Index

The arrangement is letter-by-letter.

“abaixo”: policy 115–16, 129, 222; rhetoric 223–4, 243, 250, 253, 254, 262 Abrams, Philip 47–8 acknowledgment, politics of 26, 86, 248, 261–4, 270–1, 284–5, 287–8 administrative reorganization xiv, 130, 150 African National Congress of South

Africa (ANC) 3, 4, 5, 10, 36 African Party for the Independence of

Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) 17, 18, 281 “African socialism” 13, 14, 286 AGP see General Peace Accord Agricom 164 agricultural exports 52, 80,148, 149, 153, 156 agricultural producer cooperatives see cooperative farming agriculture see communal villages; cooperative farming; cotton production; “family sector” farming; famines/famine conditions; settler farms/agriculture; smallholders/smallholder agriculture; state farms/state farm sector aid-dependency 19, 42, 154 aldeamentos 106 aldeias comunaissee communal villages Algeria: support from 21 Almeida, José de 129–30, 131, 217, 218 Al Qaeda 2 Alua, Chief 147, 148, 202, 203, 207, 213, 217 Alua, regedoria of 206–7 Alua Administrative Post 121, 146, 163, 198, 200, 208, 210 Alua Center 121, 186–7, 200, 206–7, 208, 210 Alua parish 208–9 amnesia 23; historical 30, 32; moral 265, 269; see also “anti-memory” work; memory; memory practices; mnemonic legitimation; politics of acknowledgment amnesty program 4 ANC see African National Congress of

South Africa Angoche District 137, 183, 214–15, 226 Angola 3, 5–6, 17, 18, 143–4, 159, 256 anti-cholera campaign 255–6 “anti-memory” work 219, 222, 273 António, Manuel 1, 5 apartheid 24, 28, 30; see also South

Africa armed struggle/liberated zones 2, 12, 15–17, 20, 25, 51, 66–8, 74, 81, 110, 274, 279, 281, 287 ARO 225 Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique 89 Asians 49, 56, 93; as traders 101; see also

“Creole elites” assimilados 62, 66, 93, 273, 274, 282 atrocities: government army 62, 237;

Naparamas 5, 7; Renamo 33, 54 austerity 153–4; see also Economic

Rehabilitation Program (PRE);

Economic and Social Rehabilitation

Program (PRES); structural adjustment

“Bahia” (district administrator) 134–5, 137, 147–8, 197

378 Index

banking sector: privatization of 156; scandals in 157, 158, 159 Baptista Lundin, Irae 43, 44, 68, 221, 225, 233, 238–9, 242–3 baraza 76 barter 163, 164–5 Bayart, Jean-François 23 Beira 54; port of 180 Belgian Congo 96 Bell, Terry 3 Berlin Conference 93 black/parallel markets 52, 57, 69, 72, 153 block farming 136–8 blood ties 173, 190–1; see also surrogates Botha, P.W. 2 Braga, Manuel 7, 197 Branquinho, José 147 Brazil 90 Britain 2, 59; support to Portuguese (World War I) 108 Brito, Luís de 62–3, 66–7, 234, 286 Brown, JoAnne 223 budget crisis, Nampula 165–6 Bush, G.H.W. administration 3

Cabaço, José Luís 41 Cabinda 18 Cabo Delgado Province 46, 75, 80, 81, 93, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 162, 196, 201, 205, 207, 224, 225, 226, 264, 281 caderneta 99, 145 Cahen, Michel 62, 117, 274–9, 282, 286 CAM see Mozambique Cotton Company “camaraderie” 245, 247, 252 Cape Verde 17 capitalist cotton farming 102–3, 105, 106 capital punishment 57 Casa Salvador 164, 170 cashew nuts 80, 101, 109–10, 126, 128, 141, 149, 150, 248 cashew-processing plants 157 cashew trees 105, 109–10, 126, 133, 135, 140, 143, 146, 252–3 Cassimo 203, 204, 205 Catholic Church 56, 201–2, 208, 226; and peace talks 60; see also Alua parish; missionaries (Catholic) ; missions (Catholic); Namapa parish;

Vida Nova CCPSC see Provincial Coordinating

Commission for the Socialization of the Countryside, Nampula CDE see District Elections Commission,

Namapa CEA see Center for African Studies Ceasefire, partial 180 Center for African Studies (CEA) 66, 68, 76, 79, 82, 89, 234 Central Intelligence Organisation (Rhodesia) 2 Chabal, Patrick 282 Chaka 107 “chiefs of production” 82, 83–4, 117–18, 134, 146, 147–8, 247, 284 chiefs/régulos: 12, 13, 23, 32, 34, 36, 46, 73, 74, 84, 87, 115, 116, 117, 128, 129, 132, 134–5, 137, 152, 193, 195, 196, 206–7, 213–14, 215–17, 247–8, 249, 250–1, 253–4, 256, 266; as capatazes 146, 148, 165, 215, 218; colonial 94–5, 97, 110, 204; colonial cotton regime 97; and communal villages/villagization 132, 133, 135; and community court judges 194, 197–201; and crime/”marginality” 170, 213, 214; differentiation of local power 182–5, 190–1; and elections/electoral preparations 189–90; and forced cotton cultivation (post-independence) 207, 208, 210–12, 213, 217; historiography 40, 68, 79, 83; initiation rites 201–2; Makua 90, 92, 173; and Nampula 39–40, 46, 79, 284, 285; and official discourses 40, 44–5, 82, 169, 173, 174, 180, 181, 183–4, 189, 190–2, 220, 221, 227, 228, 231, 232, 233, 237, 240, 262, 263, 264, 269; politicization of 188–9, 212; and privatization 216; and remuneration 146, 168, 212, 214;

Renamo (postwar) 189, 200, 212; revisionist critique 39–40, 63, 67–8, 82, 117–18, 147, 148, 193–4; and secretaries 195, 196–7, 213, 214–15; succession struggles/territorial disputes 202–5, 206, 207; surrogates of 129–31, 173, 249–50; and tax (IRN) collection 168, 212, 215; “valorizing” 181; and war/Renamo/rural dissidence 33, 39–40, 55, 58, 82, 117–18, 134, 146–7, 172, 233, 285; see also “chiefs of production”; chieftaincy;

“detribalization”; inter-generational relations; lineage chiefs;

“obscurantism”; rural administration,

“retraditionalization” of; sub-chiefs; traditional authorities; traditional authority/powerchiefs’ courts chieftaincy: 9, 12, 13, 32, 33, 34, 35, 47, 77, 85, 86, 87, 117, 202, 203, 205, 214, 221, 223, 240, 250–1, 254; colonial 93, 94, 95, 97, 110; decentralization 41; and DPAC’s proposals 180–2; “effective occupation” 93; Geffray, Christian 40, 82, 115–16, 274; MAE’s TA/P project 171, 179, 225;

Nampula/northern Mozambique 46, 83; 113; official discourses 38, 44, 172–4, 176, 226, 227, 228, 238, 240, 246, 261, 285; politicization of 188–90, 202; precolonial/colonial conquest 91, 92, 93, 94, 106–7, 108;

Renamo 115–16, 275, 285; revisionist critique 82, 115–16, 274, 282; “valorizing” 94, 179; see also chiefs/régulos; legitimacy;

“obscurantism”; traditional authority/ power; traditional authorities children 54, 58, 60, 153, 155, 156, 255–6; in oral testimony 247, 248, 249; see also initiation rites; marriages;

Naparamas China: support from 21 Chissano, Joaquim 25, 61, 151, 163, 182, 256, 266–71 circumscriptions xiv, 93–4 citizenship: Portuguese 62, 93–4 civil war 4, 37; as a label 29–30; see also

Namapa “class enemies” 45, 70–3, 75, 260, 267–8, 286 class formation 14, 73, 86, 153, 234, 278 clientelism 78, 276 CNE see National Elections Commission Cold War 3, 18, 20, 24, 30, 78 collaborators, colonial 13, 71; seealso

