8. DISCUSSION

How the findings from the field experiment’s data set serve to answer the research questions has been outlined in the previous chapter. This final chapter discusses findings from (performing) the field experiment in a broader perspective. Section 8.1 describes five other take-aways from the field experiment itself, or the data set derived from it, that are related to the academic and practice fields this research seeks to contribute to. Section 8.2 elaborates on the field experiment’s validity, reliability, replicability, and generalizability, while section 8.3 concludes the chapter with three key suggestions for future research.

8.1 Research Contributions

As outlined in section 1.3, this research looks to add new knowledge to the academic fields of environmental psychology and lighting science about how the built environment, and light in particular, influences occupant behaviour. It also looks to showcase an exemplary design of how artificial lighting may become a tool for teachers to encourage certain behavioural change in their pupils, to provide specific design information for the architectural industry, and to contribute to the broader debate about improving the indoor quality of learning environments in general. the following five subsections outline how different findings and learnings from the field experiment contribute hereto.

8.1.1 Artificial and Natural Light, a Joint Condition

In the four learning spaces hosting the field experiment, and commonly for most of today’s learning environments, natural light is present during curricular hours. Its manifestation in the learning space however depends on the time of day, weather conditions and window blind settings, and has been diligently studied both quantitively and qualitatively throughout the experiment. Without artificial lighting activated, it would be the only source of light and herewith fully define the occupant’s visual impression of their learning space. Though, the experiment in Frederiksbjerg school indicated that naturally lit learning spaces were only found to occur sporadically during curricular hours, and predominantly on sunny days. Most often artificial lighting was activated when the learning spaces hosting the experiment were in use. Regardless of the artificial lighting being the standard (A) setting or the experimental (B) settings (see Figure 8.1), in both situations natural light was found to only play a minor role in defining the occupant’s visual impression of the learning space with the artificial light dominating the visual scene. Hereto changing between light setting (A) and (B) was considered to have a profound visual effect to the occupants.

Nevertheless, artificial and natural light are (during daytime hours) irrevocably linked and to be mediated between. It appeared for example, that the natural light conditions in a learning space would inform how occupants would operate the artificial lighting. If artificial light setting (B), which includes the pendants, was accessible on a sunny day, often only the pendants would be activated without the supplementary ceiling tiles. Whereas on poor daylight (overcast) days, the same pendants would be activated but now together with the ceiling tiles. This finding suggests that even tough natural light may be visually less informative, it still plays a significant role in deciding which artificial light setting is activated.

At the same time, when questioning teachers about the qualities of the lighting condition in their learning spaces, almost all answered their ideal light source to be the natural light. Their preference went out to harvest and utilize the natural light as much as possible, for example by placing tables near to windows and keeping blinds open as much as possible. Though occasionally practicalities as glare and heating required them to limit or prevent natural light to enter.

These findings jointly suggest that isolating the artificial light component as defining the occupant’s visual impression of a space is invalid. Natural light plays a significant role in how the occupant treats the artificial lighting, and therefore should be informing the artificial lighting design for learning environments. However, treating artificial lighting solely as a complementary source to boost the light levels in the learning space when natural light is lacking (as what most architects typically consider the artificial lighting’s role to be in the learning space according to the interviews) does not do justice to its opportunities either. This research shows that artificial lighting’s role may be considered more broadly, for example a tool for teachers to manage their learning spaces. Yet, design of artificial and natural light is to be viewed jointly.

Figure 8.1 Available artificial light scenarios for Lighting Setting A (Standard) and Setting B (Experimental)

(A0) no lighting (A1) ceiling lighting

This study focussed on investigating the effect of the experimental settings (B), which includes the pendants, on pupil’s behaviour and learning performance relative to control setting (A) during focussedlearning activities. This type of activities typically took place in the central working area of the learning space, though the adjoining group room and podium area may be included: Often seating positions per pupil were predefined for these activities (Figure 8.2).

learning spaces

group room

central working area

podium area

Figure 8.2 Typical learning space layout with three zones: separate group room, centeral working area and podium (group instruction) area.

