E.D.N.A.
A GUIDE FOR AMPHIBIOUS ARCHITECTURE IN MISSISSIPPI
JUSTIN GANDY
SECTION I
A small-town boy from Starkville, Mississippi, travels halfway across the world and lands in Rome, Italy. Every second I was there, I could not ignore the nagging question stuck in my head. “What could Mississippi look like architecturally?” I asked myself, “Why has God led me to Rome? “As I observed the citizens of Rome, I also paid close attention to the daily temperature during the summer months. I was surprised by how close the climate of southern Italy was to Mississippi and the southeastern United States. I thought this could be the future of Mississippi as I stared at a roundabout, anchored in the center, with a sandstone obelisk and grand magnolias lining the opposite sidewalk. The question never subsided even after I returned to Mississippi, only intensifying as I continued my collegiate career. Several years after I departed from Rome, I logged on to Instagram and saw “Jackson 2039”. “Jackson 2039?” I thought as I scrolled to reveal more of the blue-toned image. “What is this?” I thought, as a skyscraper appeared as I continued to read the caption, explaining to viewers that this conceptual
project was developed in 1964 by First National Bank to commemorate their 75th anniversary. First National Bank hired Michael Baker International, Inc. to analyze Jackson’s citizens, economy, water supply, infrastructure, and more for this project. They took the information they found and reimagined the appearance of the Jackson Metropolitan area for the year 2039. But, you may ask, what does an internationally known engineering firm based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, know about Mississippi? With Jackson experiencing significant rainwater management issues and flooding in recent years, the engineers at Michael Baker International, Inc during the 60s should have considered the amount of precipitation Mississippi receives in a year because there is no mention of rainfall in the brochure. Therefore, the only insight into what hydrology could look like in Jackson 2039 is as follows:
Water Supply and Water Transportation
• The present reservoir system on the Pearl River, supplemented by a system of reservoirs on the Big Black River, will provide the water needs of Jackson 75 years from now. These reservoirs will also serve as a chain of water-oriented recreational lakes.
• The Pearl River will be navigable from its mouth to Jackson, with a well-developed industrial complex along its banks.
• The Big Black River will also be navigable from its confluence with the Mississippi River to Bentonia, Canton, Edwards, and Metropolitan Jackson through several reservoirs and locks.
Why was flooding not addressed as an issue for future citizens of Mississippi when flooding has been a constant threat along with hurricanes throughout Mississippi’s history? An even more substantial question is, have Mississippians ever attempted to develop a vernacular architecture style that responds to heavy rainfall and flooding at any time in the past?
If not, what did Mississippians of the past do
architecturally to reduce the impact of flooding in their homes? Are Mississippians doing anything architecturally in the present day to respond to flooding? This book will first analyze the architectural history of Mississippi dating back to the 1700s, searching for any signs of floodresponsive architectural techniques used by Mississippians. Secondly, this book will search for international flood-responsive architectural practices, focusing on vernacular and contemporary styles in the past and present. There may be a chance that if Mississippi has yet to develop flood-responsive architecture, then other civilizations have in the past or present day. Finally, this book will define the significance of any findings for Mississippi, considering the advantages and disadvantages of the techniques found during research.
An architectural style that does not prevent flooding yet embraces flooding creates flood-resilient cities, towns, and neighborhoods. Amphibious architecture could significantly reduce flood damage for homeowners and business owners alike while making a new sense of place and a new lifestyle in marshlands, lowlands, and coastal areas that utilize it. Amphibious architecture techniques allow structures to be secure on dry ground, but during flood events, the system is buoyant enough to float on water. After the flood waters have subsided, the structure returns to its building footprint. Amphibious architecture is a unique concept for future and present-day
The Jaketown Site is off of highway 7 outside of Belzoni, Mississippi where several mounds are located. Over the years, trees have taken sprout in the soil of the mounds.
Nanih Waiya Mound and Village site. Nanih Waiya is said to be the origin site of the Choctaw and Chickasawtribes. The origin story goes the first Choctaw climbed out of the earth, still wet, they laid out to dry on Nanih Waiya.
Mississippi, but has any culture of Mississippi’s past ever needed flood-resilient building techniques? In Mississippi’s pre-history, the ancestors of the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Natchez Native American tribes were occupying areas of Mississippi. The Mississippians, or Middle Mississippians, settled in northern Mississippi from Vicksburg to St. Louis. The Plaquemine settled in southern Mississippi and Louisiana. These two cultures and their descendants created the mounds of Mississippi. In addition, many ancient Native Americans built mounds accompanied by villages for ceremonial and spiritual purposes in Mississippi. Seldomly are these village and mound sites located near moving waterbodies, giving them a sense of importance and permanence. But, several areas are near rivers or creeks and contain no ceremonial or burial mounds. These sites lead me to believe that these were settlements in which native people created a connection with water and used it to advance their agricultural practices and transportation of goods and information.
