Kendall Baldwin's Final Project: Glacial Formwork by Kendall Baldwin

GLACIAL FORMWORK

STABILIZING GLACIAL LAKES BY ACCRETING SACRED LANDSCAPES

Kendall Baldwin Final Project [2010-2011] Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Critic - Julia Watson

TABLE OF CONTENTS Focus • Research Objective

Precis • Thesis Abstract • Thesis Statement

Global Diversity • Topographic Shifts • Biodiversity Hotspots • Glacial Retreat • Climate Refugees • Global Warming

Regional Features • National Preserves • Trekking Destinations • Sacred Landscapes • Threatening Glacial Lakes • Population Distribution

Sacred Landscape • Nepal’s Physiographic Topography • Sacred Landscapes + Buddhist Culture • Village Life • Glacial Trekking • Glacial Lakes

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods • Critically Dangerous Glacial Lakes

Threatened Valley • Rolwaling Valley

Site Conditions • Tsho Rolpa

Drivers of Change • Contributing Factors • Design Agencies

Precedents • Operational: Avalanche Defense Wall • Organizational: Landfill Redevelopment

Strategy:Tactic • Reduction of Water Level • Thickening of Moraine Dam Wall • Creation of Sacred Space • Connection of Trekking Routes

Operation:Organization • Phasing of Watercourse + Sedimentation • Generative Landscape Ecologies • Affected User Groups

109

Material Systems • Mitigation Systems • Material Palette • Sluice Gate • Wall System

123

Manifestation • Global Impact + Application

131

Future Scenarios • Water Level Investigation: waterMARKS • Water Use Investigation: waterTOWERS • Water Use Investigation: waterRITES

137

Resources

151 3

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Biodiversity benefits people contribution to material Biodiversity contributes to relations, health, and freed

e through more than just its welfare and livelihoods. security, resiliency, social dom of choices and actions.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesis’

FOCUS

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE recoupling culture

& nature: a new agency for architecture

In the midst of economic and biospheric crises, we have a unique opportunity to redirect the course of development unfolding within our global natural reserves. Strong evidence linking the co-existence of cultural and biological diversity is reframing the global approach to protecting reserves at sacred sites. New approaches are needed to combat the assault on this diversity, which is caught in a tide of contestations, driven by the unregulated influences of the global economy.

“In this era of specialists, each sees only his problem and is unaware or intolerant of the larger frame into which it fits. It is also an era dominated by industry, in which the right to make a dollar at whatever cost is seldom challenged.” While exploring new modes of design, we will re-envision the ‘architect’, as a multi-disciplinary agent for critical change: newly traversing varied contestations in the landscape. The design agent will examine and map existing systems and their autonomous conditions with a view to creating synergies. In contested landscapes, we will be challenged to determine how design intervention as ecological prosthetic can be embedded at a moment of confluence. Mitigation and adaptation deployed through design intervention could therefore adjust potential tipping points.’ 2

Contestations arise from the intrusion of urbanization, agriculture, tourism and the compounded effects of climate change. As these drivers of change infiltrate different territories within the biosphere they migrate from urban agglomerations to remote landscapes. These landscapes are increasingly found in developing countries and face the strain of expanding demands and patterns of consumption from developed nations. At the same time, the emerging economies of China, India, Brazil and others are rapidly prospecting these territories in an effort to secure long-term critical resources that have been overexploited domestically. 1

Conflicting environmental and economic agendas have opened up a window of opportunity to reestablish the biospheric agenda as the crucial foundation upon which future expansion will most successfully proceed. On this point, the thesis will be similarly founded on the goal of interrogating global drivers by directly engaging the most valuable resources in landscapes: cultural and biological diversity.

In remote landscapes, the dual threat of overexploitation and mismanagement requires a new ethic of conservation and environmental stewardship. By ignoring these patterns we will risk approaching tipping points that could catastrophically reduce the capacity of ecosystems to provide essential services. By acknowledging the links between biological and cultural diversity we may formulate the antagonist for the design process. With a long-term vision to slow climate change through the sustenance of biological diversity, the design process will seek to re-imagine the global approach to protecting humanity, through the deployment of proto-ecological design strategies. The landscape architects role in this mission is to re-couple culture and nature, connecting new design agendas to traditional ecological knowledge and scientific expertise. In the process, new material technologies will be introduced that systematically restructure the landscape and improve social and economic conditions. Design strategies will consider the multi-scalar and multivalent dimensions of the drivers of change and envision alternative futures using scenario analysis models.

IUCN Shaping A Sustainable Future Report

Figure 1.1 Photograph of the the Buddhist prayer flags Photo Credit: Tom Dempsey [photoseek]

Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, p13

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Given the growing demands increased pressures on eco and diffusion of technologie efficiency of resource use drivers of change such as cli

s for ecosystem services and osystems, the development es designed to increase the or reduce the impacts of imate change are essential.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Millenium Ecosystem Assessment â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesisâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

PRECIS

INVESTIGATION thesis abstract Architecture of the 21st century seeks to be innovative, not for the sake of artistry, but for the sake of the greater good. We live in a time that is threatened by the global threats and impacts of climate change. Despite this, our society seeks to continue its reckless behavior and further provoke the onset of environmental instability. The cultures and civilizations most at risk of suffering the consequences of environmental haste are those that reside in the seclusion of developing countries. Consequently, these people are not at fault for the corollaries that they will inevitably inherit and, as can be assumed, are hardly prepared to deal with the ramifications that these disasters would have on their communities. Because of this, it is the responsibility of designers worldwide to seek innovative solutions to impending disasters that are imminent to ill-prepared and perhaps unsuspecting societies at a global scale. One of the most aggressive results of global climate change is the rapidly increasing rate of glacial melt. Not only does this pressure universal fresh water supply, but the excessive water presence threatens destruction to many villages residing in higher lands. The onslaught of glacial lake outburst floods is increasing rashly in the high lands of the Himalayas. The rupturing of glacial lakes immediately threatens downstream communities that lie in its path, but also urban civilizations that reside up to 100 kilometers beyond the origin of the burst. It is such extreme, unforeseeable disasters that warrant mitigating solutions from today’s most groundbreaking, inventive designers.

presence of the lake must be respected and preserved. Because of this, the infrastructural solution must be one that is operative in nature and synthesized with the landscape. Its ecological presence must be generative, accreting over time so as to avoid a harsh introduction into the landscape. This accretive process, furthermore, will allow the earth to assist in naturally formulating an infrastructural resolution as opposed to man harshly inflicting one upon a naive environment. Considering all of these components, it’s intuitive to design a project that revolves around the natural cycles and flows of hydrology and topography. By manipulating the way water is extracted from the existing lake and while capturing some of its useful components like suspended sediment, it’s possible to use the lake and its own assets to, in essence, protect itself. This harnessed sediment will assist in the creation of a new topography of glacial formwork that will add bulk mass to the dam wall and add structure and stability to its currently unsteady state. The new hydrological landscape that is set in place to allow for the development of glacial formwork will be detailed in such a way that pockets of unique spatial conditions are created within the new topography. This project seeks to mitigate the effects of natural disasters by designing and implementing a projective approach to disaster-based architectural design as opposed to strategies that are based in reaction. The test-bed selected for this thesis’ application is Tsho Rolpa glacial lake, Nepal’s most threatening glacial lake, in the sacred Rolwaling Valley near Mount Everest in northeastern Nepal. Acknowledging the region as a sacred landscape and wanting to not only preserve, but reinvigorate the religious connection that cultures present in the area share with the land, the overall organization of the infrastructural glacial formwork is to be predicated on the architectural components of traditional Buddhist stupas. Being generally large and horizontal in nature, the occupational terraced construction will provide the opportunity for local villagers and seasonal trekking tourists to inhabit the new glacial topography while simultaneously providing structure and stability to the dam wall through the increase mass of compacted sediment. Beyond acting purely as an organizational device, the development of a new landscape in the form of a traditional religious centerpiece truly allows for the synthesis of native cultural practice in the existing natural environment while both literally and figuratively recoupling culture and nature.

Glacial lake outburst floods are incalculable in the sense that their occurrence and projected amount of caused damage cannot be precisely estimated. Because of this unknown, it is hard to gauge what amount and scale of an intervention should be deployed to alleviate their destructive effects. Despite specificity of figures, what we do know is that all glacial lake outburst floods loom and threaten the lives of thousands of communities and villages, not to mention the million dollars worth of infrastructure they will inevitably damage in their wake. Therefore, a necessary intervention would couple a moderate investment with far-reaching benefits. Because these lakes are located in extremely isolated environments that are, typically, sacred in nature, the proposed method of disaster prevention must synthesize not only with the lake’s climatic environment, but the lake’s cultural and religious environment as well. Despite how threatening these lakes are to indigenous communities, their presence is fundamentally sacred, so the validity and

PURSUIT thesis statement The objective of this thesis seeks to capitalize on the topographic shifts and hydrological flows in mountainous regions to establish the framework for a generative landscape composed of glacial formwork that stabilizes glacial lakes through the accretion of sacred landscapes and reinvigorates cultural life within indigenous communities.

Photo Credit: Tom Dempsey [photoseek]

Figure 2.1 Photograph of the Boudhanath stupa in Kathmandu

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;It has been proven that the of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s natural ecosy rapidly during the secon century than at any other

e structure and functioning ystems have changed more nd half of the twentieth r time in human history.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesis’

GLOBAL DIVERSITY

global relationship of biological

cultural diversity Understanding the relationship and impact that biodiversity and cultural diversity have on, not only one another, but also their impact on or the changes to them due to the influences of climate change and globalization, is a key investigation being approached in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s society. In recent years, it has become more and more apparent that biological and cultural diversity are linked to one another, be it positively or negatively, and that the richness of their diversity, both individually and as a collective unit, is largely dependent upon the state of our environment. Because the environment is facing an age where globalization and climate change are rapidly destroying the wealth of diversity at a global scale, it is important to document and map some of the most pressing environmental issues so that pinpoints can be recorded in areas that are flourishing, being destroyed and most importantly, those regions that are approaching a tipping point, where intervention, constructive or destructive, can be the deciding factor of whether or not that society persists. To localize regions that are severely affected by the above elements and in most need of a design intervention, a selected series of mapping various traits of both biodiversity and cultural diversity can be completed to understand what, if any, relationship these issues have to one another. For the purposes of the development of this thesis, the issues that were mapped considered highly prominent and influential at a global scale were: terrain at high altitudes, land surface temperature increase, biodiversity hot spots, regions of glacial thinning and countries with high amounts of climate refugees. Once this information is displayed graphically, and overlaps are accounted for, it becomes apparent that the largest amount of overlap of these five issues of inquiry is overwhelmingly populated in South Asia. Not only are these issues present, but they are situated in a dense condition, suggesting that not only are these issues present and likely related, but that perhaps the state of one issue is heavily dependent upon one or more of the other issues at play. This is to become the basis for further studies that take place at increasingly refined scales, as multi-scalar investigations reveal new information and data while simultaneously revealing new, and often unexpected, relationships between the factors at play. The discovery of previously unknown relationships is the key to both the problem and solution as the reveal of this hidden data will often be the source of inspiration for innovative design solutions that will counter the declining health of our earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s environment locally, regionally and globally.

Photo Credit: Matthew Schienfelder [living earth impressions]

Figure 3.1 Photograph of a river valley in central Nepal

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Figure 3.2 Global map highlighting areas of terrain at high and low altitudes

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flora and fauna in a region. Native vegetation, for example, is negatively affected by invasive species which aggravate the environment in such a way that, geologically, no longer stimulates plant growth. Additionally, increased precipitation has altered the level and flow of waterways so much that soil and graded landscapes can no longer successfully facilitate structural stability.

topographic shifts Topographic conditions directly influence the richness and scarcity of biological and cultural diversity within a given region. Native flora and fauna develop and adapt to their environment’s natural conditions. Species that are compatible with a given region with flourish in that area, while those that aren’t will diminish in the location but likely relocate to an environment whose conditions are more hospitable to its needs and qualities. This equitable balance formed by a harmonious relationship between species and environment is rarely at an equilibrium as there are countless extraneous influences that factor into the equation and thus alter the steady balance of the ideal relationship. More often than not, the extraneous influences tend to be harmful, leading to a reduction of the diversity of

Regions that are most affected by this imbalanced relationship are those embedded within topographic extremes, like coastlines or high mountains. Their geologic, climatic and topographic conditions allow for a natural richness of biodiversity but are also the areas most prone to suffer negative impacts from environmental shifts. Regions with extreme and unique topography are the largest shareholders of the earth’s biodiversity but, consequently, have the most to lose as they possess delicate ecosystems that are suffering catastrophically from environmental disruption. Thus, these are the areas in need of protection.

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Figure 3.3 Global map depicting areas of high biological diversity

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Tibetan Plateau, running from hundreds of kilometers along the northern border of Nepal.

biodiversity hotspots

Stretching in an arc over 3,000 kilometers in length, the Himalaya biodiversity hotspot includes all of the world’s mountain peaks higher than 8,000 meters, including Mt. Everest, as well as several of the world’s deepest river gorges.1 The abrupt rise of the Himalayan Mountains from less than 500 meters to over 8,000 meters results in a diversity of ecosystems that range, in only 150 kilometers, from alluvial grasslands and subtropical forests along the foothills to alpine meadows above the tree line.2

As previously mentioned, biodiverse regions tend to situation themselves within areas of rich topographic quality. These biodiversity hotspots become areas that possess a wealth of species, flora and fauna alike, which then makes them an asset to every type of human civilization. Biodiversity can coexist with humans and flourish as long as it is not overexploited or presented with catalysts that disrupt its natural environment. Unfortunately, due to climate change and environmental shifts, many naturally biodiverse areas are suffering from unsustainable drivers of change that are both disrupting and ruining the natural habitat. One of the most naturally diverse regions that is suffering exponentially from negative climatic issues is that os Southeast Asia. The most biodiverse area within this global spectrum is the

1 2

Millenium Ecosystem Assessment - ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being: Biodiversity’ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment - ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being: Biodiversity’

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Figure 3.4 Global map locating regions of increased glacial melt

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agriculture and tourism initially, it will soon cause long term problems. A reduction in glacial melt and runoff and, ultimately, the depletion of glacial ice will greatly affect both ecosystems and civilizations as there will be an onslaught of greater instances of soil erosion, flooding, habitat depletion, deforestation, drought and sea level rise, among countless other issues.4

glacial retreat Glacial retreat has been occurring since 1850 and affects the availability of fresh water for both irrigation and domestic use as well as the obligatory needs of animals and natural vegetation. The dependency on glacial melt is threatening by the increasingly rapid rate of glacial retreat due to extreme climate change and global warming. The environmental and ecological imbalance has either threatened or completely diminished a number of glaciers throughout the world, specifically in the Himalayas of Southeast Asia. The demise of glaciers in this region will have a large impact on water supplies as the fresh water in this area affect over 2 billion people. The Tibetan Plateau, for example, contains the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s third-largest store of ice.3 While the fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for 3

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4 Millenium Ecosystem Assessment - â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Ecosystems and Human Well Being: Water and Wetlandsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Glacial Retreat in the Nepal Himalaya

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Figure 3.5 Global map encompassing origin and host countries of climate refugees

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delicate ecosystems that are being drastically affected by environmental drivers and also tend to attract the presence of many cultures and civilizations, these regions are the locations that tend to be the origin points for this new way of climate refugees. Once they are displaced from their homes, climate refugees tend to migrate to more urbanized areas that are less prone to the disasters that have just forcibly relocated them. This then leads to over-densification and over-consumption of natural resources which further perpetuates and exhausts the cycle of environmental degradation that caused the initial migration. A region in which this is rapidly occurring is Southeast Asia, specifically within the country of Nepal and along the Tibetan Plateau.