“compromised,” the collective agriculture see cooperative farming; cooperative sector Colonial Act 96 colonial conquest/occupation 93, 107–8 Colonial Cotton Export Board (JEAC) 96, 97, 100, 102 Comala: chieftaincy of 107, 205; regedoria of 205 Comala, Chief 202, 203, 210–11, 212, 213 Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic

Aid) 21 communal villages (aldeias comunais) 51, 55–6, 75–6, 117, 118, 123–7, 139–41, 172, 174, 236, 263–4; and official discourses 139–41, 172, 174, 223, 231, 232, 235–9, 243, 263–4; and Renamo 55–6, 161, 266; see also villagization community courts 51, 197–201; see also popular/people’s courts Comoros 56 “compromised,” the 134, 151 Conçeicão, Rafael da 82 concentrações algodoeirassee cotton concentrations concessionaires 96, 97, 99, 100, 102, 103, 108–9; payroll of 212, 214; and tax collection 169 concession scheme 22, 102, 108 concession zones 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 109 conscription: into unified army 256; see also press-ganging; Renamo: forced recruitment constitution, multiparty (1990) 9, 61, 152, 180, 186, 208, 220, 228 consumer cooperatives 76, 123, 125, 127, 278 contract killings 157 cooperative farming 51, 52, 68, 69, 76, 119, 122–3, 128; and dual economy thesis 65, 66; in liberated zones 16–17; and lineage social relations 125–7; and official discourses 235, 236–7; see also cooperative sector cooperative sector 50, 52, 53, 65, 122; see also cooperative farming corruption: of chiefs 198–9, 200; official 19, 62, 71, 78, 153, 154, 157, 162, 166, 168, 170, 177, 214, 216, 245, 268, 269; of rural political authority 216 cost: of war 1; of peace process 155 cotton 80, 141; see also cotton production Cotton Board see Colonial Cotton Export

Board (JEAC) “cotton concentrations” (concentrações algodoeiras) 100–1, 105–6, 109, 136, 239 Cotton Development Society of

Namialo (SODAN) 165, 190, 208–9, 215, 217 Index 379

380 Index

Cotton Fund 100, 101 Cotton Institute (IAM) 102, 106, 119–20, 136 cotton markets 97, 100, 112; and tax collection 98, 169 cotton production: capitalist 102–3, 105, 106; colonial 80, 82–3, 96–106, 149; compulsory (post-independence) 144, 207–12; Eráti/Namapa 120, 128, 144, 145, 207–12; Nampula 80, 82–3, 103–6, 120–1, 139, 145, 149; northern

Mozambique (colonial) 103–6; and official discourses 139–40, 141; postindependence period 119–21, 139, 144, 145, 149, 207–12; reform of (colonialera): 98–103; and strictures on rural trade 145; tools 104; see also Cotton

Development Society of Namialo (SODAN); João Ferreira dos Santos (JFS); settler farms/agriculture; smallholders/smallholder agriculture;

State Cotton Farm of Nampula (EEAN) Council for Mutual Economic Aid (Comecon) 21 Council of Ministers 68, 71, 178 councils, colonial administrative areas xiv, 93 counter-insurgency campaigns/strategies: of colonial state 80, 81, 106, 110, 147, 189; of postindependence state 22, 84, 119, 124, 139, 147, 150, 189, 237–8, 261 counter-revolution: Renamo 54–61 “Creole elites” 275–8, 282; see also revisionist critique crime 78, 154, 169, 214, 238, 244, 249, 251, 255, 256; see also crime syndicates; lawlessness crime syndicates 20, 154, 157 culturalist critique 36, 39, 41, 44, 77, 238–9; see also Baptista Lundin, Irae; revisionist critique cultural pluralism 87, 283 Cumar, Cabo 202, 203, 207, 215 currency xv “customary” law 12–13; see also land law cyclones: (1956) 109; (1979) 137

debt, external 42, 154 debt relief programs 156 decentralization 41, 47, 158, 160, 165; see also Ministry of State

Administration (MAE);

Municipalities Law decolonization: effects of 49–50, 114, 119, 136, 254, 262; “false” 13; terms of 17, 255 “deethnicization” 12 defense spending 60 demobilization 6, 155 demobilized soldiers 155, 157, 162, 170, 250 Democratic Union (UD) 187 democratization 41, 157–8 demographics 24, 80, 83 deracialization 12 destabilization 1, 2–4, 30, 37, 38, 60, 66, 70, 72, 138, 142, 155, 200; in

Angola 18, 143; as a term 29–30; see also Renamo; South African Defence

Force (SADF); South Africa “detribalization” 12, 13, 22–3, 28, 34, 38–9, 284–5, 288 Dhlakama, Afonso 61, 163, 187, 264, 265–6, 267, 269, 277 Diogo, Luisa 25 discourses see culturalist critique;

Frelimo: discursive repertoire; memory practices; Nampula: local official discourses; official discourses; revisionist critique displacement/displaced people: and destabilization 4, 60, 155 dissent 87, 259, 286; and state-idea 48; see also chiefs/régulos: war/Renamo/rural dissidence; “class enemies”; rural dissent District Commission for Communal

Villages (CDAC), Eráti 123 District Elections Commission (CDE),

Namapa 185–6, 189 districts xiv, 94 divorce 112, 250, 252, 253 domestic slavery 92–3; see alsoepotha donors, aid 41–2, 47, 145, 156, 159, 160, 165, 179, 259, 284; see also

International Monetary Fund (IMF); non-governmental organizations

NGOs); World Bank DPA see Provincial Directorate of

Agriculture DPAC see Provincial Directorate of

Assistance and Control, Nampula droughts 52, 54, 153, 155 drug trafficking 157 dual administration 163 dual economy thesis 64–6, 118, 144–5, 279, 282, 284

dynamizing groups (GDs) 50, 177, 178, 216; in official discourses 174, 183, 228, 230–2, 235–6, 239–40, 242, 243 Dzimba, Gaspar 141–3, 150

Economic and Social Rehabilitation

Program (PRES) 153, 156–7, 163; see also structural adjustment economic conditions 19, 138 economic crises 49–50, 138, 245 economic growth 153, 156 economic reforms see Economic and

Social Rehabilitation Program (PRES); Economic Rehabilitation

Program (PRE); structural adjustment Economic Rehabilitation Program (PRE) 152–3, 163; see also structural adjustment education 50, 155; and opportunity 218; and teachers 53, 54, 153; see also schools EEAN see State Cotton Farm of

Nampula Egerö, Bertil 178 Egypt, support from 21 elder, use of term xv elections: (1986) 150–1; (1994) 10, 81, 83, 155, 187; (1998–2003) 155–6; (1999) 81, 83, 158; local 36, 81, 158, 160 electoral campaigns (1994) 264–71 emigration see labor migration, transnational; out-migration epotha: (precolonial “slaves” and their descendants) 91–3, 106, 107, 117, 173; in official discourses 133, 172, 231; as secretaries 131, 172 Eráti District: Baptista Lundin, Irae 221, 239; (c. 1830–1974) 106–14;

“chiefs of production” 82, 83–4, 117–18, 134–5, 146, 147–8; collective agriculture 122–3, 128; communal villages (aldeais comunais) 12–15; division of 81, 130; local state formation (early independence period) 120–32; maps of xxiii; out-migration 114, 127–8, 248, 253–5; population density xxiii; and Renamo 40, 82, 123, 124, 131–2, 134, 135; as a research site 81–3; war in (Eráti/Namapa) 39–40, 82, 123, 134–5; see also chiefs/régulos;

chieftaincy; cotton production; forced villagization; Geffray, Christian; inter-generational relations; lineage social relations; male youth; marriages; matrimonial areas; surrogates Errate 107 ethnicity/ethnic politics 73, 80–1, 87; and electoral campaign (1994) 265; and revisionist critique and 16–17, 274–5, 276–8, 282–3; see also

