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FUND CION JUAUf!O TURRIANO BIBLIOTECA
A SHORT
HISTORY OF LIGHTING FROM THE
EARLIEST TIMES.
By EDWIN LA WRENCE.
BURNLEY;
Burghope & Strange, Pubfüher,, &e,
f( JO~~ r
<; .'t f>rµ\ { ?bO
A SHORT HISTORY OF LIGHTING FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES. By EDWIN LAWRENCE.
How many ages man líved on the earth before he díscovered fire it is useless to attempt to ascertain.
His first fire must
ha,ve been made of sticks and bis first light a brand taken from the fire.
He would soon discover that certain sticks kept
burning while certaín other woods that made capital fuel were unsuitable for carrying a light. man uses a solíd torcl.i.
Wherever the pine tree grows
This the Romans called "T!Bdfl." and
the Greeks "Das" (81?-,), and in modern Greece the name is "Dadia" {81?-Sta.) .
We are told that the ancienli Greeks
specially prepared the trees tpinus marítima) by making larga incisions near the root, twelve montbs before they cut out that portian of the tree which bad by this means become full of turpentine.-This plan of forming excellent torches is still practised in Modern Greece, in Norway, in America, and in fact wherever pine trees rich in turpentine :flourish.
Where, however,
as in Italy, pine trees were not very common, man discovered that a " bundle" of small twigs of almost any sort of wood keeps · alight.
The Romans called such a torch "Fax" (a bundle),
the Greeks "Phanos" (cpav6,), and Oak, Ilex, Hazel, Hornbeam, and Vine are mentioned as specially suitable.
(Athenoous
xv., 57, 61.-Pliny H.N., xvi., 18, xviii. 26.-Aristophanes Lys: 308). broom.
Pliny likewise (H.N. xix., 2) mentions Spanísh
Torches of this description were in such general use
that early evening was called ":first torch •· (prima fax).
These
¡,
4
torches in later times were usually :filled ínside wíth :fibrous substances ímpregnated with pitch, tallow, oil, wax, &c., and a Discus or metal plate with a hole in it was used to protect the hand from the scalding drops.
The Romans likewíse used
bundles of rushes, papyrus, &c., twisted like a rope and smeared with wax, &c., and this was called a" Funalis." The Greeks called it "Skolax" (a-KoA.át), and we call ít a "link."
This was
ordinarily used by the Romans for lighting their banqueting halls, and Cícero says tbat C. Duílius with many a link and fl.ute player delighted himself " delectabatur crebro funali et tibicine." Tbis forro of torch was also called "Cereas," a wax light, and tbe holder or candlestick was called "funale.''
What the Greeks
and Romans called a "Lampas" was the (brass) case for such a torch something like the case of a Palmer's candle or carriage lamp, which was principally, if not exclusively, used in the '' Lampas " races. The Candle "Candela," which was either of wax (cerea), or tallow (sebacea), hada rush wick, and was generally made very thin, like what we now call a tapar.
Juvenal speaks of the
short light of a candle "breve lumen candelre," and Livy (xl., 29), calls a waxed stríng used for tying a bundle " candela" (fasces candelis ínvoluti).
Similar thin rush lights were common in this
country less than a century ago, and the pincers which served as candlesticks are still to be found in old houses in Scotland and elsewhere.
Gilbert White, in his "History of Selborne," letter
xxvi., Nov. 1st, 1775, tells us that a pound of peeled rushes about 1,600 in number, could be bought from the gipsies for a shilling, and he says these may be dipped in six pounds of grease. obtained by saving the skimming of the bacon boilings for ayear.
He adds that a rush will burn about half-an-hour,
and so calculates that a pound of rushes dipped in six pounds oĂ bacon fat would give light for about 800 hours.
Gilbert White
expatiates en the great advantage it would be if the poorer classes only knew of this ; but now-a-days we should not think much of such a miserably poor light.
It is, however, almost
certain that 100 years ago nine people out of ten rarely, if ever, used any artificial light in their homes excepting the fire. The City of London was first lit in 1735, but outside the gates the streets were unlit, and people carried torches, and seventy years ago all the better houses had iron extinguishers fixed at the entrance to put out torches. remain.
A few of these still
In Scotland, up to the beginning of this century, much
use was made of the half-fossilised pine from the peat bogs, which was split into "cannles" and dried for six mont.hs in the chimney comer, and t?en burnt for light in a V shaped "clivvie" at the enc1 of a rod, which allowed the splinter to be set more or less obliquely.-Bundles of rushes smeared with wax are still used by tin-smiths for soldering with the blowpipe. Candelabrum, originally a candlestick, carne afterwarcls to signifiy a lamp stand. The Lamp. holder).
