201401 k architecture

Korean Culture No.12

K ArCHitecture Tradition Meets Modernity

K Architecture

Korean Culture No.12

K-architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity Copyright Š 2013

by Korean Culture and Information Service All Rights Reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means without the written permission of the publisher.

First Published in 2013 by Korean Culture and Information Service Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism Phone: 82-2-398-1914~20 Fax: 82-2-398-1882 Website: www.kocis.go.kr ISBN: 978-89-7375-582-0 04610 ISBN: 978-89-7375-578-3 04080 (set) Printed in the Republic of Korea For further information about Korea, please visit: www.korea.net

K Architecture Tradition Meets Modernity

Contents 09

Prologue Chapter One

13

Bustling Cities, Rising Architecture

14

Rediscovering Korean Architecture

17

Taking the Global Stage Chapter Two

27

The History of Korean Architecture

28

Stone Pagodas and Temple Architecture

35

The Beauty of Column-head Brackets and Entasis

40

Humble Spaces in Harmony with Nature

46

East Meets West; Tradition Meets Modernity

57

Chapter Three

Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture

58

Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Grotto

60

Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa Temple

4 K- Architecture: The Convergence of Tradition and Modernity

Janggyeongpanjeon Hall at Haeinsa Temple

62

Changdeokgung Palace

64

Jongmyo Shrine

67

Yangdong Village

69

Soswaewon Garden

72

Dosan Seowon and Byeongsan Seowon Confucian Academies

76

Hwaseong Fortress

79

Seongyojang House

82

Chapter Four

Korean Modernism and Its Legacies

87

Two Giants of Korean Modernism

89

The 4.3 Group and Architectural Humanities

94

Standing at the Boundary of Korean and Global

98

Chapter Five

Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments

109

Beyond the “City of Rooms�

109

A New Housing Culture between the Beehives

112

Evolution of Korean Modernism

115

Landscape Architecture and the Transforming Cityscape

120

Reinterpretation of Hanok

124

Appendix Further Reading

130

“Somewhere between tradition and modernity, Korea’s young architects have found a style all their own.”

Frankfurter Neue Presse, December 29, 2007

“The hallmarks of Korean architecture are its outstanding experimental spirit and its flexible approach to addressing complex issues in a changing environment. The result is a vitality and dynamism worth emulating.”

Die Welt, January 11, 2008

“The combination of art, philosophy, science, aesthetics, and the peacefulness of the hanok is remarkably complex and beautifully integrated and interrelated.”

Peter Bartholomew, former President of Royal Asiatic Society–Korea Branch

6 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity Baeksangwon Condominium at Lotte Buyeo Resort designed by KYWC

Epilogue 7 © Kim Jae-kyeong

Prologue

Architecture is a vessel for life. The human environments and individual structures it creates give us better spaces for our life. It is also a vital cultural asset, a signal of a society’s capacity for cultural production, technology, and social consensus. Venice, that pinnacle of Renaissance culture, is home to many great works of art, but it is all the more beautiful for its distinctive canals and beautiful buildings. The modern era saw Paris planning its urban center and signaling its potential with structures that symbolized technological innovation—not least of them the world-famous Eiffel Tower. Manhattan’s skyline of soaring skyscrapers is an image that captivates many to this day.

In some cases, landmark structures have single-handedly revived a city on the wane. Designed by architect Frank Gehry and opened in 1997, the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain, helped turn around the city’s declining fortunes, transforming it almost overnight into a world cultural center. After the defunct coal mines of Essen—Germany’s largest— were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2011, a master plan devised by Norman Foster and Rem Koolhaas helped transform Zollverein in Germany into a cultural city with a rich new cultural infrastructure.

Dubai has used bold structures by star architects to move toward its yet

8 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Prologue 9 Bukchon Hanok Village

Sunset over Yeouido district and Hangang River

unrealized dream of building a man-made paradise on Earth. Buildings

In the past, Korean architects were somewhat limited by their passive

both represent a city and speak to a society’s cultural potential.

acceptance of the Western ideas of modernism and postmodernism, but

Like so many other areas of art, Korean architecture has changed rapidly

today, they are transcending those limits as they experiment and try new

in the modern era. Traditionally, its buildings have been structures of

things in response to Korea’s dynamic society and the complex issues it

stone and wood, but this style would end up clashing with the Western

faces. The very emergence of architects who express inherently Korean

approach as the country went through occupation by Japan and eventual

sentiments in their own original styles, who accept the extremes of Korean

liberation from the colonial yoke. These were turbulent times that left

contemplativeness and modernist sensibilities, is helping the country find

Korean architecture facing both a break with the past and an onslaught of

a place that is both universal and sui generis in world architecture.

new trends from the West. The discovery of an architectural identity has become something of an ongoing project.

This book offers an exploration of the lesser-known aspects of this dynamically changing field, starting with a look at the paradigmatic forms

The idea that the things most Korean are also the most global was

of traditional architecture before moving on to examining the issues and

something that applied as much in architecture as it did in other cultural

currents that have unfolded in architecture as it developed on Korean soil

spheres. Indeed, it would be some time before Korean architecture broke

in the era of postmodernism—and began to find its way into the world.

from its fixation with “Koreanness” and achieved a sense of universality

By taking a historical approach with the more noteworthy developments

through the work of individual architects. In a field perhaps relegated

in Korean architecture, it seeks to support a new understanding, a

to the periphery of a Western-dominated architectural world, it was a

rediscovery, of a field in full flux.

slow process of discovering its confidence and revealing its capability.

10 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Prologue 11

Dynamic cityscape of Gangnam, Seoul

Chapter One

bustling Cities, Rising Architecture

The Pritzker Prize, often called the “Nobel Prize of Architecture,” has been shifting its focus to Asia recently. It has been a move beyond the limits of Western-centered discourse, turning the emphasis back on original architecture with a local focus. If we ignore the case of Japanese architects, who have been keen to adopt modern styles and work on the global stage for a long time, then a prominent example of this was the recent win by Chinese architect Wang Shu. Wang has been forging a distinctive Chinese identity into something universally modern, working with traditional materials like tile and stone while adamantly adhering to China’s traditional methods of construction. Wang had been a relatively lesser known figure internationally when the German Architecture Museum (DAM) first introduced his work in Europe. Similarly, it was DAM’s 2007 group exhibition Megacity Network: Contemporary Korean Architecture that served to really draw attention to the as yet undiscovered architecture and architects of Korea.