These focussed-learning activities however only took place during certain time intervals. During the remainder of a curricular day pupils engaged in various other types of activities. Although these are not the specific interest for this study, these activities were often observed and measured as well during the data collection as no precise distinction of the focussed-learning activities timeslots could be anticipated beforehand. These out-of-scope observations revealed two types of other typical activities that are alternated with the focussed-learning activities. These can be roughly categorized as: tutoring activities and free play activities.

• Tutoring activities take place most often in the instruction area of the respective learning space (see Figure 8.2), where pupils would all gather together seated on the podium while the teacher would lecture the entire group about a topic or following exercise or activity, or summarize the activity just undertaken. Typically, these tutoring activities would be 1o- to 15-minute long and take place both at the beginning and end of a 90-minute curricular session. Pupils would remain seated in their choosen place at or around the podium and pay attention to their teacher in front.

• Free play activities were found to take place anywhere in the learning space as well as outside with no pre-defined seating positions in place. It includes activities pupils undertake when they have finished their ‘official’ curricular work for that session. These may concern individual, social or artistic activities that allow for free talking and interaction. On the first floor, where the youngest pupils reside, free activities ranging between 15 to 45 minutes, are regularly scheduled because alternation between work and play time is required due to these pupil’s limited attention span. On the second floor, hosting the older pupil groups, free time is generally scheduled around the middle of a curricular session and lasts about 10 minutes. At both levels significant amount of movement, socializing and other playful interactions in- and outside the learning spaces took place.

The observations and interviews performed during the experiment revealed these three activity types are typically complemented by specific artificial lighting settings.

• During focussed-learning activities the ceiling tiles were almost always activated in learning spaces setup with lighting setting (A). Reasons therefor appear to, firstly, ensure good visibility for all, and secondly, to sustain pupils actively working on their task. However, when the experimental setting (B) was accessible, the pendants were almost always activated – and only at certain times supported by the ceiling tiles activated. In principle it was found that teachers preferred to only use the pendants during these activities as this would create the most evident intimate and focused room impression. However, in some circumstances the teacher would activate the ceiling tiles (completely or at a dimmed level) for example, when they noticed a few pupils working in relative “darkness” (when not enough seats at the pendant tables were available) or when natural lights’ presence was limited.

• During tutoring activities either no artificial lighting would be activated – the teacher and pupils would rely on natural light to illuminate their space (particularly when the smartboard is in use), or only the ceiling tiles would be activated. This was also the case during the observed experimental (B) sessions where pendant lighting was available. It appears to be preferred to only have gentle, uniform background lighting present and avoid any visual distractions for the pupils that may draw their attention away from the teacher and smartboard.

• During free play activities the ceiling tiles would be almost always activated; both during sessions with and without the pendants available. These activities generally don’t require traditional learning behaviour such as concentration, but rather benefit from an environment that allows for social

interactions, creativity, and physical activities to unfold. Occasionally, tables and seating would be moved aside to open up a greater play area to emerge. This situation would render the pendants unusable, or even a physical hindrance when suspended too low and pupils or the teacher could bump against. In an ideal situation, the pendants could be either removed or put up to the ceiling to prevent such hinderance.

These findings suggest the pools-of-light pattern (B) is valued most during focussed-learning activities demanding pupil concentration. While for other activities, roughly categorized in tutoring and free play activities, preference appears to go out to the standard uniform pattern, or no artificial lighting at all. This suggests a lighting system that allows for a degree of variability, provides occupants the opportunity to change between and select their preferred lighting setting according to the needs of the task or activity at hand.

It is thus not advocated that a non-uniform pools-of-light pattern is better or worse than a uniform pattern in absolute sense, but merely that alternation between these settings would accrue most overall user satisfaction, and possibly performance outcomes as one can select the most appropriate settings per curricular situation. Such adaptability of the lighting also supports teachers to deal with the diversification of curricular activities brought about by the 2014 Folkeskole reform.