(Lampas, as before mentioned, means a torch-
The Latins called a Lamp "Lucerna," and the Greeks
"Lychnos" (.\.vxvo,).
A Lamp has been described as an
. apparatus for burning fluid combustible substances.
Fluid
combustible substances were, however, only practically known in hot climates.
In colder countries a shell or hollow stone was
filled with tallow, and¡ a piece of moss or similar substance thrust into it.
Our own prehistoric ancestors made circular hollows in
stone for this purpose, and to-day the Esquimaux cut a square
hole in soap stone.
In tropical countries the lamp
WftS
probably
a cocoa-nut shell filled with oil and with a floating wick.
Up to
within 50 years ago, the Scotch used the large whelk shell, " the roaring buckie," as a lamp.
The Lamps of the Greeks and
Romans were almost invariably small circular covered vessels with a hole in the top through which they were filled ; tbis served also to supply air.
These hada handle on one side and
one or more nozzles at the other side, the two nozzle lamp being called " dimyxos," the tbree nozzle one " trimyxos," &c. Berodotus, writing about 450 B.O., refers to a" Feast of Lamps," which he saw at Sais in Egypt, and ceremonial lamps are mentioned in "Exodus," but lamps only carne into general use in Greece about 400 B.O,
A little before that time, however,
Oallimachus designed the splendid golrl lamp of the Erectheum, which was furnished with a chimney shaped like a bronze palm tree to carry off the fumes. to have been filled only once a year.
This lamp was said If this be true, it
must have been fed with a mineral oil, and Strabo, (Geog.
xvi., 15), speaks of salid asphalt and liquid asphalt as abounding in Babylonia, and says the liquid "Hygra" called
O
(irypá.) was
naphtha," (vá.cp0a, a Persian word,) and was burnt
instead of oil in their lamps ('e¡; dvi ÉAaÍOv TOV<; >..vxvovc; KaÍOvcn). The ordinary wick in early times was a mullein leaf, and tbis is still in common use in Spain. Later the wick was an untwisted rope-like mass of fibre of flax, tow, &c. Pausanias says that "Oarpasus " makes the best wicks; this is now considered to have been cotton, wbich was certainly known to the Egyptians. Rushes were also used for wicks, and Asbestos is likewise mentioned. Sorne of the ancient bronze lamps still have attached to them the hook with a point, something like a small boathook, with which the wick was regulated, and many of the lamps were
7 .fitted with a shield to protect the light from the wind.
But
the ancients were also acquainted with "lanterns,' ¡ that is, trarrsparent cases to contain lamps, the sides being filled with horn (of which Carthage supplied the best), or with bladder or parchment.
Dark lanterns were also constructed for military
purposes with three sides dark, and the fourth transparent.-We are told that Gideon's men carried lamps in pitchers, and then breaking the pitchers they waved the lights, and so frightened and routed the enemy.
The Romans also used for military pnrposes
metal fire baskets fi.xed on long pales.
It must be remembered, in glancing at the means of lighting known to the ancients, that all alike gave a fĂźckering unsteady light, with a foul smoke and fetid smell, and that till a little more than a century ago scarcely any improvement had been attempted.
No candle snuffed itself, no lamp gave anything
approaching a clear, steady, smokeless light.
In 1788, however, Leger, of Paris, devised a flat ribbon wick and burner, which produced a broad thin :llame with but little smoke.
This he soon further improved by adopting a curved
forro, and this led to Argand's great invention of the cylindrical hollow wick, patented in 1784, with an iron chimney to create a draught.
In the following year, his partner Quinquet exchanged
thG iron chimney for the glass chimney. resting on a perforated ¡gallery, a little below the burner, and experience gaV& the glass chimney the well-known shoulder a little above the :llame. Then for the first time was produced a clear, steady, smokeless, full light, and other improvements in lamps were rendered possible.
The animal oils then in use had to be kept at almost
the exact level of the burner.
This in the reading lamp was
8 accomplished by a reservoir on the same principle as the drinking fountain for a canary bird, and for the table lamp the oil was contained in a narrow rim of V section, which went round the lamp and on which the lamp glass or the shade rested.
For cold countries, where oil would not readily flow,
Parker invented a lamp in which the oíl, fat or lard, was contained in a vessel through which passed the chimney, which was of metal e:x:cepting about two inches of glass, at tbe level of the flame.
In 1800, Caree! invented his method of
pumps, moved by clockwork at the base of the Lamp, which pumped up a sufficiency of oíl.
These ~amps were very effective
for burning vegetable oils, but were costly and liable to get out of order.
