In symbiosis - prototypes of carbon capture and urban industry

in symbiosis prototypes of carbon capture and urban industry.

Julie Krogstad

Content

Abstract 4

Introduction 12 A brief introduction to climate change

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Industrialisation and cities

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Global framework 20 Carbon Capture, Storage and Utilisation

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Scalability 30 CCUS and Norway 32 Oslo as a case study

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Mapping 40 Filipstad - production of concrete

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Sørenga - tree nursery

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Grünerløkka - power distribution

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Summary 116

Program 119 Acknowledgements 121 References 122

ABSTRACT

The thesis is based upon a prototype of the larger infrastructures of Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS), which are utilized in order to tackle the rapid escalation of climate change and emissions. The prototypes explore carbon capture as small-scale urban factories, rather than the megastructure which may be expected. Running off the city as a resource (CO2), the manufacturing process (CCUS) materialises emissions into a tangible, informative asset. Thus, the thesis asks if urban production can contribute to the benefit of our climate and urban environment.

Through technology and innovative discoveries, the Industrial Revolution introduced our urban environment to both new opportunities and new environmental challenges. Globally connected industries and manufacturing, large infrastructural networks and cheap energy - all technologies crucial to our cities and economy’s rapid growth - were developed during this period. Similarly, my thesis is based on exploring the synergies between new technology, the urban environment and environmental challenges through global, urban and local scales. The thesis is therefore a hypothetical project about climate change measures and urban industry in symbiosis.

UN countries have agreed to try to stop global warming at 1.5 degrees. They will achieve this by emitting net zero greenhouse gases by 2050. Norway has announced to cut 55 percent of our greenhouse gas emissions by 2030.

Det Norske Veritas (DNV) published a report that displays what measures are needed in order to achieve the goal. The report states that developing countries, aviation, shipping, heavy transport, and some heavy industries will not be able to have zero emissions by 2050, demanding for other sectors to be emission-free earlier. Instead, Europe and North America must become carbon negative by 2042, eight years before the goals of the Paris Agreement.

Meaning that they not only have to cut their emissions to zero, but also capture carbon from the air. However, according to DNV, the technology that exists today is indeed sufficient to be able to achieve the climate goals.

In 2019, Oslo had 1 267 060 tons of carbon dioxide being released into the air. This is roughly the average yearly emission-rate in the Municipality.

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Translating this number into something more tangible, we can compare this to forest efficiency. To capture 1 millions tons of CO2 you would need over 800 square kilometers of forest, an area larger than the whole city of New York. In contrast, a carbon capture facility can capture the same amount on a 0.4 square kilometer footprint. In comparison, Oslo Municipality has about 300 square kilometers of forest, in theory enough to nearly absorb half of Oslos yearly emissions. However, the majority of Oslos trees and forests are dislocated from the urban center and polluting zones. The polluting epicenters in the denser urban area makes up the negative form of Oslos forests. My argument for climatic solutions needing to be locally embedded around its source of emissions are thus based on efficiency and size.

My hypothesis is based on exploring carbon capturing in fragmented, smaller scales - closer to that of trees - which utilizes the city as a resource. The project is therefore conceptualized as a network or series of acupuncture projects, responding locally to the same challenges which similar large scale industries address in non-urban contexts. The thesis aims at exploring these potentials through the development of a prototype which is applied, calculated, and tested through varying case studies and scales in polluted city-zones in Oslo, Norway.

Based on previous mapping exercises in which emissions, topographical conditions, and site categories were researched, the project is narrowed down to sites in particularly high pollution zones in Oslo. There are three site typologies, three corresponding utilisation concepts, and three corresponding urban strategies. For the strategy to be applicable to different cities and geographical conditions, I have chosen to work with a group of generic sites, which I assume can be found in many cities. The three generic sites are; Industrial buildings and areas, today very few in Oslo are not yet developed for housing or retail; unintended urban spaces, commonly found as voids appearing between infrastructure and development; and temporarily vacant buildings, which in Oslo are mostly owned by the Municipality, but not developed nor used at the moment.

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First up is an industrial building and area in Oslo. These are buildingtypologies known for their flexible and large spaces for machinery and production. Filipstad in Oslo is an area under planning. As industry and production today has little to no presence in the city, the industrial areas are one by one being developed for housing.

For industrial buildings, I propose a program adapted to the building's spatial qualities, in which the typology now becomes a concrete casting factory. Storing carbon in cement for concrete has been one of the first ways of commercialising capturing-waste. It allows for concrete to become a zero-emission building-material, through capturing CO2 both from the process of making cement, situating the factory in a polluted area capturing local emissions, and materializing carbon in the casting process. I exemplify how the factory mainly can produce concrete elements for urban use.

These elements are bigger things such as whole facades, basketball courts and structural elements, or smaller objects flexible to be set in dense urban contexts, for people to use and interact with.

The spaces surrounding the new factory will act as temporary storage. Urban elements form a dynamic concrete park after production whilst waiting for their final destination. The park will be in constant change as production changes, as each element later will be moved and become a permanent part of the urban fabric. The park can be experienced by bypassers - and depending on the element in production - interacted and played with.

Post-storage, the concrete elements will be moved to their permanent spot.

Urban furniture, so small they can be placed anywhere in the city and can be interacted with. Due to the carbon capacity of the material, the urban furniture acts as miniature carbon capturing elements scattered all over the city.

Second up, are unintended urban spaces. These are places between infrastructure and development, left over as voids often inaccessible to the public. This particular site is jammed between the historic old town, new waterfront development, and heavy infrastructure projects.

The second storage and utilisation strategy is based on plants and trees as natural carbon storage and carbon utilised in greenhouses. Plants are about 45% pure carbon, stored from absorbing carbon dioxide from the air. For this site, I propose storing and utilising carbon in a greenhouse, aiming to plant trees for the urban environment. On this site, the greenhouse acts as a tree nursery. This is a place where tree-seedlings are planted and grown to a sufficient size in a high-concentration carbon dioxide environment.

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As trees grow out of the greenhouse, they need to be conditioned for harsher weather and environmental impacts found in urban contexts. Just outside the greenhouse, the seedlings or small trees are transplanted in order to strengthen and acclimatize. The outside nursery forms an ever changing forest, consisting of different species of medium sized trees - all to later be transplanted in different urban contexts. The forest and nursery forms a pathway and park-like forest for people to safely move between infrastructure and chaos. Today there are about 700 000 trees in Oslo, more or less one tree per Oslo-inhabitant. Oslo Municipality has now decided to plant 100 000 more trees in the urban area. I propose here that the tree nursery can be an extension of this plan, in which growing, grooming and planting the trees locally in the city can take place. Finally, the trees are planted in their permanent location somewhere in the urban environment.

The final site category holds temporarily vacant buildings. Oslo Municipality today owns 94 buildings which are left empty and unused in the city. These unused buildings amount to over 77 000 square meters. 74 of the 94 empty properties are "unresolved", according to an overview from the Real Estate and Urban Renewal Agency (EBY). This means that future use is not finally decided by the municipality.