Human Centred Lighting

Another form of variable lighting that is often explored jointly by the lighting and luminaire design industry and the academic community is often labelled human-centric lighting, a form of dynamic lighting. This term typically refers to lighting systems that are pre-set with multiple different settings, often different combinations of illuminance and colour temperature values, between which the occupant can alternate (see section 3.3.4). These settings generally create uniform light patterns, of which the apparent brightness and colour appearances may be varied.

These studies too found positive changes in pupil’s performance because of access to these different settings, and to limited degree uncovered some underlaying behavioural change(s) responsible thereof. Most notable findings are that combinations of relatively high light intensities and colour temperature helped pupils to focus on their learning, while combinations of relatively low intensities and colour temperatures were found to have a rather calming effect on pupils (see section 3.2.3). To a degree these findings may contribute to explain why the pools light pattern appeared favourable for focussed-learning activities as the measured lux levels on pupils’ working desk were higher when the pendants were activated (circa 500 – 600 lux, setting B) then under fully activated ceiling tiles (circa 300 – 500 lux, setting B). However, these intensity

differences are not significant enough to explain the overall effect. But what can be learned from these studies and the study presented in this thesis is that a lighting system that allows occupants to vary the lighting expression in their respective learning space, either by varying light intensity, colour or pattern benefits pupils learning.

8.1.3 Tool to Influence Pupil Behaviour

This research also explores how artificial lighting in the learning environment may, besides making things visible, also act as a tool for teachers to either encourage or discourage certain pupil behaviours. As outlined in the preceding section, a lighting system as for example used in the field experiment allows occupants to select from a range of lighting conditions, or light patterns. The non-uniform pools-of-light pattern was found to discourage certain disruptive behaviours and improve pupils’ attention to their task. While the uniform light pattern was found to better support group tutoring and free play activities – which either thrive on joint attention towards the teacher or a collaborative and social state of mind. Both situations steer away from the individual pupil and towards the group as a whole, or multiple smaller grouped teams, instead. These associations appeared true for all six teachers involved in the experiment. Matching the right lighting condition with the curricular activity at hand seems to encourage pupil behaviour in favourable ways.

The beforementioned associations between a certain light pattern and type of activity naturally formed while the teachers and pupils were experimenting with the new lighting system. They were not given any prescriptions of how to use the lighting system other than an introduction to its controls. During a post-experiment briefing these findings were presented to the entire teaching team of Frederiksbjerg School, the host of the field experiment. Their feedback suggests that most teachers believed these associations to be true, without having used the lighting system themselves. This may imply that intuitively different light settings were associated with different types of curricular activities and pupil behaviours. This may suggest other teachers, confronted with a similar lighting system, may use the lighting in a similar way.

Simple User Control

One important feature of the experimental lighting setup was its relatively simple controls. Double, wall mounted switches of a similar type and in same locations as in the pre-experiment situation were used. This allowed the teachers (and pupils) to start using the system instantly without an extensive learning curve, and make a changes to the lighting system relatively easy. This may explain why the artificial lighting system was used extensively and intuitively – as no prescriptions were provided how to use other than a brief introduction to the wall switches.

A second important feature of the lighting system was the use of pendants. These, as objects, are both well visible – ensuring the occupants would not forget about them after the novelty of the new lighting would wear off, and recognizable – most Danes would be familiar with a pendant and its function. From these findings it may be understood that for a (lighting) system implemented in learning spaces simplicity is key in order to capacitate teachers to use it well.

8.1.4 Permanently Installed and Expanded Design

An explicit and practical outcome of the field experiment was that instead of remodelling the four host learning spaces back to their original form as agreed on with the school beforehand, the teachers and school management requested for the experimental lighting systems to be installed permanently in the four learning spaces. See Figures 8.3 – 8.5 two of the learning spaces with the now permanently installed lighting systems.