Although they are still in use far lamps of very high
quality, they are almost superseded by Franchot's Moderator Lamp, invented 1836.
In these lamps the oil is forced up by a
large piston pressed by a spring on to the whole body of the oíl, which is prevented from flowing too quickly by a wire in the supply tuba which checks the flow, exactly in proportion to the tension of the spring, hence the term moderator.
These
lamps were exceedingly popular in this country until the great importation of mineral paraffin oíl.
Mineral oils and other
volatile hydro-carbons and alcohola had been long known, but all attempts to satisfactorily burn them had failed until, in 1834, Young brought out his lamp to burn rect:fied turpentine, which he called "camphine."
In this lamp a central metal button,
knówn as the Liverpool button, is added to the Argand burner, while the glass chimney is much contracted at the top and swelled in the middle.
This invention and modi:fications of -it
were at :first of little value, but became of immense importance when cheap pretroleum was (since 1859) importad by millions of gallons, and the poorest cottage was able to rejoice in a light
9 more brilliant than any palace could have boasted of but a few years before.
Another successful lamp for street use was the
naphtba lamp that burns a spray of spirit by means of a red hot iron ring. But to return to tbe candle.
It is believed that in 1809,
Cambaceres, minister to Napoleon I, suggested the twisted wick, wbich bending outside the flame, is consumed, and thus "snuffs itself."
Before this time all candles, excepting rusbligbts,
required to be frequently snuffed, and could, tberefore, only be placed in situation s easily accessible.
After 1810, the best
candles were made witb self-snuffing wicks manufactured under various patents, in sorne of wbich one strand is shorter tban tbe rest, ancl is strained tight wben the canclle is cast; in others, a strand was coated with bismutb (Palmer's met,allic wicks).
This
plan is now obsolete, but tbe metbocl of impregnating tbe wick witb a solution of boracic acid, which in burning forms a ball of glass tbat by its weigbt pulls the wick out of tbe flame, is still sometimes used.
Formerly, bowever, self-snuffing candles were
only the occasional luxury of the ricb, till in 1840, Wilson introduced cheap self-snuffing candles for tbe illumination in bonour of the marriage of Queen Victoria.
Before 1825, when Cbevreul
(wbo only recently died aged upwards of 100 years), succeeded in eliminating tbe non-inflammable glycerine, by means of saponification by alkali, no artificial improvement in natural fats bad been effected.
In 1835, . DeMilly accomplisbed tbe same
result cheaply by using lime, and be establisbed in Paris the famous manufacture of "Bongies de l'ĂŠtoile," whicb were sold at 2 francs a pound.
Since tbat time chemistry has taugbt us
bow to convert any kind of fat into excellent candles, till to-day the Scotch paraffin and the Westminster wax-candles are sold at
10 4½d. a pound, i.e., a half-penny cheaper than the commonest tallow dips which are made (but now only in small quantities) by repeatedly dipping the unplaited wick into melted fat.
All
other candles are cast into moulds, excepting real wax candles, which are still made by pressing the wax softened in warm water round the wick by hand. GAs. coal gas.
At present the most important means of lighting is by
It had been long known that an inflammable vapour
was produced when coal was heated, but it is believed that Lord Dundonald was the :first to convey such vapour in a pipe, when in 1787 he lit with a sort of bonfire blaze Oulross Abbey.
Ten
years later Murdock, the manager, lit up Boulton & Watt's workshops, and also supplied gas to some of his neighbours. This was followed in 1801, by M. Le Bon lighting his own house in Paris with gas from wood.
In 1803, F. A. Winsor, who had
seen Le Bon's experiments succeeded in lighting the Lyceum Theatre, with coal gas, and in 1807 he lighted Pall Mall, and in 1810, he formed the Ohartered Gas Light and Ooke Oompany, which still continues to be the largest gas manufacturer in the world.
At fi.rst the purifi.cation of the gas was but little under-
stood : now the waste products obtained in the process of purifi.cation are nearly equal in value to the gas. means of burning are also being invented.
Superior
In a Lighthouse as
many as 108 jets of gas are concentrated togetber in rings, (in imitation of the 6 Argand wicks, one inside the other, for burning colza oil, and the lamp with 4 concentric wicks and a central brass button, invented by Oaptain Doty, for burning petroleum oĂl in lighthouses). Mention must here be made of the miner's safety lamp. Formerly, many of the best coal mines were unworkable on
¡'
i1 account of the presence of inflammable gas, and tbe rudest methods were adopted to get light sufficient to enable the pitman to work.
Stale fish skins were tried, but the faint
pboshorescent light although safe was almost useless.