climate refugees A new phenomena in the global arena that has begun to present itself since the onset of increased climate change is the development of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;climate refugees.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; A climate refugee is a person who has been displaced due to climatically induced environmental disasters.5 These disasters are a direct result of incremental and rapid ecological change that is resulting in the elevated magnitude of drought, desertification, temperature increase, sea level rise, and the more frequent occurrence of extreme weather conditions and events such as cyclones, hurricanes, monsoons and mass flooding. All of these issues are causing a pattern of mass global migration as well as border conflicts. Because areas rich in biodiversity possess the most 5

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Examining Spatiotemporal Urbanization Patterns in Kathmandu Valley

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Figure 3.6 Global map highlighting areas most severely affected by global warming

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threshold of extremely dangerous climate change, which was a trait previously reserved for an increase of 4 degrees Celsius.7 In the extreme worst case scenario, we could see a 4 degree rise by 2060, which would bring upon an onslaught of severe droughts throughout the world and cause millions of people and civilizations to seek refuge as their ecosystems and environments would collapse.

global warming Global warming has become one of the most threatening and complicated issue facing our generation. As the scientific community continues to warn the world of the rising dangers from the ongoing buildup of human-related greenhouse gases, mainly produced by the burning of fossil fuels and carbon emissions, the lack of international and political organization makes climate change and global warming a difficult task to address and mitigate. Scientists have claimed that societies will still be able to function as long as we do not surpass a 2 degree Celsius increase in global surface temperature within our lifetimes.6 At this point, there is little to no chance of maintaining the rise to less than 2 degrees and the impacts associated with those 2 degrees have been revised upwards so that it now represents the 6

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Millenium Ecosystem Assessment - ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being: Synthesis’

Figure 3.7 Comprehensive global map depicting an overlay of all 5 environmental factors of research and investigation on the following spread 25

Terrain at high altitudes

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glacial thinning

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â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Over the past 50 years ecosystems more rapidly a comparable period of time in rapidly growing demands fo fibre and fuel. This has res largely irreversible loss in th

s, humans have changed and extensively than in any n our history, largely to meet or food, fresh water, timber, sulted in a substantial and he diversity of life on Earth.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Millenium Ecosystem Assessment â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesisâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

REGIONAL FEATURES

regional relationship of biological

cultural diversity The factors of globalization permeate political boundaries and affect nations and peoples all over the world. It is easy to understand the hardships that countries face as a whole, but in order to implement change, we have to analyze the relationship of biocultural diversity to climate change on a much more localized level. Drawing upon the previous exercise where biocultural diversity was investigated at a global level, it became apparent that southeast Asia was a clear hotspot for the specific traits investigated; terrain at high altitudes, land surface temperature increase, biodiversity hot spots, areas of glacial thinning and countries with a large amount of climate refugees; specificially in the regions of Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. All of these aspects tended to, not only overlap in this region, but overlap at an alarming proportion. To further disect the relationship of biodiverstiy and cultural diversity in this region, additional features were mapped to understand the impact of their relationship on one another; natural topography, national preserves, trekking destinations, sacred landscapes, potentially dangerous glacial lakes and population distribution. Once all of these factors were mapped, it became apparent that they converged along the northern border of Nepal, and ran along the southern border of Tibet, following the Tibetan plateau. Now that issues of biocultural diversity have been mapped and understood in relation to globalization and climate change, the pressing issues at hand can be better understood and the ability to formulate a proper design response to alleviate the factors at play becomes much more tangible.

Photo Credit: Blaine Franger [destination: Nepal]

Figure 4.1 Photograph of a terraced hillside landscape in northern Nepal

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Figure 4.2 Country map of Nepal marking national wildlife preserves and parks

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regions, a number of national parks and preserves have been established thoughout the country at large. To further prove that all of Nepal consists of unique landscapes, ecosystems and biological diversity, these national preserves are scattered throughout the entire country. The concentration of the preserves, though they vary in size, increases in northern Nepal, near the Tibetan border, where the valleys of the high mountains have become protective refuges for species of all kinds to exist and flourish without threat of harm.

national preserves The climate of Nepal varies from subtropical to arctic regions over a span of approximately 140 kilometers.1 Within that physical and climatic span exist 5 separate physiographic regions that provide a wide range of natural resources, the most prominent being water supply from the Himalayas. Beyond its resource capacity, the physiographic composition of Nepal has turned the entire country into a biodiversity hotspot. Its diverse topography and rich species count has made it one of the most precious and threatened ecosystems in the entire world.

While these national preserves are monitored and protected from both man-made and natural dangers, they are still threatened by the overwhelming impacts of global climate change. The increase of climate shifts and the accellerated occurrences of natural disasters risk the safety and security of the thousands of species of flora and fauna that reside in these protected lands.

The ecosystems present in Nepal provide rich havens for the existence and flourishment of flora and fauna biodiversity. In the pursuit to protect and preserve these naturally diverse 1

potentially dangerous glacial lakes

NAPA Workshop - â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Nepal Case Studyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

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Figure 4.3 Country map of Nepal highlighting popular trekking regions

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summits that people are curious to explore. The four most heavily sought after trekking destinations are located within the Annapurna, Everest, Langtang and Mustang regions.3 Consisting of strenuous trails and some of the highest mountains in the world, these areas see a heavy amount of traffic throughout the trekking season.

trekking destinations Nepal is particularly noteworthy for its number and variety of beginner and expert level trekking regions. The vast majority of tourists that visit Nepal do so because they are participating in a trekking excursion to one of Nepal’s Himalayan peaks. Overall, trekking has led to a 40% increase in the country’s overall tourist percentage over the course of the past decade.2 The spike in tourism has assisted Nepal’s lackluster economy by catalyzing financial gains and has allowed for the development and maintenance of established trekking routes and facilities.

The trekking routes in these regions have rudimentary, but adequate, facilities for the adventurers and caravans that pass through their sites. Providing areas to camp as well as tea houses to eat, drink, bathe and re-stock on supplies and equipment, these base camp facilities become the lifelines of seasonal trekkers and their only real glimpse of civilization in these extreme, isolated landscapes. Situated few and far between, the real emphasis of these trekking excursions is to leave developed, urban conditions behind and embrace the beauty and ecological diversity that the natural environment possesses.

The most popular trekking destinations, as noted in Figure 3.10, are generally along Nepal’s northern border shared with Tibet. This is due to the sheer number of peaks and

‘Mountain Tourism in Nepal: An Overview on the Sustainable Inclusion of Local Communities.’

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Figure 4.4 Country map of Nepal marking the Sacred Himalayan Landscape

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As previously alluded to, the natural environment, in and of itself, is a prominent sacred component in traditional Buddhist and Hindu practices. Followers of these religions worship particular peaks, glaciers, valleys and rivers as sacred deities. This strong connection with the landscape led to the establishment of the Sacred Himalayan Landscape in northeastern Nepal many centuries ago. This region, highlighted above in Figure 3.11, consists of Nepal’s most sacred physical deities. Many religious communities have been established in this area, consisting of both laymen people of the holy order. In addition to worshipping the land and celebrating a number of rituals and festivals in the sacred hills, these communities have erected a variety of religious monuments, varying in style and scale, throughout the landscape, particularly along trekking routes. The monuents that are built are typically small stupas strung with colorful prayer flags, rock cairns marking holy routes and viewpoints, and rock walls that define and partition sacred plots throughout the hills.

sacred landscapes Religion is an immensely important component to daily life of the people of Nepal. 90% of the country’s citizens practice traditional Buddhism or Hinduism, making religious life an integral cultural feature.4 Because of this, much of the built environment, in addition to the natural environment, possesses a certain degree of religious value. A number of Buddhist gompas [religious monasteries and learning centers for monks and villagers] and stupas [sacred monuments and landmarks] are situated throughout the urban contexts and natural environment. These structures serve as religious centers for the devout community to gather and worship and celebrate traditional holy days and festivals.

potentially dangerous glacial lakes

Bahandar - ‘Buddhism in Nepal: A Brief Historical Introduction’

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Figure 4.5 Country map of Nepal highlighting its 21 potentially dangerous glacial lakes

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is causing some of these lakes to swell, increasing the pressure on its unstable earth dam wall. When the amount of water pressure surmounts the resistance threshold of the earth dam, the glacial lake then ruptures, sending an enormous amount of surging water through narrow, villagepopulated valleys, destroying most everything in its path.

threatening glacial lakes Glacial lakes, which will be further discussed in a subsequent section, are very prominent features in the northern Nepali landscape, specifically in the glacial region of the Himalayas situated within the Tibetan Plateau. There are 2,323 total glacial lakes residing in Nepal at the base of its many glaciated peaks.5 These lakes, typically situated at the pinnacle of a mountainous valley, serve a number of purposes, most commonly as water resources and sacred springs to villages and religious commuities that lie downstream.

Of the 2,323 existing glacial lakes in Nepal, 21 are considered critical and potentially dangerous, meaning they are on the verge of rupturing.6 19 of these 21 critical lakes reside in the Sacred Himalayan Landscape, threatening a number of sacred lands and communities. As of now, there is no system available to decrease or completely avoid the chance of a burst from these lakes. Because of this, the indigenous village communities that reside in their downstream wake have no refuge of protection or security.

The vast majority of these glacial lakes are not threatening environmental features but, due to the onset of rapidly accellerating global climate change, excessive glacial melt

WWF - ‘An Overview of Glaciers, Glacier Retreat and Subsequent Impacts in Nepal, India and China.’

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Figure 4.6 Country map of Nepal noting its distribution of population

At 147,000 square kilometes, Nepal is the home to roughly 27.1 million people.7 With China to its north and India surrounding its 3 other sides, Nepal’s economy faces the uphill battle of rectifying highly skewed development indices. For example, access to electricity, drinking water and telecommunications are far outnumbered and barely accessible to the millions of citizens living on less than $2 USD per day.8

Agriculture is the main economic practice, providing livelihoods for the majority of the country’s populace. Though agriculture is generally more fertile in the southern lands, it occurs in the north as well. Nepal also has one of the highest population densities in the world with respect to cultivatable land. During the 2001-2002 fiscal year, agriculture’s share in the gross domestic product was 37.9% with the total land used for agricultural operation reaching past 20% of the total land area throughout the country.9 Products that are most actively cultivated are sugarcane, tobacco, jute and grain.

The southern half of Nepal is more heavily occupied than the northern half, as the tropical climate in the southern Terai plains and the warm and dry weather in the hills and middle mountain region is much more suitable to human occupation than the high Himalayans along the northern border

population density

adjacent to the Tibetan Plateau. Despite the severe weather conditions in the norther region of the country, there are a number of villagers and religious communites that have established communities within the mountainous valleys. The profitable aspect about residences in these regions is that they have an unrestrained access to rich biodiversity, such as natural vegetation, fertile agricultural soil and pure glacial water.

population distribution

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NAPA Workshop - ‘Nepal Case Study’ NAPA Workshop - ‘Nepal Case Study’

NAPA Workshop - ‘Nepal Case Study’

Figure 4.7 Comprehensive country map depicting an overlay of all 6 factors of research and investigation on the following spread 37

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alaya landscape

potentially dangerous glacial lakes

population density

‘The pattern of “winners” an ecosystem changes, and of ecosystem changes o and indigenous peoples, taken into account in

nd “losers” associated with in particular the impact on poor people, women, has not been adequately management decisions.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesis’

SACRED LANDSCAPE

Photo Credit: FlashEarth Satellite Photography

Figure 5.1 Satellite image depicting Southeast Asia and the Tibetan Plateau

• The Terai: The southern most ecological region of Nepal, this area is the northern border of the Indo-Gangetic plain. It extends nearly 800 kilometers from east to west and approximately 30-40 kilometers north to south. The average elevation of this region rests below 750 meters.2 • The Siwalik: Frequently referred to as the Churia Hilla, elevations in this regions stretch from 700-1,500 meters Because of its loose ‘friable’ nature and extensive deforestation, this area is prone to frequent landslides and contribute largely to sediment load in Nepali rivers. 3 • The Middle Mountains: Commonly known as the Mahabharat range, this series of mountain ranges lies between 1,500-2,700 meters in elevation. It is sliced in many areas by antecedent rivers and is the first great barrier to monsoon clouds and high precipitation levels that occur along its southern slope. 4 • High Mountains: These mountains range between 2,2004,000 meters in elevation and define a climate of fairly cool and temperate conditions. Known for its phyllite, shists and

nepal’s physiographic topography The geography of Nepal is one of its most unique and interesting assets. Running a north-south length of 800 kilometers parallel to the Himalayan axis, Nepal’s northsouth width spans a mere 140 kilometers. Within its 150,000 square kilometers of land area, Nepal possesses 5 distinct physiographic regions that range from southern tropical forests to snow and ice covered Himalayas in the north.1 Overall a cross-section of the country reveals that the dense environment and impressive topography of Nepal progresses from altitudes of less than 100 meters in the southern Terai plain to above 8,000 meters in the peaks in the north. These 5 physiographic regions are, as such, divided into 5 ecological regions, the Terai, the Siwalik, the Middle Mountains, the High Mountains and the High Himalayas. 1

‘Nepal’s Biodiversity Hotspots’

3 4

ICIMOD - Nepal Terai ICIMOD - Nepal Siwalik ICIMOD - Nepal Mountains

Photo Credit: Blaine Franger + Michael Katz [destination: Nepal]

Figure 5.2 Series of photographs depicting the physiographic regions of Nepal

fauna. Biogeographically, the Himalayan Mountain Range straddles a transition zone between the Palearctic and IndoMalayan realms. Species from both realms are represented in the hotspot. Of the estimated 10,000 species of plants in the Himalaya hotspot, about 3,160 are endemic, as are 71 genera. 7 Additionally, about 300 mammal species have been recorded in the Himalayas, including a dozen that are considered endemic, along with approximately 280 species of reptiles and amphibians with over 90 of their combined species considered endemic. 8

quartzite, the soil in this region is generally shallow and resistant to weathering. 5 •High Himalayas: Possessing the greatest elevation shift of all 5 phyiographic regions, the high Himalayan range stretches from an elevation of 4,000 meters to over 8,000 meters. Eight of the highest peaks in the world reside within this territory, including such infamous peak as Mount Everest. Climatic conditions in this region are alpine as the snowline lies at 5,000 meters in the east and 4,000 meters in the west. Because the area lying north of this region restricts the entry of monsoon moisture, it has a relatively dry, desertlike climate. 6

Despite being remote, the country’s varying regions have not been spared from the impacts of human-induced biodiversity loss. Acts of preservation and conservation are occurring in increments, but the delicate ecosystems of Nepal are facing degradation at alarming rates. The richness of the country’s environment can’t maintain itself with the rapidly inreasing magnitude of climate change.

This range of physiographic regions provides for a plethora of rich ecosystems to develop throughout the gelogical strands of the country and become home to some of the world’s most unique and precious species of flora and 5 6

ICIMOD - Nepal Mountains ICIMOD - Nepal Himalayas

‘Nepal’s Biodiversity Hotspots’ ‘Nepal’s Biodiversity Hotspots’

Photo Credit: National Geographic

Figure 5.3 Image of a Buddhist gompa in the Sacred Himalayan Landscape

sacred landscapes

enormous variation in elevation - from subtropical lowlands to high peak like Mount Everest - which creates a complex mosaic of rich biodiversity. Buddhist beliefs are common to indigenous communities in this area. Appropriately so, as the natural environment in this region holds sacred and traditional beliefs in beyuls and ters - or hidden lands and treasures - reflecting a culture that balances people’s needs with the well-being of the environment.