Jaketown Mound Site is about 650 feet west of Wasp Lake in Belzoni, Mississippi. The Delta region of west Mississippi is flat, with most topographical changes coming on the east where the thick Loess Hill region begins. The site contains two platform mounds, the most enormous, 150 feet by 200 feet at the base and
23 feet high. The second is 150 feet by 200 feet at the bottom and around 15 feet tall. Another example of the strategic location of mound villages is Nanih Waiya Mound and Village, located north of Philadelphia, Mississippi, near Nanih Waiya Creek, a tributary of the Pearl River. Mississippi’s Upper Coastal Plains region ranges from the northeast corner of Mississippi to central Mississippi. Pine stands and tall grasses characterize this region. Nanih Waiya Creek is a slow-moving water body
meandering from side to side, resulting in substantial wetland vegetation along its banks. The width of
vegetation along the creek denotes frequent flooding and overflowing of its banks. The mound at Nanih Waiya is 140 feet by 218 feet and around 25 feet high. Numerous sources assert that platform mounds were permanent residences for chiefs or officials of the chiefdom. If these were permanent or semipermanent residences, then essential officials would need the means to travel to other villages, and river systems were the highways of the time. Another example of this building strategy is the Bear Creek Mound and Village site in the Upper Coastal Plains region. Bear Creek is the location of a ceremonial or elite residential area. The most prominent mound is eight feet high and 85 feet at its widest dimension. Bear Creek Mound went under excavation, and archeologists found charred plaster in the soil, suggesting some structure’s existence in the past on top of the mound. This site is unique because of its location between Bear Creek and one of its branches, Wolf Pen Branch. The surrounding area suggests some evidence of flooding. These findings are helpful in understanding if flooding was an issue for ancient Mississippians and how they approached the problem. The evidence indicates that platform mounds, in particular, served a deeper purpose than ceremonial events and elite residences. My research suggests that Middle Mississippians also utilized platform mounds for their resilience during flood events. Freshwater access is imperative to the success of any settlement, especially around 1000
Heavy rains led to The Great Flood of 1927 with the Mississippi reaching 80 miles wide at some points.
A.D. The value of rivers to ancient Mississippian cultures goes beyond access to fresh water; they also offered a means of communication over more considerable distances once natives mapped out the river systems, allowing chiefdoms to form. Trying to adapt to flood conditions may be why ancient Mississippians built permanent structures such as platform mounds along rivers. These are significant examples of early Mississippians attempting to adjust to the large amount of rainfall that Mississippi annually generates. Their primary architectural technique to combat flooding was building earthen platforms with homes, temples, and other structures on the mound.
The Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Natchez Native American tribes are the direct descendants of the Middle Mississippian and Plaquamine people who ruled the southeastern United States from around 1200 to 1400 A.D. The Mississippians and Plaquamine people were a culture of mound builders and agriculturists, but their predecessors abandoned their ancestors’ mound-building techniques. Instead, the Choctaw and Chickasaw focused on the structure of their homes and ceremonial buildings. The “chukka” is the primary dwelling of the Choctaw and Chickasaw tribes. As Bernard Roman traveled across central Mississippi in the 1700s, he noted that the homes of both tribes were similar. Both tribes built two separate dwellings, one for the summer and another for the winter. In addition, Edward Mease described one Choctaw winter home he visited in the 1770s as a structure with a circular form with daub walls and one long wrapping entrance. The roof was thatched and sectioned into four areas. A continuous bench about two feet high lined the interior walls and was wide enough for sleeping. A firepit centered in the structure warms the interior before extinguishing the fire for the night. The construction of winter chukkas began with a threefoot excavation of the building footprint—the five to six-foot tall forked posts are in the ground in a circular form around the pit. First, the builders take long strips of dried grass to weave between the posts. Next, four large posts are erected in the center
of the circular shape. After this, the builders laid beams across the top, supported on either end by wall and center posts. Finally, the builders daubed the wall posts with a dried grass and clay mixture insulating the structure; the roof was thatched and overlaid with bars to lock the thatch in place. Conversely, the summer chukka has a rectilinear form and open sides resembling a modern-day pavilion. There were four posts at each corner holding up a thatched roof. In some cases, Natchez tribes constructed Palmetto winter homes. They were built the same way as Choctaw and Chickasaw chukkas, yet the Natchez covered the sides with palmetto leaves. Both houses used the same materials and building methods, but neither showed any architectural response to flood events. These homes particularly excel at responding to wind and climatic conditions. The light wooden structure of chukkas is beneficial to an amphibious design. An amphibious home must utilize lightweight construction practices to be buoyant enough to float. The native tribes of Mississippi likely abandoned their forefather’s building techniques after having contact with Europeans. With their culture almost destroyed, many natives later built permanent rectilinear log cabins, some of which were the best construction Europeans had ever seen for a log cabin.
SECTION II
As French and Spanish explorers investigated, mapped, and eventually settled the southeastern United States, they brought their livestock, weapons, and religion. The United States did not yet control Mississippi. In this period, French settlers occupied Mississippi, part of Louisiana territory, from 1699 to 1763. Fort Maurepas, right outside Ocean Springs, Mississippi, is the first settlement in the Magnolia State. Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville and his brother Jean Baptiste de Bienville established the fort in 1699. Fort Maurepas was a military outpost primarily, but in 1757 the first residential construction was completed in Mississippi. Located in what is now Pascagoula, Mississippi, the LaPointe-Krebs House was constructed by Hugo Krebs, a German who traveled to the Gulf of Mexico with Jean Baptiste de Bienville, in 1699 and Simon de la Pointe, a French indigo and cotton farmer. The Coastal Flatwoods of Mississippi experience some of the highest amounts of precipitation in Mississippi. Fort Maurepas rests on a hill about 15 feet tall on the coastline, but it is not influenced architecturally by flooding or large
amounts of rainfall. The LaPointe-Kerbs house displays no response to precipitation or flooding other than having porches, which protect the main structure from direct contact with rain. One can assume that the inattentiveness towards water and rainfall attributed to French settlers building systems based on their previous experiences building in a temperate climate.
