History 역사
6
The Beginnings of the Country’s History (Prehistoric Times - Gojoseon) Three Kingdoms and Other States Unified Silla and Balhae Goryeo Joseon The Fall of Joseon: Imperial Japan’s Annexation of Korea Independence Movement Transition to a Democracy and Transformation into an Economic Powerhouse
6 History 역사
The Beginnings of the Country’s History (Prehistoric Times - Gojoseon) The history of the Korean nation began in Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula when people started settling there 700,000 years ago. Representative historic sites associated with the people of the Paleolithic Age, who used tools made of animal horns and chipped stone tools, include Geomeunmoru Cave in Sangwon, Pyeongannam-do; Jeongok-ri in Yeoncheon, Gyeonggi-do; Seokjang-ri in Gongju, Chungcheongnam-do; and Durubong Cave in Cheongwon, Chungcheongbuk-do. The early inhabitants of the peninsula survived by hunting for animals and collecting edible plants in groups.
Comb-pattern Pottery This object with a pointy bottom was discovered in Amsa-dong, Seoul, a representative historic site of the Neolithic Age. (Source: National Museum of Korea)
In Korea, the Neolithic Age began around B.C.8,000. People started farming, cultivating cereals such as millet, and used polished stone tools. They started settling down permanently in places and formed clan societies. One of the most representative features of the Neolithic Age is comb-patterned pottery, examples of which Hand Axe This multifunctional tool dates back to the Paleolithic period, it was discovered in Jeongok-ri, Yeoncheon-gun, Gyeonggi-do.
have been found all across the Korean Peninsula, including Amsadong, Seoul; Namgyeong, Pyeongyang; and Suga-ri, Gimhae. The Bronze Age started around the 10th century BC on the Korean Peninsula and the 15th century BC in Manchuria. Historic sites associated with the Bronze Age are found in Liaoning and
186
187
Jilin Provinces, China and across the Korean Peninsula. With the
Gojoseon expanded its territory under his rule. By this time,
development of the Bronze culture, a society emerged in which
Gojoseon had adopted iron culture, developed agriculture and
the head of a clan exercised great influence. The strongest clan
various handicrafts, and increased its military strength. It tried to
leaders started merging many clans into one, and these groups
monopolize profit, while serving as an intermediate in the trade
very gradually developed into early states.
between the Korean Peninsula and China, taking advantage of
The tribes that played a central role in the establishment of
its geographical proximity to China. This led to confrontation
Gojoseon, which emerged as the first recognizable state of the
between Gojoseon and Han China. Han attacked Gojoseon with
Korean people, believed in the King of Heaven and worshipped
a large number of ground and naval forces. Gojoseon defiantly
bears. The two factions jointly upheld Dangun Wanggeom as their
resisted the attack and won a great victory in the early stage of
chief priest and political leader. Gojoseon fostered an independent
the war, but its capital at Wanggeomseong Fortress fell after a
culture in Liaoning, China and along the Daedonggang River.
year of war, and Gojoseon collapsed in B.C.108.
By the 3rd century BC, kings such as King Bu and King Jun had become powerful and bequeathed the throne to their sons.
Dolmen
They established a solid system of rule, backed by high-ranking
The Seven Wonders of the World include sites such as the Great
retainers and military officers.
Pyramid of Giza, the Great Wall of China, and Stonehenge in
Towards the end of the 3rd century, the Qin Dynasty was
England among others. The many dolmens scattered around the
replaced by the Han Dynasty in China, creating a period of
Korean Peninsula compare favorably with them for the following
social upheaval. Many people moved southward to Gojoseon.
reasons:
Their leader, Wiman, acceded to the throne in B.C.194 and
188
First, the Korea Peninsula has over 36,000 dolmens, or about
Dolmen Park in Suncheon, Jeollanam-do
189
half of all the dolmens in the world.
Table-type Dolmens in Bugeun-ri, Ganghwa
that they were put there for sacrificial rituals offered to the gods
Second, diverse artifacts, including
of the earth. A Korean folklorist named Son Jin-tae pointed to
human bones, stone objects, jade and
a folktale in which dolmens were believed to be the houses of
bronze artifacts, have been unearthed
witches (Mago halmeoni in local legends).
from the dolmens, although many of
Dolmens are rarely found in China, except for Manchuria,
them were also found to contain no
or Japan, yet many thousands of them can be seen across the
objects. Such discoveries raised many
Korean Peninsula. They were erected over many thousands of
pertinent questions such as who
years, but this process stopped sometime before Christ. There
made the dolmens, when, and why? What kind of life did their
are many unsolved mysteries surrounding the dolmens, such as
builders lead?
the reason for their concentration in such great numbers on the
Third, one can only wonder about how such large stones were
Korean Peninsula in Northeast Asia and their connectivity with
transported and from where, and what kind of skills were used to
those found in Europe or India. UNESCO’s acceptance of the
build the dolmens.
South Korean government’s application for registration of the
In the past, the dolmens in Korea used to be classified into
dolmens in Ganghwa, Hwasun, and Gochang in 2000 as a world
two categories: the northern type (table type), which includes the
cultural heritage attests to the world’s growing interest in their
dolmens located north of the Hangang River, and the southern
importance in the field of cultural anthropology.
type (go-table type). However, after go-table dolmens were found
Mandolin-shaped Bronze Dagger and Slender Bronze Dagger (Gojoseon) These two artifacts represent the Bronze Age. They are thought to be either weapons or ritual objects. The one on the left looks similar to a bipa (Korean mandolin), while the one on the right is more slender and displays a straight line. (Source: National Museum of Korea)
190
north of the Hangang River, and table-type dolmens were found
Three Kingdoms and Other States
south of the river, the northern/southern-type appellations were
Towards the end of the Gojoseon Period, tribal states came
dropped. Meanwhile, other scholars have added new types to this
into being one after another in Manchuria and on the Korean
system of classification.