Figures 8.3 – 8.5 Permanent installation of the experimental lighting in two of the four host learning spaces

And secondly, the school instructed Henning Larsen to roll out the lighting concept to other, relevant areas within the school building. Hereto a spin-off design exercise was undertaken, which lead to extensive application of pendants in both formal and informal learning spaces and places throughout the school building. See for examples hereof Figures 8.6 – 8.8.

Permanent installation of the experimental lighting system also allowed to revisit the school six month and one year later, and conduct follow-up interviews with the six teachers who initially participated about their experiences with the lighting over a longer period of time, and during all four seasons of the year. It appeared the pendant lighting had quickly become the new normal and teachers and pupils both would use it extensively. The same way-ofuse still applied; active pendants during seated, focussed activities

Figures 8.6 – 8.8 Applications of additional pendant lighting in certain informal learning areas in Frederiksbjerg Skole

both with and without the ceiling tiles to complement, and active ceiling tiles for group and tutoring activities. The pendants were however said to be used less during summer months, as often preference would go out to reside in naturally illuminated spaces.

Although during and directly after the experiment teachers had suggested for the pendants to be a potential hindrance when using the spaces for activities without furniture, in practice it hadn’t been perceived a significant issue. The few times a year this situation would arise, teachers would simply tie a knot in the suspension cords to that the pendants would be raised up. Also, none of the pendants, a year after being taken in use, had been damaged or vandalised. Maintenance personal briefly interviewed were surprised though confident in the robustness of the system. A downside however remained that these luminaires were added post-occupancy and therefore not fully integrated into the building management system (BMS). Hereto central control and automatic maintenance advice from these added luminaires was not feasible.

In essence, the permanent placement of the pendant lighting system, and follow-up studies solidified the earlier findings from the experiment: a lighting system that allows the user to vary between different light patterns, including pools-of-light, is a valuable tool for teachers to nurture and encourage pupil’s different learning mind-states.

8.1.5 Design Approach and Recommendations

The practice-orientated aim for this study is to exemplify how artificial lighting may become a constructive design tool that architects can apply to create environments or spaces that allow their occupants to perform their task or activities to the best of their abilities. Herewith suggesting that artificial lighting may be considered an environmental quality that goes beyond ensuring for appropriate visibility only. The non-conventional experimental lighting system design that was installed in the learning spaces

hosting this research’ experiment was so well received by teachers, pupils and the school, that it was kept in place for permanent use. This outcome suggests that allowance for an artificial lighting system that can be varied indeed can be an active contributor to create better supportive environments. Although this research explored one particular variation only, namely the pools-of-light condition, different designs and outcomes may be thinkable.

However, interviews with several (educational) architects revealed that artificial lighting generally is not commonly considered a feature to contribute in other ways than providing for appropriate visibility as outlined by the respective building regulations. Generally, it is designed in such way it complements natural light (if present) while at the same time consume as little energy as possible. Typically, the topic of artificial lighting would only be actively discussed with the (electrical) engineer towards the later stages of the design to ensure the selected luminaires, which are commonly placed at or near the ceiling in learning environments, harmonize well with other ceiling-based services such as ventilation outlets, ductwork, fire and emergency systems, and IT related systems. Typically, not much attention appears to be given to the specific expression of space through the artificial lighting. In this regard, the process of developing the experimental lighting design as applied in the field experiment collaboratively with the teachers, school maintenance team and responsible architects has proven successful. For example, other schools took notice and initiated their own studies to explore how their facilities could benefit from more variable artificial lighting. While the broader architectural community was informed via publications in branch-related literature, which led towards various enquiries from other practices.

The research may also point towards adaptation of the current regulations, which include predominantly recommendations to ensure for good visibility, for example to provide for a maintained illuminance level of 300 lux across the working surfaces combined with a relatively high degree of uniformity of 0.6 (as per EN 124641:2011). Such recommendations offer very little room nor motivation to aspire beyond a typical one-fits-all standardized artificial lighting design. But for both natural and artificial light, it is the architect’s responsibility to compose meaningful (which includes functional, aesthetic, healthy, economical, and sustainable) applications of light in coherence with each other, the users and their activities. The building regulations may need to allow for more scope to fulfil all of these needs.