In carbon capture-processes, water is seized when filtering humidity from the air. The harvested water is then used to cool down the processes rising to more than 900°C, further cooling the gases to 325°C and producing steam for power generation. Power produced by the facility can be utilised in different manners. Step one is utilising the energy in a circular manner, output = input for the carbon capture process. Excess energy can then be sold to the grid, or be utilised directly for immediate surroundings, be it cheap electricity to private homes, a facilitator for low rent public programs, or illuminating dark public areas. On this site I propose a streetlight strategy.

The site's carbon capacity equals 102 tonnes of CO2 annually, this corresponds to an energy production that can generate electricity for 23 158 street lights or 17.1 households/public programs. With this urban strategy, I illustrate a lighting-scheme along the entire length of Akerselva, on both sides of the river with an interval of 20 meters adding up to 800 lights.

With this strategy, there is still capacity for 22 358 more lights, or about 16 households or public programs.

In closing, I have wanted to explore how carbon capture infrastructures are scalable from mega-structures to integrated small scale urban industries.

This is based on a historic analysis of the relationship between the industrial

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revolution and the urban impact of new technology. In parallel, I have developed a deep technical understanding of carbon capture technology today. The thesis has then explored the architectural potentials and potential relationship to urban contexts that carbon capture infrastructures entail, suggesting that a sustainable carbon capturing future can integrate within urban development and planning.

Through my research I identified many potential answers and possible scales applicable to the hypothesis. In order to study possible scales and applications, the thesis applies the prototypes to three possible scenarios.

These scenarios are generic conditions that can be found in cities throughout the world, which for this research case are deployed in Oslo, Norway. The scenarios are industrial buildings, unintended urban spaces, and temporarily vacant buildings, which the thesis argues could be replicated in many other urban contexts.

The thesis then designs a proposal for each site. The proposals have the goal of demonstrating how carbon capture can generate urban and architectural form - ranging from large and small urban furniture, to trees and street lights - thus creating interactive and tangible components within the rest of the city. The thesis then posits a potential methodology of site-specific architectural proposals based on a technical CO2 analysis of each site, with the ambition to inspire other cities, architects, planners, and policymakers on realistic and tangible strategies to integrate urbanism and architecture with carbon capture technology. This will be a vital component of achieving the crucial goal of carbon neutrality in the very near future, and the thesis believes to demonstrate that architecture and urbanism have an important role to play.

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Through forming durable abstractions about how the world works, we develop technologies that allow us to act upon the world and measure or investigate the world according to those abstractions, such as Copernicus did with telescopes.

Stephen G. Brush, 20201

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Stephen G. Brush. 2020. “Copernican Revolution.” Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/ topic/Copernican-Revolution.

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INTRODUCTION

Through technology and innovative discoveries, the Industrial Revolution introduced our urban environment to both new opportunities and new environmental challenges. Globally connected industries and manufacturing, large infrastructural networks and cheap energy - all technologies crucial to our cities and economy’s rapid growth - were developed during this period. Similarly, my thesis is based on exploring the synergies between new technology, the urban environment and environmental challenges through global, urban and local scales. The thesis is therefore a hypothetical project about climate change measures and urban industry in symbiosis.

There is urgency for a counter-reaction to the urban, social and environmental consequences of the Industrial Revolution, and the polluting traditions which this generation caused. As new technologies emerge and we enter a modern era of industrialisation, definitions and approaches to industry change. Heavy industry has been relocated away from city centres, due to globalization, pollution, changes in production and newer demands for dwellings and leisure in cities. Our cities no longer contain the resources or spaces conventional production requires, and these factories provide little prosperity in an urban context. Still, infrastructure and consumer trends remain, still contributing to air pollution in our urban areas.

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The thesis is based upon a prototype of the larger infrastructures of Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS), which are utilized in order to tackle the rapid escalation of climate change and emissions. The prototypes explore carbon capture as small-scale urban factories, rather than the megastructure which may be expected. Running off the city as a resource (CO2), the manufacturing process (CCUS) materialises emissions into a tangible, informative asset. Thus, the thesis asks if urban production can contribute to the benefit of our climate and urban environment.

My hypothesis is based on exploring carbon capturing in fragmented, smaller scales - closer to that of trees - which utilizes the city as a resource. The project is therefore conceptualized as a network or series of acupuncture projects, responding locally to the same challenges which similar large scale industries address in non-urban contexts. The thesis aims at exploring these potentials through the development of a prototype which is applied, calculated, and tested through varying case studies and scales in polluted city-zones in Oslo, Norway.

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A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change has by the World Health Organisation been identified as the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century2. Human activity is the main cause of climate change. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, people have burned more and more fossil fuels and changed vast areas of land from forests to farmland - releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Climate change is mainly caused by radiation being trapped in the atmosphere by greenhouse gases that would otherwise escape into space. Since the Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have increased by 50%, not decreasing with population growth and continuous burning of fossil fuels3.

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2 3

Craggs, A. 2018. “Climate Change and Health.” WHO. 2018 Sky News UK. 2020. “Climate Change: Seven Technology Solutions That Could Help Solve Crisis,” September 11, 2020. https://news.sky.com/story/climate-change-seven-technologysolutions-that-couldhelp- solve-crisis-12056397.

INDUSTRIALISATION AND CITIES

In the mid 18th century, the Industrial Revolution began in Britain, through improvement of technologies, infrastructure and utilisation of raw materials4. It led to the uprising of factories and heavy industry, resulting in massive migration to the cities where the job opportunities were. As a consequence, industrialisation was a major driving force for urbanisation.

Additionally, the high demand for factory labor generated demands for more housing, access to education, social reform and retail facilities, causing cities to grow economically and physically over a short period of time5.

The urban experience was soon dominated by pollution, disease, poverty and crime, and soon thereafter, industries left the city centres and kept developing in suburbs and industrial parks on the periphery of city-borders.

There were several benefits of migrating industry from residential areas, such as reducing immediate social and environmental impacts of the cities.

However, opposed to the centralised factories, the industry parks lacked public transportation, closeness to their workers homes, less regulation on polluting their immediate surroundings and a lack of availability of a skilled workforce6.

There are now more than thirty megacities in the world with a population of more than ten million7. In 2019, humans emitted more than 35 billion tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels. The current average global population increase is estimated at 81 million people per year, and according to researchers, by 2050, the global population is projected to rise to 9.7 billion9, leading to increased demand for resources, resulting in skyrocketing levels of emissions. Together with this development, new technologies emerge, and we enter a new era of industrialisation, which some researchers have referred to as the fourth Industrial Revolution10. How can this new wave of industrialisation and new ideas generate better urban spaces, social- and living conditions in the cities, opposed to the consequences of the Industrial Revolution?