+ buddhist culture

Buddha was said to be born in the Shakya kingdom which rests in the Lumbini zone of Nepal.9 Because of this, Buddhist influences are evident in the culture of the Nepalese people. While only 11% of Nepal’s population actively practices traditional Buddhism, the cultural implications of the religion are far-reaching.10 Because of this, the Buddhist population has been increasing at an alarming rate and the practicers of Hinduism have been slowly decreasing.

While revering the natural environment and upholding its sacred values, the devout religious communities in this area often erect monuments that become centerpieces for their daily worshipping rituals and traditional holy festivals. These monuments manifest themselves in a number of shapes and sizes but, ultimately, possess the same magnitude of value.

The highest concentration of Buddhists in Nepal lies in the north along the Tibetan border. It is in this same area that the Sacred Himalayan Landscape resides. This region, stretching over nine and a half million acres, consists of an 9

The first type of sacred built construction is the Buddhist gompa, or monastery.11 These ecclesiastical fortifications of learning and lineage are very commonplace and are spread 11

Bahandar - ‘Buddhism in Nepal: A Brief Historical Introduction’ van Kooij - ‘Religion in Nepal’

Bahandar - ‘Buddhism in Nepal: A Brief Historical Introduction’

Photo Credit: Blaine Franger [destination: Nepal]

Figure 5.4 Series of photographs representing the Buddhist culture in Nepal

piles of stones. Varying in size from small stone markers to entire artifical hills, and in complexity from loose, conical rock piles to delicately balanced sculptures, these rock piles are often painted and otherwise decorated for religious marking and representation.

throughout Tibet, India, Bhutan and Nepal, particularly in the Sacred Himalayan Landscape. While their design details vary fro region to region, they all follow a sacred geometrical mandala design of a central prayer hall, for prayer and meditation, flanked by attached living accommodations for the residing monks.12

A popular form of decorating stupas and rock cairns is the adornment with Buddhist prayer flags. These flags, colorful panels of rectangular cloth inscribed with Buddhist texts, are often strung on these structures, as well as mountain ridges and high peaks, to bless the monument and its surroundings. They typically come in five colors, each representing one of the earth’s natural elements - sky, air, fire, water and earth - and are arranged from left to right in the specific order of blue, white, red, green and yellow.13 While they do not carry prayers to gods, they are used to promote peace, compassion, strength and wisdom to the area. It’s said that these values permeate the region as the wind blows and good will is spread into all pervading space.

A gompa may be accompanied by any number of stupas, which are mound-like structures, containing Buddhist relics, that are used by Buddhists as a place of worship. Beginning as a simple mound of mud and/or clay, stupas evolved into pagoda-like large hemispherical mounds with features such as fenced enclosures, gateways, square platforms with railings, canopies and a circumambulatory around the stupa itself. Surrounding stupas are a number of rock cairns, man-made 12

Bahandar - ‘Buddhism in Nepal: A Brief Historical Introduction’

Photo Credit: Johan Van Damme [PBase]

Figure 5.5 Image of Beding, a hillside village in northeastern Nepal

and trekking epeditions thoughout the Himalayas, most commonly Mount Everest. Because of this profession of employment, Sherpas are generally renowned explorers of the Himalayan region and serve as guides and porters for expeditioners in the region. Because of their residence at high altitudes, they have developed a particular hardiness to combat their extreme living conditions. A large portion of these Sherpa climbers are so able because their bodies have naturally modified and created a genetic adaptation to living in such high, extreme altitudes, resulting in the such abilities as breathing efficiently in low oxygen conditions.

village life As described in the previous section, a number of religious Busddhist communities reside in the Sacred Himalayan Landscape of northern Nepal. These communities are typically Sherpa villages. The Sherpa people are an ethnic group from most mountainous regions of Nepal, specifically in the high Himalayas. They migrated to this region from eastern Tibet within the last 300-400 years. This migration was brought on by a search for the beyul, which initially brought the Sherpas to settle in the Solukhumbu district before later moving further westward.14

The nearly 5 million Sherpas that inhabit the Sacred Himalayan Landscape live in extreme poverty.15 Because of their impoverished state and remote location, these undeveloped communities are forced to live off of the land completely out of the sheer necessity of survival, causing unsustainable practices. Taking up residence in isolated valleys high in the Himalayas does not offer many forms

Beyond being a description of ethnic culture, the term Sherpa is often used to refer to local peoples, typically men, who are employed as guides for both mountaineering 14

Fisher - ‘Sherpas: Reflection on Change in Himalayan Nepal’

WWF - ‘The Sacred Himalayan Landscape’

Photo Credit: Blaine Franger [destination: Nepal]

Figure 5.6 Series of photographs describing daily life of a Nepal villager

emphasizes mysticism and incorporates shamanistic practices and local deities. Because of this, the Sherpa people believe in numerous gods and demons who are believed to inhabit every mountain, cave and forest. These gods and various deities have to be worshipped or appeased through daily rituals and practices that have been woven into the fabric of traditional Buddhist life. Mount Everest, for example, is referred to as ‘Chomolungma’ and is worshipped as the ‘Mother of the World.’17

of livelihood aside from mountaineering or agricultural cultivation. Due to climatic conditions, the main item of fruitful vegetation is potatoes, resulting in an immense amount of potato plots throughout the area.16 Partitioned off by small stone walls, these fields lie at the base of the valley, near running streams. In addition to agricultural plots are wildlife plots, where the Sherpas allow their yaks and goats to graze. Not far from these plots, villages begin. Because the valleys in this region are strikingly steep and narrow, most village construction manifests itself as hillside towns extruding from the existing topography. Often time, the hills are not even carved down to flat terraces to be constructed on, the villagers homes are delicately nestled into the hillside. These houses are usually stone and earthen structures enclosing one main space for families to occupy. Sherpas belong to a sect of Tibetan Buddhism that 16

NAPA - ‘A Nepal Case Study’

Bahandar - ‘Buddhism in Nepal: A Brief Historical Introduction’

Photo Credit: Joseph Puryear

Figure 5.7 Image of one of Nepal’s many great trekking routes, the Everest trail

Tibetan Plateau are melting and receding faster than any other place on earth. As the world’s third largest temporary storage containment of ice and fresh water, the rapid depletion of this water source will soon be a destructive issue for thousands of dependent downstream communities. Glaciers now are retreating at rates of 20 meters to 100 meters per year with most of their potentially useful melt instead being subject to flooding, soil erosion and pollution as opposed to sources of drinking water and agricultural practice.20 Given the fact that the melt of the Himalayan glaciers feed nearly half of the world’s population, their protection, care and maintenance is of utmost importance.

glacial trekking Nepal is home to 3,252 glaciers, totaling a striking 5,323 square kilometers of surface area with an estimated ice reserve of 481 cubic kilometers.18 Therefore, glaciers are an important method of storage of freshwater in Nepal, as they accumulate mass during the monsoon and winter seasons and provide meltwater to lower elevations during the dry, summer season. It has been estimated that Nepali river discharge contributes up to 70% of the water that the Ganga gains during the dry season.19

Nepal has many of the premiere trekking routes in the world, including trails to and around the earth’s highest peaks. The major percentage of tourists that visit the country of Nepal are seeking trekking adventures and the country is prepared to facilitate all manners of trekking styles and destinations. Nepal welcomes extreme lifestyle trekkers that take years

Because glaciers are excellent indicators of climate change, Nepali glaciers have provided a reliable place of opportunity to study the impacts of global climate change. Scientists have determined that the glaciers lying in and near the

20 WWF - ‘An Overview of Glaciers, Glacier Retreat and Subsequent Impacts in Nepal, India and China.’

18 WWF - ‘An Overview of Glaciers, Glacier Retreat and Subsequent Impacts in Nepal, India and China.’ 19 ‘Watershed Management in Nepal: Challenges and Constraints.’

Photo Credit: Blaine Franger [destination: Nepal]

Figure 5.8 Series of photographs of Nepal’’s trekking routes and facilities

and supportive team of guides, cooks, sherpas as well as porters that accompany you throughout your journey. All necessary trekking gear is carried by the porter and meals are prepared entirely by the cooks, meaning that trekkers are obligated to carry nothing more than a small bag of personal items as required for the day of excursion. Beyond trekking goods, all methods of transportation , local permits, taxies and entrance fees to national parks are covered as part of the trekking program.

planning and detailing their expeditions as well as tourists whose unforeseen interest in exploring the incredible landscape of Nepal leads them to the trail to Everest’s Base Camp. There are a few styles of trekking in Nepal, most popular of which are lodge trekking and organized trekking.21 Lodge trekking is the less expensive alternative to organized trekking. Stopping every night at a village tea house, trekkers choose this option because it is the most cost effective way for them to connect with small instances of local culture without requiring the knowledge, expertise and equipment required by the trails frequented by the more advanced trekkers. Alternatively, organized trekking is the classic style of trek exploration throughout the country of Nepal. This style of adventure can be conducted in almost any region in the country and consists of a fully organized

Overall, trekking is Nepal’s greatest attraction. It alone has increased the percentage rate of tourism to the country over 40% within the past 10 years.22 Not only is trekking a great sense of adventure, it’s the most ideal means of seeing and understanding the country and the cultures of its people. With trekking trails featured in many regions such as Langtang Valley, Khumbu, Everest and Annapurna, many visitors become enthralled with the topographical and cultural aspects of Nepali life and seek return explorations. 22 ‘Mountain Tourism in Nepal: An Overview on the Sustainable Inclusion of Local Communities.’

21 ‘Mountain Tourism in Nepal: An Overview on the Sustainable Inclusion of Local Communities.’

Photo Credit: Jeffrey Kargel [NASA]

Figure 5.9 Satellite image of glacial lakes in Nepal along the Tibetan border.

its threshold is referred to as a glacial lake outburst flood, otherwise known as a GLOF. These GLOFs possess the potential to generate extensive destruction throughout the valley that lies immediately downstream. The impact of such an outburst depends on a number of factors, like the physical character of the dam, the lake size and depth, the rapidity of its drainage and the nearby surroundings.

glacial lakes A glacial lake is a lake that is formed by the glacial melt of a receding glacier. 10,000 years ago, at the end of the last ice age, glaciers began to melt.23 As a glacier retreats, it often leaves in its trail large deposits of ice in hollows between hills. As time passes, this ice will melt and lakes will form. As the glaciers in many parts of the Hindu-Kush Himalayan region are currently thinning and retreating, glacial lakes are beginning to form between the frontal moraine and the retreating glacier itself, or on the surface of the lower section of the glacier. These lakes are dammed by structurally unstable and thoroughly unpredictable moraine complexes.24 Because these dams lack controlled stability, the lakes have the potential to breach their dam at almost any moment. The phenomena of a glacial lake breaching

Glacial lake outburst floods have occurred throughout many parts of the Hindu-Kush Himalayan region, dating back to over 450 years ago. Currently, Nepal is said to hold an inventory of 3,252 glaciers with a total area of 5,324 square kilometers and a cumulative 2,323 glacial lakes totaling an area of about 76 square kilometers.25 The vast majority of these lakes, however, were classified as being rather small and confirmed to have developed in the more recent past. Altogether, however, there were 21 lakes that were recorded as being potentially unstable and warranting further methods of investigation.26 Examples of such lakes

23 WWF - ‘An Overview of Glaciers, Glacier Retreat and Subsequent Impacts in Nepal, India and China.’ 24 ‘Glacier Inventory in the Dudh Kosi Region, East Nepal.’

25 26

‘Glacier Inventory in the Dudh Kosi Region, East Nepal.’ ‘Glacier Inventory in the Dudh Kosi Region, East Nepal.’

Photo Credit: Andy Broom

Figure 5.10 Series of photographs of glacial lakes in the Nepal Himalayas

occurred. Additionally, it is next to impossible to attempt to strengthen the moraine dam through technical intervention, as its stability is so unpredictable that attempting to intervene can, and likely will, cause the lake to rupture, ultimately being far more harmful to all life downstream than if it were to be left untouched. In this case, it is clear that the risk always outweighs the reward and a mentality and lifestyle of ‘hope for the best, plan for the rest’ begins to set in.

are Tsho Rolpa, Tsho Imja, Tsho Thulagi and Lower Barun lakes. Throughout the entire Hindu-Kush Himalayan region, there is said to be 15,003 glaciers covering an area of 33.344 square kilometers and 8,790 glacial lakes, of which 204 where said to be potentially dangerous.27 The criteria for defining a glacial lake as potentially dangerous are as follows: lake size, rate of growth, increase in water level, position of lake in relation to moraine dam and associated glacier, dam condition, glacier condition and physical conditions of the surroundings. The outbursts of these lakes, despite being an incredibly destructive forces to village settlements and natural ecosystems, are extremely difficult to contain and/or control. Because the structural stability of the moraine dam is so weak and could rupture at any moment, there is little time for downstream communities to organize and prepare once a rupture has 27

The only protection systems currently in place are very rudimentary monitoring and early warning systems. Monitoring systems provide an indication of changes within the lake where early warning systems provide downstream residents time to take avoidance action. There are little to no actual mitigation techniques that have been imposed as 1) few people are investigating this natural phenomena and 2) a method of physically changing the situation without involving too many risks has yet to be discovered.

‘Glacial Lake Outbursts and its Impact on Human Security in South Asian Countries.’

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;The degradation of ecosy cause significant harm

ystem services will often to human well-being.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesis’

GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOODS

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Figure 6.1 Diagrams articulating the number and conditions of the glacial lakes in Nepal

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The quantifiable effects of the GLOF damage from the ruptures of Imja Tsho and Dig Tsho were catastrophic and almost insurmountable for the unprepared, developing communties lying in the lake’s wake. When Dig Tsho burst, for example, on August 4th, 1985, an estimated 350 million cubic meters of icy water surged through its low-lying lands.2 This volume of water barreled down the valley for about 40 miles, destroying a $1.5 million hydropower plant installation, 14 bridges and a number of villages, cultivated lands and trails.3

critically dangerous glacial lakes As articulated in the previous section, there well over 2,000 existing glacial lakes throughout the country of Nepal. 99% of these lakes are not currently considered dangerous or on the brink of rupturing but, 21 of them are. 19 of these 21 lakes are situated within the Sacred Himalayan Landscape, threatening a number of religious and village communities. The 3 most dangerous glacial lakes in Nepal reside within this sacred ragion.1 These lakes, as noted in Figure 6.2, are Imja Tsho, Dig Tsho and the testbed site for this thesis proposal, Tsho Rolpa. Both the lakes of Imja Tsho and Dig Tsho have experienced glacial lake outburst floods in the past and are now, because of rapid conditions of glacial melt, on the verge of rupturing again, for a second time. Tsho Rolpa is the only lake, of these 3, that hasn’t yet ruptured. 1

1936

It is precedents, like these, that can be analyzed and learned from. By understanding the magnitude and effects of glacial lake outburst floods, innovative researchers and designers can create a robust system that will both prepare and protect ill-prepared, defenseless communities from the region’s most threatening and imminent natural disasters.

‘Glacial Lake Outbursts and its Impact on Human Security in South Asian Countries.’