1801 marks the completion of the House on Ellicott’s Hill. James Moore, a prominent physician and founder of the first hospital in Natchez, Mississippi, built The House on Ellicott’s Hill. James Moore acquired the land in 1797 and began construction in the late winter of 1798. The house presents a two-story facade to the northwest with a 12-foot brick double staircase leading to an entrance. The southeastern face displays a one-story front on top of the hill. This house is significant because it is the first direct response to rainfall and flooding. The House on Ellicott’s Hill is within 900 feet of the Mississippi River; today, various structures surround it. Still, during its infancy, it was the only structure in the area, leaving it vulnerable to the floodwaters of the Mississippi River. The home was strategically placed on a natural hill by James Moore, similar to what Native American tribes would have done in the Mississippian period.
In contrast, the House on Ellicott’s Hill opted to fortify the hillside facing the Mississippi River with brick. This simple architectural concept gives the building a strong foundation while retaining the
hillside and protecting it from erosion. In addition, the brick facing created useable walkways to walk down to the river’s edge when the banks of the Mississippi River kept it contained. Planters at the base of the brick stairways create a buffer against floodwaters while allowing as much water as possible to seep into the surrounding soil. This technique allows for quicker drainage of the hill the house sits on while keeping runoff at a minimum. The structure is a wooden post and beam system supporting a vernacular shed roof. As a result, this home could withstand some flooding. Suppose floodwaters rose above the lower brick basement and into the first floor. In that case, the residents could still occupy
the home’s upper floor until the waters subsided if necessary. Residents often would abandon their homes before or after a significant flood event.
Georgianna, an early antebellum home, was built around 1850. The stark white house perches on a 2,600-acre plantation. Georgianna faces Deer Creek in Sharkey County in the Delta region of Mississippi. With agriculture being the center of the site’s purpose, the area is flat with little topographical change. As a result, the house displays a response to flood conditions and rainfall as well. A minimal design for an antebellum home, Georgianna has a brick first-floor base firmly attached to the ground while showcasing a light cypress wood livable upper portion. The most exciting features of Georgianna are:
• Its exterior staircase stretches from the ground up to the second floor.
• Its lower brick dogtrot-style breezeway is directly behind the external staircase.
• The brick cisterns are complete with metal downspouts.
Occupants most likely used the staircase during flood events. The upper story contained four rooms, likely bedrooms. The breezeway allows cross ventilation of the more airtight brick first floor while also giving the water a path to flow, reducing forces applied on the structure as water wraps around it. The use of cisterns is a unique feature of
Georgianna. Georgianna is the first documented use of cisterns in Mississippi architectural history. The brick cistern is still operational and covered with the original cast iron lid. Alan Huffman’s online article, “Saving Georgianna,” shows Georgianna used during a flood event. During the flood of 1927, Georgianna experienced heavy flooding peaking at about seven to eight feet in the area. The plantation owners, George Hunt and Anna Hunt, and sharecroppers took shelter in the home’s upper story. The house was later evacuated and sold to the Weissinger family in 1930. Another example of attempts at floodresponsive architecture in Mississippi comes from Isaiah T. Montgomery House in Mound Bayou, Mississippi. Isaiah Montogomery was a former slave of Jefferson Davis. In 1887, Montogomery co-founded Mound Bayou, Mississippi’s first economically prosperous black town. Montgomery’s home was constructed in 1910; two years later, he would become the mayor of Mound Bayou. Montgomery’s home exhibits a unique approach to building in a high-risk flood zone. The surrounding area is flat, requiring an elevated foundation for the home. The load-bearing brick structure allows the wooden porch and columns to rest easily on top of an above-grade basement. The solid concrete stairs leading up to the main entrance denote the need for a permanent
walkway or a walkway that is virtually unmovable by water flow. This type of response toward flooding in Mississippi is unique because of the above-grade basement. Many historical homes in Mississippi have a foundation placed on grade; other homes, such as the House on Ellicott’s Hill, elevate the structure but do not create useable space underneath the house. Georgianna, located in Sharkey County, is close to Isaiah T. Montgomery’s home in Bolivar County, and neither resembles the other.
The I. T. Montgomery house takes an immovable object approach to flood resistance. The
house has acted as an island separating flood waters during flood events. In contrast, Georgianna has had a more finesse approach to embracing flood waters and welcoming them into the home.
Mississippi has limited examples of floodresponsive architecture from 1100 to 1920. Native American tribes and their nomadic lifestyle most likely changed locations for settlements before flood waters could reach them. Early French settlers most likely never attempted flood-responsive architecture because they were still adapting to a different climate. From the 1800s to 1900s, Mississippi experienced the most flood-responsive architectural concepts, even though examples are still hard to come by. Suppose Mississippians of the past could have made more progress with flood-responsive architecture. In that case, modern-day Mississippians have learned from the tragic floods of the past and recent hurricanes, sparking a response architecturally. In the wake of storms like Katrina, Nate, and Barry, Mississippi has a lot of room to rebuild anew. With every hurricane or flood that inflicts significant damage or destroys property, there is an opportunity to build more substantial flood-resistant homes for homeowners. Mississippi has had a history of flooding, and in the past, many have chosen to ignore the environment. Mississippi must keep history from repeating itself in many ways. Architecturally flood-resilient structures, amphibious homes, and proper rainwater management practices could lead to a stable future
for Mississippi’s neighborhoods, cities, and towns. We know what the future of Mississippi could be, but what are the current innovations in flooding response in Mississippi architecturally? Building Flood responsive and resilient homes will become increasingly crucial to Mississippians, especially Gulf Coast residents, as global warming predicts a nineinch to one-foot increase in sea-level rise by 2050.