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“There was a symbiotic relationship between the growth of modern cities and the growth of modern industry” Hiromi Hosoya and Markus Schaefer, 202111

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5 6 7 8 9 10

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“The Transformation of Cities and the Urban Experience.” 2016. Foundations of Western Culture. https://foundations.uwgb.org/industrialization-and-the-transformation-of-citiesin-the-urban-experience/.

“How Does Industrialization Lead to Urbanization?” 2020. Investopedia. https://www. investopedia.com/ask/answers/041515/how-does-industrialization-lead-urbanization.asp.

“Industrial Park.” 2021. In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_park.

Hiromi Hosoya and Markus Schaefer, ed. 2021. The Industrious City - Urban Industry in the Digital Age. Lars Müller Publishers. p 150 Tso, Kathryn. n.d. “How Much Is a Ton of Carbon Dioxide?” Ask MIT Climate. https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/how-much-ton-carbon-dioxide.

Roser, Ritchie, Ortiz-Ospina. 2013. “World Population Growth.” Our World In Data. https:// ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth#citation.

Klaus Schwab. 2016. “The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What It Means, How to Respond.”

World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrialrevolution-what-itmeans-and-how-to-respond/.

Hiromi Hosoya and Markus Schaefer, ed. 2021. The Industrious City - Urban Industry in the Digital Age. Lars Müller Publishers. p 109

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Image 1: The Industrial Revolution in 18th-century London12.

Image 2: A worker heads home across a stretch of Trafford industry park in 197713.

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Laila269, Industrial Revolution in London - Factories producing smoke and pollution in 18th century, 2019. Flickr Alec Herron. 2015. “Https://Www.Theguardian.Com/Cities/2015/Apr/29/ManchesterTrafford-Park-World-First-Industrial-Estate-History-Cities-50-Buildings.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/apr/29/manchester-trafford-park-world-firstindustrial-estate-history-cities-50-buildings.

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GLOBAL FRAMEWORK

UN countries have agreed to try to stop global warming at 1.5 degrees.

Member states claim they will achieve this by emitting net zero greenhouse gases by 2050. Norway has announced to cut 55 percent of its greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. Det Norske Veritas (DNV) recently published a report that demonstrates measures are needed to achieve this goal. The report states that developing countries, aviation, shipping, heavy transport and some heavy industries will not be able to have zero emissions by 2050.

This means that other countries must be emission-free earlier. Europe and North America must therefore become carbon negative by 2042, eight years before the goals of the Paris Agreement. g that they not only have to cut their emissions to zero, but also capture carbon from the air14.

Today, 80 % of our energy comes from fossil sources. In DNV's scenario, we will in the future have 80 % renewable energy. According to DNV, the technology that exists today is sufficient to be able to achieve the climate goals. But it needs to be scaled up and fast. To do that, strong political control is needed.DNV points to a number of tools that states must used: - A carbon tax to be introduced in all countries. In Europe, this

should be at $ 250 per. tonnes by 2050. (This tax is higher than the

price of carbon capturing per tonnes, which today is at $ 90-200

per tonnes) - A number of prohibitions and injunctions must be introduced. I.e,

power plants based on oil and coal must be banned by the 2040s.

- Streamlining of existing technology. Everything that can be

electrified should be. The sectors that are difficult to electrify must

switch to hydrogen, synthetic fuel or biofuel.

- It must be expensive to invest in fossil energy and industry.

- In addition, the state must subsidize or contribute to financing the

development of renewable technology, energy storage, zero emission cars, hydrogen production and carbon capture and storage.

- In addition, 20 % of the climate cuts in DNV's calculation will

take place through carbon capture and storage, both from the

combustion process, but also from the air.

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L. Bergvall, Anne Sofie. 2021. “Skal vi Nå Paris-Målene, Må Europa Ha Null Utslipp i 2042: -Veldig Lite Sannsynlig.” Aftenposten - E24, 2021.

European Commission The European Union’s European Green Deal is working on creating a sustainable economy within the European Union, by turning climate and environmental challenges into opportunities15. Their listed objectives are these: - - - - - - - -

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There are no net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2050 Economic growth is decoupled from resource use No person and no place is left behind Investing in environmentally-friendly technologies Supporting industry to innovate Decarbonising the energy sector Ensuring buildings are more energy efficient Working with international partners to improve global environmental standards

United Nations: Paris Agreement Whilst the Paris Agreement has a large plan and several categories and areas of action, one part aiming at supporting and establishing newer technology and a framework to accelerate technology development through its policy and implementation arms16: - Providing a framework for financial, technical and capacity

building support - Requiring economic and social transformation, based on the best

available science - Limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees C - Fully realising technology development and transfer - Improving resilience to climate change and reducing GHG emissions - Establishing a technology framework - Emphasis on climate-related capacity-building for developing countries

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Commission, European. n.d. “2030 Climate Target Plan.” 2030 Climate Target Plan. Accessed April 20, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/eu-climate-action/2030_ctp_en United Nations, Climate Change. 2021. “The Paris Agreement.” https://unfccc.int/processandmeetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement

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CARBON CAPTURE, STORAGE AND UTILISATION

New and environmentally friendly technologies are currently being developed, including solar panels, wind turbines, batteries for electric vehicles, power-to-X and carbon capture, utilisation and storage. All of these are essential technologies for our present and future, but to reach the goals countries have pledged under the Paris Agreement, Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) is the only technology radical enough to have an impact as rapid as required17. We are still dependent on the energy from fossil fuels, and the process industry needs time to develop new production methods18. Therefore, carbon capture and storage is important to limit man-made climate change. Several pilot-projects are being done in this field, and there is common consensus that this is a necessary technology for our immediate future. Across the studies being done, there is a great need for large spaces and heavy machinery, therefore either existing factory or industrial structures are utilised, or small scale prototypes of the infrastructure are being built independently for efficiency testing. To this day the technology only exists as an experiment and testing facilities at selected industrial plants.

Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) is first and foremost the process of plants and trees pulling carbon dioxide out of the air, binding it up in sugar and releasing oxygen. This is one of the most essential technologies we have. Modern technology has developed more efficient methods based on catching and storing CO2­from the atmosphere, or directly from a polluting industrial plant. After the CO­2 is caught it is either transported to storage facilities utilising empty oil-tanks - left dry as a result of an aggressive oilindustry - and pumped two to three kilometers underground into bedrock.

Until now the technology is only tested and used in close relation to existing industries, but research shows there is potential for the industry to even Utilise (U) the material caught, exploring the possibilities of creating new materials such as bricks or energy from the waste.

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“...resource flows, formerly treated as waste, can become raw materials for other industries” Hiromi Hosoya and Markus Schaefer, 202119

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Sky News UK. 2020. “Climate Change: Seven Technology Solutions That Could Help Solve Crisis,” September 11, 2020. https://news.sky.com/story/climate-change-seven-technologysolutions-that-couldhelp- solve-crisis-12056397.

Caineng Zou, Qun Zhao, Guosheng Zhang, Bo Xiong. 2015. “Energy Revolution: From a Fossil Energy Era to a New Energy Era.” Science Direct, KeAi Chinese Roots Global Impact. https://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/S2352854016300109.