2 3

NOVA - ‘Glacier Hazards from Space’ NOVA - ‘Glacier Hazards from Space’

Figure 6.2 Images of the 3 most dangerous glacial lakes in Nepal on the next page Photo Credit: Google Earth

HUMANS

SPECIES

VILLAGES

INDUSTRY

TSHO ROLPA

AGRICULTURE

TOURISM

TREKKING

DEVELOPMENT

IMJA TSHO TRANSPORTATION

INFRASTRUCTURE

DRINKING WATER

ENERGY

DIG TSHO

59 FLOODING

The changes that have b have contributed to substa well-being and economic gains have been achieved form of the degradation of increased risks of nonl exacerbation of poverty fo

been made to ecosystems antial net gains in human development, but these d at growing costs in the many ecosystem services, linear changes, and the or some groups of people. Millenium Ecosystem Assessment â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesisâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

THREATENED VALLEY

Photo Credit: Kendall Baldwin

Figure 7.1 CNC milled model of the topography of Rolwaling Valley

and supposedly the mysterious yeti.3

rolwaling valley

Today, Rolwaling Valley stands as a biological refuge due to its location and physical isolation within the High Himalayas. Formed through the hydrological process of glacial melt, the valley is fluidly carved through the mountains, stretching for 30 kilometers in an east-west direction, unlike most valley conditions occurring throughout the country. Over its span, there is a shift in elevation of nearly 2000 meters, contributing to a harshly sloped environment that challenges its residents but is extremely conducive to natural water distribution. The water that travels through this valley is known as the Bhote Kosi River, which stems from the Trakarding glacier and ultimately feeds the rich subtropical region of the Tamba Valley in southern Nepal. Due to accelerated glacial recession rates, a glacial lake has formed at the base of the Trakarding glacier. This lake, Tsho Rolpa, is at the pinnacle of Rolwaling Valley, 4500 meters above sea level, and is Rolwaling’s most precious and dangerous

Rolwaling is a sacred valley situated in Northeastern Nepal, along the Tibetan border, approximately 30 kilometers away from Mount Everest and 100 kilometers away from the capital city of Kathmandu. Buddhist legend has it that 1250 years ago, Padmasambhava plowed the valley out of the mountains to serve as 1 of 8 ‘beyuls,’ natural political refuges that were to remain hidden until, in a time of religious crisis, they would serve as sanctuaries, protecting dharma until danger passed.1 Because of its spiritual heritage, Rolwaling has bans on both hunting and slaughtering, so the species in the area thrive. There are over 300 different plant species in this region alone.2 Rolwaling is a convenient corridor for mobile fauna such as wolves, foxes, goats, bears, jackals, langurs, snow leopards 1 2

Bahandar - ‘Buddhism in Nepal: A Brief Historical Introduction’ ‘Nepal’s Biodiversity Hotspots’

Bahandar - ‘Buddhism in Nepal: A Brief Historical Introduction’

Figure 7.2 Satellite photography of Rolwaling Valley on the next page Photo Credit: FlashEarth Satellite Photography

Photo Credit: Matthew Schoenfelder [living earth impressions]

Figure 7.3 Series of photographs of villages throughout Rolwaling Valley

slower stream flows and an accelerated wearing away of rudimentary infrastructure like wall systems, agricultural plots and trekking trails.

asset. Often seen as a trekking attraction, Tsho Rolpa is Nepalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most dangerous glacial lake and is on the verge of rupturing. A breach in its dam wall would signal disaster for communities, agriculture and infrastructure downstream.

All of these conditions have led Rolwaling to be an unsuitable trade route, and thus, not have many residents. The inhabitants it does have though, consist mostly of elderly persons, women and children as the majority of the male populace is employed with trekking caravans in other regions and are often away from the villages throughout much of the year. The settlements that these inhabitants have established are both new and remote. Despite the extreme and harsh weather conditions that these villages experience, there seems to be little reliance on or communication between the settlements. Regardless, they all seem to invest in agricultural livelihoods and participate in similar religious practices, traditions and festivals. This is most likely due to the fact that all of the villages are Sherpa communities that

Beyond glaciers and lakes, water continues to be an active and prevalent feature in Rolwaling Valley, especially during monsoon season. This region of the High Himalayas, stretching from 3000-5000 meters in altitude, tends to receive an average of 1000-3000 millimeters of rain annually, with 80% of this precipitation falling during the 100 days of monsoon season which spans from June until September.4 While the rainfall assists the populations and crops of lower lying lands, it can be extremely destructive to higher land. Rolwaling Valley experiences expansive conditions of soil erosion as a consequence of its steep slopes and heavy rainfall. This leads to heavy sedimentation in drinking water, WWF - â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;An Overview of Glaciers, Glacier Retreat and Subsequent Impacts in Nepal, India and China.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Figure 7.4 Photograph of a trekker approaching the village of Beding on the next page Photo Credit: Matthew Schoenfelder [living earth impressions]

Britain formally recognizes Nepal’s independence Nepal’s 1st piped water system installed in palace

Nepal’s present day territory is established

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Figure 7.5 Satellite image and diagram describing a visual political timeline of the history of Nepal and Rolwaling Valley

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lifestyle, catering to and harvesting numerous amounts of potato fields.

possess a very strong spiritual heritage and make a living through agricultural practices.

The last major village within Rolwaling Valley and, consequently, the village nearest Tsho Rolpa, is that of Na. This village is rather large as it serves as the base camp for trekkers on their way past Tsho Rolpa, It consists of a number of stone residences coupled with numerous agricultural plots and potato fields.

The first village encountered when approaching the valley from the west is Simigaon. This village is well populated and rather sophisticated compared to the settlements in the heart of Rolwaling. Simigaon is the gateway to Rolwaling Valley and the last well-developed settlement people will encounter for many days on their way through the valley or along a trekking route.

All of these Rolwaling villages currently lie along the route of a very small, unknown and fairly unpopulated trekking route. Due to the need for an excessive amount of trekking permits, there is a limited amount of tourists that come through the valley. The caravans that do trek through this region, however, do not interact much with the local village residents. Unlike the Annapurna trails to Mount Everest where the villages along the trekking trails have reached

The next major village is that of Beding, the core of the Gauri Shankar Ward of the Dolakha District.5 The topographical pocket that Beding inhabits came into existence less than a century ago due to the hydrological effects of glacial melt. While it has little facilities and no electricity, the inhabitants of this village seem to be content with their agricultural 5

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Reynolds - ‘Glacial Hazard Assessment at Tsho Rolpa’

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1st general elections held Nepal’s 1st constitution promulgated

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ess Party d

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economic conditions and are now affecting religious life in the Sherpa communities. Due to increased glacial melt and rapidly fluctuating watercourse velocities, the single religious refuge in the area was washed away.6 The gompa, or Buddhist monastery and learning center, formerly located in the village of Beding functioned as both a cultural and religious haven for the valley’s Sherpa people and visiting tourists.

economic stability through the financial stimulus of trekkers, Rolwaling Valley does not accumulate the same amount of revenue due to its small, undeveloped facilities. This lack of financial gain has led trekking trails to lack supervision and often become impassable during inclement weather such as monsoon flooding and heavy snowfall. The strong religious heritage of the Sherpa people that inhabit Nepal’s sacred Rolwaling Valley has influenced and protected the immense diversity that composes and defines the features of the area. Despite their reverence to the land, global environmental exploitation has lead their community to be threatened by the severe effects of climate change, embodying themselves most catastrophically in the risk of a potential GLOF at Tsho Rolpa. The Sherpas are currently experiencing daily issues of increased flooding, soil erosion and an unstable agricultural system. These factors have progressed beyond hindering only environmental and

Reynolds - ‘Glacial Hazard Assessment at Tsho Rolpa’

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Humans are fundamenta extent irreversibly, chang on Earth, and most of a drastic degradation or

ally, and to a significant ging the diversity of life these changes represent loss of rich biodiversity.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Millenium Ecosystem Assessment â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesisâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

SITE CONDITIONS

Photo Credit: Andy Broom

Figure 8.1 Image of Tsho Rolpa glacial lake in Rolwaling Valley, Nepal.

ill-prepared, unsophisticated villages of Rolwaling Valley, they will be hit the hardest.

tsho rolpa

Tsho Rolpa is the largest moraine-dammed proglacial lake as well as the most studied. Situated at an elevation of 4,580 meters above sea level, this glacial lake is fed by the Trakarding glacier, which is retreating at a rate of more than 20 meters per year.2 In some years during the past decade, however, Trakarding has retreated up to 100 meters per year.3 After countless thorough investigations, it has been determined that Tsho Rolpa has grown in size 6 times over due to the increased rate and frequency of glacial melt. Originally constituting an area of only 0.23 square kilometers during the late 1950’s, Tsho Rolpa now stands at 1.5 kilometers in width and 3.65 kilometers in length, totaling a water volume of approximately 100 million cubic meters.4 In the case of a glacial lake outburst flood, it is predicted that the initial burst would send 35 million cubic meters of water rushing downstream, causing serious damage to

The common thread between the previously discussed village communities, religious and livelihood practices aside, is their physical proximity to the country’s most threatening glacial lake. What binds these villages together is the sheer fact that, when Tsho Rolpa breaches the threshold of its moraine dam, their lives will be completely destroyed. Beyond the scope of this valley, Tsho Rolpa has the potential to harm settlements and ecosystems for up to a 100-kilometer span downstream. Not only is this an immense amount of territory to cover, but it is predicted that the velocity of the water during the surge will be so great that it will travel that distance in less than 8 hours.1 The amount of water and the magnitude of speed is enough to destroy even the most established community and, unfortunately for the incredibly 1

‘Glacial Hazard Assessment at Tsho Rolpa, Rolwaling, Central Nepal.’

2 3 4

‘Glacial Hazard Assessment at Tsho Rolpa, Rolwaling, Central Nepal.’ ‘Glacial Hazard Assessment at Tsho Rolpa, Rolwaling, Central Nepal.’ ‘Glacial Lake Outbursts and its Impact on Human Security in South Asian Countries.’

2,500 m

40,000

1 olympic sized swimming pool

1960

0.23 km2

1965

1970

0.61 km2

0.62 km2

KATHMANDU

pools to equal tsho rolpa

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

0.78 km2

0.80 km2

1.02 km2

1.16 km2

1.27 km2

1.39 km2

1.65 km2

8 hr 100 km

2,000

FLORA + FAUNA

10,000

HUMAN LIVES

Figure 8.2 Series of diagrams conveying the size, volumetric capacity and potential harm of Tsho Rolpa glacial lake

There are currently very few measures being taken to protect communities from a potential outburst flood at Tsho Rolpa. Beginning with the fact that glacial lakes are just now beginning to be studied and monitored, there is very little documented research on their behavioral qualities. Because there is a lack of understanding of their mechanics, there is a considerable amount of apprehension to take an initiative

6 7

5x TSHO ROLPA

$30,000,000 INDUSTRIES

to deploy a mitigating tactic. The difficulty with rectifying this situation is the fact that research and documentation takes a considerable amount of both time and money. Nepal, being a developing country, does not have the capacity to budget the necessary funding for proper research to be done, let alone for mitigating tactics to be deployed. The more pressing element, though, is time. Even if money was not an issue, strategies need to be implemented now in order to protect downstream communities, as over 21 of these lakes are now reaching unprecedented sizes with the capacity to breach their threshold and rupture at any given second. Decades worth of research needs to occur within the next few years or else we may see a number of extremely disastrous glacial lake outburst floods occurring in the near future.

villages over 100 kilometers away, threatening 10,000 lives, thousands of livestock, agricultural land, bridges and other forms of infrastructure.5 Similar to the Dig Tsho GLOF that occurred in 1985, Tsho Rolpa threatens a large hydroelectric project, the Khimti Hydropower, a 60 MW complex located approximately 80 kilometers downstream.6 The destruction of this infrastructural project would be comparable to over $22 million USD in losses, not to mention the reduction in electricity production.7

The few strategies that are currently in place are both rudimentary and exploratory. Additionally, few of them possess the ultimate goal of relinquishing the area from the potential disaster, rather, they seek to warn communities of

‘Glacial Hazard Assessment at Tsho Rolpa, Rolwaling, Central Nepal.’ ‘Glacial Lake Outbursts and its Impact on Human Security in South Asian Countries.’ ‘Glacial Lake Outbursts and its Impact on Human Security in South Asian Countries.’

Figure 8.3 Site analysis diagram of the terminal moraine dam complex of Tsho VILLAGE WATERCOURSE Rolpa glacial lake

MORAINE DAM WALL

RIDGE OUTLET Two tactics, however, that attempt to reduce the water levels of glacial lakes so that they reach a level where they are no longer impending rupture are processes of siphoning and channeling. The siphoning process occurs at the head of the glacial lake along the wall of its moraine dam. Small amounts of water are extracted each day through narrow pipes in the hopes that, over time, water levels will be reduced to a much less threatening level. The channeling process is slightly more invasive, requiring a section of the dam wall to be removed. The subtraction of this matter creates an outlet for the highest level of water to flow. This alleviates some pressure on the upper dam wall, but, because it is a non-mechanical system, the water level can only be reduced to the depth of the outlet channel, which is usually no more than a few meters. This method has been installed at Tsho Rolpa and, while it has reduced the overall lake level by 3 meters [17 meters less than what is necessary to no longer consider the lake potentially dangerous], it is only viewed as a temporary response, allowing for more

impending disaster as opposed to mitigating it. For example, the government of Nepal has established a prototypical series of Early Warning System sensing devices. These EWS devices are buried slightly below the subsurface of the Bhote Kosi river and signal alert stations when the volume and/ or velocity of the river dramatically increases.8 The alert stations are small sound towers that, when signaled by the sensors, emit a siren-like noise, notifying village residents to seek refuge as they have only 15 minutes before the change in water flow impacts their settlement. The EWS sensors and alert stations are scattered throughout a dozen villages downstream from a few of Nepalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most threatening glacial lakes in addition to Tsho Rolpa, like Imja Tsho. Ultimately, it is a system of warning and its purpose is to alert when disaster is imminent as opposed to eliminating the potential for disaster.

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Glacial Lake Outbursts and its Impact on Human Security in South Asian Countries.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

time to research a proper intervention that will eliminate the possibility of a rupture as opposed to lessen it.9

The dam wall of Tsho Rolpa is 150 meters tall, from lowest point to highest point, and is composed of a variety of geological elements including soil, minerals, glacial debris, bedrock, boulders and buried ice.10 The easterly blowing winds travel through Rolwaling Valley and push the lake water, warmed by solar radiation, toward the glacier’s terminus. The heated water gradually melts the terminus, swelling the lake’s water volume and amplifying the force of pressure that is applied to the dam wall. Additionally, the constant ebb and flow movement of the warmed water applies pressure to the dam’s buried ice, threatening a collapse if/when the embedded ice blocks begin to reduce in size and, eventually, melt entirely.

The main combatant to the success of these systems is the moraine dam wall. Because they are natural earth walls composed of a random aggregation of geologic matter, they are incredibly unstable and dangerous. Any aggravation or manmade intervention that ultimately aims to reduce the opportunity for hazard can wind up increasing the risk of a rupture as the method could potentially cause a breach in the wall, leading to an outburst. Beyond the risk factor, the primary issue with both approaches is that they are temporary responses as opposed to permanent solutions. Additionally, both methods are highly inefficient and extremely wasteful. For example, the water that is extracted from the lake, in either case, is not being harnessed and is instead discarded, which is a tremendous waste of such a highly relied upon natural resource that is facing extinction.

At present, two watersheds have formed on the northern and southern flanks of the lake, creating channels for the glacial water that isn’t captured in the lake to naturally flow. These streams are the main feeders of the Bhote Kosi river and supply patches of vegetation, as well as village agricultural

‘Glacial Lake Outbursts and its Impact on Human Security in South Asian Countries.’