8.2 Experimental Field Study

This section discusses the validity, reliability, repeatability and generalizability of the field experiment performed and the findings that were derived from it.

Research validity determines how true the results obtained through the data collection activities are. Or in other words, how well the results represent what is attempted to be studied. The aim for this field experiment was to investigate whether a specific artificial light pattern, namely pools-of-light, would affect pupils’ behaviour and learning performance. In order to measure change herein, three outcome variables have been appointed that could be either (positively or negatively) associated with behavioural and performance change: (1) noise during class, (2) observable disruptive behaviours, and (3) pupil’s cognitive performance. For each outcome variable a data collection protocol was set up, including various quantitative and qualitative methods, as well as corresponding data analysis procedures. The three subsequent data sets were analysed separately, and their results interpreted on their own account. Following, these results were reviewed jointly to reflect upon this research’ main question:

Does exposure to the pools-of-light pattern in the Folkeskole learning environment discourage disturbing pupil behaviours and herewith improve quietness during class? And if so, does this change significantly affect pupils’ learning performance?

This latter step allowed to arrive at the overall conclusion that the data sets tends to suggest that the pools-of-light pattern encouraged behavioural change in pupils that resulted in a calmer learning environment (less noisy) that benefits their concentration on the learning task and suggests a tendency for improved cognitive performance.

True Outcome Variables

The three outcome variables used to assess behavioural and performance implications brought about by changes to the artificial lighting, were derived from preceding research that proved these variables to be measurable and relatable to pupil behaviour and/or performance. See section 2.4 and section 3.2. for reviews of the relevant research literature.

These reviews revealed that outcome variable (2) disruptive pupil behaviour has been used by preceding researchers to successfully reflect upon changes in pupil behaviour due to certain environmental qualities, while outcome variable (3) pupil’s cognitive performance has been directly related to pupils’ ability to perform on academic tests. Though outcome variable (1) noise during class is a relatively unique outcome variable in the sense that in this field experiment noise, or sound levels, are not solely used to reveal differences between different environmental or contextual settings as preceding researchers done so far. But in this field experiment measured sound levels have also been interpretated as an indicator of change in pupil behaviour. The premise being that less noise (or

lower sound levels) during class equals less pupil-made vocal and activity noise. This assumption suggests a link between sound levels and pupil behaviour, which has not yet been explored before (to this study author’s knowledge). To establish whether such relationship between noise and behaviour is a generally viable, further studies would be required.

Intervening Variables

Research validity also refers to how well the experiment’s treatment variable, in this research is the artificial light pattern, can be considered the sole cause for any documented change in the appointed outcome variables, in this research pupils’ behaviour and performance, versus other factors (or intervening variables) that may potentially affect the appointed outcome variables too. As this study was set up as an experiment in the field, or a real-life environment, it is impossible to control for all of these potentially intervening variables. But in order to limit data contamination as much as possible, the intent for this research has therefore been to, firstly, ensure potentially intervening variables remained constant and comparable amongst the four learning spaces during the experiment. For example, the three architectural variables identified as potentially intervening (see section 5.4.1) were eliminated by selecting four relatively comparable learning spaces concerning these three variables. Certain interior design features (see section 5.4.2) we’re monitored during the experiment for change, and if occurred, corrected back to the original setup to maintain consistency.

Those identified variables that could not be omitted by means of comparability or consistency, were monitored for change during the experiment. The most challenging variable that had to be taken into account hereto was the natural lighting (or weather) condition. Luckily most of the critical days of the experiment were found to feature similar weather patterns (semi or overcast skies), limiting its interference with the data. Other indoor climate variables, including room temperature and air quality, were monitored too during the data collection activities. As were the number of pupils (section 5.4.4) and type of activities (section 5.4.5) ongoing as both were found to fluctuate significantly during the pilot studies. All data collected was taken into account during the data processing. The findings for these monitored intervening variables during the Spring Studies I and II and the autumn Study III, suggest these variables did not significantly change, or could be excluded from the data set. This strengthens the premise that the change in the artificial light pattern was the cause of change in pupil’s behaviour and performance.