Hiromi Hosoya and Markus Schaefer, ed. 2021. The Industrious City - Urban Industry in the Digital Age. Lars Müller Publishers. p 46

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To show an analogy between other early technologies which have developed exponentially, may look at solar cells and the photovoltaic effect. Solar cells were discovered as early as the 1800s,further researched, and finally in 1954 presented as a solar panel of cells that relied exclusively on light power, running a 21-inch Ferris wheel as a proof of concept. Later solar panels have evolved to be an integrated part of our lives, creating jobs, a major source for renewable energy, and is becoming both affordable and accessible.

Researchers at MIT have now demonstrated the thinnest, lightest solar cells ever produced, which are 400 times more energy efficient than today's standardised panels20. Similarly, it is predicted the carbon capture technology will double its efficiency in only a few more years of development.

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Carbon Capture process diagram21

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Chandler, David L. 2016. “Solar Cells as Light as a Soap Bubble.” MIT News Office. https:// news.mit.edu/2016/ultrathin-flexible-solar-cells-0226.

“About CCUS.” 2021. IEA - Technology Report. https://www.iea.org/reports/about-ccus.

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Photographs: Climeworks opens the world's largest carbon-capture facility in Iceland22.

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Judge, Peter. 2021. “Climeworks Opens the World’s Largest Carbon-Capture Facility in Iceland.” Data Center Dynamics. https://www.datacenterdynamics.com/en/news/climeworksopens-the-worlds-largest-carbon-capture-facility-in-iceland/.

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Scalability The structure functions much like a plant, in which a surface in contact with polluted air will absorb and bind carbon to a specific amino-liquid, before releasing pure oxygen back into the atmosphere. The carbon capture technology consists of four major unit operations: the contractor, pellet reactor, calciner and slaker23. The contractor, or surface area, brings ambient air through a filter, and will be the most visible part of a closed carbon capture plant. In high pollution zones a contractor can run on as low as 1 m/s, resulting in little to no noise pollution in the immediate surroundings24.

The components are set by modular-based processes, which according to Joule Carbon Engineering means their performance varies slightly from 1Mt-CO2/year down to sizes as small as 10 kt-CO2/year, and their capital cost per unit capacity is nearly constant down to 100 kt-CO2/year, beneficial to the studies on scalability and performance.25 The diagram shows dimensions based on carbon capacity. Mini-plants will relate to the smallest dimensions that exist of the various processes, but as the plant grows, modules are added.

CO2 equivalents26 Oslo Municipality One passenger vehicle Per capita/Norway Per capita/USA Per capita/average Cement production CO2 fire extinguishers

- 1.2 million tons/year - 4.6 tons/year - 8.28 tons/year - 15.52 tons/year - 1 ton/month - 622 kg/ton concrete - 500

50 trees must grow for 1 year to capture 1 tonne of CO2.

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1 ton CO2

2 tons CO2

3m

3m

3m

3m

5 tons CO2

6 tons CO2

3m

3m

7 tons CO2 3m

3m

3m

4 tons CO2

3m

3m

3m

3 tons CO2

8 tons CO2 3m

3m

3m

3m

100 tons CO2

9 tons CO2 3m

10 tons CO2 5m

3m

3m

3m

3m

3m

23 24

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Climeworks. n.d. “Direct Air Capture & Storage (DACS) Factsheet for Researchers.”

Keith, David W, David St Angelo, David W Keith, Geoffrey Holmes, David St Angelo, and Kenton Heidel. n.d. “A Process for Capturing CO2 from the Atmosphere.” Joule. Vol. 2. Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2018.05.006.

Keith, David W, David St Angelo, David W Keith, Geoffrey Holmes, David St Angelo, and Kenton Heidel. n.d. “A Process for Capturing CO2 from the Atmosphere.” Joule. Vol. 2. Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2018.05.006.

“What Exactly Is 1 Tonne of CO2?” n.d. Climate Neutral Group. https://www.climateneutralgroup.com/en/news/what-exactly-is-1-tonne-of-co2/.

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CCUS AND NORWAY

In 2007, the former prime minister of Norway, Jens Stoltenberg, claimed that carbon capture (CCUS) would be Norway's “moon landing”27. Ten years later, the technology was up and running with a facility at Mongstad oil refinery, today acting as an international training station and investment hub for foreign stakeholders. Shortly after, two new pilot projects were set to be realised, CCUS at the cement factory in Brevik in Porsgrunn and the waste facility at Klemetsrud28. At Klemetsrud in Oslo, bordering Viken municipality, lies a waste incineration plant, run by Fortum Oslo Varme, a 50% state-owned power company. The plant is alone responsible for the processing of Oslo's waste, and about 400 000 tonnes of CO2 emissions each year, one third of the municipality's yearly emissions. An industry which is now seeking funding for a pilot project within carbon capturing. Their goal is to capture 100% of the emissions produced, which will also cut large parts of the municipality's annual emissions. Such a large scale pilot project was set to cost 6.8 billion NOK, partly funded by the company themselves, and a 3 billion NOK contribution from the Norwegian state. The European Commission decided to spend NOK 11 billion (1.1 billion euros) to support decarbonisation projects, but it was concluded in November 2021 that the Norwegian pilot project was not on this list29.

Photograph: Klemetsrud waste incineration plant emitting 400 000 tons CO2/yearly30.

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Tore Killingland. 2018. “‘Månelandingen’ - Endelig?” Energi Og Klima. https://energiogklima.no/kommentar/manelandingen-endelig/.

Magnus Kallelid, Kjetil Magne Sørenes, Alf Ole Ask. 2020. “Regjeringen Vil Realisere Karbonfangst- Og Lagring Ved Norcems Sementfabrikk i Brevik.” Aftenposten. https://www. aftenposten.no/norge/politikk/i/ gWPj7L/regjeringen-vil-realisere-karbonfangst-og-lagringved-norcems-sement.

Ask, Alf Ole. 2021. “EU Støtter Ikke CO2-Rensing På Klemetsrud.” Energi Og Klima, 2021. https://energiogklima.no/nyhet/brussel/eu-stotter-ikke-co2-rensing-pa-klemetsrud/.

Norsk Fjernvarme, 2020, Klemetsrud, Fortum Oslo Varme, http://fjernvarme.no/

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OSLO AS A CASE STUDY

Oslo Municipality has several goals and initiatives in play to reduce the yearly emissions. The goal was to not exceed 766 000 tons of CO­2 in 2020.

Reducing emissions by 50% by 2020, and reducing all emissions by 95 % by 2030, compared with 1990-levels)31. Oslo's climate action areas consist of general principles and strategies covering several fields. These areas represent many solutions to the same common problem, and emphasizes that the effect is greatest where there are many small interventions that cover a larger field of application. My project fits into this mindset, as I have worked with small-scale, urban interventions in dense city contexts, rather than mega-facilities with a scale closer to one of suburban areas and industrial parks.