“deethnicization” executions 57

FAM (Mozambique Armed Forces) see government army “family sector” farming 51, 52, 53, 64–5, 80, 103, 104, 105, 120–1, 138, 141, 144, 145, 148, 149; see also smallholders/smallholder agriculture famines/famine conditions 33–4, 82, 89, 98, 100, 105, 109, 127, 138, 150, 155; see also starvation Faria Lobo, José Bernardo de 82, 89, 135–8, 139, 140, 148 Feudalism see modes of production;

“obscurantism”; “traditional-feudal society” Finnegan, William 283 fiscal reform 167–9 FLEC see Front for the Liberation of the

Enclave of Cabinda flogging 57 floods 52 156; and chiefs 160 FNLA see National Front for the

Liberation of Angola food shortages see shortages forced labor/crop cultivation 5, 81, 94, 95, 96–8, 99, 101–2, 105, 108, 112, 120, 143–5, 207–12, 248; exemptions from (colonial) 100, 101, 104; and Renamo 59, 144; resistance to/avoidance of 97, 99, 100, 102, 104, 208, 209–10, 213; see also smallholders/smallholder agriculture: colonial cotton regime forced resettlement 39–40; 100, 106, 110, 123, 126, 132, 135, 138, 140, 142, 239;resistance to/avoidance of 75–7, 106, 125–6, 132, 133, 172; see also chiefs/régulos; chieftaincy; “cotton concentrations”; Operation

Production; picadas; villagization; war Ford Foundation 41, 224 Index 381

382 Index

foreign aid see international aid/assistance foreign debt 42, 154 Frelimo: achievements of 17–18, 38, 52–3; and “African socialism” 14, 286; ambivalence toward power 223, 246, 287–8; anti-hierarchical orientation of 86, 222, 223, 288; anti-obscurantism 64, 70, 77; class analysis of 14, 64–5, 70–3, 260, 286; conversion to Marxist-Leninist vanguard party 50; conversion to neoliberal doctrine 20; and decolonization 17, 49–50;

“detribalization” policy 12–13; discursive repertoire 27; education (socialist-era) 52–3; egalitarianism 214, 245, 252, 254–5; election campaign (1994) 207, 266–71; elections see elections; and

Eráti/Namapa 39–40, 82–3; foreign policy orientation of 21; founding of 49; Fourth Congress reforms 53, 120, 124, 135; Fourth Party Congress (1983) 53, 72, 135, 178; Fifth Party

Congress (1989) 61, 152, 188; and generational replacement 25, 287; government initiatives (mid-1980s) 150–1; growing likeness to Renamo 10–11; 62; and health care (socialistera) 52–3; and historiography 3, 20–3, 28–9, 37–8, 62–3, 66–9, 79, 80–1; ideological reorientation of 11; internal dynamics of party 42, 158; and La Cause des Armes 41; leadership of 13, 16, 17–18, 24, 32, 38, 44, 46, 48, 49, 54, 59, 62, 66–7, 74, 78, 86, 118, 125, 135, 150, 151, 158, 176, 177, 178–9, 191, 223, 234, 251, 253, 257, 260, 262, 266, 268–9, 272, 273, 274, 276, 277, 279, 280–2, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287; and

Makua-Lomwé speakers 81; and

Marxism 9, 14, 286; and Marxism-

Leninism 3, 28, 61, 152; and

Nampula 46, 79–81; Naparama phenomenon 22–3; “nationalist success” of 17; official history/historiography/propaganda 13, 15, 16, 17, 28, 62, 81, 87, 274, 279; out-migration 248, 253–5; party cells 52, 177, 178, 183, 216, 239, 240; party membership 56, 188; party secretariat 25, 182; Politbureau 178, 182; post-independence failures of 38; postwar political interactions with Renamo 11, 157; preindependence 2, 12, 15–17, 20, 21, 25, 49, 51, 66–8, 74, 80–1, 110, 274, 279, 281, 287; and privatization 154; re-education camps of 2, 57; and re-legitimization 33, 79, 222, 257, 286; and religion/religious constituencies 56–7, 188; and Renamo counter-revolution 54–61; revitalization campaigns 130, 178; revolution 24, 49–54, 285; and rural goods famine 33–4; secularism of 55; and self-criticism 26, 257, 285, 287; Sixth Party Congress 182, 188; socialist legacy of 22, 192, 264, 269; “socialization of the countryside” 51, 55, 123, 124, 133, 221, 237, 248, 261–3; Third Party Congress (1977) 50–1, 71, 124, 176; see also amnesia; amnesty; “anti-memory” work; armed struggle/liberated zones; atrocities; Chissano, Joaquim; civil war; “class enemies”; communal villages; “compromised,” the; cooperative farming; corruption; Council of Ministers; counter-insurgency campaigns/strategies; decentralization; decolonization; destabilization; “detribalization”; dissent; donors; dynamizing groups (GDs); elections; Eráti District; ethnicity/ethnic politics; forced labor/crop cultivation; forced resettlement; Frelimo Central Committee; General Peace Accord (AGP); government army; International Monetary Fund (IMF); legitimacy; legitimation; legitimation profile; Machel, Samora; memory practices; “myth of revolutionary rupture”; Namapa District; Nampula Province; national sovereignty; Nkomati Accord; official discourses; Operation Production; peace talks; petty bourgeoisie; politicization of chieftaincy; politics of acknowledgment; popular/people’s power; “populism”; postcolonial state; provincial government, Nampula; revisionist critique; Rhodesia; rural administration, retraditionalization” of; secretaries (local); South Africa;

South African Development and

Coordination Conference (SADCC); state/party: distinction; structural adjustment, state, the ideas of; United

Nations (UN); villagization; war;

World Bank Frelimo Central Committee 25, 136, 177, 178 Frelimo Central Committee, reports to:

Fifth Party Congress (1989) 262;

Fourth Party Congress (1983) 178, 263; Seventh Party Congress (1997) 270; Sixth Party Congress (1991) 270, 281; Third Party Congress (1977) 176 Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) 18

Gamito, Alfredo 43, 179 Gaza Province 66, 81, 138, 155, 272 GDs see dynamizing groups Geffray, Christian 39, 41, 45, 62–3, 81, 82, 92–3, 106, 110–11, 113, 115–16, 117, 118–19, 125, 128, 138–9, 144, 145, 147, 148, 194, 199, 221, 234, 239, 253, 254, 275, 278, 280, 286; see also revisionist critique General Peace Accord (AGP) 1, 2, 5, 9–10, 61, 64, 152, 162, 163, 164, 188 German troops (World War I) 108, 207 Germany, Federal Republic of see West

Germany Gersony, Robert 59, 60 Gonçalves, R.M.A. 22 goods shortages see shortages government army (FAM) 1, 45, 56, 62, 123, 142, 150, 154, 155, 161, 237–8 Graça, Machado da 268–9 GRANDUCOL (Société Colonial Luso-

Luxembourgeoise) 108, 109 Gray, Richard 82 Guebuza, Armando 25 Guinea-Bissau 17, 18, 281 Gundana, Feliciano 133, 139

Hall, Margaret 274 Hanlon, Joseph 37–8, 160 healers 1, 7, 55, 88, 226, 240, 242 health care 50, 52–3, 56, 154, 162; and destabilization 54, 142, 155 Heavily Indebted Poor Country

Program (HIPC) 156 hegemony, ideological 224; see also legitimation; legitimation profile; memory practices; mnemonic legitimation Heroes’ Day 269 hierarchy: flattening of 214, 247, 251–2 HIV/AIDs 156 Holocaust, the: as trope 26 Honwana, Luís Bernardo 283 human rights 208, 256 human rights abuses 29, 45, 236, 237, 240, 285; see also atrocities; forced labor/crop cultivation; forced resettlement; government army; militia/militiamen; Operation