Peninsula. Buyeo was established in the plains along the
Dolmens are often referred to as tombs, but it is difficult to
Songhuajiang River in Manchuria and Jilin. The people of Buyeo
make this claim with any certainty. Yi Gyu-bo, a great scholar
grew crops and raised livestock, including horses. They also made
of Goryeo in the 12th century, left the following remarks about
furs. By the early 1st century AD, they started calling their main
dolmens: “People say that the saints put the dolmens there in the
leader the King and actively engaged with other countries, even
olden days. It is indeed a wonderful technique (that enabled men
entering into diplomatic relations with China. By the end of
to position such huge rocks in that way).”
the 3rd century, Buyeo had been incorporated into Goguryeo.
In the early 20th century, American missionary Horace Grant
The people of Buyeo held an annual festival called Yeonggo in
Underwood claimed that dolmens were not tombs but rather
December. During the festival, they held a sacrificial rite for
Stele for Great King Gwanggaeto (Goguryeo; 5th Century) King Gwanggaeto the Great, the 19th king of Goguryeo, expanded the territory of his Kingdom into Manchuria and the Maritime Provinces of Siberia. In 414, his son King Jangsu set up a stele (6.39m high, 37 tons) in present-day Jian, Jilin Province, China to commemorate his father’s great achievements. The inscription, comprising 1,775 characters, explains how Goguryeo was founded and how it expanded its territory.
191
heaven, sang and danced together, and released prisoners.
The Three Kingdoms and Gaya (5th Century AD)
The Kingdom fell apart during the establishment of the regional confederation, but the factions that founded Goguryeo and Baekje took pride in their status as the inheritors of Buyeo. Samguk sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) states that Goguryeo
Gojumong, who founded Goguryeo in B.C.37, was originally from Buyeo. Goguryeo prospered greatly in areas close to Baekdusan Mountain and along the Amnokgang (Yalu) River. Right after its foundation, the Kingdom conquered a number of small states in the area and moved its capital to Gungnaeseong (Tonggu) near
East Sea
Pyeongyang
the Amnok. Through many wars, it drove away the factions loyal to Han Dynasty and expanded its territory as far as Liaodong in
Usanguk
the west and to the north of the Korean Peninsula in the east. It became a powerful state, exerting control over Manchuria and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. There were also a number of small states, such as Okjeo
Dokdo
West Sea Ungjin (Gongju) Sabi (Buyeo) Baekje
Silla Gaya
Geumseong (Gyeongju)
and Dongye, in present-day Hamgyeong-do and the north of Gangwon-do along the East Coast of the Korean Peninsula.
Tamna
Located in outlying areas, they did not develop very rapidly. Okjeo offered tributes, such as salt and fish, to Goguryeo. The people
192
of Dongye held a sacrificial rite for heaven called Mucheon in
100,000 households in total) located in present-day Gyeonggi-
October, building a spirit of collaboration by singing and dancing
do, Chungcheong-do, and Jeolla-do Provinces. Byeonhan was
together. Their specialty products included an archery bow,
located in an area that included present-day Gimhae and Masan.
known as a dangung, and the gwahama (a horse small enough to
Jinhan was located in an area that included present-day Daegu
pass unhindered beneath fruit trees). These two states were also
and Gyeongju. Each of the latter two was composed of 40,000 –
incorporated into Goguryeo.
50,000 households. The three mini-states were collectively known
The area to the south of Gojoseon was occupied by a large
as Samhan (Three Han States). The people of Samhan held rites of
group of small states including Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan.
sacrifice for heaven in May and October. On such occasions, they
Mahan was a confederacy of fifty-four small states (composed of
gathered together to enjoy liquor, food, singing and dancing. 193
A Painting of Hunting Scenes in the Tomb of the Dancers (Goguryeo; 5th Century) Dynamic hunting activities of the people of Goguryeo (37 BCE-668 CE)
Jar with Clay Figurines (Silla; 5th Century) In ancient times, people made animal-shaped clay figurines for use as toys or burial accessories. This jar indicates the religious belief of the people of Silla. It is an important material for scholars and enthusiasts of history and art. (Source: National Museum of Korea)
194
Gold Crown of Gaya This crown was unearthed in Goryeong, Gyeongsangbukdo. It features upright decorations and curved jade pendants.
Along with the spread of iron culture and the development
Great, a son of King Sosurim, drove away the Khitan, Sushen,
of farming skills, powerful states such as Goguryeo, Baekje and
Dongbuyeo and expanded his territory into Manchuria. He also
Silla gradually became established in Manchuria and the Korean
captured many of Baekje’s fortresses in the south and helped Silla
Peninsula.
overcome a crisis by driving away Wako invaders.
Goguryeo
Baekje
Goguryeo was the first of the three Kingdoms to firmly establish
Baekje was established in B.C.18 jointly by the people who lived
itself as a sovereign country. It started expanding its territory in
along the Hangang River, people originating from Buyeo and
the late 1st century and adopted a system centered on the King
Goguryeo, and migrants from elsewhere. By the mid-3rd century,
by the late 2nd century. By the early 4th century, King Micheon
during the reign of King Goi, the Kingdom had seized complete
of Goguryeo had driven away factions loyal to Han Dynasty from
control over the areas along the Hangang River and established
the Korean Peninsula.
a solid system of political governance by accommodating
In 372 (the 2nd year of King Sosurim’s reign), Goguryeo
the advanced culture of China. By the mid-4th century, King
adopted Buddhism and announced a code of laws in an effort
Geunchogo occupied Mahan and expanded the territory as far as
to establish a proper ruling system. It also established the
the south coast of present-day Jeollanam-do. Along the northern
Taehak, a Confucian educational institute. King Gwanggaeto the
border, Baekje confronted Goguryeo in a bid to take control of 195
present-day Hwanghae-do. It also exerted control over Gaya in
of King Gwanggaeto, moved the capital to Pyeongyang in 427.