Matrix: Oslo Municipality, 16 action areas on the climate32.

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Oslo bystyre. 2016. “Klima- Og Energistrategi for Oslo.” Oslo Kommune 2016.

Oslo bystyre. 2016. “Klima- Og Energistrategi for Oslo.” Oslo Kommune 2016.

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In 2019, Oslo had 1 267 060 tons of carbon dioxide being released into the air33. This is roughly the average yearly emission-rate in the Municipality.

Translating this number into something more tangible, we can compare this to forest efficiency. To capture 1 millions tons of CO2 you would need over 800 square kilometers of forest, an area larger than the whole city of New York. In contrast, a carbon capture facility can capture the same amount on a 0.4 square kilometer footprint. In comparison Oslo Municipality has about 300 square kilometers of forest, in theory enough to nearly absorb half of Oslos yearly emissions. However the majority of Oslos trees and forests are dislocated from the urban center and polluting zones. The polluting epicenters in the denser urban area makes up the negative form of Oslos forests. Efficiency- and sizewise, this is my argument for climatic solutions needing to be locally embedded around its source of emissions.

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862 km2 - Forest

https://www.wri.org/insights/direct-air-capture-resource-considerations-and-costs-carbon-removal

0.4 km2 - Carbon capture

310 km2 - Oslo forests

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“Utslipp Av Klimagasser i Kommuner.” 2019. https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/tjenester/ klimagassutslipp-kommuner/?area=426.

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Oslo urban area 38

Oslo forests 39

Mapping For the strategy to be applicable to different cities and geographical conditions, I have chosen to work with a group of generic sites, which I assume can be found in many cities. The three generic sites are; Industrial buildings and areas, today very few in Oslo are not yet developed for housing or retail;unintended urban spaces, commonly found as voids appearing between infrastructure and development; and temporarily vacant buildings, which in Oslo are mostly owned by the Municipality, but not developed nor used at the moment.

Oslo forests Urban area Elevations +10, +50, +100 Municipal high pollution zone Traffic and road pollution Air pollution (wood firing) Site category 1 - Industrial buildings and areas Site category 2 - Unintended urban spaces Site category 3 - Temporarily vacant buildings

40

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

41

Industrial buildings and areas

42

Unintended urban spaces

Temporarily vacant buildings

High pollution sites - 1 : 40 000

43

44

Site models - 1 : 5 000

Frogner

Grønland

Filipstad

Grünerløkka

Havnelageret

Keyserløkka

Sørenga

Gamlebyen

Tøyen

45

Based on previous mapping exercises in which emissions, topographical conditions, and site categories were researched, the project is narrowed down to sites in particularly high pollution zones in Oslo. There are three site typologies, three corresponding utilisation concepts, and three corresponding urban strategies. The three strategies branch from their sites and form one large fabric covering the city.

46

site typology

utilisation concept

urban strategy

47

In order to study possible scales and applications, the thesis applies the prototypes to three possible scenarios. These scenarios are generic conditions that can be found in cities throughout the world, which for this research case are deployed in Oslo, Norway. My thesis is focused three sites and urban strategies - Filipstad, Sørenga and Grünerløkka.

48

Strategic plan - 1 : 40 000

Grünerløkka

Filipstad Sørenga

49

FILIPSTAD

First up is an industrial building and area in Oslo. These are buildingtypologies known for their flexible and large spaces for machinery and production. Filipstad in Oslo is an area under planning. As industry and production today has little to no presence in the city, the industrial areas are one by one being developed for housing.

For industrial buildings, I propose a program adapted to the building's spatial qualities, in which the typology now becomes a concrete casting factory. Storing carbon in cement for concrete has been one of the first ways of commercialising capturing-waste. It allows for concrete to become a zeroemission building-material, through capturing CO2 both from the process of making cement, situating the factory in a polluted area capturing local emissions, and materializing carbon in the casting process.

50

1 : 20 000

51

Image 1: Industrial area and site seen from above34.

Image 2: Industrial building typology at Filipstad - interior35.

52

34 35

Leif, Ørnelund, Filipstad, 1970, Oslo Museum, http://oslobilder.no/ Leif, Ørnelund, Filipstad, 1970, Oslo Museum, http://oslobilder.no/

53

On this site, the factory acts as a concrete casting space. This is a place where carbon dioxide is materialized in cement and urban elements, before each element later is moved and becomes a permanent part of the urban fabric.

54

Industrial buildings

Concrete production

Urban elements

55

Concrete production Cement has a huge carbon-capacity, and any concrete elements in contact with polluted air, will for over a hundred years still absorb CO2 directly from the air. I exemplify how the factory mainly can produce concrete elements for urban use. These elements are bigger things such as whole facades, basketball courts and structural elements, or smaller objects flexible to be set in dense urban contexts, for people to use and interact with. Recently manufacturers have developed a technology for the concrete industry that introduces recycled CO₂ into fresh concrete to reduce its carbon footprint without compromising performance. Once injected, the CO₂ undergoes a mineralization process and becomes permanently embedded36.

56

Production Filipstad, Oslo

Site carbon capacity

177 tons/year

Catchment surface

Roof

Load bearing structure

Columns

Storage and utilisation strategy

Concrete

kg CO2 produced per ton cement

591 kg/ton

grams CO2 per kilo concrete (5 fl oz/cwt)

3,125 grams/kg

grams CO2 per kilo concrete (5 fl oz/cwt)

3125 grams/ton

x tons concrete per ton CO2

312 tons concrete/tons CO2

concrete mass (kg) per m3

2 400 kg/m3

Urban element

Mass per element

m3 per element

x elements per ton CO2

Dock elements

11.7 tons

4.88 m3

27 elements/ton CO2

Benches

4.1 tons

1.70 m3

77 elements/ton CO2

Facades

43.2 tons

18.00 m3

7 elements/ton CO2

Basketball courts

100.8 tons

42.00 m3

3 elements/ton CO2

Bicycle racks

0.8 ton

0.34 m3

383 elements/ton CO2

Planters

8.4 tons

3.50 m3

37 elements/ton CO2

Ramps

3.5 tons

1.46 m3

18 altimeters/ton CO2

Bicycle lane

2.3 tons

0.95 m3

0.7 km/ton CO2

Balconies

3.9 tons

1.62 m3

80 elements/ton CO2

Roofs

2.4 tons

1.01 m3

129 elements/ton CO2

Cobblestones

0.002 tons

0.001 m3

130 208 e./ton CO2

Bricks

0.004 tons

0.002 m3

86 805 e./ton CO2

Beams and columns

2.5 tons

1.05 m3

124 elements/ton CO2

Sculptures

10.0 tons

4.15 m3

31 elements/ton CO2

36

“Reducing Carbon, One Truck At A Time.” n.d. Carbon Cure. https://www.carboncure.com/.