Production; Renamo; war Huyssen, Andreas 26 Hyden, Goran 69

IAM see Cotton Institute ideological hegemony 224; see also legitimation; legitimation profile; memory practices; mnemonic legitimation idleness 213–14 IFIs see international financial institutions illegal imports 157 IMF see International Monetary Fund independence: (1974) 49–50; twentieth anniversary of 268–9 indígenas (“natives”) 94 indirect rule: colonial 12; see also chiefs/régulos; chieftaincy;

“detribalization”; Renamo; rural administration, “retraditionalization” of industrial production 138, 153 infant mortality 53, 153, 156 inflation 153 initiation rites 112, 131, 134, 163, 201–2, 216, 235 Intalia, Chief 129–30, 196, 198, 212 Intalia, regedoria of 204–5 inter-generational relations 112–14, 127–8, 247–8, 249–50, 251, 252–6, 261 international aid/assistance 4, 42, 118, 138, 144, 145, 153, 154, 159, 163; convoys carrying 5, 155 international financial institutions (IFIs) 159; see also International Monetary

Fund (IMF); multilateral lenders;

World Bank Index 383

384 Index

International Monetary Fund (IMF) 19, 61, 78, 156,179 IRN see national reconstruction tax; tax collection Islam 56–7, 91, 110, 226; see also

Muslims Ivala, Adelino 131 ivory: and post-independence trafficking in 59, 78; and precolonial trade 90, 91; and Renamo 59 Ivory Coast 13

JEAC see Colonial Cotton Export Board Jelin, Elizabeth 27 JFS see João Ferreira dos Santos João Ferreira dos Santos (JFS) 1, 120, 136, 186, 209, 210, 211, 217 Judges (community courts) 197–202 judicial authority, local conflicts over 197–201 judiciary 157 juridical system, colonial 12

Kaunda, Kenneth 13 Kenya 13, 59 kinship ties see blood ties; surrogates Koch, Eddie 264–5 “kulak” class 71, 72

labor migration, transnational 81, 103, 104; see also South Africa LaCapra, Dominick 27, 31 La Cause des Armes 41; see also Geffray,

Christian Lalaua District 7, 205; precolonial area of 131 land claims 119 land law (1997) 158, 161 land rights 158 Lapone clan 106, 204 law enforcement 50, 158, 168, 169–70; see also police lawlessness 170, 213, 214, 215; see also crime; law enforcement; police Legality Offensive 177 legitimacy chiefly succession/chiefs 74, 147, 148, 161, 200, 205–6, 251; chieftaincy 46, 113, 225; Frelimo party/state 78, 85, 148, 171, 193, 216, 222, 257, 262, 268, 270, 283, 284, 285; local leadership 175, 234, 239–40; Renamo (in official discourses) 192, 285; see also Frelimo;

legitimation; legitimation profile; memory practices; mnemonic; official discourses legitimation practices chiefs 225; crisis of (Frelimo state/party) 222, 257; cultural nativists 273; Frelimo party/state 23, 219, 223, 239, 287; see also amnesia; “anti-memory” work;

Frelimo; legitimation profile; memory practices; mnemonic legitimation; politics of acknowledgment legitimation profile 28, 221, 224, 286 leveling thesis 214, 247, 251–2; see also

Frelimo: anti-hierarchical orientation of liberated zones see armed struggle/liberated zones Liberia 78 Licença, Joaquim 185 life expectancy 156 lineage chiefs 92, 111, 112, 113, 125, 126, 127, 134, 135, 253;and official discourses 235–7; see also sub-chiefs lineage notables: 75, 112, 127, 128, 135, 254 lineages 91–3, 95, 106–7, 184, 236, 247; in official discourses 228; revisionist critique 234, 282 lineage social relations 91–3, 110–14, 125–8, 253; and revisionist critique 274–5, 278 living costs 101, 164–5, 216, 268 living standards 10, 19, 34, 50, 55, 65, 153, 156 “local communities” 158 local elections 36, 155–6, 158, 160 local government 35–6; see also decentralization; Municipalities Law localities 150 “local organs” 165, 166–8, 226 “local peace zones” 2 Lonsdale, John 32, 278 Lourenço Marques 66, 275 Luanda 18 Luxemburg 108

Mabonhane, Ernesto 132–3 Machel, Samora 16, 18, 71, 73, 134, 141, 144, 151, 177, 245–6, 286; legacy/memory of 24, 269; in oral testimony 250 Macherika 107 MAE see Ministry of State

Administration

magistrates (lay), community courts 197–201 Makonde speakers 16, 81, 93 Makua: and Baptista Lundin 221, 238–9, 242–3; chiefs 90, 92, 173; -Lomwé speakers 80–1, 91, 265; -Lomwé-speaking areas 238; and

Makonde 81; -speaking areas 224, 260 Malawi 54, 59, 141–2, 149–50; see also

Nyasaland Malema District 189; precolonial 93 male youth 40, 57, 111–14, 127–8, 253–5, 256, 258; and oral testimony 247–8, 249, 250, 251; see also intergenerational relations; youth malnutrition 100, 105, 121, 211 Manica Province 2, 19, 142 Manicom, Linzi 47 Manning, Carrie 29 maps: Eráti District xxiii; Mozambique xxi; Namapa District xxiii; Nampula

Province xxii Máquina, Carlos (Taibo) 204, 218 Maravi 107 Maravi conquest 90 “marginality” 169–70, 232, 250, 256 market liberalization see structural adjustment marriages 111–13, 250, 252–3; epotha 92–3 Marxism/Marxism–Leninism/socialism 3, 9, 13–15, 18–19, 257, 270, 286; and official discourses 28, 77, 252, 276; revisionist critique of 37, 275–8; and scholarly debate 20–1, 37–8; in state-sponsored retrospectives 230, 242 Mateus, Mario 202–3 matrimonial areas (mitthetthe) 111, 113, 125–6, 238–9 Mbembe, Achille 88, 246 Mbwiliza, J.F. 91 Mecubúri District7, 8, 240 Mecubúri District report 240–1, 244 media 156; see also press, the Mejua, Cabo 205, 215 Meliva, regedoria of 131 Memba District 146, 163, 203; precolonial 106 memory: boom in 26; “entrepreneurs” 222; epochal changes to 25; formative 256; and history 27, 28; marketing of 26; path-dependence of 27–8, 257, 285–6; “primary” 24, 222; screen 23,

224, 258;“sites” 25; and the stateidea 48; temporality 84–5, 171, 191–2, 287; transmission (intergenerational) of 24; “vicarious” 24, 222; see also amnesia; “anti-memory” work; memory practices; mnemonic legitimation; “myth of revolutionary rupture”; official discourses; presentism; “taxidermism” memory practices 29; official 9, 11, 23–4, 26, 27, 28, 39, 43, 47, 63, 88, 125, 171, 191–2, 219, 220, 222–3, 243, 257–8, 273, 283, 285–6, 287, 288; popular 28, 43, 223, 255, 256, 257–8; see also amnesia; “antimemory” work; memory; mnemonic legitimation; “myth of revolutionary rupture”; official discourses; politics of acknowledgment men, young see male youth; youth Mepera, Chief 195, 196–7 mestiços 49, 62, 66; revisionist critique 274, 275 Meto communities 107 migratory flows 250, 253–5; see also outmigration militia/militiamen 143, 170; Casa

Salvador 170; of chief 209; Cotton

Development Society of Namialo (SODAN) 209; “popular” (liberation war) 15; Renamo 158–9; statesponsored 45, 123–4, 126, 154; in state-sponsored retrospectives 231, 237–9; see also Naparamas Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) 136 Ministry of State Administration (MAE) 43, 171, 179, 222, 225, 226, 271;