the south. At that time, Baekje’s territory included present-day
He occupied Hanseong (present-day Seoul), the capital of Baekje,
Gyeonggi-do, Chungcheong-do, Jeolla-do, the middle reaches of
and areas along the Hangang River, expanding his territory
the Nakdonggang River, Gangwon-do, and Hwanghae-do.
down to present-day Jungnyeong Pass (Danyang and Yeongju) and Namyang-myeon, Gyeonggi-do. Thanks to this territorial
Silla
expansion, Goguryeo emerged as a power to be reckoned with in
Silla originated in Saroguk, one of the mini states of Jinhan. It was
Northeast Asia
established as a Kingdom in B.C.57 by the natives of present-day
Looking at Baekje, the Kingdom moved its capital to Ungjin
Gyeongju and people from other regions. Those with the family
(present-day Gongju) in 475, after yielding the areas along the
names Park, Seok, and Kim acceded to the throne in turn. By
Hangang River to Goguryeo. It strived to rebuild its strength to
around the 4th century, the Kingdom occupied most of the areas
regain the lost territory. King Dongseong confronted Goguryeo
east of the Nakdonggang River. During the reign of King Naemul,
by reinforcing the alliance with Silla. King Muryeong reinforced
Silla allowed Goguryeo troops to remain within the Kingdom to
local control in an effort to lay the foundation for prosperity.
help drive away Wako invaders. It also adopted Chinese culture
King Seong, a son of King Muryeong, relocated the Baekje
and civilization through Goguryeo.
capital to Sabi (present-day Buyeo), strove to reform
In Byeonhan, located along the lower reaches of the Nakdonggang River, the Gaya Confederation emerged, with
Great Gilt-bronze Incense Burner of Baekje (6th Century) This precious object has helped researchers broaden their understanding of the production skills, handicrafts, artistic culture, religion, and ideas of Baekje. (Source: National Museum of Korea)
the ruling system, and regained control over areas along the Hangang River in an alliance with Silla.
Geumgwan Gaya playing a leading role. The confederation
As for Silla, Saroguk changed its name to Silla
developed an iron culture and exerted considerable influence on
in the early 6th century, reformed its political
areas along the Nakdonggang River. Mini states of Gaya started
system, and reorganized its administrative zones,
rice farming early on and traded actively with Wa (Japan) and
including the capital, during the reign of King Jijeung. King
Lelang, taking advantage of locally produced iron and convenient
Jijeung incorporated Usanguk (composed of present-day
sea routes.
Ulleungdo and Dokdo) into the territory of Silla in 512. King Beopheung stabilized the ruling system by
196
Unification of the Three Kingdoms under Silla
proclaiming laws, setting rules about official robes,
By the 5th century, each of the three Kingdoms (Goguryeo,
and adopting Buddhism as the official state religion.
Baekje, and Silla) on the Korean Peninsula was committed to a
He also incorporated Geumgwan Gaya in a drive to
policy of territorial expansion under a firmly established ruling
expand the territory. King Jinheung reorganized
apparatus centered on the King. In Goguryeo, King Jangsu, a son
Hwarangdo into a national organization and 197
Sacred Bell of Great King Seongdeok (Unified Silla; 8th Century) Weighing 18.9 tons, this is the largest bell in the country. It is also called the Emille Bell. The Flying Apsaras in the picture on the right displays the exquisite decorative skills of Silla.
Tang forces in 660. The Silla-Tang forces then attacked Goguryeo, once the most powerful Kingdom in Northeast Asia. However, Goguryeo had depleted its resources in two large-scale wars against the two dynasties of China, and fell in 668. Upon conquering Baekje and Goguryeo in alliance with Silla, Tang China attempted to exert control over the entire Korean Peninsula, including Silla. Silla waged a war against Tang, defeated its navy in Gibeolpo near the estuary of the Geumgang River, and drove all of Tang’s forces out of the peninsula, thus accomplishing the important feat of unifying the Korean Peninsula in 676. expanded the territory considerably. He seized lands along the Hangang River from Baekje, conquered Dae Gaya in Goryeong,
North and South States Period:
wrested areas along the Nakdonggang River, and expanded the
Unified Silla and Balhae
territory as far as Hamheung along the East Coast.
With the unification of the three Kingdoms on the Korean
In 612, Sui China, which unified all of mainland China into one
Peninsula in 668, Silla enjoyed a marked expansion of both its
state, attacked Goguryeo, mobilizing more than a million troops.
territory and population. Unified Silla entered a period of dazzling
General Eulji Mundeok of Goguryeo drowned most of the Chinese
economic development. It mended fences with Tang China. The
invaders in the Salsu (present-day Cheongcheongang River). The
two countries saw vigorous exchanges between traders, monks,
Sui Dynasty sustained enormous damage due to the failure of
and Confucian scholars. Silla exported gold/silver handiworks and
the campaign and fell to the Tang Dynasty in 618. Tang China also
ginseng to Tang and imported books, chinaware, satin silk fabric,
attacked Goguryeo several times, but failed at each attempt.
clothes, and craftwork products. Goods from Central Asia were
In the meantime, Baekje frequently attacked Silla. Silla unsuccessfully sought the assistance of Goguryeo, and then
198
introduced to Silla, and traders from that region paid visits to Silla via the Silk Road and sea routes.
invaded in an alliance with Tang China. Silla troops led by Kim
The major ports of Silla included Ulsan and Danghangseong
Yu-sin defeated an elite force of Baekje troops commanded by
(present-day Hwaseong, Gyeonggi-do), through which numerous
Gyebaek in Hwangsanbeol and marched to Sabi, the capital of
goods from Central and Southern Asia were imported. In the early
Baekje. Troops of Tang China invaded Baekje through the estuary
9th century, General Jang Bo-go of Silla established a forward
of the Geumgang River. Finally, Baekje surrendered to the Silla-
base in Cheonghaejin (present-day Wando, Jeollanam-do) to 199
deal with the pirate menace and encourage trade with nearby countries including China and Japan.