However, only a limited number of fourteen potentially intervening variables have been assessed or monitored during this experimental study. There is a possibility that other variable(s) not

accounted for did play a role in the documented change in the outcome variables, pupil’s behaviour and performance. Hereto it may be concluded that significant effort has been made to exclude interference, however it cannot be ruled out completely.

The validity of the field experiment may therefore be considered reasonably strong, but it’s possible that the assumption that a link between the sound level during class and pupil behaviour exists is invalid, or that other variables not accounted for intervened.

8.2.2 Reliability

The reliability of a field experiment depends amongst others on the accuracy of the procedures and research techniques used to collect and analyse the data. This study revolved around uncovering whether pupil’s behaviour and performance would change by manipulating the artificial lighting in their learning spaces. The three outcome variables appointed to investigate if such change would occur, are: (1) noise during class, (2) observable disruptive behaviours, and (3) pupil’s cognitive performance. Different data collection techniques and analysis procedures were applied. The reliability of these processes is discussed next.

Preceding Research

These three variables surfaced from the literature review and had been investigated successfully by others before. By taking inspiration from these studies to collect and analyse the respective data, a degree of reliability of these techniques and subsequent findings may be assumed. Noise and behaviour have been evaluated for perceptible differences as what matters in this research context is how the occupants themselves would experience a change, rather than statistical differences. Cognitive performance however was evaluated purely statically and considered to reflect a change in pupil’s concentration.

Respondents

To increase reliability of findings further two pairs of learning spaces and ten groups of pupils were included in the study, increasing the pool of respondent in numbers as well as broadening their demographics. Also, the same six teachers, which each represented a stereotype of teacher (age, experience, gender) were consistently followed. This allows the findings of these studies to be relatively generalizable – at least for this school. This contextual setup also allowed to compare the collected data between the four learning spaces, and to estimate the consistency thereof. This was most evident for the sound data, which was found measured as relatively comparable ranges per room. But also, pupil behaviour was found comparable across the different rooms.

Another element to consider is bias. The teachers were key participants in the experiment because they were predominantly setting the lighting conditions and managing pupil’s learning behaviour. While data collection partly relied on their own observations about the potential effect of the experimental lighting setup. To gain trust and willingness to participate, the teachers were well informed prior to the experiment about the purpose of the study. They were also consulted about the experimental lighting design proposal as it had to be used during their daily curricular schedule and was not allowed to form a disturbance to the normal ongoing of pupils learning. Hereto they might already have had a biased opinion about how the experimental lighting may bring about certain behaviours or changes in pupils and reflect these in their interviews. However, because the experimental lighting was kept in place, there was opportunity to revisit the same teachers after six and twelve months and re-interview them. By that time the new lighting had become the new normal, and herewith their initial bias may have been diminished.

Research bias may also have played a role with the researcher herself (the author of this PhD), who acted both as the observer of pupils during class, and as the interviewer with the teachers. By being aware of the research question, and an inherent desire to uncover promising findings, qualitative research in form of observations and interviews may be prone to data collection and interpretation bias. In order to limit such bias, two steps had been taken. Firstly, the author teamed up with two ethnographic Master students (Applied Cultural Analysis, University of Copenhagen) to shadow their qualitative research work in school environments. Secondly, a consultation was held with an Associate Professor at DPU (Danmarks institute for pædagogik og uddannelse or Danish School of Education, Aarhus University) who has extensive experience in making classroom observations. Together my observation technique, focus and template were further refined. Both collaborations allowed to capacitate myself in acting as an objective observer and interviewer, as well as data interpreter.