12 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Bustling Cities, Rising Architecture 13

Rediscovering Korean Architecture Arguably the country’s first ever group exhibition overseas, Megacity Network: Contemporary Korean Architecture was held in December 2007 at the DAM. By the time it finished its tour, it had visited various locations throughout Europe, earning invitations from the German Architectural Centre (DAZ) in Berlin, the Museum of Estonian Architecture, and the Association of Catalan Architects in Barcelona. The 16 participating architects, all active presences in Korea and abroad, offered an eclectic mix of perspectives and interpretations on the cities we live in, showcasing works in Korea’s traditional hanok style alongside skyscrapers, churches, libraries, residential/commercial complexes, and public structures.

The beginning of the exhibition can be traced back to a forum on Eastern and Western public spaces at the 2005 Frankfurt Book Fair. It was there that DAM director Peter Schmal first encountered the modern Korean

The Megacity Network: Contemporary Korean Architecture held at the German Architectural Centre (DAZ), Berlin, in 2008. Photo Courtesy of DAZ

architecture that would lead to him to propose an exhibition. The European viewers, who had seen little of the country’s architectural work in the past, said that the exhibition was “fresh,” “dynamic,” and “full of potential.”

Highrise Award with his design for Boutique Monaco in Seoul’s Seocho-gu.

Korean architecture and its designers have made their way into the

“If Japanese architecture is the same old thing and Chinese architecture

pages of global architecture journals like DOMUS, MARK, and Architectural

gives the sense that it’s still in a process of growth, then Korean

Review, while the architects have been making names for themselves at

architecture is bold and innovative,” said Kim Sung-hong, the University

overseas awards. DOMUS focused on Moon Hoon in its March edition

of Seoul professor who planned the exhibition. “Seoul isn’t a relaxed,

of 2012, then followed this up by spotlighting Cho in the July edition

leisurely, clean city. You get the sense that there are a lot of things

that same year. A winner of New York’s Young Architects Award, Cho has

that need work, and it’s the designs that emerged from this dynamic

also been the focus of pieces in MARK and other international journals.

environment that have already achieved world-class quality in terms of

Another architect, Cho Byoung-soo, was one of 11 world architects

their creativity and excellence.”

selected in 2004 by the U.S. journal Architectural Record. He too has won

One of the participating architects, Cho Minsuk, was selected as one of

his share of accolades, including top honors for the Northwest and Pacific

the five finalists for the German Architecture Museum’s 2008 International

region from the American Institute of Architects. In 2005, he was one of

14 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Bustling Cities, Rising Architecture 15

Taking the Global Stage The last century was not an easy one for the field. Western techniques first came into the country when it was forced open by the U.S., then occupied

by Japan. Traditional styles were crowded out by more modern ones in the postwar reconstruction years, when the demand was high and urbanization was moving ahead at full bore. The introduction of Western architecture has not been easy either. Architects struggled to learn the new techniques and structures in the years following the country’s 1945 liberation from Japanese rule. In conceptual terms, Western modernism was adopted Articles about Korean architects Cho Minsuk and Moon Hoon appeared in the April-May 2010 issue of the Italian architecture magazine MARK (top) and the March 2012 issue of Dutch magazine DOMUS (bottom), respectively.

without fully processing what the style actually meant.

It was not until the late 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century that Korean architecture really began to diversify. A new generation of architects returned home after experiencing global currents first hand through overseas study—something they could do only after travel restrictions were lifted in 1987. Having gotten a taste of postmodernism,

100 architects selected for 10 x 10, a volume published every four years by

late modernism, and deconstructionism in the West, they pondered

Britain’s Phaidon Press. Three years later in 2008, Cho Minsuk’s design for

how to develop architecture to keep up with the Korean context. In an

the Ann Demeulemeester store in Seoul’s Sinsa district turned up in the

environment where the high-rise apartment was the residential norm,

next edition. Architectural Review, considered Britain’s top architecture

these young architects began experimenting and showing off their

journal, took an in-depth look at projects by Jang Yoon-gyoo and by Cho

architectural lexicon. They certainly had learned from the West, but

Byoung-soo, whose L-House in Hwaseong earned “highly commended”

they did not simply transplant their lessons onto Korean soil. Instead,

honors at House 2013. Further evidence of Korea’s great potential can be

they wrestled with the idea of “Koreanness” while producing work that

found in the U.S. architectural association honors won by U.S.-licensed

showcased their originality. Today, many of them are among the country’s

architects like Choi DuNam, Ken Min Sungjin, and Woo Kyu Sung. All of

leading architects, with work that continues to impress.

these are significant achievements, evidence that the world is taking note

In some cases, architects have taken a more positive view of the Korean

and discovering Korean architecture after its many years languishing in the

urban environment, analyzing it and coming up with interesting new

shadow of China and Japan.

themes. The Venice Architecture Biennale has traditionally been a place

16 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Bustling Cities, Rising Architecture 17

complex, and on “showing their roots,” these newer architects―such as Cho Minsuk’s trenchant observations of Korean society and explorations of “mass,” or Moon Hoon’s powerfully idiosyncratic expressions of a borderline-shamanist sensibility―are poised on the same territory as their contemporaries around the world. As noted before, they are already drawing the attention of international journals, earning awards in the U.S. and Europe, and appearing in exhibitions all over the globe.

Another symbolic moment in the history of Korean architecture going global came in 2011, when it entered the citadel of the Museum of Modern Art (MoMa) in New York City. The works in question were the Subaekdang, Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art, located in the Seoul neighborhood of Hannam-dong, was designed by three of the world’s top architects: Rem Koolhaas, Mario Botta and Jean Nouvel.

where these kinds of world themes come together, and in 2004 the event featured a Korea-themed exhibition titled City of Bang, a fascinating analysis of the Korean city’s unique and flourishing “culture of rooms”: singing rooms, drinking rooms, phone rooms, and the like.

a Seung H-Sang building in Namyangju, and Jahajae, a work by Kim Youngjoon in Heyri Art Valley. Every year since 1939, the MoMa has selected major examples of world architecture, requesting the architect’s original drawings and models for exhibition and eventual addition to its permanent Seung H-Sang’s Subaekdang, the sketch and model of which are part of the architecture collection at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. © Osamu Murai

It was around this time that Korean architecture began merging with contemporary international currents. A broader global network meant greater interaction, with more and more noted overseas architects working in Korea. The results of this include Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art, a project that brought together Rem Koolhaas, Mario Botta, and Jean Nouvel, as well as the Ewha Womans University Campus Complex (ECC), designed by Dominique Perrault.