Balhae started expanding its territory and regained control over most of the former territory of Goguryeo. During the reign
In the meantime, the survivors of the fallen Kingdom of
of King Mu, Balhae controlled northern Manchuria. King Mun
Goguryeo resisted Tang China’s rule. In 698, a group of them led
reformed the system of governance and moved the capital to
by Dae Jo-yeong, jointly with the Mohe, founded Balhae near
Sanggyeong (present-day Ningan-xian, Heilongjiang Province)
present-day Dongmiaoshan in Jilin Province, China. The new
in about 755. The people of Balhae took pride in their Goguryeo
Kingdom would eventually confront Silla in the south.
inheritance. Letters held in Japan show that the kings of Balhae referred to themselves as the Kings of Goguryeo. Balhae eventually grew so large and strong that the people of Tang China
Unified Silla and Balhae (8th Century)
called it Haedong seongguk (“prosperous country in the east”), but it fell in 926 as a result of the devastation caused by an eruption of Baekdusan Mountain and an invasion of the Khitan.
Celadon Prunus Vase with Inlaid Cloud and Crane Design (Goryeo; 12th Century) The jade green celadon ware represents the ceramics of the Goryeo period. The exquisite patterns on these objects were created by inlaying white and black clay into grooves etched on their surface. Inlaid designs such as this are recognized as a unique skill.
Goryeo By the late 8th century, Silla had been weakened by an internal struggle for power among the nobility;
Balhae
and, by the 10th century, leaders of powerful local factions, such as Gyeon Hwon and Gungye, had
Sanggyeong
established their own regimes. In 892, Gyeon Hwon established a Kingdom named Later Baekje, with Wansanju as its capital, and gained control of presentEast Sea Pyeongyang
day Jeolla-do and Chungcheong-do. In 901, Gungye, a member of the Silla royal family,
Usanguk
West Sea
Silla Geumseong (Gyeongju)
Tamna
Dokdo
founded Later Goguryeo, exerting control over present-day Gangwon-do and Gyeonggi-do. He expanded the territory, reformed the ruling system, and relocated the capital to Cheorwon. He also changed the name of the country to Taebong. Gungye lost popularity among his people while exerting
200
201
control over local leaders and strengthening his claim to the
The Goryeo Kingdom gave birth to a splendid culture. The
throne. In 918, he was driven away by Wang Geon, a local leader
inlaid designs found on Goryeo jade-green porcelain attest to a
from Songak. Wang Geon changed the name of the country to
unique artistry unparalleled elsewhere in the world at that time.
Goryeo, announced that the country would inherit Goguryeo, and
The Tripitaka Koreana (a Korean collection of the Tripitaka, or
moved the capital to Songak. Goryeo remained hostile to Later
Buddhist scriptures, carved onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks),
Baekje and adopted a policy of positive engagement with Silla.
which was made during the Goryeo Period, is the essence of
In 935, Unified Silla was peacefully incorporated into Goryeo.
Buddhist culture and the pinnacle of achievement of wooden
Following a power struggle among leaders in Later Baekje, Gyeon
printing block technology. The world’s first metal printing types
Hwon surrendered to Wang Geon. In 936, Later Baekje fell to
were also invented during the Goryeo Period. According to the
Goryeo. Thus, Wang Geon unified the Later Three Kingdoms on
pertinent records, the people of Goryeo invented metal printing
the Korean Peninsula. Goryeo adopted Confucianism as its political ideology and established an effective education system by founding the
Goryeo (11th Century)
Gukjagam (a national higher education institution) and numerous hyanggyo (local private schools). Buddhism also exerted a considerable influence on Goryeo society in general. The Kingdom adopted a more tolerant approach towards the acceptance of other religions, as indicated by the Yeondeunghoe (Lotus Lantern Festival) and Palgwanhoe (Festival of the Eight Vows), rites in which prayers were offered for blessing, based on a syncretic mix
Seogyeong (Pyeongyang)
of folk religions and Buddhism. Goryeo engaged in brisk trade with many countries, including Song China. Many traders from Song China, Central Asia, Arabia, Southeast Asia and Japan travelled to Byeongnando, the gateway
East Sea
Gaegyeong (Gaeseong) Usanguk Namgyeong (Seoul) Dokdo
West Sea Donggyeong (Gyeongju)
to the capital, Gaeseong. Traders from Song China sold satin, silk and medicinal herbs, while traders from Goryeo sold hemp cloth and ginseng. Gems such as ivory, crystal, amber were imported from Arabia. And, finally, the name ‘Korea’ originated from Goryeo
Tamna
during this period. 202
203
t y p e s m o re t h a n 2 0 0 ye a rs b e fo re
and people’s lives were destroyed due to the long years of war. The
Johannes Gutenburg in Europe. A book
Mongols destroyed many precious cultural heritages, including the
entitled Jikji (Anthology of Great Buddhist
nine-tier pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple.
Priests' Zen Teachings) was printed in 1377
Jikji (1377), the oldest extant text printed with movable metal type
with metal printing types, 78 years ahead
Joseon
of its European homologue printed in 1455.