Mississippi residents living in flood zones must adopt flood-resilient architecture practices. Implementing these practices in flood zones could reduce flood damages, federal aid for disaster relief, and flood insurance rates. Mississippi must embrace water in all aspects of life to prepare for the future.
SECTION III
Mississippi has experienced disastrous storm systems and flooding throughout its history. Over 50 years ago, Hurricane Camille obliterated the Mississippi Gulf coast. Camille brought the largest storm surge in American history at the time right to the doorstep of Mississippi. The category five hurricane had a 24-and-a-half-foot high storm surge. After making landfall, Camille dropped 12 to 20 inches of rain on Mississippi. Hurricane Camille caused over one billion dollars in damages in 1969. The most interesting loss from this storm is a home designed by Frank Lloyd Wright called “The Fuller House.” The house was built in 1951 for Welbie L. Fuller in Pass Christian, Mississippi. The home had a one-story portion with an elevation foundation on top of a concrete grid. External circulation in the form of elevated walkways connects the one-story portion of the home with the back portion of the home, and the back is two stories. The two-story rear portion seems to anchor the entire structure into the ground providing additional support for the concrete posts in the front portion. The house is of
Roughly 17% of all the urban land in the United States is located in the 100-year or high risk flood zone.
absolutely stunning design and exhibits a response to flooding. Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fuller House is only elevated eight to ten feet above the ground, just enough to park a car underneath. At this height, the home was too low; the storm surge of Hurricane Camille completely swallowed the house. There is no way Frank Lloyd Wright could have foreseen the magnitude of Hurricane Camille’s storm surge. Furthermore, suppose one of the greatest architects in American history could not design a resilient home to withstand a storm surge in the Mississippi Gulf Coast. In that case, the solution must come from within Mississippi. The Fuller House stood for only 18 years in Pass Christian. As residents on the gulf coast
rebuilt and returned to their lives, they knew they must adapt or be swept away by another massive hurricane.
In 2005, almost 36 years after Hurricane Camille, Hurricane Katrina roared through the Gulf of Mexico, demolishing the coastline of Mississippi and Louisiana. Cities hardest hit include New Orleans, Louisiana, and Pascagoula, Mississippi. Both cities suffered significant damages and casualties, mostly due to severe flooding. Over 90 percent of the city of Pascagoula flooded during Katrina’s storm surge, and in New Orleans, the storm surge punched through several levees and flood walls. Another hurricane with a huge storm surge crashes into the Gulf of Mexico again. The destruction of Hurricane Katrina is well known; the response to Katrina architecturally is not well documented outside of New Orleans. After Katrina, the Federal Emergency Management Agency or F.E.M.A. outlined a new reconstruction guide based on high water marks taken post-Katrina. F.E.M.A. reported depths ranging from 8 to 20 feet around I-10. The county with the highest HWM was Harrison County, with a mark of 35 feet. Some areas of Mississippi’s coast have taken a strong stance in fighting back against flooding, and other areas of the coast have not adapted as well. Waveland, Mississippi, has one of the highest concentrations of stilt houses in the Mississippi Gulf Coast area. Waveland, located in Hancock County, was submerged under 24 to 28 feet of Hurricane
This tiny elevated bungalow is located in Waveland, Mississippi. Waveland was one of the areas hit hard by Hurricane Katrina and now has one of the highest concentrations of stilt houses in Mississippi.
These signs mark the record “high water level” of Hurricane Camille in Pass Christian, Mississippi, once the record in the United States. Hurricane Katrina is now the record holder for largest storm surge in American history.
Katrina’s storm surge. As a result, homes in Waveland have to adhere to local flood management laws based on F.E.M.A. data. Homes in some areas of Waveland have long legs as tall as 20-24 feet. Stilts have become common on the Mississippi coast because F.E.M.A. and municipalities require elevated structures from new construction and reconstruction projects. Stilt houses have numerous benefits associated with them. Stilt houses are wonderful at preventing flood damage because the structure’s lowest horizontal member must be elevated above the height of the average still watermark in the area post-Katrina. Wood posts, concrete-masonry units, or concrete are the most common material used for constructing stilts. Many homeowners opt for concrete-masonry units or poured-in-place concrete cylinders for more support, strength, and longevity. Stilt houses also create a usable but non-livable negative space underneath the home’s floor. The area underneath the house can become a garage, storage space, or workspace. Other homeowners may use this free space as an outdoor extension of their house. The duality that stilt houses possess providing a safe indoor environment and a safe outdoor room, allows Gulf Coast Mississippians to create an architectural language unique to them. The advantages of stilts do not end here; stilted structures can also cover
changing topography, making stilts useful even in non-high-risk flood zones. Stilt houses also reduce pest infestations and maximize surrounding views. Stilt houses also have a few huge disadvantages. For example, many houses in the Mississippi Gulf Coast are between 8 to 20 feet above grade, making them completely inaccessible to disabled individuals. This lack of inclusion and empathy is unusual in architecture but is seen countless times along the Mississippi coast. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 does not cover private residential homes, which explains why many stilt houses do not have
ramps attached. Furthermore, stilt houses hinder emergency access inside the home significantly. Many of them sport two flights of stairs, making it very difficult for Emergency Medical Technicians to retrieve a patient during a medical emergency at home. Moreover, firefighters have limited routes into the home, which reduces the likelihood of rescuing survivors of a fire inside a stilt house. Stilt houses ignore the human scale and usually make viewers uneasy as a two-story home hovers omnisciently 20 feet above their heads. The most concerning flaw with stilt houses is their rigid cut-off heights. Stilt houses have a set height, and the structure cannot rise above or sink below this set height. Cutoff heights could be detrimental as no one knows how tall the next storm surge may be. Stilt houses lack flexibility and detailed responsiveness to flood waters. Stilt houses’ benefits outweigh an elevated foundation’s detrimental side effects, but this does not necessarily mean that Mississippians should stop innovating architecturally. This one practical concept toward flood management imposed by F.E.M.A. can evolve into beautiful architecture unique to its place. For thousands of years, Stilts have been used on homes worldwide. Stilts are an age-old technique, yet Mississippians have begun to enforce outdated flood-responsive architecture techniques in mass after Hurricane Camille and Hurricane Katrina. Mississippi and Louisiana garnered international attention before, during, and after Katrina. Then
governor, Haley Barbour, commissioned Mississippi Renewal Forum, chaired by Jim Barksdale and Andres Duany as the Renewal Forum’s architectural leader. The forum contained 170 plus individuals and 22 separate committees. They aimed to restore, rebuild, and reestablish an architectural aesthetic for the Mississippi Gulf Coast.