Other architects have focused less on issues of identity and “Koreanness,” and more on individual architectural achievements in the global context. Where the previous generation had focused on overcoming Korea’s reverence of Western architecture and its inferiority 18 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Bustling Cities, Rising Architecture 19

collection. It had already collected work by video artist Nam June Paik, installation artist Yang Hye-gyu, and painter Lee Ufan, but this was the first time Korean architectural work had ever been so honored.

Barry Bergdoll, MoMa’s chief architecture and design curator at the time, took in a wide range of Korean architecture during a 2010 visit. His four-day itinerary took him to traditional examples like Byeongsanseowon Confucian Academy in Andong, Buseoksa Temple in Yeongju, Jongmyo Shrine in Seoul, as well as more modern structures in the Paju Book City, Seoul’s Insa-dong neighborhood, and office buildings in Gangnam. He was interested less in seeing structures based on Western styles, and more in finding examples where the traditional architectural grammar had been

The Korean Hall at the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, designed by Hwang Doojin

© Hwang Doojin

reinterpreted, tweaked, and applied. In the Subaekdang and Jahajae, he found what he was looking for.

Stuttgart City Library in Germany, designed by Korean architect Yi Eun Young

Even by Western standards, modern Korean architecture seems like something new. An especially fascinating aspect is its experimentation, the attempts to interpret modernism and reconstruct it using traditional forms. Such experiments can be found in Korean architects’ overseas designs, too. In 1999, Yi Eun Young beat out 235 firms to win a bid to design the new Stuttgart City Library in Germany. Twelve years later, the finished building opened in 2011 to praise for its modern reading of the ancient Roman Pantheon. Its gray interior draws attention to the lines of books, while the exterior alerts passersby to the building’s function with the word “library” presented in four different languages, including Korean.

Yi remains very active in Germany, placing first in a 2010 competition to design the New Parliament of Lower Saxony in Hanover.

The work of Hwang Doojin is another example. In renovating the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities in Stockholm, he not only incorporated the spatial characteristics of Korean architecture—overlapping,

20 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Bustling Cities, Rising Architecture 21

penetration, alternation—but also echoed Sweden’s own historical

clever example of environment-friendly construction. It has been installed

structures by exposing the wooden beams in its gallery. His use of

at various locations around the world such as the Milan International

Swedish spruce (which has a similar feel to Korean pine) in the gallery

Furniture Fair and Yokohoma Triennale in 2008.

drew notice by demonstrating a communion between two seemingly

Young Korean architects have continued to make strides in 2013, experiencing the contemporary global climate, learning from their

disparate traditional cultures.

Pavilions, though not buildings per se, have been another form through

international networks, and actively expressing themselves at home and

which the structural characteristics and ideas of architecture have been

abroad. Na Unchung and Yoo Sorae of Nameless and PRAUD director

captured around the world. Cho Minsuk’s Air Forest (2008) was an artificial

Yim Dongwoo garnered international attention by winning the Young

structure built as part of the Dialog:City global art and culture showcase

Architects Award in New York. Back home, the Korean Ministry of Culture,

in Denver and designed for use in various cultural events. Supported

Sports and Tourism’s own Young Architects Award―organized since

by wind, it drew notice for the beautiful man-made forest it created in

2008 in conjunction with the Korean Architects Institute, the Korea

Denver’s natural landscape. The hula hoop-based Ring Dome, conceived

Institute of Architects, and the Korean Institute of Female Architects—

as a temporary structure for the Storefront for Art and Architecture

has been a major venue for discovering and promoting young talents.

gallery’s 25th anniversary in New York in 2007, was also praised as a

This new generation of architects shows what might be called “horizontal diversity,” offering fascinating solutions for the Korean urban environment

”Ring Dome,” displayed at the Milan International Furniture Fair

© Cho Minsuk/Mass Studies

and expressing themselves in form and space unbound by the fetters of tradition. Internationally, this courage and assertiveness will prove crucial in showing the diversity of today’s Korean architecture.

22 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Bustling Cities, Rising Architecture 23

The Making of the ‘Made in Korea’ World Korean architectural companies first began making inroads overseas in the 1960s.

By the next decade, they were enjoying a rapid boom, buoyed by a growing presence in the Middle East. The early 1980s saw the country ranked as one of the world’s top two construction powers.

It didn’t last. As oil prices fell in the mid-1980s, the market dried up and demand in overseas building declined. The companies had been too dependent on the Middle East market. In an attempt to turn crisis into opportunity, they began working to diversify their markets. The accessibility and demand potential of other Asian countries made them an attractive choice, and by 1996 Korea was racking up construction orders worth US$10.8 billion. Their projects were more diverse, too. Rather than simple engineering and Burj Khalifa in Dubai construction, they were also working in high value-added plant work.

The renewed boom in overseas construction in the 1990s helped propel sustainable rapid growth for the industry over the past 20 years. Structures are going up in a wider range of places as well, including the Americas and Europe. Samsung C&T was the company responsible for building the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the world’s tallest building today with 162 stories and 828 meters in height. The Marina Bay Sands hotel in Singapore, called a “miracle of 21st century architecture,” was built by Ssangyong.

Monumental achievements both in scale and in architectural craft, the two structures have been credited with alerting the world to the excellence of Korean architectural technique.

Korean companies aren’t just constructing buildings, though. Recent years have seen mammoth projects that involve the building of whole cities. One example is in Nha Be, a suburb of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, that is now being built by GS E&C. It’s a state-

24 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Marina Bay Sands hotel in Singapore

of-the-art new city along Korean lines, designed on a 3.4 million square meter site to accommodate 17,000 households and 68,000 people. City authorities and local residents have high hopes for Nha Be after getting a taste of Korean residential culture with Riverview Palace, a luxury apartment built by GS in the city proper in 2011. Riverview Palace is located in an area along the banks of the Saigon River which is home to many high-end villas exclusively for the city’s international residents.

Bearing the “XII” brand, it has an interior decorated in the Korean style and all the top amenities you would find in Korea: an outdoor swimming pool, golf driving range, sauna, tennis courts, guesthouse, and gymnasium. It is also a triumph of engineering.