Towards the end of the 13th century, Goryeo found itself in a
Jikji is kept at the National Library of France
difficult situation due to internal and external problems, including
and was registered as a Memory of the World in 2001.
a struggle for power among the nobility and incursions by red-
War with the Mongols In the early 13th century, the situation in China changed
Joseon (15th Century)
abruptly. The Mongols conquered the Jin Dynasty of China and expanded their influence into the Korean Peninsula. They invaded Goryeo seven times between 1231 and 1259. In an effort to resist these attacks, Goryeo moved its capital to Ganghwa. Even ordinary people and slaves fought the invaders. In 1259, a peace
Hamgil-do (Hamgyeong-do)
agreement was signed between the two countries. The Yuan Pyeongan-do
Dynasty of China established by the Mongols accepted Goryeo’s
Pyeongyang
six conditions for peace, including a guarantee of the continued
East Sea
existence of the Goryeo Dynasty and Mongol troops’ immediate
Hwanghae-do Haeju Gyeonggi-do Gangwon-do Ulleungdo Hanseong(Seoul) Wonju
withdrawal from the Korean Peninsula. The agreement was a result of Goryeo’s persistent resistance to the Mongols’ plan to bring Goryeo under its direct control. Despite the agreement with the Mongols, a group of Goryeo
West Sea Chungcheong-do
Gongju Jeonju
troops continued to fight them, moving their base of operations to Jindo and then to Jejudo. They continued to fight until 1273. Their
Hamheung
Dokdo
Gyeongsang-do Daegu
Jeolla-do
forty-two-year campaign of resistance against the Mongols, the world’s strongest power at that time, attests to their perseverance
Jejudo
and indomitable spirit. However, the national land was devastated 204
205
and founded a new dynasty, Joseon. As the first King Taejo of
Cheonsang Yeolcha Bunya Jido (Joseon; 17th Century) This (on the left) astronomical chart from Joseon shows the constellations.
Joseon, he chose Hanyang (present-day Seoul) – judged to be a
(Source: National Palace Museum of Korea)
turbaned bandits and Wako pirates. At that time, General Yi Seong-gye had become popular among the people for his role in driving away foreign invaders. He overthrew the Goryeo Dynasty
propitious spot according to the principles of feng shui – as the capital of the new dynasty. He also ordered the construction of Gyeongbokgung Palace and Jongmyo Shrine, as well as roads and markets. The new capital, located in the center of the Korean Peninsula, was easily accessible via the Hangang River, which flowed directly through its heart. King Taejong, the third King and a son of the founder of the dynasty, made a significant contribution to stabilizing the system of governance. He adopted a system by which all people were registered under the Hopae Act, and launched six ministries, namely, the Ministries of Personnel Administration, Finance, Protocol, Defense, Justice, and Public Works, to govern the country. King Sejong, the fourth King and a son of King Taejong, ushered in an era of great political, social, and cultural prosperity. Scholars at the Jiphyeonjeon (Hall of Worthies) developed strong and effective policies. During the reigns of Sejo, Yejong, and Seongjong, the Gyeongguk daejeon (National Code) was drawn up with the aim of establishing a long-lasting ruling system. The Creation of Hangeul Koreans had used Chinese characters as their alphabet and writing system for many centuries. Idu and Hyangchal, systems for writing the spoken word, using Chinese characters, had been developed, but they left much to be desired. In 1443, King Sejong 206
207
supervised the creation of Hangeul (the Korean alphabet) and
on the Shoushili calendar of China and the Islamic calendar of
promulgated it to the people three years later, in 1446. The
Arabia. Noticeable advances were made in the sphere of medical
shapes of the Korean alphabet were based on the shapes made by
science. Hyangyak jipseongbang (Compilation of Native Korea
the human vocal apparatus during pronunciation. Many scholars
Prescriptions) and Uibang yuchi (Classified Collection of Medical
have stated that Hangeul is the most scientific and easy-to-
Prescriptions) were compiled. Metal printing types, such as
learn writing system in the world. It certainly went a long way
Gyemija and Gabinja, were made during the reigns of Taejong and
towards enhancing communication between the people and the
Sejong, making it possible to publish many books.
government, and played a decisive role in laying the foundations of a culturally advanced country.
Joseon’s Foreign Relations Joseon maintained friendly relations with Ming China. The two
Angbuilgu (Joseon; 17th~18th Centuries) A sundial capable of marking changes in both time and season (Left) (Source: National Palace Museum of Korea)
Rain Gauge (Joseon; 18th Century) This rain gauge used to be installed in Seonhwadang, Daegu (Right)
Development of Science and Technology
countries exchanged royal envoys every year and engaged in
During the Joseon period, the country’s science and technology
busy cultural and economic exchanges. Joseon also accepted
developed considerably. The Jagyeongnu (clepsydra), Angbuilgu
Japan’s request for bilateral trade by opening the ports of Busan,
(sun dial), and Honcheonui (armillary sphere) were all invented
Jinhae, and Ulsan. In 1443, Joseon signed an agreement with the
in the early period of the dynasty. A rain gauge, the first of its
Tsushima Clan Leader of Japan for bilateral trade. Joseon also
White Porcelain Jar with Plum, Bamboo, Bird Design (Joseon; 15th Century) This vase made in the early Joseon Period displays a uniquely Korean atmosphere in its refined portrayal of bamboo, plum, and birds.
particular kind in the world, was used. Devices for land survey and
traded with Asian countries, such as Ryukyu, Siam, and Java.
(Source: National Museum of Korea)
mapmaking were also made. During the reign of King Taejo, the Cheonsang yeolcha bunya jido (Celestial Chart) was made based
Development of Handcraft Skills
on a previous version drawn up during the Goguryeo Period.
Chinaware is perhaps the most representative handcraft
During the reign of King Sejong, Chiljeongsan (Calculation of the
of the Joseon Period. Grayish-blue-powdered celadon
Motions of the Seven Celestial Determinants) was made based
or white porcelain was widely used at the Royal Court or government offices. By about the 16th century, Joseon’s chinaware production skills had reached their zenith. Its white porcelain typically exhibited clean, plain shapes based on the tradition established during the Goryeo Period. They were suited to the aristocratic taste of the Confucian scholars.