The
common plan was the "Steel mill," in which a notched wheel was caused to revolve against a flint by an attendant, while the miner tried to work as best he could.
In 1813, Dr. Clany
constructed an apparatus in which the air from the mine was supplied to the lamp through water by a pair of bellows.
Tbis
was successful, as the lamp was extinguished when the gas was explosiva, but it was too clumsy for general use.
In November,
1815, however, Sir Humphrey Davy, the wise philosopher, and the still wiser
unlearned
mechanic,
George Stephenson,
separately produced the "Davy" and the " Geordy" lamp, the latest modern lamp being more or less a compound of the two. But in the opinion of many the miner's lamp and all other illuminants for every purpose will eventually be superseded by the Electric Light. The ELEOTRIC LIGHT is roughly divided into the two great divisions of the Incandescâ&#x20AC;˘mt Light and the Are Light.
The
germ of the Incandescent light was discovered quite early in the knowledge of Electricity, when it was found that a small wire connecting the ends of larger wires through which a strong current was passing became red hot.
And the Are light was
. discovered in 1810, when Sir H. Davy, experimenting with a very strong battery, happened to place two pieces of charcoal at the connexion of the wires, and was startled by the appearance of the most brilliant light known to man, though the Lime-light, produced by heating a cone of lime in a jet of hydrogen (or even common coal gas) mixed with oxygen, is intensely brilliant, as is also the light produced by burning magnesium wire.
12 No real use of eitber the Incandescent or the Are light was, however, possible till the invention ~f the Electro-Magnet by · Stringer in 1825, followed in 1832, by Faraday's great discovery of Electro-Magnetic induction.
At the same time rods of
charcoal suitable for electric lighting were being prepared. These are now usually made of powdered cake pressea and baked.
In 1847
W. E. Straite
attempted
to
regulate
automatically the distance between the pair of charcoal rods as they were consurned, and this was fairly successfully accomplished by Serrin, in 1857.
And in 1858, the South Foreland Lighthouse
was temporarily illuminated with the Electric Are by means of tbe Magneto-Electric Apparatus of Holmes and Faraday, worked by a steam engine, and with Dubosc's modification of Serrin's i·egulator.
A few years later electric lighting was permanently
established at the South Foreland and Dungeness Lighthouses. Wilcle, in 1866, made an exceedingly powerful magneto-electric, and in 1866-7 Sir C. Wheatstone and Mr. Siemens (afterwards Sir W. Síemens), made the first true dynamo without permanent magnets.
This, in 1870, Gramme greatly improved.
These
machines enabled electricity to be produced in unlimited quantity by the steam engine or other motive power.
Since this time the
march of progress has been rapid and continuous. In 1876, Jablocho:f:I placed the pair of charcoal rods parallel to each other, and between them a non-conducting substance which was consumed with the rods.
With this "Jablocbo:f:I candle,"
the Avenue del' Opéra at Paris, was illuminated in 1877, and the world was awakened to the powers of the new " Child of Science." In 1878 Edison succeeded in dividing the electric current and
thus rendered the Incandescent light suitable for practica! use. Befare this, as early as 1845, Ring had taken out a patent
13 for Incandescent light, and in 1873, Lodighim publicly and successfully shewed his Incandescent lights, which were in principle very similar to those of Edison.
Meanwhile in 1860,
Swan had still more closely approximated to Edison's invention, and after Edison's trials and first failures, Swan carried on bis own improvements side by side with those of Edison, so that now in America, there are 3 or 4 million Edison and Swan incandescent lamps in use, ancla million or two in England, if we include British steamships.
The successful Incandescent Lamp
is a filament of charcoal in a vacuum.
This was at :first
prepared from cotton or strips of bamboo, but. now is made from cellulose (gun cotton dissolved in naphtha), wbich is cut into strips and attached to little platinum wires and then either baked in plumbago dust or (now more generally under Sawyer and Mann's patent) flashed by electricity in hydro-carbon gas. The result of either of these methods is that the cellulose wholly disappears, and a solid thread of very superior charcoal . is producecl which will last for about 1,500 hours of light, and can be made of a size suitable for a tiny lamp not giving more light than a single candle up to tbe size suitable for a lamp equal to 3,000 candles.
Electric power for lighting dwellings is now
being supplied by large companies, an effective meter having been invented to shew the quantity used which is indicated by the deposit of metal caused by the passage of the electric current. MEANS OF OBTAINING LIGHT.
Our early ancestors, like existing savage tribes, obtained light with considerable difficulty.
Certain natives of Australia always
carry the :fire in a ball of grass, and seem )J.ardly able to kindle it afresh.