Many had thought the area’s weak bedrock would prevent the building of any large structures there, but the builders overcame this problem with a state-of-the-art process that involved boring 21 meters deep into the weak bed to remove water.

The year 2013 saw overseas building making up a sizable chunk of the national economy, with companies recording over US$7 million in annual orders.

Architectural companies have come to outpace such traditional mainstays as the automobile, semiconductor, and shipbuilding industries. In light of this, talking about an “Architectural Korean Wave” suddenly doesn’t seem so farfetched.

The site where GS E&C is working on the Bin Loi Bridge in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Bustling Cities, Rising Architecture 25

Sungnyemun Gate

Chapter Two

The history of korean architecture

In the history of Korean architecture, tradition has been a valuable asset and in some instances a root of identity, while at other times it was something to be overcome or left behind. In both cases, it is impossible to discuss Korean contemporary architecture without an understanding of it. Korean traditional architecture exists within the context of Asian traditional architecture. Nonetheless, it has developed according to its own particular set of characteristics—its flexible responses to topography and surrounding mountains, the organic layout of its buildings, its reiteration and metastasis of space—that distinguish it from the architecture of China and Japan. The unique charm of traditional building culture is now attracting new attention. It provides important bearings for those searching for “Koreanness” in the context of modern architecture and for those attempting to understand Korean contemporary architecture that rediscovers and reinterprets tradition.

26 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The History of Korean Architecture 27

Stone Pagodas and Temple Architecture

Goguryeo’s architecture is characterized by huge stone-pile tombs.

(Three Kingdoms Period and North and South States Period)

Janggunchong Tomb, thought to date from around the 5th century CE, is

In ancient times on the Korean Peninsula, intense rivalry between various states that had entered the iron age led to the formation of three powerful and organized monarchies: these were Goguryeo (37BCE–668CE), Baekje (17BCE–660CE) and Silla (57BCE–935CE), known collectively as the Three Kingdoms. Janganseong and Gyeongju, the respective capitals of Goguryeo and Silla, displayed layouts in a grid-like configuration of horizontal and vertical roads and residences arranged in chessboard fashion. Both cities were planned with an emphasis on defense, surrounded by stone walls and mountain fortresses.

Stone Tomb Culture Each of the Three Kingdoms developed its own unique culture, into which evidence found in excavated tombs has offered us valuable insights.

31.5 meters across and 12.4 meters high. The murals inside it realistically depict various scenes from the life of the deceased. As time passed, the emphasis of such tomb murals shifted from realism to symbolism, with scenes from everyday life being replaced by one of the Four Symbols (the Azure Dragon of the East, the Vermilion Bird of the South, the White Tiger of the West, and the Black Tortoise of the North) each on the eastern, southern, western and northern walls.

Baekje tombs were initially similar to those of Goguryeo, though smaller in size. From the late-5th century, however, brick tombs began to appear; among these, that of King Muryeong offers a rare example of a tomb in which the deceased has been identified with certainty.

Silla tombs were built in a style different from those of Goguryeo and Baekje. A pit was dug in the ground, after which a burial chamber was

(From left to right) Janggunchong Tomb from Goguryeo, Cheonmachong Tomb from Silla, and King Muryeong’s tomb from Baekje

28 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The History of Korean Architecture 29

built from wood and the body of the deceased placed inside. A round pile of small stones was built above this, which was in turn covered with earth to create a mound. These tumuli often measured more than 45 meters in base circumference and 12 meters in height.

Temples Built Around a Pagoda The introduction of Buddhism brought extensive change and development to the architecture of the Three Kingdoms. Goguryeo temples were built

The pagoda at Bunhwangsa Temple

with three sanctums arranged to the north, east and west of a central wooden octagonal pagoda. This layout corresponds to that of Japan’s

direct imitation of a wooden pagoda structure that illustrates the period

Asuka-dera and Horyuji temples, indicating that Goguryeo’s architectural

of transition from one material to the other. The Baekje temple layout,

culture was transmitted to Japan.

too, was transmitted to Japan, resulting in the building of temples such as

In Baekje, unlike Goguryeo, Buddhist temple complexes consisted

Shitennoji in Osaka.

of a central square pagoda from which the main building and assembly

Silla was the last of the Three Kingdoms to adopt Buddhism and thus

hall were arranged in a single

inevitably influenced by Goguryeo and Baekje. Nonetheless, it developed

row to the north. Complexes

its own creative style of Buddhist architecture through the gradual

therefore took on a long, vertical

introduction of indigenous elements. Hwangnyongsa Temple, in particular,

appearance. Although Baekje

boasted a 7th-century wooden pagoda that stood more than 70 meters

pagodas were originally built

tall. Unfortunately, this pagoda was burned down during the Mongolian

in wood, this was gradually

invasion in the 13th century. Silla differed from the other two kingdoms in

replaced by stone; the 6th-

its frequent use of brick-like patterns in the construction of pagodas. The

century stone pagoda at

pagoda at Bunhwangsa Temple, for example, consists of stone cut into the

Jeongnimsaji temple site in

shapes of bricks and was built using a bricklaying technique.

The stone pagoda at Mireuksaji temple site

30 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Buyeo, the capital of Baekje, is a

Despite such differences, the temple architectures of Goguryeo, Baekje

good example of this. The stone

and Silla shared one basic feature: the central position of the pagoda.

pagoda at Mireuksaji temple

Temples in all three kingdoms were designed with a pagoda at the heart of

site in Iksan, meanwhile, is a

their complexes, with other buildings laid out around them.

The History of Korean Architecture 31

Seokgatap (left) and Dabotap (right) pagodas in front of Daeungjeon Hall, Bulguksa Temple

Changes in Silla Buddhist Architecture

center of Gyeongju, and Gameunsa Temple, on the outskirts of the city,

Silla’s unification of the Three Kingdoms in the 7th century saw the

both featured two pagodas. This was not just a local phenomenon but a

formation of two states: Unified Silla occupied the majority of the Korean

wider trend that existed in China and Japan in the same period. Bulguksa

Peninsula, while subjects of the former kingdom of Goguryeo formed the

Temple, built in 751, also has two pagodas arranged on a left-right axis:

state of Balhae in northern Korea and Manchuria. This era is consequently

Dabotap Pagoda and Seokgatap Pagoda. These two pagodas and their

often referred to as the North and South States period. Gyeongju, the

names reflect the content of the Lotus Sutra, in which Prabhutaratna

capital of newly unified Silla, saw an even greater accumulation of people

Buddha, the Buddha of the past (known in Korean as Dabo), sits next

and material wealth, a situation that demanded both expansion and better

to Sakyamuni Buddha, the Buddha of the present (Seokga), testifying

organization. The city’s grid formation was further extended, creating

that the latter’s teaching of the dharma is correct. If the previous era had

enough square plots of land to accommodate 170,000 households.

been one of using the power of Buddhism to reinforce royal authority,

Gyeongju became a truly splendid city, the capital of a dynasty that lasted

this was one of seeking a sense of depth in religious activity through the

for more than a millennium.

interpretation of the Buddhist creed.