208
209
Imjin Waeran (Japanese Invasion of 1592)
from Joseon. With these spoils of war, the Japanese were able
Throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, Joseon maintained good
to enhance scholarship and the arts in their own country, while
relations with Japan. In the 16th century, however, Japan called
porcelain makers whom the Japanese troops abducted from
for a larger share of the bilateral trade, but Joseon refused to
Joseon helped Japan develop its own china culture.
comply with the request. Japanese threw the country into turmoil by causing disturbances in 1510 and 1555. In Japan, Toyotomi
Development of Grassroots Culture
Hideyoshi brought the confusion of the 120-year-long Warring
In the late Joseon Period, commerce and industry entered a period
States Period to a conclusion and unified the country. Then, in
of rapid development. Many children could receive education
1592, he invaded Joseon with around 200,000 troops, with the
at private schools in their local neighborhood. With these
aim of dissipating local lords’ strength and stabilizing his rule in
improvements in the quality of life of the people, they began to
Japan. The war lasted until 1598.
enjoy diverse entertainments. Stories written in easily understood
Feeling threatened by the invading Japanese troops, King
Hangeul, as opposed to literary works published in Chinese,
Seonjo of Joseon fled to Uiju, close to Ming China, and asked the
were widely distributed. Pansori (a genre of musical storytelling)
Ming to come to his aid. The Japanese invaders marched into the
and mask dance developed. In the late 19th century, Sin Jae-
northern provinces of Joseon. Korean militias started fighting
hyo arranged pansori saseol (stories). Five leading pansori songs,
the invaders here and there across the country. It is particularly
namely, Chunhyangga (The Song of Chunhyang), Simcheongga
noteworthy that Korean naval forces led by Admiral Yi Sun-sin
(The Song of Sim Cheong), Heungboga (The Song of Heungbo),
won one victory after another against the invaders and defended the nation’s breadbasket in Jeolla-do Province. The Japanese forces pulled out of Korea, but invaded Joseon again in 1597. Although Admiral Yi Sun-sin was left with only thirteen warships, he won a devastating victory against the Japanese fleet of 133 ships. The
Sandaenori This is a type of traditional stage play, in which masked actors and actresses engage in gags, dances, songs, etc.
sea battle waged in the Strait of Myeongnyang was one of the greatest military engagements of all time, and is surely worthy of inclusion in any record of the world history of naval battles. Following the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the Japanese invaders returned home. During the seven-year war, many cultural heritages in Joseon, including Bulguksa Temple, were destroyed. The Japanese took away books, printing types, and works of art 210
211
Jeokbyeokga (The Song of Red Cliff), and Sugungga (The Song of
Independence Movement
the Rabbit and the Turtle) have been handed down to the present
During the colonial period (1910-1945), the Japanese pillaged
day. Mask plays such as Tallori and Sandaenori enjoyed great
Joseon’s resources, banned the use of the Korean language -
popularity among ordinary people.
even going so far in 1939 as to require Koreans to change their personal names to Japanese style surnames and given names
The Fall of Joseon:
under the Name Order, and conscripted Koreans into their
Imperial Japan’s Annexation of Korea
work force or as uniformed soldiers in the Pacific War. Koreans
With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century,
engaged in persistent struggles to regain their independence.
capitalism developed in Europe and large businesses came into
They organized clandestine organizations to fight the Japanese
being. European countries expanded their colonies in Asia and Africa. By the mid-19th century, the western powers had forced Qing China and Japan to open their doors and then asked the same of Joseon, but Joseon duly rejected such requests. Joseon did not yield to pressure applied in the form of naval attacks in 1866 (by the French) and 1871 (by the Americans). In the ensuing period, the western powers did not stop exerting pressure. In 1875, Japan dispatched the battleship Unyo
Leaders of the Provisional Government They played a pivotal role in the independence movement between April 1919, when the Provisional Government was established in Shanghai, China, and the country's liberation in August 1945.
Maru to attack Ganghwado and Yeongjongdo Islands, demanding that Joseon open its doors to foreign trade missions. Ultimately, Joseon was forced to sign the highly unequal, one-sided Ganghwado Treaty with Japan in 1876 under the threat of force. Subsequently, imperialist powers, including Japan, vied with each other to pillage Joseon’s resources. In 1897, Joseon changed its name to Imperial Korea and pushed ahead with reforms and the opendoor policy, but it was too late. Japan soon won major victories in Ganghwado Treaty The Ganghwado Treaty was a highly unequal, onesided trade treaty signed between Joseon and Japan on February 27, 1876 under threat of force.
212
its wars against Qing China and Russia, emerged as a strong power in Northeast Asia, and took steps to annex Joseon. Many Korean patriots, including Ahn Jung-geun, resisted such a plan, but to no avail. In August 1910, Imperial Korea became a Japanese colony. 213
within the country. They also established forward bases for the
PGK declared war against Japan and dispatched troops to the
independence movement in China, Russia, and the United States.
front lines in India and Myanmar to fight on the side of the Allied
In March 1919, Korean leaders announced the Declaration of
Forces. Some young Koreans received special training from a
Independence. Students and ordinary people joined them by
special military unit of the United States to better equip them
staging street demonstrations across the country. These protests
to attack Japanese forces in Korea. On August 15, 1945, Koreans
continued for 12 months, involving about 2 million people, and
finally received what they had looked forward to for so long: the
were violently suppressed by the Japanese, with many thousands
country’s liberation as a result of Japan’s surrender in the Pacific
killed and wounded. The movement spread to the Koreans
War. U.S. and Soviet troops were deployed to the south and
resisting in Manchuria, the Maritime Provinces of Siberia, the
north of the 38th parallel, respectively to disarm Japanese troops
United States, Europe, and even to Japan. Following the March
remaining on the Korean Peninsula.