Several initiatives and programs gathered architects, engineers, and urban planners together; one was Architecture for Humanity. Architecture for Humanity’s program offered financial assistance and design services to families whose homes were destroyed during Hurricane Katrina. Marlon Blackwell’s Tyler Residence, known as “Porchdog,” was one of the most celebrated designs of postKatrina. The shotgun-inspired two-story house is in Biloxi, Mississippi. An affordable flood-resilient design, Porchdog, uses corrugated steel, square steel posts, and concrete-masonry blocks. The structure is 11 feet above grade and has operable shutters on the windows. Then it was a masterpiece; today, it resembles a small county jail. The operable steel shutters have rusted significantly due to sea salt from the ocean breeze. The gray exterior of the building dulls the mood in this low-income area of Biloxi instead of uplifting and providing vibrance. There is well-designed, well-thought-out flood-responsive architecture in Mississippi, but usually, they do not withstand the battering year after year by tropical storms and hurricanes. Mississippi’s struggles with
flood management and flood-responsive architecture may mean it is time to ask for help from our fellow human beings. Haley Barbour opened the door and welcomed anyone that could help Mississippians with their long-time nemesis, flooding. Focusing their attention outward may be Mississippians’ best chance at an amphibious future. Across the globe, many examples of stilt houses, floating architecture, and flood-responsive techniques exist.
Waveland, Mississippi (HWM: 41.5 feet)
Bay St. Louis, Mississippi (HWM: 38 feet)
Diamondhead, Mississippi (HWM: 30 feet)
Pass Christian, Mississippi (HWM: 35 feet)
SECTION IV
Hurricanes, tropical storms, and river flooding are not specific to Mississippi or the United States. However, these severe weather threats are a familiar phenomenon across the world. The Bajau people of the southern Philippines, parts of Malaysia, and Indonesia have lived on the ocean for over 1,000 years. The Bajau diet consists mainly of fish. Over centuries they have adapted to be able to hold their breath for over ten minutes and dive to depths of up to two hundred feet. Their architecture resembles their lifestyle, as they have entire villages at sea. Their homes utilize stilt construction, with elevated foundations allowing water to pass underneath the structure. They construct their homes with wooden posts and palm leaves.
Stilt houses have existed for thousands of years and are the default solution to flooding worldwide. Stilts are already in use across Mississippi in flood-prone areas. However, the increasing height and severity of hurricane storm surges have forced humans to look for more technical solutions for flooding. In Dhaka, Bangladesh, a new prototype
In 2005 Hurricane Katrina produced a maximum storm surge of more than 25 feet
for building low-income housing in flood zones appeared. Prithula Prosun decided to complete her Master’s thesis, at the University of Waterloo in Canada, on amphibious architecture solutions in Bangladesh. Her research prompted her to design a structure primarily from bamboo products and a central brick spine. The material choice was economical and efficient for an amphibious design. The backbone of the building acts as a platform that allows the livable bamboo space to glide vertically according to the water level. The brick spine never moves and remains submerged in water during flood events. The bamboo rooms have slide and lock mechanisms within the walls that attach to the brick
spine. The bamboo portion of the house is very light and adjusts well to changing water levels. In addition, there are recycled plastic bottles located inside each bamboo section to make the structure even lighter. The foundation of the building is composed of ferrocement. A Ferrocement foundation is a much lighter solution than traditional foundation construction and allows the house’s foundation to act as a boat’s hull. Prosun completed her graduate thesis and proceeded to construct her design. She named the structure “LIFT House,” and Prosun completed it in 2010. One can find another example of amphibious architecture in Maasbommel, the Netherlands, along the Maas River. The site comprises 32 amphibious houses and 14 floating houses of similar construction and materials. The houses are on the riverside of a dike, making them prone to flooding. The amphibious homes are of excellent design, particularly in the foundation. Amphibious dwellings do not share the same concept as floating houses. An amphibious house must travel upwards during flood events and return to its original foundation after the flood is gone. The foundation of the homes at Maasbommel Amphibious Housing is similar to boat docks that receive the house after flood conditions are over. The shell foundation of these houses is traditional concrete with an aggregate that allows it to be waterproof. The livable space in the upper stories is of lightweight timber construction.