‘Glacial Hazard Assessment at Tsho Rolpa, Rolwaling, Central Nepal.’

VILLAGE

WATERCOURSE

MORAINE DAM WALL

RIDGE

OUTLET

170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Parthenon 24 m

Taj Mahal 35 m

Boudhanath Stupa 40 m

Pantheon 43 m

Hagia Sophia 55 m

Figure 8.4 Sectional diagram articulating the topographic height of the moraine dam wall

the imminent threat to the valley.

plots, with a pure water supply. These watersheds have formed around the dam wall, creating a sloped condition that wraps around the ridge present at the head of the lake. Many boulders and fault scarps wrap around this ridge. It is also in this area, near the southern watershed, that the lake’s outlet channel and its accompanying facilities were installed to lower the lake’s water levels about a decade ago.

The channel itself, constructed from 1998-2003, consists of a flat bed with two outwardly angled sides that direct water from the lake to one of the watershed’s flowing streams.12 The channel does not pressurize the water, nor does it filter out the heavy amount of glacial debris and sediment that it carries. This can be problematic as the structure and quality of the channel may be compromised due to the friction of the sediment on the materials. It’s main purpose is to gradually, and mechanically, release water from the lake to reduce its overall water level so that it does not overflow and to alleviate the amount of water pressure on the moraine dam wall so that it does not fail, breach and rupture. All in all, though it assists in decreasing the chances of a glacial lake outburst flood, the contribution of debris-ridden, sedimentloaded water into the Bhote Kosi reduces water purity, amplifies the rate of soil erosion and degrades the quality of

The facilities, consisting of 4 small, simply constructed buildings, are the only examples of ‘modern’ built construction in the area.11 Additionally, the channel is the newest infrastructure to be implemented in valley and the only infrastructure surrounding the lake. While it was an incredibly risky maneuver and warranted dangerous construction measures, the implementation of this infrastructure has alleviated some of the immediate risk of a glacial lake outburst flood and has reduced, albeit slightly, 11

St. Patrick’s Cathedral 103 m

‘Glacial Hazard Assessment at Tsho Rolpa, Rolwaling, Central Nepal.’

Tsho Rolpa Dam Wall 130 m

St. Peterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Basilica 138 m

the trekking trails and infrastructure that lie downstream. An ideal intervention on this site would succeed where the past temporary responses have failed. It would be a permanent solution that mitigates the problem of a future glacial lake outburst flood as opposed to temporary responses that slightly lessen the degree of its danger and intensity. It would function as an operational infrastructure that synthesized seamlessly with the existing traditional practices of the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s local and religious cultures. It would sustainably use local materials and strive to apply them in such a way that would not disrupt the rich ecosystems that are currently in place. It would increase efficiency by harnessing its output as opposed to wasting it. And it would not only protect, but be a catalyst for and stimulate the quality of life of the villages that it is shielding through such benefits as security, refuge, financial gain, ecotourism and religious revival.

Notre Dame Catheral 151 m

La Sagrada Familia 170 m

窶連 variety of frameworks a to make better decisions in in research, data, predic

and methods can be used n the face of uncertainties ction, context and scale.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesis’

DRIVERS OF CHANGE

glacial melt

CONTAIN//RELEASE

flooding

soil erosion

REACT//ADAPT energy

agriculture

infrastructure

DETACH//RE-COUPLE deforestation

migration

ARTIFICIAL//NATURAL urbanization

Figure 9.1 Diagram describing overlapping influences of site conditions

consequential effects that were previously unforeseen. For example, the felling of timber alters fertility in agricultural lands, destroys the home of many species and can lead to soil erosion and landslides.

contributing factors Four of the most prominent drivers of change throughout the country of Nepal are agriculture, energy, tourism and water. A shift in one driver, no matter the magnitude, will affect the structure and stability of one, if not all, of the subsequent drivers of change. This strong relationship of interdependence emphasizes the fact that all of these drivers must be addressed, monitored and/or adjusted to ensure that the degradation of and the negative impacts on the environment that they are currently contributing to can be controlled, slowed, stopped and even reversed.

Over the past decade, tourism in Nepal has increased over 40%.3 This percentage shows no signs of slowing, so it is important to prepare local communities and ecosystems for the increased likelihood of a potentially disruptive outside source. Most tourists often visit Nepal to pursue trekking excursions, usually along Annapurna’s routes to Mount Everest. While trekkers have the potential to stimulate the economy and assist in financial village development, unsustainable practices of tourism can be detrimental to natural ecosystems. Trekking caravans often do not wisely use the resourceful landscape, the facilities along the trekking routes are often overwhelmed by demand for their limited supply and caravans often times do not associate or integrate well with the villages that they are passing through. This leads to financial depletions as well as the unknowledgeable over-use of countless resources.

Agriculture affects almost all peoples and communities in Nepal. More than 95% of the population is involved in agricultural practices. 1 This means that they are either employed by the agricultural industry and/or cultivate goods to sustain the livelihoods of their families or community. While much of the country’s most fertile soil lies in the southern Terai, there is a large quantity of agricultural land spread throughout mountain valleys. In an agrarian country like Nepal, with a staggering increase in population and a heightened food demand, the slightest decline in annual food production can cause immense repercussions.

Nepal’s 5 physiographic regions are fed by more than 6,000 natural rivers and tributaries whose sources stem from glaciers in the Tibetan Plateau.4 Due to climate change and global warming, the rate of glacial melt has increased dramatically. The excessive amount of water has led to water pollution, soil erosion and ecosystem destruction. Because the effects of climate change, at this point, seem difficult to control and/or, it is important that a technique be developed that can engage the increased amount of water and use it for the community’s benefit. Over 200 billion meters3 of water are dispersed throughout Nepal’s watershed basins, and of all this potential hydroelectric energy, less than 1% is actually harnessed. 5

Energy affects the environment and population of Nepal in countless ways. To begin, 72% of Nepal’s electricity is fueled by felled timber. Nepalese people rely on many forest products such as firewood, food, fodder, timber and medicines. 2 This extensive utilization and unsustainable practice leads directly to increased rates of forest damage and deforestation. Additionally, altering the environment by reducing its number of trees can have numerous 1 2

‘Mountain Tourism in Nepal: An Overview on the Sustainable Inclusion of Local Communities.’ 2 Watershed Management Case Study Nepal 3 Poudel, Krishna. ‘Watershed Management in Nepal: Challenges and Constraints.’

‘Urban Migration and Urbanization in Nepal’ ‘Urban Migration and Urbanization in Nepal’

Figure 9.2 Diagram representing Nepal’s 4 major drivers of change on next page 84

72% of Nepal’s electricity is fueled by felled timber

72% reduce dependency on timber

adopt alternative methods of energy production

ENERGY 99% of Nepal’s potential hydroelectric energy is not harnessed 95% of the population are involved in agriculture

99% 95% 95% of the population are involved in agriculture

harness natural water surges structured farming practices

store and release in appropriate amounts and locations sustainable rural livlihoods

95%

AGRICULTURE 72% of Nepal’s electricity is fueled by felled timber

structured farming practices

sustainable rural livlihoods

reduce dependency on timber

adopt alternative methods of energy production

41% increase in Nepal’s tourism over the past decade.

72%

72% of Nepal’s electricity is fueled by felled timber

41%

72% reduce dependency on timber

adopt alternative methods of energy production

99% of Nepal’s potential hydroelectric energy is not harnessed

TOURISM 99%

99% of Nepal’s potential hydroelectric energy is not harnessed

harness natural water surges

store and release in appropriate amounts and locations

99% harness natural water surges

WATER 85

store and release in appropriate amounts and locations

DWIDM DLRM

DUDBC DIT

DESIGN AGENCIES

OBJECTIVE

DSWM

How can a future disaster zone be transformed into a destination place?

DIRC

DHM

EcoHimal

Government

NGOs

Academics

Initiatives

Designers

Residents

Transform Tsho Rolpa glacial lake into a popular cultural destination.

Tourists

NGSNepal UNESCO WRI

ICIMOD UNEP

data collection

solution ideas

IUCN

feasibility new systems

DESIGN PHASING

OPERATION

research

How can a design function for disaster prevention and re-invigorate community life?

DWC

S Funding

interest

maintain

Data

Design

Technology

Science

Cooperation

Create a generative ecology formed by the release, channelization + filtration of water.

Support

site specific

funding

cooperate monitor construct

education evaluate

sediment filter

water channels

integrate

water storage trekking trails

DESIGN SYSTEMS

OUTCOME

hydro plant

How can a project of management + development sustain its resources?

facilities

Reinvent technologies using local materials to generate new, sustainable maintain systems + practices. syphon

Water

Land Use

Development

Infrastructure

Tourism

Industry

Economy

revenue monitor

Dept. of Hydrology + Meteorology Dept. of Soil + Watershed Management Dept. of Land Reform + Management Dept. of Water Induced Disaster Management Dept. of Urban Development + Building Construction Dept. of Industry + Tourism Dept. of Inland Revenue + Commerce Dept. of Wildlife Conservation

NGOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

GOVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;T DEPTS.

education

DHM DSWM DLRM DWIDM DUDBC DIT DIRC DWC

lodging

Figure 9.3 Network map of potential design agencies.

EcoHimal UNESCO ICIMOD UNISDR IUCN WRI WWF NGS Nepal

land use religious festivals

cultural festivals

The Society for Cooperation Alps - Himalaya United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization International Center for Integrated Mountain Development United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction International Union for the Conservation of Nature World Resources Institute World Wildlife Federation Nepal Geological Society

most at risk of suffering the consequences of environmental haste are those that reside in the seclusion of developing countries. Consequently, these people are not at fault for the corollaries that they will inevitably inherit and, as can be assumed, are hardly prepared to deal with the ramifications that these disasters would have on their communities. Because of this, it is the responsibility of designers worldwide to seek innovative solutions to impending disasters that are imminent to ill-prepared and perhaps unsuspecting societies at a global scale. One of the most aggressive results of global climate change is the rapidly increasing rate of glacial melt. Not only does this pressure universal fresh water supply, but the excessive water presence threatens destruction to many villages residing in higher lands. The onslaught of glacial lake outburst floods is increasing rashly in the high lands of the Himalayas. The rupturing of glacial lakes immediately threatens downstream communities that lie in its path, but also urban civilizations that reside up to 100 kilometers beyond

design agencies The objective of this thesis project, ultimately, is to execute the mitigation of disaster in prone locations. Beyond the protection of a future disaster zone, this investigation also strives to transform these regions into destination places, remaining cohesive with existing ecosystems and cultural practices while encouraging the sustainable presence of and interaction with outside communities. Architecture of the 21st century seeks to be innovative, not for the sake of artistry, but for the sake of the greater good. We live in a time that is threatened by the global threats and impacts of climate change. Despite this, our society seeks to continue its reckless behavior and further provoke the onset of environmental instability. The cultures and civilizations

the origin of the burst. It is such extreme, unforeseeable disasters that warrant mitigating solutions from today’s most groundbreaking, inventive designers. Because the scope of this project is so vast, there are a number of potential design agencies that could be sought after for involvement, participation, funding, etc. Such opportunistic agencies would involve committees within government, NGO’s, academic, non-profit initiatives, designers, local communities and tourist organizations. These parties could offer a number of invaluable resources to the project such as funding, data collection and dispersal, design idea, scientific research, technological innovations, local cooperation and enthusiasm and well as continued maintenance and support. These resources would stimulate a number of aspects of the project including water harnessing, proper land use, sustainable development, increased tourism, effective infrastructure, responsible industry and a stable economic income.

PROTECT

These design agencies and their potential contributions can help achieve this project’s objective of transforming a future disaster zone into a destination place by turning Tsho Rolpa glacial lake into a popular cultural destination. They can help the project operate in such a way that allows a design solution to function for disaster prevention and reinvigorate community life by creating a generative ecology. And, eventually, they can ensure the outcome of this management and development project will protect and sustain its resources using new systems and practices coupled with local materials and traditions.

ENGAGE

RECONNECT

Figure 9.4 Diagram describing the project’s 3 influential zones and objectives

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Development prospects in oping countries are especi to avoid the degradation or reverse degradation

n dryland regions of develially dependent on actions of ecosystems and slow where it is occurring.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesis’

PRECEDENTS

operational: avalanche defense wall Situated in the questionable niche where civilization begins to interfere with forces of nature are a series of monumental earthwork projects that protect the Icelandic town of Siglufjörður from extreme snow, avalanches and landslides. Located just a few kilometers south of the Arctic Circle on the shores of a narrow fjord backed by mountains up to 1000m high, Siglufjörður, like so many other Icelandic towns and villages, is highly vulnerable to avalanches. To try and mitigate this issue, the landscape architecture firm Landslag created anti-disaster tumuli to protect the village. These tumuli were constructed in 2 phases. Completed in 1999, Phase 1 involved two deflecting dams on the south end of the village that direct avalanches headed towards the most populated areas to less hazardous regions. The small of the two dams is 200 meters longs and 16 meters tall, a mere shadow of the larger dam which measures 700 meters long, 18 meters high and runs prominently up the mountainside to an altitude of 180 meters. Phase 2 of the project was completed in 2008 and consisted of the construction of 6 walls and dikes running along the entire mountain side of the village. Unlike the initial dams in Phase 1 which deflecting the course of an avalanche, these walls are intended to stop the flow of an avalanche as opposed to redirecting it. During the early planning stages of the project, there were concerns about the negative social and even psychological impact of these massive landscape alterations on the town’s residents, who, despite acknowledging their vital role in preventing fatalities and property damage, might nevertheless show strong resistance to such large-scale structures. The landscape architects worked closely with engineers, geophysicists and meteorologists to minimize the visual impact of the project. Their solution was to approach the structures not only as fortifications against nature but also as an opportunity to create recreational spaces out of the defensive infrastructure. They were turned into an architectural statement, a positive cultural asset rather than an invasive structure. Since these gigantic structures could never be hidden, nor could they be camouflaged from view with tall-growing trees, turning them into landmarks was an excellent architectural solution. Paths weave around the structures and run on top along their ridge lines, directing hikers up the mountain. In order to avoid the deflecting walls from looking too dominating, they were designed to mimic the natural features of the surrounding landscapes. With the additional use of natural materials, their organic, undulating forms help to blend them into the landscape.

Figure 10.1 Conceptual sketches of the village-defending avalanche structure.

Figure 10.2 Image of the avalanche wall acting as a park during the summer months.

Figure 10.3 Image of the avalanche wall performing as a defense structure during the winter season.