57

1 ton CO2

124 beams and columns 40 bicycle racks

129 roofs

1, 5

m

77 benches

3m

3m

4m

5m

0,34 m3

1,01 m3

1,70 m3 1,05 m3

37 planters

89 altimeters of ramp

3m

3m

0,7 km of bike lane

1,8

130 208 cobblestones

1,8

m

5m

m 0,1 m

3,50 m3

1,46 m3

0,95 m3

0,001 m3

31 sculptures 27 dock elements

3m

86 805 bricks

6m

4,88 m3

m 0, 2

80 balconies

3m

1,8

0, 1 m

0,002 m3

m

3m

1,62 m3 4,15 m3

59

60

Conceptual models - 1 : 1000

61

62

Conceptual models - 1 : 1000

63

Interventions The existing structure is modified to suit the new program better. A large catchment surface tilted towards the main road and polluting source, acts as a new elevated roof. Landing on interior columns and a core with new functions which holds all capturing processes, administrative and functional programs. Facing south the large open space is preserved and extended, free from constructive elements, and easy access to the outside.

64

Proposal

Catchment surface

CCS processes

New walls and floor

New structural elements

Elements removed

Plan and structure

Existing building

65

The spaces surrounding the new factory will act as temporary storage. Urban elements form a dynamic concrete park after production whilst waiting for their final destination. The park will be in constant change as production changes, as each element later will be moved and become a permanent part of the urban fabric. The park can be experienced by bypassers - and depending on the element in production - interacted and played with. Poststorage, the concrete elements will be moved to their permanent spot. Urban furniture, so small they can be placed anywhere in the city and can be interacted with.

Pick up/delivery CCS processes Storage: Liquid CO2 Storage: Cement Offices WC and showers Warderobe Storage and kitchen Cafeteria Meeting rooms Cement-mixing space Lounge Formwork production Casting Finishing Storage/public zone

66

1 : 1000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

1.

6.

2.

7.

2.

2.

3.

4.

5.

8.

6.

5.

12.

11.

11.

10.

9.

7.

13.

14.

14.

15.

1.

16.

67

Scenario 1 - Storage space filled with benches post-production

68

Scenario 2 - Storage space filled with mixed objects post-production

69

Urban strategy Post-storage the concrete elements will be moved to their permanent spot.

Urban furniture so small they can be placed anywhere in the city, still be interacted with, and due to the carbon capacity of the material, the urban furniture acts as miniature carbon capturing elements scattered all over the city.

70

Strategic plan - 1 : 40 000

71

SØRENGA

Second up, are unintended urban spaces. These are places between infrastructure and development, left over as voids often inaccessible to the public. This particular site is jammed between the historic old town, new waterfront development, and heavy infrastructure projects.

The second storage and utilisation strategy is based on plants and trees as natural carbon storage and carbon utilised in greenhouses. Plants are about 45% pure carbon, stored from absorbing carbon dioxide from the air. For this site, I propose storing and utilising carbon in a greenhouse, aiming to plant trees for the urban environment.

72

1 : 20 000

37

“Why Is Carbon Important?” n.d. NASA Climate Kids. https://climatekids.nasa.gov/carbon/

73

Above: Ventilation towers on site seen from a distance38.

Right: Site and highway ventilation well seen from above39.

74

38 39

Visit Oslofjorden, Oslo, 2020, https://www.visitoslofjorden.no/ Bratten, Bjørn, Oslo, 2012, Østkantliv, http://ostkantliv.blogspot.com/

75

On this site, the greenhouse acts as a tree nursery. This is a place where tree-seedlings are planted and grown to a sufficient size in a highconcentration carbon dioxide environment40. Before they are moved outside to be conditioned for harsher weather, and finally planted in its permanent location somewhere in the urban environment.

76

Urban voids

40

Greenhouse (trees and plants)

Urban tree planting

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. "nursery." Encyclopedia Britannica, August 15, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/nursery

77

Tree nursery A greenhouse infused with CO2 enrichments allows for crops to meet their photosynthesis potential, and will increase the yield of greenhouse crops.

Ambient CO2 level in outside air is about 340 ppm by volume. All plants grow well at this level, but as CO2 levels are raised by 1,000 ppm photosynthesis increases proportionately resulting in more sugars and carbohydrates available for plant growth. Depending on space provided by the site and yearly emissions in this particular area, the size of the greenhouse can vary.

One can build a small-scale greenhouse for private use, or a larger structure with increased production and carbon-capacity.

A typical tree can absorb around 21 kilograms of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year, however this figure is only achieved when the tree is fully grown saplings will absorb significantly less than this. Over a lifetime of 100 years, one tree could absorb around a tonne of CO241.

78

Tree nursery Sørenga, Oslo

Site carbon capacity

177 tons/year

Catchment surface

Lid

Load bearing structure

Beam

Storage and utilisation strategy

Tree nursery

Normal CO2 ppm levels

250-400 ppm

CO2 ppm levels added

1 160 ppm

Co2 g/ton oxygen

1 160 g/ton

Oxygen kg/m3

1.22 kg/m3

Oxygen ton/m3

0.0012 ton/m3

Tons CO2

Greenhouse m3

Greenhouse dimensions

Greenhouse m2

1 ton

81 m3

4.0 x 4.0 x 5.0 m

16.1 m2

2 tons

161 m3

5.7 x 5.7 x 5.0 m

32.2 m2

10 tons

805 m3

12.7 x 12.7 x 5.0 m

161.0 m2

15 tons

1 207 m3

14.2 x 14.2 x 5.0 m

201.2 m2

20 tons

1 610 m3

16.4 x 16.4 x 5.0 m

268.3 m2

50 tons

4 024 m3

25.9 x 25.9 x 5.0 m

670.7 m2

70 tons

5 634 m3

30.6 x 30.6 x 5.0 m

939.0 m2

100 tons

8 048 m3

40.1 x 40.1 x 5.0 m

1 609.7 m2

102 tons

8 210 m3

37.0 x 37.0 x 5.0 m

1 641.9 m2

177 tons

14 280 m3

190 x 15.0 x 5.0 m

2 856.0 m2

200 tons

16 097 m3

56.7 x 56.7 x 5.0 m

3 219.4 m2

300 tons

24 146 m3

70.9 x 70.9 x 5.0 m

5 030.4 m2

400 tons

32 194 m3

83.7 x 83.7 x 5.0 m

6 998.8 m2

500 tons

40 243 m3

95.6 x 95.6 x 5.0 m

9 146.1 m2

41

“How Much CO2 Does a Tree Absorb.” n.d. Viessmann. https://www.viessmann.co.uk/ heating-advice/how-much-co2-does-tree-absorb

79

1 ton CO2

2 tons CO2 5m

5m

4m

3 tons CO2

5,7 m

4m

4 tons CO2 5m

5m

6,9 m

m 5,7

8m

m 6,9

8m

80,5 m3

161 m3

241 m3

322 m3

5 tons CO2

6 tons CO2

7 tons CO2

8 tons CO2

9m

9,8 m

9m

5m

5m

5m

402,5 m3

10,

m 9,8 483 m3

5m

11,

6m 10,

6m

563,5 m3

3m

11,

3m

644 m3

100 tons CO2

9 tons CO2

10 tons CO2 5m

12

m

12 724,5 m3

m

5m 5m

12,

7m 12,

7m 805 m3

40

m

40

m

8048 m3

81

82

Conceptual models - 1 : 1000

83

84

Conceptual models - 1 : 1000

85

Interventions The greenhouse is set on top of its main polluting source, a highway ventilation-well with adjoining towers. This saves space on site, and brings our carbon capturing surface as close as possible to its source of pollution.