The “Jackson 2039” concept considered many issues, except hurricanes, heavy rainfall, and flooding. These are crucial issues that cannot and will not be overlooked. Ancient Mississippians built ceremonial buildings and elite residences on the earthen mounds they constructed. These mounds served a deeper purpose than highlighting important structures or wayfinding. These mounds could have been an attempt at mitigating flood damages and casualties during flood events. Even in the 1800s, Mississippians all over the state built homes with some flood response. These homeowners knew of the dangers of flooding in Mississippi and elevated their livable spaces several feet above grade. In addition, the houses of Mississippi from the 1800s to 1900s displayed a wide range of architectural styles and solutions to flooding. The long cascading exterior stairways leading to the upper floor’s main entrance or an elevated floor resting on a brick base are examples of vernacular solutions to flooding in Mississippi. Stilt houses have become the dominant solution to flood situations in Mississippi, with one of its highest concentrations in Waveland, Mississippi. Stilt houses have provided an immediate solution to flooding in many areas worldwide. Still, as we know, coastal sea levels are constantly rising, and the severity of river flooding is also increasing.
Even so, vernacular amphibious solutions, such as adding foam blocks to the bottom of a mobile home near the Mississippi River, have developed into global solutions to flooding. More than a few homegrown Mississippi must adopt a flood-responsive architectural solution in the near future to prevent further displacement of citizens, loss of life, and property damage. This solution must come from within Mississippi, utilizing local materials, vernacular flooding techniques, and minimizing construction expenses. As of June 3, 2022, Mississippi has the highest poverty level in the
solutions in the battle against flooding are needed. Thus, it requires a solution that changes with the tide and combines many amphibious techniques into one unified building system. With working examples of amphibious houses in Dhaka, Bangladesh, and Maasbommel, the Netherlands, the future of Mississippi will be amphibious. Mississippi must refrain from fighting the waters, marshlands, wetlands, and estuaries that make it so unique. Mississippi’s stance against flooding in the past has been one of resilience, but Mississippi’s stance against flooding in the future will be of receptiveness.
About 40% of all natural disasters involve flooding worldwide.
SECTION V
United States, as 18.7% of its population lives below the U.S. poverty line, according to the United States Department of Agriculture. Mississippi having such a high rate of poverty per capita exacerbates flood issues and limits the amount of funding that a solution such as amphibious architecture requires. In addition to accepting and responding to flooding architecturally, an amphibious movement within Mississippi architecture has to be designed by the people for the people and given to the people for the people. The solutions developed to help keep impoverished communities in Mississippi dry during flood events must be kept from being driven, created, controlled, or funded in any way by the government of Mississippi. A long history of social, financial, legislative, and environmental injustices defined Mississippi in the past and continues to define it today.
On April 6, 2022, Mississippi news outlet
“Mississippi Today” broke a story involving Hall of Fame quarterback Brett Favre and former Mississippi state governor Phil Bryant in a financial scandal
Education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the world.
- Nelson Mandela.
Preview of the graphic style and layout of E.D.N.A. design guidebook
A working example of universal design principles taken from E.D.N.A. design guidebook. . The guidebook will read as a comicbook
where Phil Bryant, Brett Favre, and over 45 other individuals are accused of misappropriating federal welfare funds. Phil Bryant, Brett Favre, and their accomplices are suspected of spending over 80 million dollars of the federal Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program inappropriately. Favre, as of April 24, 2023, still maintains his innocence, “Favre had argued that he never committed [his own] funds to build a volleyball stadium at the University of Southern Mississippi, a project eventually completed with $5 million in federal welfare funds, and that the state fully approved of the transfer.” This recent and ongoing scandal is the type of governmental corruption citizens of Mississippi suspected but could not prove until 2022. This ongoing lawsuit is a horrendous reminder that residue from social issues of Mississippi’s past still lingers around today. Favre’s scandal is an example of why E.D.N.A. attempts to put control and power back into the hands of Mississippi citizens through architecture.
The primary goal of E.D.N.A. is to educate impoverished rural homeowners throughout Mississippi about current building techniques within Mississippi, past building techniques within Mississippi, global building techniques, climate change, flood statistics, and amphibious building
techniques. As stated by George Washington Carver, “Education is the key to unlocking the golden door to freedom.” As of January 23, 2023, Mississippi is ranked 39th overall in the United States regarding education by Scholaroo. However, being 39th in education does not mean Mississippi citizens lack intelligence. Rather, Mississippi’s government is neglecting to improve education for the sake of its future and current workforce. Mississippi does not possess a high percentage of citizens with secondary education, with 85.6% having a high school diploma. Still, only 23.2% acquired a bachelor’s degree or higher after high school, according to the United States Census Bureau, from 2017 to 2021. Mississippi’s
largest workers are employed in the Health Care and Social Assistance industries making up 15.9% of the workforce. These industries require employees to possess some secondary education degree. Mississippi’s Wholesale/Retail Trade, Transportation, and Construction industries make up about 14.6% of Mississippi’s economy combined. Smaller enterprises individually compared to Mississippi’s healthcare workforce, the Wholesale/Retail Trade, Transportation, and Construction industries only require a small volume of workers to attain a secondary education degree. Subsequently, a large
percentage of Mississippi’s workforce possesses a skilled trade. With many individuals who learn kinesthetically, Mississippi allows for a unique distribution of E.D.N.A. to the public through a design guidebook emphasizing universal design methods.
Inspired by IKEA’s “Billy” bookshelf, the E.D.N.A. design guidebook will assist in the “do it yourself” mentality of Mississippi citizens and the assembly of E.D.N.A. homes resulting in a homegrown architectural aesthetic while renewing the sense of community throughout rural areas of Mississippi. Universal design methods utilize graphics with little text to provide step-by-step instructions to assemble a product. This idea will allow a wider range of individuals to participate in the E.D.N.A. project with varying educational and health backgrounds to understand architectural construction documents and, more importantly, how to assemble each architectural system within the home.