Figure 10.4 Diagrammatic plan displaying areas susceptible to avalanches and potential areas of avalanche defense wall installation.

continuous terraced path

patched green terraces

Figure 10.5 Diagrams + image articulating the terraced landscape of the landfill redevelopment project.

organizational: landfill redevelopment The La Vall d’en Joan [The Valley of Joan] project is a landscape restoration creation by Batlle and Roig architects of Barcelona, Spain. This project takes a former 150 hectare landfill site in the Garraf Natural Park of southwestern Barcelona, Spain and transforms it into a green terraced agricultural landscape. The architects state that ‘the idea was to create a system of hills and banks in a way that would avoid erosion from water and to give the rubbish dump back to nature with a natural design.’ Often described as a ‘perfect example of bringing dead nature back to life by converting rubbish into a beautiful piece of landscape architecture,’ this Energy, Waste and Recycling award-winning project uses few and humble means to redraw a previously scarred and polluted landscape. This makeover, however, is not purely

topical or cosmetic. Beyond restoring and reinvigorating a lifeless area of land, this site also implements an underground drainage system which filters contaminated water fluids that become part of a recycled water system that is then used to irrigate the park. Since its opening in 1974, this landfill accumulated more than 20 million tons of rubbish. Servicing Barcelona’s metropolitan area for more than 30 years before it was shut down and redeveloped in 2006, it was not unexpected to encounter areas where you rubbish would be piled 100 meters above the soil line. Work to transform this site, the largest landfill in Spain, began in 2000 and took just over 8 years to reach completion. In addition to the terraced

terraced section

crops/fields of leguminous plants

type 1 earth, loose [0.8m]

service track of earth and graded aggregate [1m]

green ditch

type 2 bush forming ditch

mixed plantation of pines and evergreen oaks

scrub forming slope

grassed ditch

principal track of graded aggregate and course sand

type 1 bush forming a mound

Figure 10.6 Sectional diagram articulating the layers of the landscape

landscape that attempts to avoid soil erosion due to flowing water and the water filtration and recycling system, the former landfill is also utilizing the bio gas that is emitted in the area to provide an large quantity of electricity. Though these sustainable systems seem complicated, they exist on a scale of true feasibility. They create a landscape architecture that is inspiring, that is an excellent example of just how simple it is to implement change and reinvigorate a once barren landscape into a fruitful producer.

and recycling system and the harnessing of the areaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s natural bio gas emissions for the production and distribution of electric power. Formerly fills entirely with rubbish, the valley is now scattered with boxes filled with compacted garbage to serve as a reminder of the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s environmentally unfriendly history.

Now entirely sealed and landscaped, the plan to transform the landfill site has included the physical terracing of a valley crevasse, the planting of trees, shrubs, crops and leguminous plants, the establishment of a water filtration

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Past actions to slow or of ecosystems have yiel but these improvements pace with growing pre

reverse the degradation lded significant benefits, have generally not kept ressures and demands.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Millenium Ecosystem Assessment â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesisâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

STRATEGY: :TACTIC

LOWER LAKE LEVEL

reduction of water level EXISTING WATER LEVEL

-20m

MT. EVEREST

TSHO ROLPA

KATHMANDU

LUKLA

SITE PLAN

CONNECT TREK ROUTES

CREATE SACRED SPACE

BULK DAM WALL

REDUCED WATER LEVEL

The project’s objectives will involve a number of operational components that each possess their own unique design intervention. These interventions will accomplish the project’s objectives through a number of formulated operations acting hierarchically at varying scales. First, a dramatic reduction in the water level of Tsho Rolpa is necessary. To no longer be considered ‘potentially dangerous’ and on the verge of rupture, the lake level must be reduced by 20 meters, constituting an extraction of approximately 30 million cubic meters of water. This reduction in water level will drastically decrease the imminent threat of the lake by alleviating the amount of water pressure on the moraine dam wall. To accomplish this, a controlled outlet and channeling system will be devised and installed at the head of the lake. This system will operate in phases, releasing water in a gradual process so as to lower the overall water level by 4 meters every year. Once this has been accomplished, two additional matters must be dealt with; how and where the extracted water is to flow down the dam wall and how the dam wall can possess the durability to facilitate such movement. The site’s existing watercourses are not capable of facilitating an increase in water flow. Because of this, the glacial water extracted from Tsho Rolpa must be directed through a new watercourse along the dam wall itself, as opposed to its flanks, before it meets with the area’s existing streams. To control the directionality of flow as well as the velocity of the extracted water, the new watercourse must be formulated so that the distance between the water’s outlet and its meeting with existing streams is maximized in length, resulting in an elongated route between point A and point B. In simpler terms, the release of the glacial water at the lake’s head will need to be routed in a lengtheded course from the lake to the stream. The natural tendency of water is to flow along its designated course until it finds or creates a shorter path. Overtime, this new watercourse will follow this tendency and evolve into a shorter route, thus insinuated a phased process that can be synched with the amount of water extracted per year, i.e. each year, with the reduction of the lake level by 4 meters, a new phase of the watercourse will begin. By the time the watercourse evolves into its finalized state, which is its shortest route, the water level of the lake will be have been largely reduced and its volume no longer swollen, so the shortened watercourse length will not affect or decrease the control of the flowing water’s velocity. Upon the point of the project’s completion, the project’s water outlet will operate as a release point for unpredicted lake overflow as well as drainage for seasonal precipitation.

Figure 11.1 Diagram representing the proposal’s first objective, lowering the lake level

100

The spatial landforms must then be designed and detailed to respond to weather fluctuations unique to each of the four seasons. They must be equipped with the design of a drainage system so that, during times of heavy rainfall and snowfall, they can assist in the productive movement of water as well as the alleviation of snow load. As this drainage system descends the dam wall and projects into the horizontal valley condition, it will form the basis of a new agricultural system based on water channelization.

LOWER LAKE LEVEL

-20m

BULK DAM WALL CREATE SACRED SPACE

To alleviate the water of sediment and debris while also bulking up the dam wall, the installation of a system that will extract the glacial sediment from the newly formed watercourse is necessary. As the glacial water leaves the lake and runs along new, designated watercourses, the sediment suspended in the water will be filtered out and collected. The extracted matter and captured sediment can be use to generate landforms on the dam wall that will add mass and stability to its structure while also creating habitable landforms. The creation of this new topographic landscape is to be executed through the use of a structural network of geotextile ‘retaining walls’ that will facilitate water flow while capturing sediment. The design of this new retaining wall prototype, both as an individual module as well as a component in a series, will be influenced by the scale and magnitude of the hydrology and topography of the site. Once the landscape has been fully developed, it will then function programmatically, acting as habitable space for village communities, agricultural plots, religious festivals, trekking camps and viewing platforms.

EXISTING WATER LEVEL

REDUCED WATER LEVEL

CONNECT TREK ROUTES

The next task is to secure the structural instability of the dam wall, to assure that it can withstand any unexpected fluctuation in water volume or disturbance. The process of moraine wall stabilization will transpire through the increase of geologic mass on the wall itself. This augmentation of the existing topography will occur through the deposition of glacial sediment from the lake’s extracted water. Because the water extracted from the lake possesses an extremely high level of fine sediment and glacial debris, it would contribute to further soil erosion and water contamination in the area if tied into an existing watercourse without first undergoing a system of treatment. In addition, this heavy volume of sediment-filled water could jeopardize the stability of the dam wall of Tsho Rolpa if it is not strengthened and supported.

MT. EVEREST

TSHO ROLPA

KATHMANDU

LUKLA

SITE PLAN

thickening of moraine dam wall

Figure 11.2 Diagram representing the proposal’s second objective, thickening the moraine dam wall

LOWER LAKE LEVEL

creation of sacred space EXISTING WATER LEVEL

-20m

MT. EVEREST

TSHO ROLPA

KATHMANDU

LUKLA

The stupa organization will be generated through the articulation of the new watercourse. The outlining boundary of the stupa will follow the stream and the terraces will build up within this profile through the accretion of sediment over time. These glacial landforms will reflect the terraced horizontality and celebratory occupation of traditional Buddhist stupa architecture. This large-scale outdoor space will be coupled with a series of smaller scale semienclosed spaces that will form below the stupa platforms. The sediment catching ‘post and fence’ wall system will, in areas, transition from a vertical to a diagonal positioning, extending the traversable area of the terrace above while simultaneously creating a semi-enclosed space below. This ‘domino effect’ will create a series of spaces that fluctuate between exposed and enclosed, thus defining spaces that will have varying appeal to the site’s different user groups; these user groups include Buddhist monks, religious pilgrims, local villagers, seasonal tourists and trekkers as well as native wildlife and vegetation.

SITE PLAN

CONNECT TREK ROUTES

CREATE SACRED SPACE

BULK DAM WALL

REDUCED WATER LEVEL

The projective new landscape that is being generated must function is defense of glacial lake outburst floods while also serving the inhabitants of Rolwaling Valley including Buddhist monks, villagers, trekkers, wildlife and native vegetation. The overall organization of the lake stabilizing landscape will be based upon the architecture of Buddhist stupas. This organization was chosen for a number of reasons. Firstly, Tsho Rolpa is situated in the heart of a sacred landscape, at the base of mountains and glaciers that are revered by local communities. Secondly, the religious gompa that was once situated on a hillside near Tsho Rolpa was recently washed away, destroyed by the negative impacts of increased levels of glacial melt. To re-establish the religious fervor that once drove the lifestyles of the Buddhist communities in the area, the re-development and re-organization of the Tsho Rolpa area will be influenced and guided by the tradition and style of Buddhist architecture. This will facilitate the creation of a sacred monumental landscape through the gradual development of the terraced sediment landforms.

Figure 11.3 Diagram representing the proposal’s third objective, creating a sacred space

102

LOWER LAKE LEVEL

connection of trekking routes Currently, the most popular and heavily traveled trekking route in northern Nepal is Annapurna’s Everest Base Camp route. Thousands of people travel from far and wide every year to trek across the beautiful landscape of Nepal and climb the world’s highest peak. But, the heavy annual traffic couple with the remoteness of the location makes the trekking route and facilities along the way to Mount Everest extremely overrun and outresourced. It is difficult for supply to meet demand as there are constant waves of caravans of trekkers both arriving and departing, on their way up the peak or returning from their already trekked journey. One of the main sources of facility overuse is the fact that the trekking route to and from Everest Base Camp is the same trail, meaning that on their way back from their excursion, trekkers are retracing their steps, viewing the same landscape and trekking the same trails they’ve already conquered, now filled with people headed past them in the opposite direction.

EXISTING WATER LEVEL

-20m

Overall, the coupled presence of a reduced water level and strengthened dam wall will ensure that the containment of the glacial lake’s water capacity will not be breached. Beyond being purely strategic, these design strategies are also simultaneously forming a generative landscape. The process of accretion set forth will result in a new topography that will evolve and define itself over time and ultimately create an inhabitable setting for local villagers, religious pilgrims, seasonal tourists and native wildlife and vegetation. This multi-tiered system of interventions creates a seamlessly staged landscape whose operability transcends function, time and season. Additionally, its multi-performative nature allows for a natural disaster to be prevented, local religious life to be revitalized and innovative landscape systems to protect, engage and reconnect elements of culture and nature.

MT. EVEREST

TSHO ROLPA

KATHMANDU

LUKLA

SITE PLAN

Because there is so much landscape to explore throughout Nepal, it makes little sense that trekkers traveling from thousands of miles away should be forced to retrace their steps and not explore new land after having just conquered the Everest route. In the pursuit of alleviating the stresses forced upon the Everest facilities and affording trekkers the opportunity to view and experience more of Nepal’s breathtaking landscape, a new trekking route will be established through Rolwaling valley, featuring the new landscape at Tsho Rolpa, connecting to Everest base camp. This route will function as a route of egress from Everest, offering more adventure for trekkers as well as a potential exposure boost and financial gains for the people of Rolwaling Valley.

CONNECT TREK ROUTES

CREATE SACRED SPACE

BULK DAM WALL

REDUCED WATER LEVEL

Figure 11.4 Diagram representing the proposal’s fourth objective, connection of trekking routes Figure 11.5 Comprehensive site plan diagram on the following spread 103

EXISTING WATER LEVEL

-20m

REDUCED WATER LEVEL

CONNECT TREK ROUTES

BULK DAM WALL

CREATE SACRED SPACE

LOWER LAKE LEVEL

MT. EVEREST

TSHO ROLPA

LUKLA

KATHMANDU

104

NEW SHORELINE

BUDDHIST STUPA

SEDIMENT LANDFORMS

TREKKING LINKAGE

1:1,000

105 0

50 m

100 m

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Innovative approaches to m if we are to move beyond th being necessarily entails mo in societies where basic nee

106

meeting needs are called for he belief that greater wellore consumption, especially eds are already being met.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesis’

107

108

OPERATION: :ORGANIZATION

109

SEDIMENTATION

PHASE 1

2575 m

PHASE 1

1180 m

PHASE 2

1975 m

PHASE 2

9265 m

PHASE 3

1375 m

PHASE 3

17826 m

PHASE 4

775 m

PHASE 4

25650 m

PHASE 5

175 m

PHASE 5

WATERCOURSE

33260 m

110

phasing of watercourse and sedimentation YEAR 1

INITIAL PHASE

As described in the previous section, the two most imperative operations on this site are to lower the lake’s water level and thicken the dam’s wall mass. These two operations will single-handedly achieve the objective of stabilizing the moraine dam wall and will afford the opportunity for the subsequent operations to take place, the creation of inhabitable and sacred space and the connection of trekking routes, which will achieve the holistic, evocative objective’s of reinvigorating community life in the region and re-coupling culture and nature. As mentioned, the watercourse will be established and then evolve in phases to form the generative landscape ecology. The initial watercourse will be maximized in length, spanning in a zig-zag fashion from the head of the lake, down the moraine dam wall and, ultimately, connecting with the existing valley stream below. This initial stream will be approximately 2,575 meters in length. As the years pass and the watercourse shortens, it will go through 4 more phases of length, each decreasing by approximately 600 meters. As noted in Figure x.xx, the second phase of the watercourse will stretch 1,975 meters, the third phase 1,375 meters, the fourth phase 775 meters and the final, continual phase, 175 meters.

YEAR 2

YEAR 3

Along this watercourse will be an innovative retaining wall system that will extract suspended sediment from the watercourse and use this geological matter to accrete terraced landforms. These landforms will thicken the moraine dam wall by adding mass and thus assist in the stabilization of the lake. The amount of sediment accreted has a directly inverse relationship to the length of the current watercourse. As water flows sediment collects, therefore, while the stream is shortening, sediment is accumulating and the new topography is developing. Again, as seen in Figure x.x, the first phase of sedimentation will accumulate 1180 m2 of surface area, the second phase 9,265 m2, the third phase 17,826 m2, the fourth phase 25,650 m2 and the final stage 33,260 m2. So, in summation, the project will begin as a single watercourse with minimal topographic manipulation and end in a completely sedimented landscape with only a small amount of flowing water.