Other savages obtain light by rubbing two sticks, that
is-either by revolving a bard stick against a soft one by hand,
,.
14 or with the bow string,-or by sawing one half of a ba.rnboo across the other halfbarnboo.
Both these rnethods are tedious and
troublesorne. Obtaining fire by striking two flints, or by striking a flint against a fire stone (iron pyrites) and catching the spark in di¡y moss or wood dust, was a great advance.
And when steel
becarne known, and there was added a slip of wood coated with sulphur which easily took light from the incandescent dust or tincler, nobody for thousands of years seerned to think anything better could be devisad.
It is true that fifty years ago, people
had freqnently to ride long distances to get a light when their tinder happened to be clamp, a very comrnon thing in Scotland and Ireland.
Ali guns also were fired by flint and steel
locks, indeed sorne rnillions of gun flints are still annually rnade A bout three
at Brandon in Snffolk for export to savage tribes.
hundred years ago, the Venetians inventad a sort of umbrella. stand in which a dozen pieces of preparad rope were placed upright in a tray of gun powd.er, fired by a flint gun lock; thus instantaneously supplying each sailor with a rneans of firiug bis cannon.
No chernical rneans of obtaining light appears to have
been attempted till in 1805, Chancel, of Paris, brought out a bottle containing asbestos saturated with sulphnric acid into which a match coated with sulphur tipped with chlorate of potash was dipped, very rapidly otherwise the match was extinguished as it
In the same year 1805, sorne sort of phosphorus match appears to have been tried in ParĂs, and in 1R09, Derepas proposed to mix magnesia with the phosphorus to was drawn from the bottle.
render it less dangerous.
Derosne is also said to have made a
friction match with a phosphorus tip in 1816.
Again in 1823,
another atternpt was made to use phosphorus.
A bottle of
phosphorus and sulphur which had been melted together and
·;
15 very securely corked was supplied, and on inserting a bit of wood and fishing out a small pellet, tbis became almost instantly ignited, but it was tbougbt very lucky if tbis was done many times witbout exploding the whole bottle.
In 1823, also
Dobereiner, brought out bis beautiful lamp, producing hydrogen gas whicb ignited itself by rendering a piece of spongy platinum red hot.
This is still the delight of Chemical Exhibitions, but
never carne into general use.
The year 1827 saw the first really
practi.cal match, when John Walker, of Stockton-on-Tees, brought out bis " Congreves," (named from tbe Oongreve rocket), a stick of wood or card coated with sulphur and tipped with a mixture of snlphate of antimouy and chlorate of potash and gum.
These matches were sold at 84 far a
shilling and ignited by being drawn through a folded piece of glass paper- if tbe head was not pulled off in the operation, which happened with at least half the matches. Prometheans were produced.
In 1830,
These were short rolls of papar
tipped with chlorate of potash and sugar, and having attached to them a small glass globule containing sulphuric acid, and on breaking this with a pincers the acid ignited with the potash. tbe year 1833 saw the appearance of the phosphorus match of
the
present
day, manufactured
m
several countries
almost simultaneously, (specially at Vienna, under Preschel's plan and by Moldenhauer, at Darmstadt).
The ordinary match
composition consists of phosphorus and lead with bichromate ·(or chlorate) of potasb and per-oxide of magnesium, the match being previously dipped in sulphur or petroleum.
In 1845,
Schrotter, of Vienna, discovered the innocuous red phosphorus, and in 1855 Bryant and May's safety match appeared on a plan similar to Lanstrom·s, viz :-a match tipped with chlorate of
'
16
potash, which ignites only on a box coated with red phosphorus. Befare this Vestas had been produced, in which the body of the match is formed of 20 or 30 strands of cotton passed through stearine or paraffin and tĂpped with the ordinary composition. Fusees¡ for smokers, formerly made of thick paper saturated with saltpetre and bichromate of potash tipped with ordinary composition, are now supplanted by Vesuvians with large oval heads of a porous mixture of charcoal, saltpetre and scenbed bark, glass and gum, and the ordinary composition. There is yet another means of obtaining light, viz : by the beautiful static electric torch for lighting gas which produces ;
frictional electricity by pressing a button with a spring.
In conclusion, as an evidence of the importance to man of the modern means of quickly getting a light, it may be mentioned that it is calculated that about 6 to 10 matches a day are used by every European, aud that the total annual make of the World exceeds half-a-billion, that is five hundred thousand million of matches, 500,000,000,000.
'fhese if put end to end
would stretch twenty million of miles, and go eight hundred times round the earth at the equator and form a path seven or eight feet wide.
Burghope & Strange, Publishers, Burnley.
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