Changes became apparent in Silla temples immediately after it had

Silla during the North and South States period also saw a growing

unified the Three Kingdoms. Temple complexes now included not one but

preference for Zen Buddhism, which emphasized the importance of Zen

two pagodas in front of their main halls. Sacheonwangsa Temple, in the

meditation, and belief in mountain deities. This led to a rapid proliferation

32 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The History of Korean Architecture 33

of temples in mountainous areas.

excavated outside the capital; these Balhae’s brick towers are similar in

Temples from this period that remain

style to Chinese architecture, while the stone chamber tombs of its ruling

today include Tongdosa, Geumsansa,

family members, for example that of Princess Jeonghye, are identical to

Beopjusa, Buseoksa, Hwaeomsa and

those of Goguryeo.

Haeinsa. These temples, with natural layouts that followed the contours of the slopes on which they were built, had completely different atmospheres to those of the geometrically arranged temple complexes previously built in urban areas.

The stupa at Ssangbongsa Temple

Another new architectural form to emerge at this time was that of the

stupa, a small stone tower built to enshrine the sarira or cremated ashes of eminent monks. These aesthetically sophisticated structures, covered in splendid ornamentation and carved with elaborate details are examples of Silla’s unique and original architecture and handicraft.

International Styles in Balhae Architecture

The Beauty of Column-head Brackets and Entasis (Goryeo) The Goryeo (918–1392) capital of Gaegyeong, built in the 10th century, is characterized by the way the entire city follows the natural contours of the land upon which it sits. The topography of its location, an undulating basin surrounded by mountains, caused the capital’s roads to be curved rather than straight. Despite the fact that the city was planned, the sizes of the residential plots between its roads are also irregular. The important buildings within the royal palace compound are arranged in long, northsouth rows, but these, too, are not completely straight; rather, the position and orientation of each structure differs slightly. This form is different to those of palaces in Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla and China, and is due to the way the city’s roads follow the natural contours of the land.

It can be assumed that Balhae, a state established in 698 by the former

Buddhist Architecture Flourishes

migrants of Goguryeo, inherited the latter’s architectural styles as

Goryeo was a devoutly Buddhist state, from its royal family to its

they also actively embraced the architectural culture of Tang China,

commoners. Consequently, the whole country was full of Buddhist

resulting in an international style. Long-time Balhae capital Sanggyeong

temples built to pray for the wellbeing of the royal household and the

Yongcheonbu was a thoroughly planned city from the start, arranged in

health of individual citizens. Heungwangsa Temple, built over the course

a square formation like the Tang dynasty’s capital Changan. A main road

of 12 years near Gaegyeong (today’s Gaeseong), consisted of buildings

was created along a north-south axis in the city center, at the end of which

with a total of 2,800 kan (a unit of building area corresponding to the

a royal palace was located. The remains of towers and tombs have been

distance between columns).

34 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The History of Korean Architecture 35

Wooden Architecture The wooden architecture of Goryeo can be classified into two categories: jusimpo (column-head bracket) and dapo (multi-bracket). Jusimpo style architecture is that in which brackets (wooden structural elements fitted to the tops of columns or beams in order to support the weight of roof eaves) are placed only at the heads of the building’s structural columns, while dapo style architecture features additional brackets between columns.

Though a transition from column-head to multi-bracket styles was in progress in China at the time, the people of Goryeo showed a preference for the former, resulting in magnificent buildings such as Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa Temple. The concentration of the weight of the roof on columns in column-head bracket architecture gives columns an important Songgwangsa Temple located on Mt. Jogyesan in Suncheon

structural and aesthetic role. In such cases, columns are shaped in a

The construction of stone pagodas and stupas continued in the Goryeo period. The number of stone pagodas greatly increased, with strong

Types of Brackets

expressions of regional character. This led to a diversification of forms and heights, with some pagodas reaching 11 stories. The curves of chunyeo (rafters protruding from the eaves at the corners of roofs) grew sharper, while overall forms grew slimmer.

The leading force in 13th century Buddhism was that of provincial mountain temples, including Zen temples such as Songgwangsa Temple and Baengnyeonsa Temple. These temples were laid out in asymetrical,

jusimpo (column-head bracket)

dapo (multi-bracket)

Types of Roofs

undulating arrangements that followed the contours of the land upon which they were built. This was a form that had already appeared in temples built by monks who had brought Zen Buddhism back to Korea from China in the late Silla period. In the Goryeo period, however, it became more pronounced and deeply entrenched. matbae (gable) roof

36 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

ujingak (hipped) roof

paljak (hip-and-gable) roof

The History of Korean Architecture 37

Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa Temple (left) and Geungnakjeon Hall at Bongjeongsa Temple (right), good examples of the jusimpo style from the Goryeo Dynasty.

subtly curved way whereby their profile expands gradually until around

is the Daeungjeon Hall at Sudeoksa Temple, built in 1308. While some

one third of the way up before gradually contracting again. This technique

believe it is similar in style to the architecture of southern China, details

is known in Korean as baeheullim (entasis). Baeheullim was also used

such as brackets at the heads of its columns indicate the development of a

on columns in China and Japan, but nothing compares to the beauty of

unique Korean style.

Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa Temple, which represents the zenith of

Multi-bracket systems had the comparative advantage over column-

column-head bracket architecture. Muryangsujeon Hall is also valuable in

head bracket styles of solving certain structural problems. The

that it combines the column-head bracket style with a large, paljak (hip-

Bogwangjeon Hall at Simwonsa Temple in today’s North Korea features the

and-gable) roof.

same hip-and-gable roof as that of the Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa,

The Geungnakjeon Hall at Bongjeongsa Temple in Andong, Korea’s

but with a multi-bracket rather than column-head bracket design. Despite

oldest extant wooden building, also features the column-head bracket

their use of different bracket systems, both buildings feature the same

system. Opinions as to exactly when this structure, which became famous

“lever-form” chunyeo at the corners of their roofs. Chunyeo are rafters

following a visit in 1999 by Queen Elizabeth II, was built, but comparison

protruding diagonally out from the corners of a building. A lever type

with Chinese buildings indicates that the Geungnakjeon Hall uses 10th-

chunyeo rests half within the cross-beams and half on the outsides. The

century architectural forms. It also features flame patterns found in

weight on the roof rests on the inner half of the chunyeo, pushing it down

Goguryeo tomb murals.

and pushing the outer half up through a lever effect, lifting the corners of

As time went on, column-head bracket architecture placed an increasing emphasis on ornamental aspects being used to provide decoration in

the roof. This is one of the key distinctions between Goryeo-period and Joseon (1392–1910)-period architecture.

structurally simple matbae (gable) roof buildings. A good example of this 38 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The History of Korean Architecture 39

Humble Spaces in Harmony with Nature (Joseon) In 1392, General Yi Seong-gye founded the new dynasty of Joseon. Two years later, he chose Hanyang (modern day Seoul) as its capital. Just as in the preceding Goryeo period, geomancy was deeply influential in choosing the location of the city. After the key mountains and orientation of the city and the site of the main palace had been determined, Jongmyo Shrine and Sajikdan Altar were built to the east and west of the main palace, respectively. Adhering to such propriety was believed to be the most fundamental consideration when building the new city. The topography of the site, however, made building a completely square, symmetrical city impossible. While remaining faithful to basic principles and ideology, therefore, Hanyang’s planners acknowledged the natural contours of the land, applying principles of feng shui (pungsu in Korea), yin/yang, and the

resting place; and Gyotaejeon Hall, the queen’s quarters. The overall design of the palace was one of left-right symmetry, arranged according to this axis. After being burned down during the Japanese invasions of the late 16th century, Gyeongbokgung was restored to its former glory in 1865.

Changdeokgung Palace is characterized by its almost total lack of level ground; its undulating, irregular terrain has been used in its original form to create a natural layout. The main gate of the palace is located to the southwest of the complex, so that visitors heading for the main hall must turn eastwards after entering, then north again. All buildings in the palace are arranged at oblique angles rather than along a single north-south axis, making Changdeokgung Palace the most Korean in character among the country’s remaining palaces.

Gyeongbokgung Palace

Five Elements.

Palaces: Joseon Royal Legacy in the Heart of Modern Seoul Five Joseon-era palaces still stand in modern Seoul: Gy e o n g b o k g u n g P a l a c e , C h a n g d e o k g u n g P a l a c e , Changgyeonggung Palace, Gyeongungung Palace (currently known as Deoksugung Palace) and Gyeonghuigung Palace.

Gyeongbokgung Palace, with main gate Gwanghwamun establishing its central axis, emphasizes order and hierarchy.

Its main buildings are arranged along a central axis consisting of Geunjeongjeon Hall, where rituals of state were conducted; Sajeongjeon Hall, where the king performed his duties during peacetime; Gangnyeongjeon Hall, the king’s residence and

40 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The History of Korean Architecture 41

and grandmother. Its somewhat small scale allowed its main buildings to

Jongmyo, Munmyo and Hyanggyo: Confucian Thoughts Embodied

be arranged in a relatively straight line, but it is unusual in that it faces

Jongmyo Shrine, Joseon’s royal shrine, is located to the east of

east rather than south.

Gyeongbokgung Palace, opposite Sajikdan Altar to the west. It is one of

Changgyeonggung Palace was built as a residence for the king’s mother

Gyeongungung Palace (Deoksugung Palace) was originally not a royal

the most important pieces of architecture of this period. Starting with the

palace but the residence of a prince. When other palaces were burned

ancestral tablet of King Taejo (Yi Seong-gye), the founder of the dynasty,

down during the Japanese invasions, however, it was used as the king’s

at the far west, the building houses the successive ancestral tablets of

temporary residence. In 1611, it was named Gyeongungung Palace and

all deceased Joseon monarchs. As the number of tablets to be enshrined

acquired the status Korea’s fourth royal palace. In 1900, it became the

increased over time, the building was gradually extended from its original

imperial palace of the Daehan Empire. One of Korea’s first Western-style

7 kan, ultimately reaching a width of 19 kan. In Joseon, where Confucian

buildings, Seokjojeon Hall, was built within its complex. In 1907, after he

loyalty and filial piety were practically the cardinal tenets of the nation,

was forced to abdicate, Emperor Gojong began living in the palace and its

nowhere was more important than this building for worshipping the

name was changed to Deoksugung Palace.

ancestors of the king.

Gyeonghuigung Palace, too, features an irregular layout that reflects its

Munmyo Shrine, meanwhile, consisted of an area that housed the

natural topography. Its gate is located at the south-east corner of its complex.

ancestral tablets of Korea’s most famous Confucian scholars, centered

In 1909, imperial Japan demolished all of Gyeonghuigung Palace’s buildings

on Confucius himself, and an area where students gathered to study. A

and built a Japanese middle school on the site. In 1988, the palace’s main

hierarchical order exists within Munmyo, as well, with the buildings housing

gate, Honghwamun Gate, and Sungjeongjeon Hall were restored.

ancestral tablets accorded greater importance and buildings to the east of

Jongmyo Shrine

such as the main buildings in gaeksa (guesthouses for traveling officials and dignitaries) and daeseongjeon (the buildings that housed the tablets of Confucius and other important scholars) in hyanggyo, featured columnhead bracket designs. Normal houses were usually built without the use of brackets, which is called mindori style. Regular houses designed to appear more formal, or buildings within the complex of official places such as palaces, temples, public offices and hyanggyo that were intended to appear less formal, used the ikgong system. The ikgong is a simplified version of the bracket found in column-head and multi-bracket designs, featuring a bird beak-like protrusion as its main decorative element.

In some cases, ikgong can also be found in highly important buildings Cheonan Hyanggyo

the complex placed in higher positions that those to the west.

