 surveys from players who have played football in a wide array of cultures thus allowing for a balanced discussion to supplement the secondary research. Also, discussions with people who regularly spectate at football games will help to understand the sensual experiences a game can provide. To further assist with monitoring the effect games can have on the surrounding environment, interviews will be arranged with local residents. The possible limitations will involve making contact and maintaining steady communication with players who play at a professional level.

It is true to say that the behaviour of the players can influence the behaviour of the spectators, for example when a goal is scored, but vice versa? Playing football in a quite inconspicuous facility such as a training ground can greatly contrast to playing the game in a purpose-built stadium full of people when there would appear to be greater pressure to perform. Nonetheless, which space is preferable for performance and what are the major experiential differences? Is pressure a positive?

The basis of all this research and further investigation will hope to answer the following question;

Can experiential spaces for football form unique arenas that can have a direct impact on player performance?

Literature - Andersen, M. (2012). Experiencing space for sports in theory. Masters. Aalborg University. - Architecture.com. (2016). The architecture of football stadiums. [online] Available at: https://www.architecture.com/explore/stories/thearchitectureoffootballstadiums.aspx [Accessed 11 Apr. 2016]. - Burt, J. (2014). England striker Wayne Rooney reveals that he likes to play street football when he returns home to Liverpool. [online] Telegraph.co.uk. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/england/11156017/Wayne-Rooney-reveals-that-he-likesto-play-street-football-when-he-returns-home-to-Liverpool.html [Accessed 10 Apr. 2016]. - Cartwright, J. (2013). The Glory of the Street. [online] KEEP THE BALL. Available at: https://keeptheball.wordpress.com/2013/11/07/the-glory-of-the-street/ [Accessed 10 Apr. 2016]. - Coe.int, (2015). Council of Europe: sport conventions. [online] Available at: http://www.coe.int/t/DG4/sport/default_en.asp [Accessed 15 Feb. 2016]. - Crysler, C., (Christopher Greig), Cairns, S. and Heynen, H. (2012). The SAGE handbook of of architectural theory. London: SAGE. - HISTORY. (2013). History of Football. [online] Available at: http://www.history.co.uk/study-topics/historyof-football-tennis/history-of-football [Accessed 8 Apr. 2016]. - Huizinga, J. (1955). Homo ludens. Boston: Beacon Press. - Llorella, A. (2006). Stadium design. KoÌˆln: Daab. - McMahon-Beattie, U. and Yeoman, I. (2004). Sport and leisure operations management. London: Thomson. - Nixdorf, S. (2008). StadiumAtlas. Berlin: Ernst & Sohn. - Olympic Architecture: Beijing 2008 1st Edition. (2008). BirkhÃ¤user Architecture. - Salen, K. and Zimmerman, E. (2003). Rules of play. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. - Scott, D. (2014). What can Brazil's favelas teach us about future cities?. [online] The Age. Available at: http://www.theage.com.au/national/education/voice/what-can-brazils-favelas-teach-us-about-future-cities20140707-3bill.html [Accessed 5 Apr. 2016]. - Sheard, R., Powell, R. and Bingham-Hall, P. (2005). The stadium. Singapore: Periplus. - Suits, B. (2005). Grasshopper: Games, Life, Utopia. Broadview Press Ltd, p.23. - Vertinsky, P. and Bale, J. (2004). Sites of sport. London: Routledge. - Weiss, P. (1969). Sport ; a philosophic inquiry. Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press.

List of Figures 1- Dutta, K. (2012). The joys of street football. [online] Sportskeeda.com. Available at: http://www.sportskeeda.com/football/the-joys-of-street-football [Accessed 5 Apr. 2016]. 2- Authors drawing 3- Harbert, J. (2010). Old Trafford: The Theatre of Dreams. [Blog] Available at: https://blogs.valpo.edu/studyabroad/tag/soccer/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2016]. 4- 12 Worlds weirdest stadiums. (2009). [Blog] Available at: http://www.thisblogrules.com/2009/12/12worlds-weirdest-stadiums.html [Accessed 5 Apr. 2016]. 5- Dezeen. (2011). Key projects by Eduardo Souto de Moura | Dezeen. [online] Available at: http://www.dezeen.com/2011/03/29/key-projects-by-eduardo-souto-de-moura/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2016]. 6- Scott, D. (2014). What can Brazil's favelas teach us about future cities?. [online] The Age. Available at: http://www.theage.com.au/national/education/voice/what-can-brazils-favelas-teach-us-about-future-cities20140707-3bill.html [Accessed 5 Apr. 2016].