8.2.3 Repeatability

A third aspect to evaluate the setup and procedure of the field experiment against is repeatability. Would the same results have appeared if the experiment had taken in place in other spaces of Frederiksbjerg Skole, or will the same results be repeated if the research is/was done at another time or different length of time? When designing the setup of this field experiment, significant attention was given to review all potential learning spaces within the school. Most of these appeared to be similar in their architectural detailing, materials and furnishings. Most evident differences are the window arrangement and orientation (defining

the natural light’s presence in a space), and occupant type and room usage. As natural light has been found to influence the overall visual impression of the learning space, even tough to a minor degree relative to activated artificial lighting, it may have been valuable to execute the study in two pairs of spaces on the same floor (rendering occupant type and usage the same) with both different window orientations. This would allow to study natural light’s role herein instead of studying two different occupant types and room usages. It may be that natural light has a greater impact then this study evidenced.

Whether the same results would also have emerged had the experiment taken place in another school is more problematic to judge as such a broad range of variables are at play – ranging from the architectural (and acoustic) context, to the demographics of the pupils, school culture, and importantly the teachers participating. However, the three studies that investigated the impact of dynamic lighting on primary school-aged pupil behaviour and performance (see section 3.3.4) each took place in different schools, and even countries. Nevertheless, these three studies exposed similar findings which suggests certain aspects of (artificial) lighting may stimulate certain behavioural responses that are not necessarily site or culture specific.

8.2.4 Generalizability

The fourth aspect to assess this field experiment against is generalizability, which relates to how useful the study results are for a broader group of schools. The generalizability of this experimental study is limited because of the pupil groups studied, the type of curricular activities ongoing, and the specific lighting design applied.

Pupil Demographics

This field study focused specifically on primary learning environments occupied by children aged between 6 and 12 years old. Is it not possible to speculate whether pupils aged younger or older would have exhibited similar changes, as these do not reside in the same child-development category referred to as: childhood (for further details on the categorization, see section 6.1.1).

Curricular Activities

The same accounts for the type of educational activities these pupils were undertaking whilst being observed, and noise levels measured. These are specific activities labelled: focussed-learning activities, and typically included book-based (mathematical) exercise work or reading activities. Although these activities will manifest in most contemporary primary school environments, the specific pedagogical methods and teaching approach may vary.

The field study applied one specific type of artificial lighting design, including the choice of luminaires namely pendants, to create the pools-of-light pattern. In Denmark these pendants are relatively familiar objects and associated with certain atmospheric settings. This interpretation likely differs per cultural context. Also, there may be other design solutions thinkable to create a pools-of-light pattern. Whether these would incite similar changes in pupils cannot be speculated about.

Based on these arguments, the findings from the field study as performed should be considered site-and-demographically specific and cannot be related directly to other primary school environments or pupil populations. However, within Denmark, it may be likely that similar research in comparable Folkeskole learning spaces, with similar pupil demographics, sharing the same cultural context and adhering to the same pedagogy, may reveal similar findings.

8.3 Future Research

The research presenting in this thesis builds upon preceding research in the academic fields of lighting science and environmental psychology, while positioned in the practice field of architectural (lighting) design. It has contributed with new insights to both areas, yet to further our understanding about the impact of and opportunities for artificial lighting towards occupant behaviour and performance in indoor (learning) environments, further research is required. Three suggestions to further our knowledge, and that builds upon the field experiment performed during this study are: (1) to explore implications of different artificial lighting designs on occupant behaviour, (2) to associate artificial lighting more closely with indoor environmental research, and (3) to expand practice-based research in order to engage with the design and lighting industry community to test and develop appropriate lighting design products and applications.

8.3.1 Variations in Artificial Lighting Designs

This field study only explored how two different artificial lighting patterns, namely that of the relatively standard uniform light pattern and a (non-uniform) pools-of-light pattern as created by pendants, would affect pupils’ behaviour and performance. However, various other non-uniform artificial light patterns may be thinkable, as well as other types artificial light patterns entirely. Exploring the implications of different artificial light patterns on pupil (or occupant) behaviour and concentration would allow to further grow our understanding of the artificial light pattern’s relevance for and impact on the occupants more profoundly.