1919 Independence Movement, organizations representing Koreans were established in Seoul, the Maritime Provinces of
Transition to a Democracy and Transformation
Siberia, and Shanghai. The Provisional Government of Korea
into an Economic Powerhouse
established in Shanghai was the country’s first democratic
In May 1948, the country’s first democratic election was held
republican government; it was equipped with a modern
in South Korea under the UN’s supervision to elect the 198
Gyeongbu Expressway Korea's first national expressway connecting Seoul and Busan was opened in 1970.
Constitution and a political system that separated the three basic branches (executive, legislative and judicial) of government. Koreans also carried out armed struggles against the Japanese. In the 1920s, more than thirty Korean independence army units engaged in resistance activities in Manchuria and the Maritime Provinces of Siberia. In June 1920, a Korean independence army unit led by Hong Beom-do dealt a devastating blow to Japanese troops in Fengwutung, Jilin Province, China. In October 1920, Korean volunteers led by Kim Jwa-jin won a great victory against Japanese troops in Helongxian, Manchuria. This is known as the Battle of Cheongsalli among Koreans. In 1940, the Provisional Government of Korea (PGK) organized the Korean Liberation Army in Chungqing, integrating many scattered volunteer independence fighters in Manchuria. The 214
215
members of the National Assembly. In July of the same year, the Constitution was enacted and Rhee Syngman and Yi Si-yeong, two independence fighters deeply respected by Koreans, were elected as the country’s first President and Vice President. On August 15, 1948, the Republic of Korea (ROK) was launched as a free democracy, inheriting the legitimacy of the PGK. The UN recognized the government of the ROK as the only legitimate government on the Korean Peninsula. However, to the north of the 38th parallel, a general election under UN supervision could not be carried out due to the Soviet Union’s opposition. On September 9, 1945, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) was established as a communist country, and Kim Il-sung, who had served as an officer of the Soviet Russian Army, was sworn in as the President. Amid the confrontation between a free democracy in the south and a communist dictatorship in the north, the ROK government led by President Rhee Syngman was burdened with many problems, such
armistice agreement. President Rhee Syngman did not sign the
as the establishment of domestic order, the elimination of any
agreement, calling strongly for the prolongation of the war with
remaining traces of the colonial rule, and conflicts between the
the goal of unifying the entire country in the South’s favor.
right and the left among others. On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops armed with Soviet-
Communists reduced the entire Korean Peninsula to rubble.
made tanks and fighters invaded the South, thus triggering an all-
Millions of troops and civilians were killed. Most of the country’s
out war. The UN Security Council unanimously condemned the
industrial facilities were destroyed. South Korea became the
North Korean invasion and published a resolution recommending
poorest country in the world. However, the war taught South
that its member states provide military assistance to South
Koreans the preciousness of freedom. The experience provided
Korea. When the tide of the war turned against the North with
the foundation that inspired patriotism in the hearts of young
the intervention of the UN Forces, Red Chinese troops intervened
students and uniformed soldiers alike, and became the principal
in the war on the North’s side. The two sides engaged in fierce
engine of the country’s modernization.
battles until, on July 27, 1953, the two sides finally signed the 216
The three-year-long internecine war started by the
The 18th President, Park Geun-hye She was inaugurated in February 2013 as the country’s first female President.
President Rhee Syngman strengthened his authoritarian rule. 217
In 1960, the ruling Liberal Party rigged the Presidential election.
October 1972, students and ordinary people engaged in the
Young students took to the streets in protest. The situation
democratization movement. After the assassination of President
deteriorated when many demonstrators were shot down by the
Park in October 1979, a new group of army officers led by General
police. President Rhee Syngman announced his step-down and
Chun Doo-hwan (Singunbu) seized power through a coup d’état.
took refuge in Hawaii. Shortly thereafter, the Constitution was
Singunbu suppressed the voices calling for democratization,
amended, and the Cabinet system and the bicameral National
including the May 18 Democratization Movement, by force.
Assembly were adopted. Under the new constitution, the regime
Chun Doo-hwan was sworn in as the President and ruled with an
led by Prime Minister Jang Myeon was launched, but the political
authoritarian grip. The Chun Doo-hwan government concentrated
situation became extremely fragile amid political struggles and
on economic stabilization, successfully bringing inflated prices
continued street demonstrations by students.
under control. Under his leadership, the country accomplished
In May 1961, a group of young army officers led by General Park Chung-hee seized power in a coup d’état. In the presidential
In June 1987, Roh Tae-woo, a presidential hopeful of the
election held in October 1963, after two years of military rule,
ruling party, made a special announcement to the effect that
Park Chung-hee, having retired from the military, was elected
he would accept the people’s request for democratization and
as President and inaugurated in December that same year. The
direct election of the President. In December of the same year,
government led by President Park set up a 5-year economic
he was elected to a five-year term as President. He was sworn in
development plan under the slogan of “modernization of the
as President in February 1988. The Roh Tae-woo administration
fatherland” and achieved rapid economic growth by implementing
established diplomatic relations with Communist countries,
an export-oriented policy.
including the Soviet Union, China, and those in Eastern Europe.
Observers called it “the Miracle on the Hangang River.” The country vigorously pushed ahead with the development
218
continued economic growth.