“Democratic Development in

Mozambique” project 271; representatives of 179, 181–2, 194, 206, 219, 220–1, 225, 226, 227, 232, 238–9, 251, 257, 271;

Traditional Authority/Power (TA/P) project 171, 179–80, 219, 221, 224–5, 226, 233; see also Baptista

Lundin, Irae; Municipalities Law;

Provincial Directorate of Assistance and Control (DPAC), Nampula Minter, William 19, 30, 39–40, 143, 144, 146 Mirrote 107, 147, 208, 209 missionaries (Catholic) 56, 58, 201, 209 mitthetthe (common matrimonial areas) 111, 113, 238 Index 385

386 Index

mnemonic legitimation 19, 125, 287; see also amnesia; “anti-memory” work; legitimation; memory practices MNR see Mozambique National

Resistance MOA see Ministry of Agriculture modes of production: “domestic” 278, 279; “feudal” 260; theory of 279 Mogincual 137 Mogovolas 109, 137, 226 Moi, Daniel Arap 60 Moma 8, 113, 133, 137, 241 Momola 207 Monapo District 163 Monapo report 231, 233, 234, 235–6 Mondlane, Eduardo 15, 21, 74 Monteiro, Oscar 176 MOZAL 156 Mozambique: map of xxi Mozambique Armed Forces (FAM) see government army Mozambique Cotton Company (CAM) 103, 104, 105, 108–9, 120, 135, 147 Mozambique Island 90, 275 Mozambique National Resistance (MNR) 2, 19; see also Renamo Mozambique National Union (UNAMO) 186–7, 188–9, 212, 213, 250–1 mpéwé (paramount chiefs) 116; see also chiefs MPLA see Popular Movement for the

Liberation of Angola Muanona Center 129 Muanona Locality 107,129, 130, 198, 200, 205, 210, 215 Muatuca lineage 106, 107 Mucarara, Chief 206 Mugabe, Robert 60 Muhula, Chief 148, 184, 195–6, 207, 213 Muhula, regedoria of 207 Muipita, Chief 185 Mulima clan 107, 172 multilateral lenders 78; see also international financial institutions (IFIs); International Monetary Fund (IMF); World Bank multiparty constitution (1990) see constitution, multiparty (1990) multipartyism, transition to 26, 42, 80, 152, 179–92, 259, 269, 284 Mungói 272, 273 Municipalities Law 35–6, 160, 225; see

also Ministry of State Administration (MAE) Murrupula District 191 Murrupula report 240 Muslims 56–7, 88; see also Islam Mussa, Bernard 130, 190, 191, 217, 218 Mutaquiha, Januario 221–2, 225, 227, 232–3, 242, 256 “myth of revolutionary rupture” 23–4, 27, 29, 35, 39, 44, 47, 191, 222, 223–4, 257–8, 259, 283, 288

Nacala City 54, 145, 162, 188 Nacala corridor 142 Nacarôa, town of 110 Nacarôa District xiv, 93, 107, 130, 172, 196, 215; precolonial 107; see also

Eráti District Nacarôa report 172–6, 179, 180, 224, 227, 229 Namapa: agricultural campaigns 145–6; balance of power between secretaries and chiefs in 195–7; blood ties 190–1; and budget crisis 166–7; and

Catholic Church 201–2, 208; and cotton 145, 207–12, 216–17; differentiation of local authority 183–6; 186–7, 189–91; and dual administration 163; in early 1990s 161–70; elections (1994; 1999) 83; electoral campaign/preparations (1994) in 185–6, 189; as a field study site 81–3; initiation rites 162–3, 201–2; local assemblies 166–7; local judicial system 197–201;memory discourses 222, 243, 246–52, 257; official discourses 169; politicization of chieftaincy 188–9, 212; succession and territorial disputes 202–5, 206–7; tax collection 168–9; terminology xiv; war in (Eráti/Namapa) 39–40, 82, 123, 134–5, 161–2; see also Alua parish;

“Bahia”; “chiefs of production”;

Cotton Development Society of

Namialo (SODAN); crime; Eráti

District; Namapa parish; Naparamas; rural trade; State Cotton Farm of

Nampula (EEAN); structural adjustment; surrogates Namapa Center 110, 132, 147, 162, 198, 208; see also Taibo, regedoria of Namapa parish 209

Nametaramo, Chief 190, 202 Nametemula, Chief 213 Namialo 162 Namiquela, Chief 165, 218 Namiquela, regedoria of 202 Namirôa, town of 107 Namirôa Administrative Post 6, 129, 132, 184, 204–5, 208, 210, 217 Nampula City 8, 187, 199, 212, 225, 263, 270; green zones of 145; and war 142 Nampula City Executive Council 167–8 Nampula District 187 Nampula Province 1, 6, 7, 9, 32, 35, 40; agricultural campaigns (postindependence) 145–6; agricultural cooperatives 122–3; block farming 136–8; budget crisis 165–6; Catholic

Church 208; chiefs as capatazes 146; chiefs/chieftaincy 39, 46, 188, 285;

“chiefs of production” 83–4, 117–18, 146; colonial conquest/occupation 93; colonial cotton regime 104–6; colonial period 79–80, 80–1, 101–2, 103–6; communal villages/ villagization 55, 123–5, 137, 138, 139–40, 141–3; dual administration 163; Dzimba, Gaspar 141–3, 144–5, 150; easing of official stance on things traditional 134, 151; elections (multiparty) 61, 81; “family sector” cotton production (postindependence) 120–1, 148–50; as a fieldwork site 79–83; fiscal reform 167–8; GDs/party cells in 178; and government counter-insurgency campaign 146–7; governors of 43, 133, 137, 139, 141, 143, 146, 167, 179, 194, 233, 263; and law enforcement 170; local official discourses 11, 27, 38–9, 42–6, 77, 84–5, 85–6, 119, 124, 139–40, 169, 171, 172–6, 179, 180–4, 189, 191, 192, 205–6, 219–24, 226–32, 233–4, 234–8, 239–42, 243–4, 257, 260–3, 264, 284–5, 286; and official corruption 170; precolonial 90–3; and pre-election instability 170; Renamo 39, 55, 81, 123, 124, 133, 142, 146–7, 148, 172, 173, 187, 285;

“retraditionalization” of rural administration 84–5, 152, 171, 180–3, 185, 186–8, 189, 190–2, 193–4, 205–6, 212, 214-15, 216, 229, 284; revisionist critique 117–19, 125–6, 139, 193–4, 271; and second general elections (1986) 151; strategic importance of 79–81, 83; 148–50; unarmed opposition 186–7; war 133, 142, 155; see also chiefs/régulos, chieftaincy; Eráti District; Makua;

Ministry of State Administration (MAE); Namapa District; police;

Provincial Coordinating Commission for the Socialization of the

Countryside (CCPSC);Provincial

Directorate of Agriculture (DPA),

Nampula; Provincial Directorate of

Assistance and Control (DPAC),

Nampula; provincial government,

Nampula; “retreat to tradition”; secretaries (local); surrogates; villagization não-indígena (“non-natives”) 93 Naparama phenomenon 4–5, 22–3 Naparamas 1–2, 4–5, 6, 8–9, 161–2, 170, 208 national demographics 24 National Elections Commission (CNE) 163, 186, 189 National Front for the Liberation of

Angola (FNLA) 18 nationalizations 50, 51–2 national parliament: politically pluralist 10, 20, 80, 156; single-party 51, 133; see also elections national politics (postwar): character of 157–8 national reconstruction tax (IRN) 167–9; see also tax collection national sovereignty 17; erosion of 155; and official discourses 11, 86, 267, 268, 270 National Union for Total Independence of Angola (Unita) 3, 6, 18, 159 “natives” (indígenas) 94 nativism, cultural 273 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty

Organization) 20–1 neoliberal doctrine/principles/reforms 19, 20, 24, 26, 78, 156, 267 nepotism see blood ties; surrogates Newitt, Malyn 22 New State 56, 95, 96; and Portuguese nationalism 108 “Ngoni” passage 92, 107 NGOs see non-governmental organizations Index 387

388 Index

Niassa 15, 46, 58, 101, 103, 106, 281 Nigeria 13 Nihia, Eduardo 133, 186, 189 Nkomati Accord 4, 58 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 8, 154, 155, 160, 162, 165, 235; see also World Vision, ARO “non-natives” (não-indígena) 93 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 20–1 Notícias 8, 205 Nyambir, Jacob 146, 263 Nyasaland 103; see also Malawi Nyerere, Julius 12, 13

“obscurantism” 12, 22, 63, 75, 77, 130–1, 133, 151, 270, 284, 286, 287 Odinepa Locality 130, 144, 184, 209, 211, 217, 250, 251 official discourses 9, 11, 23, 26–7, 27, 38–9, 119, 124, 139–41, 147, 169, 171, 172–6, 176–7, 178–9, 179–80, 180–2, 182–4, 189, 191, 192, 205–6, 219–24, 226–9, 229–32, 232–3, 233–4, 234–5, 235–8, 238–9, 239–40, 240–2, 242–3, 243–4, 245–6, 256–7, 260, 261–3, 264, 266–71, 283–4, 284–5, 286, 287; see also amnesia; “anti-memory” work; dual economy thesis; Frelimo; legitimation; memory practices; mnemonic legitimation; “myth of revolutionary rupture”; politics of acknowledgment OJM see Organization of Mozambican

Youth O’Laughlin, Bridget 63 Oman 56 O’Meara, Dan 65, 245, 278 OMM see Organization of Mozambican

Women ONUMOZ (United Nations Operation in Mozambique) 1, 152, 155, 159; see also peacekeeping forces; United

Nations Operation Production 57–8, 127–8, 256 Organization of African Unity (OAU) 182 Organization of Mozambican Trade

Unions (OTM) 51 Organization of Mozambican Women (OMM) 51, 201 Organization of Mozambican Youth (OJM) 51 orthography xv OTM see Organization of Mozambican

Trade Unions Ottaway, Marina 68–9 out-migration 114, 127–8, 248, 250, 253–5, 258; see also male youth; youth

Pademo (Mozambique Democratic

Party) 187 PAIGC see African Party for the

Independence of Guinea and Cape

Verde paramasee “vaccine” paramilitary forces see militia/ militiamen paramount chiefs (mpéwé) 116; see also chiefs (régulos) parishes/parish reports see Alua parish;

Namapa parish party/state 176–9, 183–90; see also secretary/chief: distinction peace accord see General Peace Accord (AGP) peacekeeping forces 6; see also

ONUMOZ; United Nations (UN) peace talks 60–1, 152, 157, 180, 182 peasant militias see Naparamas Pedersen, Mögens 113, 116, 125, 128, 138, 144, 199, 239, 253, 254 “people’s shops” 51 people’s tribunals see community courts; popular/people’s tribunals petty bourgeoisie: in Frelimo’s revolutionary discourse 14, 71, 74, 260, 283, 286; in post-1990 official discourses (Nampula) 246; in revisionist critique 274–5, 277–8, 282, 283, 286; see also “populism”; postcolonial state; revisionist critique picadas 100, 105–6, 109, 135, 136–7, 139, 142, 145, 146, 239, 248–9 Pitcher, M. Anne 22, 23 police 7, 8, 154, 157, 158, 168, 169, 170, 213, 214; see also law enforcement political parties 155, 180, 186–8; and revisionist critique 276 politics of acknowledgment 26, 86, 248, 261–4, 270–1, 284–5, 287–8 Popular Movement for the Liberation of

Angola (MPLA) 6, 18, 159 popular/people’s power: institutions of 51, 52, 75, 83, 84, 150, 167, 172–6,

182, 191, 220, 227, 230, 235, 237, 245–6, 257, 260, 262, 283, 284 popular/people’s tribunals 12–13, 51, 174; see also community courts population: density (Eráti District) xxiii; Nampula 80; youthfulness of 24 “populism”: in official discourses 70, 230, 245–6; in popular memory discourses 253–6 ports 3, 34, 49, 54, 180 Portugal: 2, 79; Caetano government 49; and Catholic Church 56; “effective occupation” 93; international criticism of 95, 99, 102; and NATO 20–1; and private support for Renamo 56, 59;

“psycho-social action” programs 110;

“revolution of carnations” 49; slave trade 90–1; textile industry in 96, 100; and United Nations 95; see also counterinsurgency campaigns/strategies; forced labor/crop cultivation; New State;

Salazar, António; settler farms/ agriculture; settlers; smallholders/ smallholder agriculture: colonial cotton regime postcolonial state: bureaucratization of 71; bureaucracy 42, 53, 165, 177, 243, 257; characterizations/ perceptions/representations of 47–8, 68–9, 73–7, 75, 78, 79, 223, 253–6, 258, 273, 286, 287–8; see also budget crisis; “class enemies”; corruption; crime syndicates; decentralization; destabilization; donors; fiscal reform;

ONUMOZ; privatization; revisionist critique; state formation; state/party: distinction; structural adjustment poverty 19, 121, 153, 156 PRE see Economic Rehabilitation

Program; PRE/PRES; structural adjustment PRE/PRES 264, 268; see also Economic

Rehabilitation Program; Economic and Social Rehabilitation Program; structural adjustment PRES (Economic and Social

Rehabilitation Program) 153, 163; see also Economic and Social

Rehabilitation Program; PRE/PRES; structural adjustment presentism 27 presidentialism 158 Presidential Political and

Organizational Offensive 71, 177–9 press, the 156; see also media press-ganging: government army 62, 255; Renamo 58, 255 “primary” memory 24, 222 privatization 78, 154, 156–7, 165, 216–17 provinces xiv, 94 Provincial Coordinating Commission for the Socialization of the Countryside (CCPSC) 133, 139–40, 262–3 Provincial Directorate of Agriculture (DPA), Nampula 89, 122 Provincial Directorate of Assistance and

Control (DPAC), Nampula 166, 168, 169, 172, 180–2, 205–6, 219, 224, 225, 226, 228, 232 Provincial Directorate of Finances (DPF): report (1992) 167–8 provincial government, Nampula: 8, 46, 83–4, 85, 117–19, 123, 132, 139, 146–7, 165–6, 167, 167–8, 170, 171, 224, 225, 233, 251, 252, 262, 264, 284; communiqués/orientations issued or relayed by 135, 182–3, 205–6; see also; politics of acknowledgment Provincial

Coordinating Commission for the

Socialization of the Countryside (CCPSC), Nampula; Provincial

Directorate of Agriculture (DPA),

Nampula; Provincial Directorate of

Assistance and Control (DPAC),

Nampula; Provincial Directorate of

Finances (DPF), Nampula; Nampula

Province public expenditure 60 public works projects 101

railways 3, 142, 180; see also “transport corridors” rape 54, 97 Rathbone, Richard 87 Reagan, Ronald 2 Reagan administration 2–3 Rebelo, Jorge 259 “recolonization” thesis 22, 267 refugees 4, 60, 142, 150, 155 regedorias 94–6; post-independence partitioning of 204, 215 regional differentiation/disparities 19, 46, 59, 81, 103–4, 156, 281; see also

Renamo: and uneven development; revisionist critique régulossee chiefs/régulos Index 389