A beam extends between the two towers and over the well, carrying the capturing surface. An internal core extrudes from the beam, creating storage space for ccs, greenhouse-functions and ventilated rooms for staff. On top is a shell of glass, containing heat, humidity and carbonized air for seedlings within the greenhouse.

As the building is elevated, access is reached through three existing structures. A main entrance from a small building used to access the tunnel, and two entrances between each ventilation-tower. The nursery is organised symmetrically around its core. Allowing daylight to pass through all parts of the building, and making the nursery visible from all sides.

86

Proposal

Glass frames

3 entryways

Beam and core

CCS processes

Catchment surface

Existing structures

87

As trees grow out of the greenhouse, they need to be conditioned for harsher weather and environmental impacts found in urban contexts. Just outside the greenhouse, the seedlings or small trees are transplanted in order to strengthen and acclimatize.

The outside nursery forms an ever changing forest, consisting of different species of medium sized trees - all to later be transplanted in different urban contexts. The forest and nursery forms a pathway and park-like forest for people to safely move between infrastructure and chaos.

Entrance Greenhouse CCS processes Ventilated rooms: Toilets Meeting rooms Kitchen Wardobe Storage Outdoor nursery/park Highway well

88

1 : 1000

1 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 6

1.

5.

2.

6.

1.

3.

4.

1.

89

The outdoor tree nursery acts as a temporary and dynamic park.

90

91

Urban strategy Today there are about 700 000 trees in Oslo, more or less one tree per Osloinhabitant. Oslo Municipality has now decided to plant 100 000 more trees in the urban area42. I propose here that the tree nursery can be an extension of this plan, in which growing, grooming and planting the trees locally in the city can take place. Finally, the trees are planted in their permanent location somewhere in the urban environment. The strategic plan illustrates an example of 800 new trees along the water.

92

Strategic plan - 1 : 40 000

42

“Oslotrær.” 2021. Oslo Kommune, ByKuben.

93

..

GRUNERLØKKA

The final site category holds temporarily vacant buildings. Oslo Municipality today owns 94 buildings which are left empty and unused in the city. These unused buildings amount to over 77 000 square meters. 74 of the 94 empty properties are "unresolved", according to an overview from the Real Estate and Urban Renewal Agency (EBY)43. This means that future use is not finally decided by the municipality.

In carbon capture-processes, water is seized when filtering humidity from the air. The harvested water is then used to cool down the processes rising to more than 900°C, further cooling the gases to 325°C and producing steam for power generation44. Power produced by the facility can be utilised in different manners. Step one is utilising the energy in a circular manner, output = input for the carbon capture process. Excess energy can then be sold to the grid, or be utilised directly for immediate surroundings, be it cheap electricity to private homes, a facilitator for low rent public programs, or illuminating dark public areas.

43

44 94

Pettrém, Maria T. 2021. “94 Kommunale Eiendommer Står Tomme i Oslo.” Aftenposten, 2021. https://www.aftenposten.no/oslo/i/mBKlbv/94-kommunale-eiendommer-staartomme-i-oslo.

Keith, David W, David St Angelo, David W Keith, Geoffrey Holmes, David St Angelo, and Kenton Heidel. n.d. “A Process for Capturing CO2 from the Atmosphere” Joule. Vol. 2. Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2018.05.006

1 : 20 000

95

Above: Interior hallway and nursing-home units45.

Right: Existing facade45.

96

foto

45

Espedal, Jan Thomas, Oslo, 2020, Aftenposten, http://aftenposten.no/

97

On this site, the powerhouse generates electricity for a streetlight strategy.

Illuminating dark public areas nearby, and connected to the larger urban strategy of a safe path along the river.

98

Empty buildings

Power distribution

Streetlight strategy

99

Streetlights The power of a street light differs depending on bulb-size and function, and can vary from 35 to 250 W. But it is assumed that the average streetlight utilise about 80 watts46. Equivalent to about 0.96 Kilowatt-Hours (kWh) when running the same bulb for 12 hours. A realistic time period for dark Norwegian winters.

Households A study conducted by The IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEAGHG) in 2012 explores six different carbon capturing scenarios where power per amount of carbon captured is utilised for electricity to the grid47. With these numbers I have calculated based on amounts CO2 captured in an area, and subtracting quantity utilised for the process itself, how much power is left to be distributed to a streetlight or building. Numbers are based on average power consumption in an Oslo household, 1300 kWh48.

46

100

47 48

Avetisyan, Marina. 2004. “Power of a Streetlight.” Hyper Textbook. 2004. https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/MarinaAvetisyan.shtml.

IEAGHG, “CO2 Capture as Gas Fired Power Plants, 2012/8, July, 2012 Forbrukerguiden.no. 2021. “Normalt Strømforbruk – Sjekk Selv: Har Du et Gjennomsnittlig Forbruk?” 2021. https://forbrukerguiden.no/normalt-stromforbruk/

Power distribution Grünerløkka, Oslo

Site carbon capacity

102 tons/year

Catchment surface

Roofbox

Load bearing structure

Core

Storage and utilisation strategy

Local power distribution

Power output (MWh)

0.218 MWh/ton CO2

Street light bulb kWh (12 hours)

0,96 kWh (12 hours)

Tons CO2 /average household (1300 kWh)

6 tons CO2

CO2 stored kg/MWh

454 kg/MWh

Net power output (MW)

736.8 MW

Tons CO2

Power output (kWh)

x households/tons CO2

x street lights/tons CO2

1 ton

218 kWh

0.2

227

2 tons

436 kWh

0.3

454

10 tons

2 180 kWh

1.7

2 270

15 tons

3 269 kWh

2.5

3 406

20 tons

4 359 kWh

3.4

4 541

50 tons

10 898 kWh

8.4

11 352

70 tons

15 257 kWh

11.7

15 893

100 tons

21 796 kWh

16.8

22 704

102 tons

22 232 kWh

17.1

23 158

177 tons

38 578 kWh

29.7

40 186

200 tons

43 591 kWh

33.5

45 408

300 tons

65 387 kWh

50.3

68 112

400 tons

87 183 kWh

67.1

90 815

500 tons

108 978 kWh

83.8

113 519

101

1 ton

227 street lights / 0.2 households

20 tons

4541 street lights / 3.4 households

102 tons

23 158 street lights / 17.1 households

2 tons

10 tons

15 tons

454 street lights / 0.3 households

2270 street lights / 1.7 households

3406 street lights / 2.5 households

50 tons

70 tons

11 352 street lights / 8.4 households

15 893 street lights / 11.7 households

177 tons

200 tons

40 186 street lights / 29.7 households

45 408 street lights / 33.5 households

100 tons

22 704 street lights / 16.8 households

300 tons

68 112 street lights / 50.3 households

103

104

Conceptual models - 1 : 1000

From the street you catch sight of the river and the lighting strategy through the new public passage.