Jongmyo and Munmyo shrines were located only in the capital; the provinces were instead home to hyanggyo (provincial Confucian shrines and village public schools). Hyanggyo echoed the function and composition of Munmyo Shrine. They displayed certain differences according to the various sizes and topographies of their plots. Those built on large, flat sites placed the building housing ancestral tablets at the front of the complex, while those with narrow plots that were forced to build on sloping land placed this building on higher ground at the back of the complex.

such as those of Jongmyo Shrine or the shrines of hyanggyo; this can be interpreted as a sign of respect or an emulation of the restraint and frugality of the ancestors they commemorate. Though such symbolic order was strictly observed in the early Joseon period, the passing of time led to blended styles and the appearance of forms showing compromise between columnhead and multi-bracket designs or between column-head brackets and ikgong in later years.

Restraint, Modesty and Accommodation of Nature as a Virtue Joseon-era wooden buildings used various bracket systems. The most important and formal buildings in royal palaces and Buddhist temples used multi-bracket designs. Other important buildings of lower status,

44 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The main hall at the Jongmyo shrine is an example of the ikgong style.

The History of Korean Architecture 45

East Meets West; Tradition Meets Modernity (Daehan Empire and Beyond) In the late 19th century, Korea signed a series of treaties in which it agreed to open its doors to many foreign countries, including Japan, China, Britain, Germany, Italy, Russia, and France. The ports of Busan, Wonsan and Incheon were opened as a result, leading to the appearance of various foreign concessions with new and unfamiliar buildings. While foreign

Former Belgian consulate

legations were initially housed in remodeled traditional hanok (Koreanstyle houses), after 1890 they began erecting buildings in the architectural styles of their own respective countries. All that now remains of the

Korean traditional and Western architectural styles rub shoulders at Deoksugung Palace.

Russian legation, built in Seoul next to Deoksugung Palace in 1895, is its belltower, while the Belgian consulate that was built in 1905 in Hoehyeondong, Jung-gu still stands but has been relocated.

The appearance of buildings in new styles was accompanied by the demolition of traditional city walls, leading to extensive and fundamental change in Korea’s cityscapes. The demolition of Daegu’s city wall in 1906 was followed in 1907 by part of that of Seoul; the phenomenon spread later on to cities all over the country.

Change in Modern Palaces In 1897, Emperor Gojong moved from Gyeongbokgung Palace to Gyeongungung Palace (today’s Deoksugung Palace). In order to proclaim his new status as an emperor, he built Wongudan Altar, a round altar for hosting the performance of the rite of heaven, a ritual that could only be performed by an emperor, opposite Gyeongungung Palace. Hwanggungu Shrine, part of the Wongudan complex, was built to house the ancestral tablet of Taejo, founder of the Joseon Dynasty. Within Gyeongungung

46 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The History of Korean Architecture 47 The Western-inspired terrace at Jeonggwanheon Pavilion is enhanced with traditional patterns.

Palace itself, meanwhile, a series of Western-style buildings was erected; the first of these, Jeonggwanheon Pavilion, was built as a venue for holding banquets. Seokjojeon Hall, completed in 1910, is a three-story neoclassical style building designed to imitate the style of a European palace. Junghwajeon Hall, a two-story structure built in 1902 by Korea’s last palace carpenters, was destroyed by fire and rebuilt as a one-story structure in 1906. The simultaneous building of Western-style Seokjojeon

1 3

2 4

Hall and traditional-style Junghwajeon Hall completed this modern-style palace with its coexistence of traditional and Western architectural forms.

The Appearance of Christian Architecture The Catholic Church in Korea gained freedom to conduct missionary activity as part of a treaty signed with France in 1886. Yakhyeon Catholic Church was built in 1892 and became a model for other small Catholic churches in the country. Myeong-dong Cathedral was completed in 1898, becoming Korea’s leading Catholic building. Built under the supervision

1 2 Myeong-dong Cathedral 3 4 Ganghwa Anglican Church

of Father Eugene Coste, the cathedral was built in an overall Romanesque style, with its interior spatial composition and finer details in Gothic style.

(1894) in Jincheon and Ganghwa Anglican Church (1900) on Ganghwado

Outside Seoul, Daegu’s Gyesan-dong Catholic Church was completed in

Island are good examples of this. Built by Rev. Charles John Corfe,

1902 in the same style as that of Myeong-dong Cathedral. Jeonju’s Jeong-

Korea’s first Anglican bishop, Ganghwa Anglican Church symbolizes the

dong Catholic Church, completed in 1914, has three domed bell towers:

Korean naturalization of Western Christianity through its adaptation of

the central dome is dodecagonal, while those on either side are octagonal.

the wooden hanok style to produce a basilica-like floor plan. The same

Protestant Jeong-dong Church, meanwhile, first used a hanok building;

process, of course, occurred with Protestant churches; Sollae Church in

this was replaced by a Victorian-style brick church in 1898.

Jangyeon, Hwanghae-do province is known as the first entirely hanok

Other protestant cathedrals and churches also followed this trend of

Protestant chapel. Many other chapels at this time used L-shaped hanok

initially using hanok before erecting their own Western-style structures.

designs in consideration of the late-Joseon social climate, which required

In provincial towns with relatively small numbers of worshippers,

segregated spaces for men and women. One surviving example of this

however, designs for hanok churches appeared. Doejae Catholic Church

form is Geumsan Church in Gimje, built in 1908.

48 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The History of Korean Architecture 49

Modern Architectural Education and Architects By 1907, the Korean government was running a technical college which turned out engineers with the basic skills needed for architectural work.

Gyeongseong Industrial Vocational School, a college teaching architectural design, opened in 1916, though only a small number of its students were Korean. This school turned out around 60 Korean graduates by 1945. Only some of these went on to work as architects; key examples include Park Gil-ryong and Park Dong-jin.

Park Gil-ryong graduated in 1919 and initially became a civil servant before opening his own studio in 1932. He designed a large number of buildings from 1929, including the former main hall of Keijo Imperial University (now Seoul National University) in 1930, Jongno Department Store in 1931 and Hwasin Department Store in 1935. Park also designed Bohwagak (now Gansong Art Museum), Korea’s first private museum, in 1938.

Park Dong-jin graduated in 1924 and opened his own company in 1938; previously, from around 1932, he designed a large number of buildings including the main hall and library of Korea University. Though some of his works show modern, rationalist tendencies, most of them are stone buildings in Gothic style. The Chosun Ilbo head office (1933), Osan Middle School (1936), Jungang Middle School (1937) and Yeongnak Church (1946) are all Park’s work.