The knowledge derived from this research would serve not only the associated academic fields, but also provide designers of learning spaces greater insight into how, where and in what form to apply artificial lighting in their school building designs. Where most research on artificial lighting for learning spaces thus far has focussed on the impact of two other characteristics, namely light intensity and colour temperature (see sections 3.2.1 – 3.2.3), the expression of the light pattern is largely the responsibility of the designer as the occupants’ experience thereof greatly depends on how the emitted artificial light interacts with the architectural context it is placed in. The occupant’s visual experience of light intensity and colour expressions are less reliant on the specific architectural context, and changes therein have also been successfully studied in lab settings (see section 3.2 for examples). Yet the visual experience of the artificial light pattern is highly related to the architectural context. Therefore, behavioural changes incited by artificial light patterns are best studied in realistic architectural environments.

Another benefit of studying the implications of artificial lighting in real-life field settings is that it allows the respondents under investigation to act and behave naturally, as they continue their daily activities and routines under normal conditions instead of being studied in the abstracted reality of the lab. Field studies also offer better opportunity to investigate light impacts for a considerable length of time than typically possible in lab settings. This allows occupants, who act as respondents in the experiment, time to adapt to their new situation. Future research building upon the research presented in this thesis should therefore ideally be placed in a real-life context, either in form of field studies or field experiments, to allow respondents to experience realistic artificial light patterns, and express realistic behaviours.

8.3.2 Relationship with the Indoor Environment

Artificial light is only one parameter of the indoor environment. There are other indoor environmental variables too, namely natural light, sound, temperature and air quality that ultimately jointly define, together with a broad range of architectural variables, the occupants overall experience in the built environment. Some initiatives have started to emerge in Denmark that stimulate such broad perspective research, for example “Skolernes indeklima” by Realdania, “Den Gode Indeliv” by Sustainable Build and “Lys i Skole” by Lighting Metropolis / Gate21 (see section 1.3.4 for details). These initiatives are predominantly concerned with improving the quality of life through the built (learning) environment as a whole, though the artificial lighting is often little references as a key environmental parameter. But as everything is connected, artificial lighting research could be more actively embedded in these large scale, multiple parameter research, and herewith play a more active role in shaping our indoor life quality.

Applied research in the field of the built environment, sometimes also referred to as design-based research, typically generates operational knowledge in relation to architecture's principal identifying characteristic, and that element which rests in the hands of the designer namely the organisation, materialisation and formgiving of space – including that of the light(ting).

This research is an example thereof. It explored how two different artificial lighting expressions influence the behaviour of occupants, in this case primary pupils in their respective learning spaces. Its findings provided new knowledge to the academic fields of lighting science and environmental psychology, but also provided new insights to the practice of architectural design about how the artificial lighting could be considered a design parameter to create learning spaces supportive of the prevailing pedagogy. It also provided an example of how artificial lighting can be realized, in this case in form of pendants to create the pools-of-light and ceiling-based luminaires to provide for overall illumination of a learning space.

Being embedded in practice has allowed this work to exemplify how artificial lighting can be a constructive design tool that the architectural industry can apply in designing conditions where occupants of buildings can perform their task or activities to the best of their abilities. More applied research revealing the relationship between the artificial lighting and occupant behaviour and well-being in the built environment would provide the architectural industry with constructive knowledge about what type of lighting designs may serve certain occupant activities or mood settings, as well as inspiring architects to think beyond the standard artificial lighting applications commonly applied in learning environments.

Having herewith shared the context, approach and design of this research as well as the findings and learnings collected along the way, I hope the work encourages future researchers to elaborate further on the insights achieved and to look for opportunities to detangle the relationship between artificial lighting and occupant behaviour and well-being further.

I also sincerely hope the research will inspire the built environment design community to interpret and translate the acquired new knowledge into supportive artificial lighting applications that further enhance the quality of our everyday, indoor occupant life.