INTERMEDIATE PHASE

YEAR 4

YEAR 5

YEAR 6

FINAL PHASE

YEAR 7

YEAR 8

YEAR 9

Figure 12.1 Phasing diagram of the proposal’s watercourse and sedimentation

Figure 12.2 Series of rendered sections of the proposal’s wall system and resultant landforms

111

Photo Credit: Kendall Baldwin

Figure 12.3 Physical model articulating the accretive landscape ecology

generative landscape ecologies The material and construction systems of the wall system that is set to line the phased watercourses and extract and collect suspended sediment from the glacial water will be further discussed in the following chapter, but what is to be noted now is the accretive process by which this wall system will operate and the effect that it will have on the transformation of the existing topography into a new, generative landscape of glacial formwork. Based off of the phases of the watercourse, the sediment landforms will initially begin forming at the upper level of the moraine dam wall and gradually accrete as the watercourse descends the sloping topography. This is the best possible circumstance for the site because the most

susceptible, disaster-prone area of the wall is around the northeastern edge of the ridge. Within the watercourse itself, the sediment will accumulate initially and most rapidly around the river-bends. As the bend tapers and moves into a more direct, linear the path, the amound of sediment that will accrete in that area will be lesser than that around the bend. As the watercourse naturally shortens and a new phase begins, a new river-bend will form. The same process will repeat itself across the entire dam wall until the water reaches its shortest and most direct path connecting to the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s existing streams. This will provide for a slight height fluctuation across each formulated terrace of the new topographic landscape. The gradated slopes across the terraces will allow for a soft, fluid connection to the existing landscape and create walkable surfaces for the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s users to both traverse and occupy. It also provides for a differentiation of spatial conditions throughout the site as a whole to better support and encourage a variety of occupation styles across the landscape. Figure 12.4 Detailed site plan of landscape intervention zones Figure 12.5 Diagram of collaboration system and project section on following the spread 112

ESTABLISH

PROTECT 2

4 5 6 7

ENGAGE

4 5 6 7

RECONNECT 113

1:500

114

115

1:500 0

25 m

50 m

WORSHIP DEITIES

SACRED MONUMENTS

PRAYER FLAGS

CAIRNS

BUDDHIST MONKS

Figure 12.6 Analysis of the proposal’s predicted user groups

affected user groups The glacial formwork to be created through this thesis, as mentioned numerous times before, is ultimately to provide stabilization to the Tsho Rolpa moraine dam wall and to provide security for indigenous villages residing downstream from the lake. The implications of this design, however, mean much more for the communities in the area. Not only does this landscape infrastructure seek to protect them, but it also serves to reinvigorate the quality of their daily lives by providing a space for them to live, work and pray. The project’s main user groups consist of 3 types of occupants; the religious community of Buddhist monks as well as religious pilgrims, families of local villages and caravans of seasonal trekkers. Each user group has different

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS

LOCAL VILLAGERS

needs and wants in relation to the project and, therefore, the new topographic landscape of phased watercourses and sedimented landforms is generated, manipulated and partitioned accordingly. This articulation manifests itself in the fluctuation of the wall system and the resultant effects of that flux on the space provided by the sediment formed terraces. Once these terraces have been completely formed and compacted, their detail and ornamentation will manifest itself with cultural accessories of its users and occupants. The religious occupants of the site, both monks and pilgrims, will seek use of the site as a space for preaching and worship. Given the fact that the valley the project rests in is sacred and the glacier and lake that have helped generate the landscape infrastructure of the project are religious deities, this space becomes paramount as a sacred ground for worship. Additionally, the establishment of a sacred monument, like the Buddhist stupa to be placed in the lake’s alcove, will provide the religious community with a central

116

DAILY WORSHIP

TRAILS

AGRICULTURE

BASE CAMPS

WILDLIFE

FACILITIES

INFORMAL VILLAGES

SUPPLIES

WATER

SEASONAL TREKKERS

SUMMITS

exposed, optimizing comfort and accessibility.

space to practice daily rituals as well as holy days and traditional festivals.

Once that objectives of the project have been executed and completed, stabilizing the dam wall and reducing the lakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water volume, the true holistic and evocative qualities of the project will being to formulate. For example, the reduction of water and the establishment of a new shoreline creates the opportunity for a Buddhist stupa to be constructed in the naturally revealed alcove. Once the construction of that religious monument is complete, the site can begin to attract religious pilgrims and become a true sacred refuge. Additionally, local villagers can relocate their agricultue plots to this area because the fertile glacial till and purified watercourses will be fruitful for their vegetation production. Furthermore, seasonal trekkers will now have the opportunity to actively trek up the dam wall without fear of rupture and will now have the opportunity to camp on one of the semi-enclosed sediment terraces.

The local villagers, both young and old, will seek the use of this site for many reasons, paramount of which will be as a space for fertile agricultural production and refuge from extreme weather conditions. The sediment filtration wall system provides the villagers with encolsed space, purified water and both vertical and horizontal surfaces for vegetation to be cultivated on. This will help to ensure a stable balance to their safety and livelihoods. Lastly, seasonal trekkers, both individuals and caravans, will seek use of the site as a space to climb and camp. With the stabilization of the moraine dam wall, this area can now be surmounted and explored. Additionally, the creation of the spanning horizontal terraces provides the opportunity for trekkers to camp out anywhere along the wall, enclosed or

Figure 12.7 Rendered projection of the final proposal on the following spread

117

118

119

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Relatively simple, low-cos techniques are now avail servies. All thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needed is

120

st and easy-to-implement lable to value ecosystem s an innovative application.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesis’

121

122

MATERIAL SYSTEMS

123

Environmental Factors

Design Drivers Topography

Hydrology

Ecological Impacts

Existing Conditions Landslides

Soil Erosion

Precipitation

Siltation

Snow

Flooding

Mitigation Systems

Landscape Systems Slope Stabilization

Erosion Control

Channel Stabilization

Sediment Control

Drainage Control

Material Components

Material Palette Envirogrid

Turf Reinforced Mats

TerraTex Geotextile

Figure 13.1 Diagram of mitigation and material systems

mitigation systems The appropriation of a well-informed material practice and material system of a design project, especially a landscape proposal, requires in-depth investigation. In this project, the appropriation of proper material systems was determined through, first, the analysis of environmental factors. At the Tsho Rolpa site, topography and hydrology, as mentioned meany times before, are the most prominent features and, thus, become the design and material drivers. From there, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s important to analyze existing and predicted future ecological impacts. Again, for this project, the most common environmental instabilities stem from topographic and hydrological issues that lead to landslides, spil erosion, siltation, heavy precipitation, excessive amounts of snow and extreme flooding. These existing conditions warrant

Silt Fence

Wire Mesh

a number of mitigation systems so as to curb or complete cease these destructive ecological faults from occurring altogether. Such established mitigating systems that are already in place around the world are methods of slope stabilization, channel stabilization, erosion control, sediment control and drainage control. Materials that form these systems are technologies such as Envirogrid, turf-reinforced mats, TerraTex Geotextiles, silt fences and wire mesh. These material systems, when in place, create new landscape environments that are able to successfully combat ecological degradation. It is this analytical framework that supports the design proposal set forth in this thesis. The siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s topographic and hydrologic issues are combatted through the re-design and combination retaining wall and silt fence systems to increase the efficiency of slope stabilization and sediment control on Tsho Rolpaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dam wall.

124

deflective

stone

permeable

absorptive

bamboo

o gabion

jute

+ earth

vegetation

water

Figure 13.2 Diagram of material qualities and surface treatments

easily collected as well as supplied. Additionally, they will not disrupt the current ecosystem balance and, in fact, they will likely make it more productive. Furthermore, the vast variety of these materials possesses an incredible range of tactile qualities that will add further intelligence and complexity into the sectional landscape. The material palette can be broken down into three material types, those that are deflective, permeable or absorptive. The qualities have enormous impacts on the flow and filtration of water and, as can be assumed, when combined with a surface orientation/ sectional understanding of the flow of water, an incredibly dynamic spatial sequence can begin to occur throughout a landscape that is catering to controlling the natural flow and surging of water.

material palette Because the proposal of this landscape system is of such great magnitude, it is important to implement it into the existing landscape as seamlessly as possible, so as to not cause further ecological disruption and environmental degradation. To do this, a proper material palette must be selected, one that is useful for the generative objectives of the thesis as well as capable of co-existing with the current landscape features. To synthesize with the existing environmental features and ecosystems, a palette of local materials was collected and analyzed so as to be applied to the undulating landscape surface treatment that has been proposed. These materials include stone, bamboo, jute, earth, glacial sediment, vegetation and water. Because these materials are native to the region, they are fruitful and

125

WALKWAY

BRACING

GEOTEXTILE

EXTRACTED SEDIMENT

EARTH BERM

TIMBER POSTS

GABION ABUTMENT WALL

BACKFILL

1:100 0

Figure 13.3 Technical drawings of water channel sluice gate

sluice gate In order to design a new landscape system based off of natural environmental flow that will protect downstream villages from the harmful effects of a glacial lake outburst flood, a proper understanding of surface orientation and its effects on the hydrological flow is imperative. Because the orientation and direction of a surface in relation to the flow of water can either abruptly stop, gradually decrease or powerful increase the velocity of a stream of water, their linear progression must be calculated so that the sectional variation that occurs both controls and directs water in such a way that it becomes malleable and thus can be used for whatever purposes are deemed necessary, in this case, the creation of new topographic landforms accreted through sedimentation. The above figure notes a basic understanding

10 m

of surface orientation and its effect on, primarily the velocity of, water with an understanding that the magnitude of the force of the flowing water will be directly influenced by its speed. Once an understanding of a single surface was understood and diagrammed, it is then important to understand one surfaceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relationship to other surfaces, most importantly those the precede and follow it as those have the largest impact on the surface in question. Countless seriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of sectional conditions of water flow can then be generated, all having tremendously different effects on the flow, collection and/or distribution of water.

126

EXTRACTED SEDIMENT TIMBER POSTS

BAMBOO WEAVE

WATER CHANNEL GABION WALL

BACKFILL CONCRETE FOOTING

1:100 0

Figure 13.4 Technical drawings of retaining wall/sediment extraction system

wall system As previously discussed, the water extracted from the Tsho Rolpa possesses an extremely high level a fine sediment and glacial debris. Because this would contribute to further soil erosion and water contamination in the area, this water cannot be tied into an existing watercourse without first undergoing a system of treatment. In addition, this heavy volume of sediment-filled water could jeopardize the stability of the dam wall of Tsho Rolpa if it is not strengthened and supported. To alleviate the water of sediment and debris while also bulking of the dam wall, the new sedimentextracting retaining wall system has been created. The filtration of sediment from the phased watercourse will generate landforms on the dam wall and stabilize its structure while also creating habitable landforms.

127

10 m

This structural network of geotextile ‘retaining walls’ will be constructed out of a combination of timber and steel posts that span up to 7 meters in height. They will allign each phase of the watercourse and will be spaced every 3-4 meters. They will be rooted into the ground through a piling foundation system, again consisting of timber posts in a casing of concrete. Above grade, the posts will be laterally structured through a diagrid system of woven bamboo, backed by sediment extracting geotextile. As water passes between the posts and through the geotextile, the sediment will collect behind the fabric while the water continues on. Based upon each post’s correspondence to the watercourse, there will be areas where a higher amount of sediment is collected. Given the material flexibility of the post system, this additional amount of glacial till will apply pressure to the wall system and cause it to bow. Still maintaining its structural capacity, these semi-enclosed areas will begin to form habitable spaces throughout the wall system and provide refuge for occupants.

窶連 very wide array of possib remains within the contro makers today, and these d different implications for of current and future

128

ble futures for biodiversity ol of people and decisiondifferent futures have very r the human well-being generations at large.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesis’

129

130

MANIFESTATION

131

GLOBAL DIVERSITY global impact

+ application

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

The objective of this thesis sought to capitalize on the topographic shifts and hydrological flows in mountainous regions to establish the framework for a generative landscape composed of glacial formwork that stabilizes glacial lakes through the accretion of sacred landscapes and reinvigorates cultural life within indigenous communities. The testbed application of this thesis proposal was deployed on the moraine dam wall of Tsho Rolpa glacial lake but, ideally, it can be applied to any other potentially dangerous glacial lake, not just in Nepal, but worldwide.

40 km

80 km

Europe

724,602 1,647,443

Middle East + North Africa

2,099,697 2,005,920

Americas

Asia + Pacific

465,275 812,332

4,276,792 3,855,991

Rest of Africa Others

202,550 Unknown

Terrain at high altitudes

Land surface temperature increase

Biodiversity hotspots

REGIONAL FEATURES

Areas of glacial thinning

2,627,624 2,074,854

Origin + host countries of refugees

BIODIVERSITY WITHIN NEPAL

1:1,000,000 0

50 km

100 km

natural topography

population density

DRIVERS OF CHANGE

protected national parks

popular trekking regions

sacred himalaya landscape

potentially dangerous glacial lakes

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

CATALYSTS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK DESIGN AGENCIES NETWORK

DWIDM DLRM

DUDBC DIT

DESIGN AGENCIES

OBJECTIVE

DSWM

How can a future disaster zone be transformed into a destination place?

Government

NGOs

Academics

Initiatives

Designers

Residents

AREA OF INFLUENCE DIRC

DHM

EcoHimal

Transform Tsho Rolpa glacial lake into a popular cultural destination.

Tourists

DWC

NGSNepal UNESCO WRI

ICIMOD UNEP

IUCN

PROTECT VILLAGES

data collection

solution ideas

feasibility new systems

DESIGN PHASING

OPERATION

research

How can a design function for disaster prevention and re-invigorate community life?

S Funding

interest

maintain

Data

Design

Technology

Science

Cooperation

Create a generative ecology formed by the release, channelization + filtration of water.

Support

site specific

funding

cooperate

GENERATIVE ECOLOGY

monitor construct

education evaluate

HYDROLOGICAL SURFACES

integrate

surface module combinations

sediment filter

water channels

OUTCOME

DESIGN SYSTEMS

Land Use

Development

Infrastructure

Tourism

Industry

facilities

Economy

NGO’s

GOV’T DEPTS.

lodging

revenue monitor education

DHM DSWM DLRM DWIDM DUDBC DIT DIRC DWC

potential landscape tectonic sections

trekking trails

Reinvent technologies using local materials to generate new, sustainable maintain systems + practices. syphon

Water

sectional linear sequences

water storage

hydro plant

How can a project of management + development sustain its resources?

EcoHimal UNESCO ICIMOD UNISDR IUCN WRI WWF NGS Nepal

land use religious festivals

cultural festivals

ECOLOGICAL INFLUENCES glacial melt

glacial melt

CONTAIN//RELEASE

flooding

soil erosion

REACT//ADAPT energy

GENERATIVE ECOLOGIES

agriculture

infrastructure

DETACH//RE-COUPLE deforestation

migration

ARTIFICIAL//NATURAL urbanization

STRATEGY:TACTIC LOWER LAKE LEVEL

STABILIZING GLACIAL LAKES WITH SACRED LANDSCAPES 0m

EXISTING WATER LEVEL

NEW SHORELINE

-20m

CREATE SACRED SPACE

REDUCED WATER LEVEL

BUDDHIST STUPA

BULK DAM WALL CONNECT TREK ROUTES

If this proposal is successful, it will mitigate the effects of natural disasters by appropriately designing and implementing a projective approach to disaster-based architectural design as opposed to as reactive strategy. In addition to its operational infrastructural component, the proposal will also engage surrounding communities by re-invigorating their cultural and religious lives and stimulating their social and financial exposure.

1:8,000,000 0

SEDIMENT LANDFORMS

MT. EVEREST

132 KATHMANDU

TSHO ROLPA

TREKKING LINKAGE

LUKLA

1:1,000 0

50 m

100 m

SACRED LANDSCAPE

THREATENED VALLEY

SACRED HIMALAYAN LANDSCAPE

NATURAL DISASTER RISK IN ROLWALING VALLEY

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS + ISSUES

EXPANSION OF TSHO ROLPA GLACIAL LAKE

72% of Nepal’s electricity is fueled by felled timber

95% of the population are involved in agriculture

72%

95% reduce dependency on timber

41% increase in Nepal’s tourism over the past decade.