During his term, the two Koreas joined the UN simultaneously, in September 1991.
of national land, including the construction of the Gyeongbu
The Kim Young-sam government, which was inaugurated
Expressway and subway lines in large cities. The country also
in 1993, strove to eliminate corruption by making it a rule for
carried out the Saemaeul Undong (New Community Movement),
high-ranking public officials to register all their assets and by
turning the impoverished agricultural society into a country
prohibiting the use of false names in all financial transactions. The
focused mainly on manufacturing.
level of transparency in business transactions was considerably
When the government announced the Yusin (Revitalization
enhanced by this measure. The government also implemented
Reform), which were designed to extend the term of the
the local autonomy system in full force. Kim Dae-jung was
incumbent government after eighteen years of dictatorship, in
inaugurated as President in 1998. His government succeeded in 219
overcoming the foreign exchange crisis that had hit the country
the creation of a global Korea under the South-North Economic
one year earlier, and strove to develop both democracy and the
Community.
market economy. In its relations with the North, the government
Ms. Park Geun-hye became the country’s first woman to be
adopted the “sunshine policy.” In June 2000, the leaders of the
elected President in the election held in December 2012. She was
two Koreas met at a summit held in Pyeongyang, North Korea,
inaugurated in February 2013. Her government presented a new
and made a joint statement. Then, the two Koreas established
vision: Nation’s Development and People’s Happiness. Over the
a system of reconciliation and cooperation, and agreed on
past sixty-five years (1948-2013), the country has transformed
the reunion of dispersed family members, reconnection of
itself from one of the most impoverished countries in the world
the Gyeongui and Donghae railroad lines, revitalization of the
to an economic powerhouse and an exemplar of free democracy.
unification movement led by the private sector, and the expansion
This process may be viewed as a unique example in world history.
of economic cooperation, including sightseeing in Geumgangsan Mountain. The Roh Moo-hyun government, which was inaugurated in 2003, concentrated on three leading objectives, namely, the realization of democracy with the participation of the people, balanced social development, and the construction of Northeast Asia with the focus on peace and prosperity. The government also held the second summit between the leaders of the two Koreas in Pyeongyang in October 2007 and signed an FTA with the United States. The Lee Myung-bak administration, which was inaugurated in February 2008, announced five leading indicators in a bid for the establishment of a new development system with the focus on changes and practicality. The government stressed that it would be a government that would serve the people. It also made efforts to reduce the government organization, privatize public corporations (in addition to making them operate more efficiently), and reform administrative regulations. Other policies adopted by the government included the forging of a creative alliance with the United States as befits the 21st century, and 220
221
History at a Glance Samguk sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) and Samguk yusa (Memorabilia of the
The classification of periods based on ruling dynasties was the generally accepted
Three Kingdoms) divide the history of the Silla Dynasty into three periods: early, mid,
practice from the early 20th century. However, various new systems entered
and late Silla Dynasty.
widespread usage with the adoption of western methods of research on early modern history.
The Three Kingdoms Period Silla (B.C.57 ~ A.D.935) Baekje (B.C.18 ~ A.D.660) Goguryeo (B.C.37 ~ A.D.668 )
Joseon (1392-1910) Unified Silla (676~935) Buddha at Seokguram Grotto This work represents the esthetic beauty of Unified Silla. It displays the statue of Shakyamuni who reached the stage of enlightenment.
Comb-patterned pottery They are earthenware representing the Neolithic Age that contain geometric patterns, such as dots, lines, circles on the surface
Gold crown (Silla; the 6th Century) It features three twig-shaped upstanding decorations, two deer horn-shaped decorations, and decorations composed of round gold plates and comma-shaped jade. It also has two tree leaf-shaped hanging accessories.
The Bronze Age Gojoseon The Samhan Period
Liaoning-style bronze dagger and Slender bronze dagger They are bronze daggers representing the Bronze Age through the early Iron Age.
Hunminjeongeum This book explains the principles on which Hangeul is based. Hangeul is the country’s writing system which was created by King Sejong (r. 1418~1450).
Goryeo (918~1392)
Janggyeongpanjeon Depositories of Haeinsa Temple Tripitaka Koreana [a Korean collection of the Tripitaka (Buddhist scriptures) carved onto roughly 81,258 wooden printing blocks)] is the oldest extant collection of Buddhist scriptures with the most comprehensive contents.
Gaya (42~562) Armor and helmet It was made during the Gaya Period (5th Century). The steel plates were curved to meet the contours of the human body and attached to each other with nails.
The Iron Age Buyeo
The Paleolithic Age The Neolithic Age
The 2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan
The 24th Seoul Summer Olympics (1988)
The Korean War (1950~1953) Establishment of the government of the Republic of Korea (1948) Imperial Korea (1897-1910)
Balhae (698~926)
Korea B.C.
5000
2000
1000
500
200
100
A.D.
200
300
400
500
600
700
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1800
1900
2000
China Sui (581~618)
The Bronze Age
Shang (1600~1046)
The Warring States Period (475~221) Qin (221~206) Former Han (B.C. 206~A.D. 25 )
South and North Dynasties (420~589)
Zhou (1046~256)
Tang (618~907)
Song (960~1279)
The Period of Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907~960)
Ming (1368~1644)
Qing (1616~1911)
Establishment of the People’s Republic of China (1949)
Yuan (1271~1368)
The Chun Qiu Period (770~476) Later Han (25~220)
Establishment of the Republic of China (1912)
The Three Kingdoms Period (220~280) Chin (265~420)
Western Mesopotamian civilization Dynasty of a Unified Egypt
Birth of Jesus Christ The Roman Empire declared Christianity the state religion (392) East-west division of the Rome Empire(395)
Greek civilization Establishment of the Roman Empire (735) Socrates (470~399) Alexander the Great (356~323)
222
Julius Caesar (101~44) The 1st Punic War (264~241) The 2nd Punic War (219~201) The 3rd Punic War (149~146)
Anglo Saxons built a kingdom in England (449) Mahomet (570~632)
First Crusade (1096~1099)
WW I (1914~1918) WW II (1939~1945)
Marco Polo (1254~1324) Magna Carta (1215) The Hundred Years’ War Charles the Great (1344~1434) became the Western Roman emperor Gutenberg's printing technology (1455) (800) Columbus’s discovery of America (1492) Hijra (622), the first year of the Islamic calendar
Luther’s religious revolution (1517)
The American Civil War (1861~1865) The United States Declaration of Independence (1776) The French Revolution (1789~1793) The Thirty Years’ War (1618~1648)
223