390 Index

Renamo: 28, 42, 88; and chiefs 33, 34–5, 39, 40, 55, 82, 115–16, 118, 134, 146–7, 148, 172, 173, 188, 196, 200, 203, 212, 215, 217, 247, 285; and communal villages/ villagization 55, 123, 124, 133, 135, 141, 142, 161, 266; counterrevolution 54–61; destabilization 1, 2–4, 29–30, 32–3, 37, 38, 39–40, 49–50, 60, 66, 70, 72, 118, 123, 138, 142, 149–150, 155, 161–2, 193, 200; and dual administration 163, 188; and Dzimba, Gaspar 141–3; electoral campaign (1994) 265–6; Eráti/Namapa District 40, 82, 123, 124, 131–2, 134; forced recruitment 58;forced relocation 39–40, 59; and Frelimo’s counterinsurgency campaign 146–7, 150;

Frelimo’s growing likeness to 10, 62; historiography 37–8, 40, 62, 63; international support for 56, 59; invasion of central Mozambique 141–2; “Manifesto and Program” 54–5; military bases 57, 59, 141, 162; militia 158–9; Namapa District 83, 131–2, 134, 135, 161–2, 203;Nampula Province 55, 81, 123, 124, 133, 142, 146–7, 148, 172, 173, 187, 285; and official discourses 45–6, 84–5, 118–19, 124, 140, 147, 171, 192, 220, 226, 233, 235, 257, 262, 267, 268, 270, 285–6; and partial ceasefire 180; peace accord 9–10, 61; postwar 11, 20, 157, 158–9, 192, 256; and religion 55; and “retreat to tradition” 83–4; in revisionist critique 37, 39, 63, 66, 82, 116, 117, 193–4, 275, 276, 285; strategy of popular mobilization 33, 117, 135, 146, 148, 284, 285; transformation into political party 1, 20, 60–1, 155; and uneven development 57; zones of control 33, 55, 57, 59, 61, 88, 131–2, 155, 163, 188, 189, 200; see also atrocities; civil war; destabilization; Dhlakama,

Afonso; elections; Mozambique

National Resistance (MNR);

Naparamas; press-ganging;

Renamo-Electoral Union (UE); rural dissent; secretaries (local); South

Africa Renamo-Electoral Union (União

Electoral, UE) 61, 81 Renan, Ernest 32 “retreat to tradition” 33, 77, 83, 84, 116, 117, 272, 286 revisionist critique 37–8, 62–3, 66–8, 86–7, 115–16, 274–82, 286; and chiefs/chieftaincy 40, 68, 82, 115–16, 117, 193–4; and class 274–9, 282, 283, 286; and communal villages/villagization 82, 117, 118–19, 124–5, 139, 234; on “Creole elites” 275–8, 282; and ethnicity 274–5, 276–8, 282; Frelimo’s socialism 37, 275, 276; historiography 16–17, 21–2, 39–40, 62–3, 124–5, 234; liberation war/liberated zones 16–17, 21, 67, 276, 279, 281, 286; lineage social relations 274–5, 278; and official discourses 64, 68, 82, 84, 117, 119, 124–5, 139, 147;political parties 276; in post-1990 official discourses 77, 85, 221, 222, 259, 285; and

Renamo 37, 39, 63, 66, 82, 116, 117, 119, 193–4, 275, 276, 285; and the

“rootlessness route” 274–83; and secretaries 68, 234; and “southerners” 66–7, 274–8, 285; see also Baptista

Lundin, Irae; Brito, Luís de; Cahen,

Michel; culturalist critique; Geffray,

Christian revolutionary rupture: myth see “myth of revolutionary rupture” Rhodesia 2, 49 Ribáuè District 8, 133, 142, 189, 233, 241 rice 96 rioting 7, 8, 170 Ripua, Wehia 187 roads, conditions of 121, 165; see also picadas Roesch, Otto 116 rumors: panic-sowing 255–6 rural administration,

“retraditionalization” of 84–5, 152, 171, 180–3, 185, 186–8, 189, 190–2, 193–4, 205–6, 212, 214–15, 216, 229, 284 rural “anarchy” 243–56 rural collectivization 51, 261–4; see also communal villages; cooperative farming; cooperative sector; state farms/state farm sector; villagization

rural differentiation 69–70, 76 rural dissent 20, 35, 41, 45, 58, 77, 79, 83, 86, 138, 142, 220, 234, 261; see also chiefs/régulos: war/Renamo/rural dissidence; “class enemies”; dissent rural emigration see out-migration rural governance 35–6 rural leadership 235–9 rural markets 145, 163–5 rural obscurantism see “obscurantism” rural trade (post-independence) 128; collapse/instability of 49–50, 66, 128, 119, 120, 121; strictures on 143, 145; and structural adjustment 163–5; terms of 53, 121, 164, 165, 216 Rwanda 159

SADCC (Southern African Development and Coordination Conference) 4 SADF see South African Defence Force Saíde, Chief 212, 213 Salazar, António 95, 96 sanctions: against Rhodesia 49 Saudi Arabia 56 Saul, John 62, 69, 116, 178, 283 Savana 272 schools 53, 60, 142, 155, 161, 162; and student enrollment 53,156 secretaries (local) 32, 40; and centralized decision-making 178; as chiefly surrogates 129–32, 249–50; and chiefs 183–5, 195–7, 201, 213, 214, 220, 228; and “class enemy” 260; and community court judges 199–200; and differentiation of local power 182–5, 190–2; epotha as 131, 172; as fall-guy 229–34; as interlopers 172–6; in official discourses 45, 85–6, 117, 174, 175, 229, 231, 232, 233, 235–7, 239, 240, 242, 244, 252, 257, 260, 285; and “populism” 246; profile of 85–6, 220; Renamo attacks on 54, 193; in Renamo-held territory 131–2; in revisionist critique 68, 234; and state-sponsored retrospectives 229, 231, 232, 233, 235–6, 239, 244; and tribute 216; and villagization 172; see also dynamizing groups (GDs); leveling thesis secretary/chief: distinction 183–5; see also state/party: distinction Senghor, Leopold 13 Serra, Carlos 256 settler farms/agriculture 50, 64, 80, 95, 102, 103, 105, 110, 119, 149; and cotton production 102–3, 105 settler flight 14, 49–50, 119, 127, 149 settlers 53, 105, 110; preconquest 90; support for Renamo 59; see also decolonization; settler farms/agriculture; settler flight sexual promiscuity 250 Shangaans 276 shortages: of food 98, 100, 105, 109, 127, 138; of goods 33–4, 52, 115, 121, 128, 138, 163–4, 278; of labor 52, 65, 99, 101, 120, 143 Sierra Leone 78 sisal industry 101, 103 Sivan, Emmanuel 25 slaves 90–3, 106; see alsoepotha: (precolonial “slaves” and their descendants) slave trade 90–1, 107 smallholders/smallholder agriculture 5, 11, 34, 45, 49–50, 52, 53, 57, 65, 75–6, 80, 82–3, 87, 88, 96–7, 116, 119, 120–1, 124, 125, 126–7, 128, 135–8, 142–3, 144–6, 153, 158, 163–5, 207, 208, 210–12, 216–17; colonial cotton regime 96–8, 100–1, 104, 105–6; colonial

Eráti 108, 109–10, 110–14; culturalist critique 36; dual economy thesis 65, 284; Frelimo’s class analysis 72; official discourses 39, 139, 238, 281, 284; see also communal villages; cooperative farming; cooperative sector; cotton production; dual economy thesis;

“family sector” farming; forced labor/crop cultivation; forced resettlement; lineage social relations; rural dissent; villagization smuggling 19–20, 157; and Renamo 59; see also trafficking social/economic indicators 19, 153, 156 socialism 13–15, 18–19; and scholarly debate 20–1, 37–8; see also “African socialism”; Frelimo; Marxism/

Marxism–Leninism/socialism; revisionist critique socio-economic inequalities 19, 156; see also class formation; lineage social relations; poverty; rural differentiation; social/economic indicators Index 391