“Education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the world.”
Nelson Mandela.
Development is the process of converting land for a new purpose by constructing buildings or making use of its resources. The second goal of E.D.N.A. is to help accelerate the development of
rural communities before and after flood events in Mississippi. Many rural towns of Mississippi need more population density to support their town’s economy. E.D.N.A. provides a unique building footprint that facilitates population density or the illusion of it while delivering safer, more resilient housing for rural homeowners. E.D.N.A. homes are irregular pentagonal forms to amplify views outward into the landscape for homeowner security purposes. In addition, the distinctive pentagonal form reduces drag on the home once the site is inundated by water compared to the traditional four-sided rectilinear home form. A modular design approach, E.D.N.A. studio homes accommodate a
kitchen, living room, bathroom, bedroom, and utility spaces in an irregular pentagon with a maximum area of 315 square feet. Three hundred fifteen square feet was carefully configured to minimize material waste and construction expenses while maximizing the buoyancy of the home. Other pentagons can be constructed as families grow and require more square footage. E.D.N.A. homes with two or more modules will be connected by external wood decks framing an outdoor room, allowing for open-air circulation between spaces. As the footprint of E.D.N.A. grows, the modules fragment
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into specialized areas for specific uses creating larger social and private spaces. E.D.N.A. homes can be and are encouraged to be arranged whichever way the homeowner envisions as long as it aligns with the well-being of the fauna and flora on-site. In addition, pentagonal forms will never resolve completely into a solid shape. Regardless of how E.D.N.A. modules are configured, they will have voids or space between them.
The gaps can be utilized for whatever purpose the homeowner feels is needed to create their ideal living conditions. Still, these voids are encouraged to be filled with edible plants supported on chinampas to provide food during flood periods. Chinampas
are an ancient Aztec agricultural practice utilized in high rainfall environments or on still bodies of water to produce food where dry land is scarce. Floating gardens or chinampas can be a lifesaving way to nourish a family afloat for several days in E.D.N.A. homes. E.D.N.A. chinampas will be modified slightly to allow the landscape to float. The floating gardens will be constructed of scrap wood pieces long enough to create a lattice filling in the voids between modules. Once the lattice is built, fill it with dead leaves, grass clippings, and other organic materials to create a composting pile. The compost pile must be turned every 2 to 4 weeks. Once the pile has cooled
down and displays characteristics of potting soil, then the homeowner can begin planting. Compost may take at least two weeks or up to two years to decompose fully, depending on the pile size and type of organic materials used. Once established, the floating gardens will improve water quality during flood events in the immediate area while nourishing, with food, the communities in which E.D.N.A. homes are constructed is the third goal of this project. 77% of Mississippi counties are considered food deserts. Food deserts are areas where people have limited access to healthy and affordable food.
Alleviating some or all of the external pressures on impoverished rural families and
communities regarding architecture will create a safer, more productive environment for future Mississippians and current Mississippians. E.D.N.A.’s fourth goal is to alleviate Mississippi’s financial, food, and social issues through architecture. These goals are engrained within the design of E.D.N.A. and its design guidebook. Every item needed to construct E.D.N.A. can be found at home improvement retailers such as Home Depot or Lowe’s. It makes E.D.N.A. affordable to build and a realistic project for someone who has never been involved with architecture.
SECTION I
NOTES
1. Adair, J., & Holland, K. E. (2005). The History of the American Indians. University Of Alabama Press.
2. Bear Creek Mound, Milepost 308.8 (U.S. National Park Service). (2021, October 22). Www.nps.gov. https://www.nps.gov/places/bear-creek-mound. htm