41% structured farming practices

adopt alternative methods of energy production

1960

99% of Nepal’s potential hydroelectric energy is not harnessed

1965

harness natural water surges

AGRICULTURE 72% of Nepal’s electricity is

TOURISM

fueled by felled timber

0.61 km2

0.62 km2

0.78 km2

reduce dependency on timber

1985

0.80 km2

1990

1.02 km2

1995

1.16 km2

2000

1.27 km2

WATERSHED

2005

1.39 km2

1.65 km2

WATERCOURSE

harness natural water surges

2,500 m

store and release in appropriate amounts and locations

40,000

99%

WATERCOURSE

8 hr

WATER VOLUME COMPARISON

adopt alternative methods of energy production

store and release in appropriate amounts and locations

99% of Nepal’s potential hydroelectric energy is not harnessed

RIDGE

STREAM

72% 99% harness natural water surges

1980

store and release in appropriate amounts and locations

WATER

99% of Nepal’s potential hydroelectric energy is not harnessed

COLLABORATION NETWORK

1975

WATERCOURSE

0.23 km2

ENERGY

RADIUS OF DISASTER IMPACT

1970

99%

sustainable rural livlihoods

1 olympic sized swimming pool

TSHO ROLPA

pools to equal tsho rolpa

100 km

KATHMANDU

2,000

$30,000,000

10,000

FLORA + FAUNA

HUMAN LIVES

INDUSTRIES

1st general elections held Nepal’s 1st constitution promulgated Britain formally recognizes Nepal’s independence

SACRED HIMALAYAN LANDSCAPE Nepal’s 1st piped water system installed in palace

Nepal’s present day territory is established

Nepal’s 1st census conducted

1st recorded surveying trip around Mt. Everest covers +800 miles

Violent protests by communists to overthrow government occur

Local government is reorganized

Lack of trade + transit treaties with India disrupts economy

Prime Minister Giri resigns in the wake of corruption

Nepal joins UN

Democracy is restored

Nepalese Congress Party is formed

The Ranas dominate monarchy and lead Nepal to a period of isolation

1850

GLACIAL LAKE BURSTS CRITICALLY DANGEROUS GLACIAL LAKES

1854

1858

1862

1866

1870

1874

1878

1882

1886

1890

1896

1900

SITE CONDITIONS

1904

1908

1912

1916

1920

1924

1928

1932

1936

1940

1944

1948

1952

1956

1960

1964

1968

1972

1976

1980

1984

1988

1992

1996

2000

2004

2008

TSHO ROLPA MORAINE DAM COMPLEX

HUMANS

GLACIAL LAKES AT RISK

3,252

5,324 km2

2,323

76 km2

GLACIERS

SPECIES

GLACIAL LAKES

VILLAGES

CRITICALLY DANGEROUS

INDUSTRY

TSHO ROLPA

DISASTER IN SACRED LANDS GLOBAL GLACIAL VOLUME CHANGE

0.4

AGRICULTURE 0.3

0.2 0.1

0.05

-0.05

-200

-0.05

-0.1 -0.25

TOURISM

-0.2 -0.3

-0.35

-0.35 -0.4

-0.4

-0.4 DEPARTURE IN TEMPERATURE FROM 1960 AVERAGE

-350 -425

-400

-450

-475

-500

-550

-350

DIG TSHO IMJA TSHO -600

TSHO ROLPA

-650

-700

TREKKING

-800

POTENTIAL RUPTURE

DEVELOPMENT

VILLAGE

-1700

1850

1854

1858

1862

1866

1870

1874

1878

1882

1886

1890

1896

1900

1904

1908

1912

1916

1920

1924

1928

1932

1936

1940

1944

1948

1952

1956

1960

1964

1968

1972

1976

1980

1984

1988

1992

1996

2000

2004

2008

WATERCOURSE

MORAINE DAM WALL

RIDGE

OUTLET

IMJA TSHO

2012

TRANSPORTATION

GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOODS glacial melt

SWELLING GLACIAL LAKE

INFRASTRUCTURE 170 160 flooding

soil erosion

150 140

energy

agriculture

infrastructure

130

DRINKING WATER

120

RUPTURED WATER VOLUME

110 100 deforestation

migration

80 70

ENERGY

60 50 40

urbanization

30 SURGING GLACIAL WATER

DIG TSHO

FLOODING

OPERATION:ORGANIZATION

Parthenon 24 m

Taj Mahal 35 m

Boudhanath Stupa 40 m

Pantheon 43 m

Hagia Sophia 55 m

St. Patrick’s Cathedral 103 m

Tsho Rolpa Dam Wall 130 m

St. Peter’s Basilica 138 m

Notre Dame Catheral 151 m

CULTURAL IMPACT

TACTICAL OPERATION OF GENERATIVE HYDROLOGICAL TOPOGRAPHY

SYNTHESIZING SPATIAL CONDITIONS

NATURAL SEDIMENTATION PROCESS

WORSHIP DEITIES

DAILY WORSHIP

TRAILS

SACRED MONUMENTS

AGRICULTURE

BASE CAMPS

PRAYER FLAGS

WILDLIFE

FACILITIES

CAIRNS

INFORMAL VILLAGES

YEAR 1

PHASE 1

2575 m

1180 m

2 BUDDHIST MONKS

775 m

PHASE 2

9265 m

PHASE 3

1375 m

SEDIMENTATION

1975 m

17826 m

6 7

25650 m

PHASE 5

ENGAGE

175 m

LOCAL VILLAGERS

WATER

SUPPLIES

SEASONAL TREKKERS

SUMMITS

YEAR 2

PROTECT

PHASE 4

PHASE 2 PHASE 3 PHASE 4

WATERCOURSE

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS

YEAR 3

5 6

33260 m

YEAR 4

RECONNECT 1:500

MATERIAL SYSTEMS

25 m

50 m

PROGRAM ZONING

PROPERTIES OF LANDSCAPE INFRASTRUCTURE

WATERCOURSE

SEDIMENT EXTRACTING RETAINING WALL

WATER CHANNEL SLUICE GATE

INTERMEDIATE PHASE

PHASE 1

PROJECT PHASING + ACCRETION

INITIAL PHASE

ESTABLISH

YEAR 5

WALKWAY

EXTRACTED SEDIMENT TIMBER POSTS

NEW RIDGELINE

BAMBOO WEAVE BRACING WATER CHANNEL GABION WALL

YEAR 6

GEOTEXTILE BACKFILL EXTRACTED SEDIMENT

TREKKING TRAILS

CONCRETE FOOTING EARTH BERM

TIMBER POSTS

GABION ABUTMENT WALL

SEDIMENT LANDFORMS BACKFILL

1:100 0

1:100 10 m

10 m

YEAR 7

WALL SYSTEM LAYERS

BUDDHIST STUPA

Environmental Factors

FINAL PHASE

CONNECT TREKKING ROUTE

Design Drivers Topography

Hydrology

Siltation

Precipitation

Ecological Impacts

YEAR 8

Existing Conditions Landslides

Soil Erosion

Snow

Flooding

Mitigation Systems

Landscape Systems Slope Stabilization

Channel Stabilization

Erosion Control

Sediment Control

Drainage Control

Envirogrid

Turf Reinforced Mats

TerraTex Geotextile

Silt Fence

Wire Mesh

Material Components

133

Material Palette

YEAR 9 1:500 0

25 m

50 m

La Sagrada Familia 170 m

2012

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Once an ecosystem has und recovery to the original st centuries and may someti

134

dergone a nonliner change, tate may take decades or imes even be impossible.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assessment ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesis’

135

136

FUTURE SCENARIOS

137

waterMARKS

138

139

VENICE FUTURE HIGH WATER LEVEL

9.75

HONG KONG

FUTURE HIGH WATER LEVEL

8.54 m

FUTURE HIGH WATER LEVEL

8.54 m

FUT

140

LONDON FUTURE HIGH WATER LEVEL

EW YORK CITY

TURE HIGH WATER LEVEL

7.62 m

141

10.35 m

waterTOWERS

142

143

toilet flush [13 litres]

5-minute shower [30 litres]

to grow an apple [70 litres]

brush teeth + wash hands [5 litres[

144

water lawn [50 litres]

1 litre bottle of water [5 litres]

to grow an orange [50 litres]

nepali citizen daily water use [49 litres]

u.s. citizen daily water use [375 litres]

millions of litres supplied in Kathmandu [86 ML]

millions of litres demanded in Kathmandu [280 ML]

household cooking [45 litres]

145 bath [80 litres]

washing machine [92 litres]

1 litre bottle of water [5 litres]

energy efficient washing machine [92 litres]

to make 1 egg [200 litres]

waterRITES

146

147

148

149

RESOURCES

architecture • Ballesteros, Mario. ‘Verb Crisis: Architecture Boogazine.’ Barcelona: Actar, 2008. • Belnager, Pierre. ‘Landscape As Infrastructure,’ Landscape Journal 28: 1-09, University of Wisconsin Press. 2009, p. 79-95. • Brownell, Blaine. ‘Transmaterial.’ Princeton Architectural Press (New York, New York). 2006. • Burns, Carol. ‘Why Site Matters.’ p. 7-23. • Corner, James. ‘Recovering Landscape: Essays in Contemporary Landscape Architecture.’ New York: Princeton Architectural, 1999. • Correa, Felipe. ‘GSD Platform.’ Barcelona: Actar [New York], 2009. • Diedrich, Lisa. ‘Fieldwork Landscape Architecture Europe.’ Basel: Birkhäuser, 2006. • Droege, Peter. ‘Climate Design: Design and Planning for the Age of Climate Change.’ Pt. Reyes Station, CA: ORO Editions, 2010 • Fernández, Per Aurora., and Javier Arpa. ‘The Public Chance: New Urban Landscapes.’ Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain: A+T Ediciones, 2008.

environmental studies • ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Biodiversity Synthesis.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assesment. 2005. • ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Synthesis.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assesment. 2005. • ‘Ecosystems and Human Well Being - Wetlands and Water.’ Millenium Ecosystem Assesment. 2005.

glacial lakes • ‘An Overview of Glaciers, Glacier Retreat and Subsequent Impacts in Nepal, India and China.’ WWF Nepal Program [March 2005]: 1-79. • ‘Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Nepal and Switzerland: New Threats Due to Climate Change.’ Germanwatch Organization. [2004]: 1-12. • ‘Glacier Inventory in the Dudh Kosi Region, East Nepal.’ World Glacier Inventory. [September 1980]: 95-104. • ‘Glacier Retreat in the Nepal Himalaya.’ 1-3. • Higuchi, H. ‘Nepal-Japan Cooperation in Research on Glaciers and Climates of the Nepal Himalaya.’ Snow and Glacier Hydrology [November 1992]: 29-36.

• Forman, Robert. ‘Land Mosaics,’ Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, UK). 1995.

• ‘Impact of Climate Change on Himalayan Glaciers and Glacial Lakes: Case Studies of GLOF and associated hazards in Nepal and Bhutan.’ ICIMOD [2007]: 1-3.

• Kwinter, Sanford, and Cynthia C. Davidson. ‘Far from Equilibrium: Essays on Technology and Design Culture.’ Barcelona: Actar, 2007.

• “Nepal Case Study.” Proc. of NAPA Workshop, Thimpu, Bhutan. September 2003.

• Margolis, Liat, and Alexander Robinson. ‘Living Systems.’ [New York]: Birkhäuser Verlag AG, 2007.

• Reynolds, John M. ‘Glacial Hazard Assessment at Tsho Rolpa, Rolwaling, Central Nepal.’ Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology 32.’ [1999]: 209-214.

• Marot, Sebastien. ‘The Reclaiming of Sites.’ p. 45-57. • Mostafavi, Mohsen, and Felipe Correa. ‘GSD Platform 2.’ [Cambridge, Mass.]: Harvard University Graduate School of Design, 2009. • Mostafavi, Mohsen, and Felipe Correa. ‘GSD Platform 3.’ [Cambridge, Mass.]: Harvard University Graduate School of Design, 20010. • Mostafavi, Mohsen, and Gareth Doherty. ‘Ecological Urbanism.’ Baden, Switzerland: Lars Müller, 2010. • Steenbergen, Clemens. ‘Composing Landscapes: Analysis, Typology and Experiments for Design.’ Birkhäuser (Switzerland). 2008.

• Richardson, Shaun D., and John M. Reynolds. “Degradation of Ice-cored Moraine Dams: Implications for Hazard Development.” Seattle, Washington, USA. September 2000. • Sakai, A., K. Nishimura, T. Kadota, and N. Takeuchi. “Onset of Calving at Supraglacial Lakes on Debris-covered Glaciers of the Nepal Himalaya.” Journal of Glaciology 55.193 (2009): 909-17. • Schlid, Andreas. “Glacial Lake Outbursts and Its Impacts on Human Security in South Asian Countries.” Proc. of South Asia: Environment and Human Securities Conference, Visions Theatre, National Museum of Australia, Canberra, Australia. [October 2008]: 1-11.

152

industry

visualization

Wu, John. ‘The Mineral Industry of Nepal.’ [1997]: 1-3.

• Klanten, Robert. ‘Data Flow: Visualising Information in Graphic Design.’ Berlin: Gestalten, 2008.

religion

• Klanten, Robert. ‘Data Flow 2: Visualizing Information in Graphic Design.’ Berlin: Gestalten, 2010.

• Fisher, James F. ‘Sherpas: Reflections on Change in Himalayan Nepal.’ Berkeley: University of California, 1990.

• McCandless, David. ‘The Visual Miscellaneum: a Colorful Guide to the World’s Most Consequential Trivia.’ New York: Collins Design, 2009.

• Kooij, K. R. Van. ‘Religion in Nepal.’ Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978.

• Tufte, Edward R. ‘The Visual Display of Quantitative Information.’ Cheshire, Conn. (Box 430, Cheshire 06410): Graphics, 1983.

• Singh, Harischandra Lal. ‘Buddhism in Nepal: A Brief Historical Introduction.’ Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar, 2004.

watershed basins

tourism

• Poudel, Krishna. ‘Watershed Management in Nepal: Challenges and Constraints.’ in Proceedings of the Asian Regional Workshop on Watershed Management. 1-10.

• Rajesh Bahadur Thapa and Yuki Murayama, ‘Examining Spatiotemporal Urbanization Patterns in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.’ Remote Sensing [2009]: 534-556.

• Pradhan, Pratik. “Improving Sediment Handling in the Himalayas.” Thesis. Kathmandu University, 2008.

tsho rolpa • Agrawala, Shardul, Vivian Raksakulthai, Maarten Van Aalst, Peter Larsem, Joel Smith, and John Reynolds. “Development and Climate Change in Nepal: Focus on Water Resources and Hydropower.” • Rana, Birbal, Arun B. Shrestha, John M. Reynolds, Raju Aryal, Adarsha P. Pokhrel, and Kamal P. Budhathoki. “Hazard Assessment of the Tsho Rolpa Glacier Lake and Ongoing Remediation Measures.” ‘Journal of Nepal Geological Society.’ 22 (2000): 563-70.

urbanism • Kumar, Dhruba. ‘Thinking through Nepal’s Bhutan Problem.’ Nepalese Studies Vol. 20 No. 2.’ [July 1993]: 213219.

• Raghunath, Jha. ‘Potential Erosion Map for Bagmati Basin.’ [September 2002]: 1-9. • ‘Watershed Management Case Study Nepal: Review and Assessment of Watershed Management Strategies and Approaches.’ [2004]: 1-49.

websites • Information is Beautiful [informationisbeautiful.com] • Visual Complexity [www.visualcomplexity.com] • WWF - Nepal [www.wwf.org/nepal] • ICIMOD [icimod.org] • Flash Earth [flashearth.com]

photo credits

• Pokharel, Prof. Dr. Jiba Raj, ‘A Policy Study on Urban Housing in Nepal.’ Economic Policy Network:26 [October 2006]: 1-49.

• Andy Broom • Kevin Bubriski • Gregory Constantine • Thomas Dempsey • Blaine Franger • Michael Katz • Joseph Puryear • Matthew Schoenfelder • Johan van Damme

• Pranil Kumar Upadhayaya and Bishnu Raj Upreti, ‘Mountain Tourism in Nepal: An Overview on the Sustainable Inclusion of Local Communities.’ 1-14. • Tiwari, Indra, ‘Urban Migration and Urbanization in Nepal.’ Asia Pacific Population Journal [April 2008]: 79-104.

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