105

106

Conceptual models - 1 : 1000

107

Interventions The existing building was previously inhabited by a nursing home. All interior walls are remaining, with bathrooms in all rooms, long halls for circulation, and no daylight passing through to common areas. All nonload bearing walls are removed, leaving vertical circulation, constructive elements, and a free plan. This operation reveals an existing internal core, which is added on to with new infrastructure for carbon capture processes, staff-functions, storage and crossing circulation. All heavy infrastructure inhabits the new reinforced core, whilst larger processes and functions utilise existing floors and structure, inhabited by power turbines for electricity production, and finally a surface area for capturing carbon.

The ground floor is left as open as possible, leaving an open space for new programs, an axis from the street to the river, and a new entryway on one side, connecting the other side to an existing ramp and new stairway.

108

Proposal

Catchment surface

CCS and power turbines

New entryways

New core elements

Elements removed

Plan and structure

Existing building

109

Toilets

Offices

Power turbines Meeting room Lounge

Entrance

Kitchen

Wardobe

CCS shafts

Storage

Offices

Toilets

New entryway Public passage New stairway 1-4 public programs Light-park Akerselva Illuminated pathway

110

Typical floor plan - 1 : 500

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7.

5.

3.

6.

2.

1.

4.

1 : 1000 - Ground floor

111

Scenario 1 - Outdoor space and riverside during daytime

112

Scenario 2 - Outdoor space and riverside during nighttime

113

Urban strategy The site's carbon capacity equals 102 tonnes of CO2 annually, this corresponds to an energy production that can generate electricity for 23 158 street lights or 17.1 households/public programs. With this urban strategy, I illustrate a lighting-scheme along the entire length of Akerselva, on both sides of the river with an interval of 20 meters adding up to 800 lights.

With this strategy, there is still capacity for 22 358 more lights, or about 16 households or public programs.

114

Strategic plan - 1 : 40 000

115

Summary In closing, I have wanted to explore how carbon capture infrastructures are scalable from mega-structures to integrated small scale urban industries.

This is based on a historic analysis of the relationship between the industrial revolution and the urban impact of new technology. In parallel, I have developed a deep technical understanding of carbon capture technology today. The thesis has then explored the architectural potentials and potential relationship to urban contexts that carbon capture infrastructures entail, suggesting that a sustainable carbon capturing future can integrate within urban development and planning.

Through my research I identified many potential answers and possible scales applicable to the hypothesis. In order to study possible scales and applications, the thesis applies the prototypes to three possible scenarios.

These scenarios are generic conditions that can be found in cities throughout the world, which for this research case are deployed in Oslo, Norway. The scenarios are industrial buildings, unintended urban spaces, and temporarily vacant buildings, which the thesis argues could be replicated in many other urban contexts.

The thesis then designs a proposal for each site. The proposals have the goal of demonstrating how carbon capture can generate urban and architectural form - ranging from large and small urban furniture, to trees and street lights - thus creating interactive and tangible components within the rest of the city. The thesis then posits a potential methodology of site-specific architectural proposals based on a technical CO2 analysis of each site, with the ambition to inspire other cities, architects, planners, and policymakers on realistic and tangible strategies to integrate urbanism and architecture with carbon capture technology. This will be a vital component of achieving the crucial goal of carbon neutrality in the very near future, and the thesis believes to demonstrate that architecture and urbanism have an important role to play.

116

117

PROGRAM

Program from pre-diploma term Architectural program Small scale Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) Factory building for producing concrete Greenhouse for a tree nursery Temporarily vacant building for power distribution Urban strategies for concrete elements, planting trees and outdoor illumination Working method Developing a prototype and strategies based on investigative work such as: interviews, literature, calculations and relevant research. Continuously developing the project throughout the semester, keeping up to date with research material and Schedule The schedule is based on the investigative work being a continuous work in process.

August: Interviews, framework, mapping emissions, learning about CCUS. September: Defining scales, mapping sites and developing case studies.

October: Environmental, social and spatial implications of urban industry.

November: Design-phase, prototype applied to three sites, urban framework and strategies beyond sites.

December: Finalising research material, building models and graphical work.

Formats/specifications Investigative work: Research, theoretical framework, interviews and calculations Prototype: Developing a prototype applicable to varying global conditions Case studies: Plans, conceptual models, diagrams and isometric illustrations for each case study Strategy: Mapping of case study, strategic diagrams/plans and conceptual models.

119

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Supervisors Gro Bonesmo Karl Otto Ellefsen External supervisors Johanne Borthne Eirik Mikael Stokke Interviews Todd Allyn Flach, Senior Advisor (Carbon Capture and Storage) - Bellona Jørgen Thomassen, Process Engineer (Carbon Capture and Storage) - Odfjell Drilling (then: Fortum Oslo Varme) Other Scott Randall, Senior Advisor (Air Pollution) - Norwegian Environment Agency (Miljødirektoratet) Jan Marten Huizenga, NMBU

121

REFERENCES

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4

5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13

14

15 16 17

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Stephen G. Brush. 2020. “Copernican Revolution.” Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/ topic/Copernican-Revolution.

Craggs, A. 2018. “Climate Change and Health.” WHO. 2018.

Sky News UK. 2020. “Climate Change: Seven Technology Solutions That Could Help Solve Crisis,” September 11, 2020. https://news.sky.com/story/climate-change-seven-technologysolutions-that-couldhelp- solve-crisis-12056397.

“The Transformation of Cities and the Urban Experience.” 2016. Foundations of Western Culture. https://foundations.uwgb.org/industrialization-and-the-transformation-of-citiesin-the-urban-experience/.

“How Does Industrialization Lead to Urbanization?” 2020. Investopedia. https://www. investopedia.com/ask/answers/041515/how-does-industrialization-lead-urbanization.asp.

“Industrial Park.” 2021. In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_park.

Hiromi Hosoya and Markus Schaefer, ed. 2021. The Industrious City - Urban Industry in the Digital Age. Lars Müller Publishers. p 150 Tso, Kathryn. n.d. “How Much Is a Ton of Carbon Dioxide?” Ask MIT Climate. https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/how-much-ton-carbon-dioxide.

Roser, Ritchie, Ortiz-Ospina. 2013. “World Population Growth.” Our World In Data. https:// ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth#citation.

Klaus Schwab. 2016. “The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What It Means, How to Respond.”

World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrialrevolution-what-itmeans-and-how-to-respond/.

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