3. Bushnell, D. I. (2018). The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb. Cornerstone Book Publishers.
4. ChoctawNationOK. (2017). Chukka. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=8m9Ot4RzxDU
5. Ezelle, F. (2007a, November 5). Jackson/2039 (Part 1 of 3). Https://Www.blogger.com. https:// wwin39216.blogspot.com/2007/11/jackson2039part-1-of-3.html
SECTION II
6. Ezelle, F. (2007b, November 5). Jackson/2039 (Part 3 of 3). Https://Www.blogger.com. https:// wwin39216.blogspot.com/2007/11/jackson2039part-3-of-3.html
7. Fabvssa, I. (2011). “Chukka” The Traditional Choctaw House. Biskinik, 1–2. https://choctawnationculture.com/ media/27468/2011.04%20-%20’Chukka’%20-%20 the%20traditional%20Choctaw%20house.pdf
8. Jaketown Site-- National Register of Historic Places Indian Mounds of Mississippi Travel Itinerary. (n.d.). Www.nps.gov. Retrieved December 11, 2022, from https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/ mounds/Jak.htm
9. Nanih Waiya Mound and Village-- National Register of Historic Places Indian Mounds of Mississippi Travel Itinerary. (n.d.). Www.nps.gov. https://www. nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/nan.htm
SECTION III
1. Fort Maurepas Park – MSGCNHA. (n.d.). Mississippi Gulf Coast National Heritage Area. Retrieved December 11, 2022, from https:// msgulfcoastheritage.ms.gov/historic/sites/fortmaurepas-park/
2. History & Construction. (2022). LaPointe-Krebs. https://lapointekrebs.org/history/
3. Huffman, A. (2021, January 7). Saving Georgianna | Delta Magazine- Cleveland, MS. Delta Magazine. https://deltamagazine.com/saving-georgianna/
4. Jones, W. B. (n.d.). Georgianna. Mississippi Heritage Trust. Retrieved December 11, 2022, from https://www.mississippiheritage.com/elevationblog/2021/1/27/georgianna
5. Kushla, J. D. (2020). Forest Soils of Mississippi. Mississippi State University Extension Service. http://extension.msstate.edu/sites/default/files/ publications/publications/P2822_web.pdf
10. NPS Archeology Program: Common Ground Online. (2022, April 20). Www.nps.gov. https:// www.nps.gov/archeology/cg/vol1_num1/mother. html
6. Laboratory, B. S. Y., NASA’s Jet Propulsion. (2022, November 15). NASA Study: Rising Sea Level Could Exceed Estimates for U.S. Coasts. Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. https://climate.nasa.gov/ news/3232/nasa-study-rising-sea-level-could-
6. exceed-estimates-for-us-coasts/#:~:text=By%20 2050%2C%20sea%20level%20along
7. Maples, N. J. (2022). La-Pointe-Krebs House and Museum offer local history lesson | Today in Mississippi | Special Feature. Today in Mississippi. http://www.todayinmississippi.com/special_ feature/article/5680#:~:text=Built%20on%20a%20 bluff%20overlooking
8. NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES INVENTORY--NOMINATION FORM. (n.d.). Retrieved December 11, 2022, from https://www.apps.mdah. ms.gov/nom/prop/3224.pdF
9. Property. (n.d.). Www.apps.mdah.ms.gov. Retrieved December 11, 2022, from https://www.apps.mdah. ms.gov/Public/prop.aspx?id=23&view=facts&y=728
SECTION IV
1. FEMA. (2005). Reconstruction Guidance Using Hurricane Katrina Surge Inundation and Adversary Base Flood Maps. 1–6. https://www.fema.gov/pdf/ rebuild/mat/ReconstGuidance032406.pdf
2. FEMA. (2014). Homeowner’s Guide to Retrofitting. FEMA, P-312(3rd Edition), 99–122. https://www. fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-08/FEMA_P-312. pdf
7. Group, Inc., U. (2006). Final Coastal and Riverine High Water Mark Collection for Hurricane Katrina in Mississippi. 1–76. https://www.fema.gov/pdf/ hazard/flood/recoverydata/katrina/katrina_ms_ hwm_public.pdf
8. Jacobs, K. (2013, July 8). In Wake of Hurricanes and Superstorms Emerges a New Kind of Housing. Metropolis. https://metropolismag.com/ projects/hurricanes-superstorms-emerges-newkind-housing/
9. Masters, Dr. J. (2019, August 16). Fifty Years Ago: Category 5 Hurricane Camille Hits Mississippi. Www.wunderground.com. https://www. wunderground.com/cat6/Fifty-Years-AgoCategory-5-Hurricane-Camille-Hits-Mississippi
10. Porchdog [Tyler Residence] Marlon Blackwell Architects. (n.d.). World-Architects. Retrieved December 11, 2022, from https://www.worldarchitects.com/en/marlon-blackwell-architectsfayetteville/project/porchdog-tyler-residence
11. Rebuilding Housing on the Coast. (2005). 26–27. http://www.mississippi.edu/urc/downloads/ articles/RebuildingHousingontheCoastDecember2005.pdf
12. Amphibious homes, Maasbommel, The Netherlands | Urban green-blue grids. (n.d.). Urbangreenbluegrids.com. Retrieved December 10, 2022, from https://www.urbangreenbluegrids. com/projects/amphibious-homes-maasbommelthe-netherlands/
13. Architects, P. (n.d.). LIFT House. Prosun Architects. Retrieved December 11, 2022, from https://www.prosunarchitects.com/ lifthouse/9nw2crleywusmpbd3fv3hv24d7jxwx
14. Fenuta, E. V. (2010). Amphibious Architecture. 167–191, 223–237. https://static1.squarespace.com/ static/5df95ab752eb4b313e3d0616/t/5e8b826341e eac39f0effb5a/1586201218889/Fenuta_Elizabeth_ Victoria_Part2.pdf
15. Shoyeb, K. M. (2010, April 12). Floating Above the Tides. The Daily Star. https://www.thedailystar. net/news-detail-134050
16. Sieber, C. (2019, September 23). Life Of The Bajau: What It’s Like To Live In The Middle Of The Ocean. Www.vice.com. https://www.vice.com/en/ article/evjbye/bajau-life-photos-sea-nomads-sulumalaysia-philippines
SECTION V
1. “Mississippi PYs 2020-2023 - WIOA State Plan Common Elements - Economic AnalysisAc4bf4bd-A966-4aa0-94db-0a8a41026d07 | WIOA State Plan Portal.” Wioaplans.ed.gov, 2023, wioaplans.ed.gov/node/13746. Accessed 5 May 2023.
2. “Poverty.” Data.ers.usda.gov, 5 Jan. 2021, data.ers. usda.gov/reports.aspx?ID=17826.
3. Scott, Emma, et al. Food Is Medicine Opportunities in Mississippi & the MS Delta. Jan. 2022.
4. “States with Best & Worst Public School Systems.” Scholaroo, 23 Jan. 2023, scholaroo.com/report/ state-education-rankings/. Accessed 5 May 2023.
5. “U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Mississippi.” ww.census.gov, 2022, www.census.gov/quickfacts/ fact/table/MS/IPE120221. Accessed 5 May 2023.