392 Index

SODAN see Cotton Development

Society of Namialo Sofala Province 2, 19,142 Somalia 159 sorcery/sorcerers 55, 88, 173, 199, 244 South Africa: 2–4, 5, 6, 10, 18, 20, 29–30, 32, 36, 55, 59, 58, 66, 72, 78, 103, 138, 142, 264, 275; see also apartheid; destabilization South African Communist Party 3 South African Defence Force (SADF) 2, 4, 10, 18, 30, 59 South African Truth and Reconciliation

Commission (TRC) 10 Southern African Development and

Coordination Conference (SADCC) 4 “southerners” see revisionist critique Soviet Union: and Angola 18; assistance from 3, 18, 21, 29; collapse of 159 spirit mediums 55, 272 STAE see Technical Secretariat for

Elections Administration starvation 54, 58; see also famines/famine conditions state, the: ideas of47–8, 87, 288; see also postcolonial state state budget 60 State Cotton Farm of Nampula (EEAN) 120, 165, 209, 217 state divestiture see privatization state farms/state farm sector 50, 51, 52–3, 65, 69, 165; see also State

Cotton Farm of Nampula (EEAN) state formation 69, 83, 111, 286; and state building 34; see also lineage social relations; state-sponsored retrospectives; surrogates state-idea see state, the; idea of state institutions, destruction of 78 state/party: distinction 176–9, 183–9; see also secretary/chief: distinction state-sponsored retrospectives 9, 43, 44, 84, 86, 219–44, 260, 285 “strategies of extraversion” 78, 158 strikes 6–7, 153, 166 structural adjustment 34, 61, 116, 152–4, 156, 163–5, 167, 216, 264, 268, 270, 282–3; and official discourses 268, 270; see also budget crisis; fiscal reform sub-chiefs 87, 173; see also lineage chiefs; traditional authorities subsidies, removal of 153, 216 succession disputes 202–5, 206 surrogates 129–32, 173, 249–50; see also blood ties

Taibo, Chief 147, 184, 203–4, 215, 247 Taibo, regedoria of 202, 204 Tanganyika 104; border with

Mozambique 104, 108; see also

Tanzania Tanzania 12, 15, 21, 49; troops from 142; see also Tanganyika TA/P project see Traditional

Authority/Power (TA/P) project tax collection 167–9, 183, 212, 215, 244; and cotton markets 98, 215; and

DPAC’s proposals 181; and official discourses 169, 233 “taxidermism” 27 Technical Secretariat for Elections

Administration (STAE) 163, 185–6, 189 territorial disputes 202–5 Tete Province 80, 81, 142, 155, 267, 271 Thatcher, Margaret 2 “total strategy” 2, 3 trade see rural trade traders and war/structural adjustment 163–5 traditional: use of term xiv traditional authorities 34, 128, 129, 165, 168, 180–2, 183, 194, 195, 196, 198, 205, 215, 216, 217, 248, 251; as “chiefs of production” 82, 135; and colonial cotton regime 97, 104; colonial period 95, 96, 97, 104, 110; and culturalist accounts 36; and decentralization 41; and government decree (2000) 160; historiography34, 40; and MAE’s “Democratic

Development” Project; and

Municipalities Law 35, 160; and official discourses 84, 172–3, 189, 220, 221, 227, 240–2, 244, 266; recent activities of 160–1; Renamo 55, 117, 146–7, 196; revisionist critique 39; secretaries 195; see also

“chiefs of production”; chiefs/régulos; chieftaincy; lineage chiefs; obscurantism”; sub-chiefs traditional authority/power 67, 128, 183, 195, 261, 284; historiography 79; forced cotton cultivation 209; and local government reform 226; and official discourses 172–6, 180–1, 224,

225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 235, 237, 240, 242, 243, 261–2, 266, 271; overlap/relations of accommodation with official authority 115, 131, 134, 190, 196, 243; realignment with official authority 194, 195, 205; and secretaries 195;

“valorizing” 181; see also “chiefs of production”; chiefs/régulos; chieftaincy; lineage chiefs; Ministry of

State Administration (MAE):

Traditional Authority/Power project;

“obscurantism”; sub-chiefs Traditional Authority/Power (TA/P) project 43, 86, 171, 179, 221, 224–5; see also Ministry of State

Administration (MAE) “traditional-feudal society” 70, 73–4, 75, 272–3, 283–4; and “class enemy” 286 trafficking 78, 157; see also slave trade; smuggling transitional government 49, 50, 130, 253 transport: and cotton sector 119; and electoral preparation (1994) 185–6; and local justice system 200; and rural trade 164, 165; system 3; see also

“transport corridors” “transport corridors” 54; see also Nacala corridor TRC see South African Truth and

Reconciliation Commission tribute 85, 199, 201–2, 216, 284 Tubruto, Chief 130, 213, 248–9, 254, 261 Tubruto, José 190, 191 Tubruto, regedoria of 204–5

Uantera, Chief 129 UD see Democratic Union UN see United Nations UNAMO see Mozambique National

Union “unarmed opposition” 187–8; see also political parties underground economy 20, 157; see also crime syndicates; smuggling; trafficking Unita see National Union for the Total

Independence of Angola United 95; peacekeeping operation (ONUMOZ: United Nations

Operation in Mozambique) 1, 6, 152, 155, 159; population estimates 83; sanctions against Rhodesia 49; trust funds: 155, 187–8; United Nations

Development Fund (UNDP) 156 United States Agency for International

Development (USAID) 41 United States of America (USA) 2–3, 18, 25, 59; State Department 59; see also United States Agency for

International Development (USAID) urban areas 50, 57–8, 153; see also

Operation Production urban growth 101 urban residents 153 USA see United States of America USAID see United States Agency for

International Development

“vaccine” (parama) 1, 5, 7, 8; see also

Naparama phenomenon; Naparamas “vagrants” (vadios) 99, 101 Vaquina, Chief 202, 203, 204, 206, 207, 208, 215 “vicarious” memory 24, 222 Vida Nova 212 Vietnam 2 vigilantism 154 village project see villagization villagization 121,128, 135, 143; and chiefs 133, 135, 172, 221; and dual economy thesis 118; 144;and economic decline 137; Faria Lobo 137–8, 139; forced 56, 123–4, 126, 132, 138, 263; and historiography 124–5;official discourses 45, 139–41, 145, 221, 234, 235–9, 238, 241, 263, 264, 284, 285; Renamo 55, 56, 124, 142; revisionist critique 82, 117, 118–19, 124–5, 139, 234; see also militia/militiamen; state-sponsored retrospectives; war

war (post-independence) 2, 54–61, 142, 149–50, 154–5, 161–2; see also civil war; destabilization; South Africa warlordism 78 water (Namapa) 162 Werbner, Richard 219 West Africa 2, 281 Western donors see donors, aid West Germany 59 Wilson, Richard 9 Winter, Jay 25 women 92–3, 104, 108, 121, 158, 247, 250; rights of 16, 158; and sexual

Index 393

394 Index

women continued violence 59, 97; see also epotha; lineage social relations; marriages;

Organization of Mozambican Women (OMM); rape; slaves women’s organization 51 World Bank 35, 153, 156, 157 World Vision 8, 162 World War I 108, 207 World War II 99, 108 Wuyts, Marc 121, 283

Xai Xai: ceremony at 272–3

Young, Crawford 19 Young, Tom 274 young men see male youth; youth youth 40, 57, 111–14, 127–8, 161, 214, 253–5, 256, 258; and oral testimony 247–8, 249, 250, 251, 261; revisionist critique 68; and statesponsored retrospectives 231, 235; see also inter-generational relations; male youth; Organization of Mozambican Youth (OJM)

Zaire 78 Zambézia Province 1–2, 5, 6, 61, 80, 81, 133, 137, 142, 149–50, 155; see also “family sector” farming Zambézia river/valley 90 Zambia 54; support from 21 ZANU see Zimbabwe African National

Union Zimbabwe 19, 54, 142, 180; independence of 2, 3–4; troops from 142 Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) 49 Zinco 7, 8, 131