Former main hall of Seoul National University (top); Main hall of Korea University (bottom)

50 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The History of Korean Architecture 51

From Mud Hut to Apartment Block Mud Huts: the First Homes Mud huts, which first appeared on the Korean Peninsula in the Paleolithic Period, were created through a combination of pits dug in the ground and timbers arranged in a converging structure above. These huts featured fireplaces in their centers and holes for storing food around fireplaces. The remains of mud huts from this period have been excavated in Amsa-dong in today’s southeast Seoul. With the advent of the Bronze Age and the expansion of agriculture, villages and the mud huts in them grew larger. Interior space was divided, according to function, into cooking and resting areas, while some buildings were built with elevated, loft-like spaces.

The spread of iron culture around the 3rd century BCE saw the emergence of Gojoseon and several other states on the Korean Peninsula. Buildings and villages became larger again and the forms and structures of houses further diversified.

More houses were built without resorting to the use of pits, based instead upon columns resting on foundation Reconstruction of prehistoric mud huts in stones at ground level. The Seoul’s Amsa-dong neighborhood use of fully vertical walls increased available interior space, allowing people to spend more time and engage in a greater range of activity indoors. It was at this time that original forms of ondol (underfloor heating), which can be regarded as a defining characteristic of Korean residential architecture, began to appear.

green colors on the pillars and rafters of a building), height of walls, type of front gate and size of stable.

Goryeo, too, placed similar restrictions upon the building of houses; those who violated them could be punished. Nonetheless, those in power did take advantage of their authority to build unnecessarily luxurious buildings. The houses of ordinary citizens are presumed to have not been especially splendid. While wooden beds were used in the houses of those of high status, commoners generally used ondol, which made sleeping on the floor the preferable option. In the late Goryeo period, individuals were encouraged, at the suggestion of Confucian scholars, to install family shrines in their own houses for the performing of ancestral rites.

Maru and Ondol: the Perfection of the Korean Traditional House In the Joseon period, too, social class-based distinctions existed not only in the size of plot and floor area of the house, but also the length of materials used and architectural forms. The practice of installing Confucian shrines and performing rites in the house increased the importance of the maru (a wooden-floored central space). A typical house was arranged with the male and female anbang (inner quarters) facing each other across a central space and the kitchen placed in front of, or next to, the anbang. Ondol, which warms rooms by using fire to heat the stones that comprise the floor from below, became widespread and was used in houses throughout Korea, regardless of the social status of their occupants. This completed the defining characteristic of Korean architecture: the juxtaposition of fire-heated ondol rooms and naturally ventilated ritual spaces (maru) in a single building. Those of high social status lived in complexes with a separate anchae (main building), Examples of maru (left) and ondol (right)

Forms Changing According to Social Status Silla’s capital city during the North and South States period was home to people of varying social status. In accordance with Silla’s rigid caste system, the homes of its citizens were also subject to various restrictions, in terms of size and ornamentation, according to their statuses. Specific standards dictated details such as the size of rooms, form of staircases, type of roof tiles and roof decorations, form of wooden brackets, ceiling appearance, right to use decorative dancheong painting (red and

52 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The History of Korean Architecture 53

sarangchae (men’s quarters), haengnangchae (servants’ quarters), sadang (ancestral shrine) and occasionally a separate banbitgan (kitchen).

Modernity Brings Change to Hanok Joseon residential architecture reached a technical and cultural peak in the mid19th century, as exemplified in buildings such as Yeongyeongdang and Nakseonjae in Changdeokgung Palace and Unhyeongung Palace. The introduction of Western culture and Japan’s seizure of Korea’s economic assets, however, brought change to traditional methods of housebuilding.

The 1920s saw the appearance in cities of so-called “cultural housing,” a compromise between Western-style housing and traditional lifestyles. As interest in function grew, the tendency to link the inner spaces of hanok with long corridors grew more pronounced. Examples from the 1930s illustrate this phenomenon both in the work of trained architects, such as Park Gil-ryong’s “Min Byeong-ok House” in Insa-dong, and in that of traditional carpenters, such as the “Lee Tae-jun House” in Seongbuk-dong. These houses also feature indoor toilets, though they are located in corner positions.

Increases in the urban population between the 1930s and 1960s led to a need for more large-scale housing developments on the outskirts of cities. In order to build large numbers of cheap hanok, land was divided into plots of a certain size and a standard model of hanok designed. A ㄷ (a letter in the Korean alphabet)shaped design was employed in order to make efficient use of each plot; houses were built facing away from the road, enhancing security, while inner courtyards

The house of Min Byeong-ok near Insa-dong is now used as a restaurant called Min’s Club.

were maintained, increasing the comfort of occupants. Since the structural nature of hanok makes building them more than one-story-high difficult, some were also built in terraced form, with several repetitions of the same floor plan, making it possible to accommodate more than one household.

Apartments and Super-highrise Multipurpose Complexes Following the building of apartments for civil servants in 1968, apartments for private citizens began sprouting up in Seoul’s Dongbuichon-dong. The dull I-shaped apartment blocks built en masse in the 1970s were simple in their layout. A turning point for multi-unit dwellings in Korea came in 1986 with the building of accommodations for athletes participating in the Asian Games, which organically connected the everyday lines of flow of its residents with communal living spaces. Later developments went beyond the scale of single apartments to include the planning of whole urban areas. The new district built in Seoul’s Mok-dong area was divided into commercial and residential zones, with each apartment complex accorded a degree of independence and featuring various other experimental elements, such as a mixture of low- and high-rise blocks. The accommodations built for athletes and journalists at the 1988 Seoul Olympics showed apartment blocks radiating outward and differing in shape and height, suggesting a new form of collective housing. In 1989, the planning of two new cities outside Seoul, Bundang and Ilsan, in order to spread housing demand outside the bounds of the saturated capital, was announced. These plans aimed to create not satellite cities but areas capable of functioning as autonomous towns in their own right.

In Seoul, meanwhile, multipurpose superhigh-rise blocks appeared as a new form in the 1990s. Built in the 2000s, Tower Palace is a development renowned as the epitome of super-high-rise multipurpose blocks in Korea. Equipped with banquet halls, a gym, a swimming pool, a golf driving range and a rooftop garden in a single building, Tower Palace is an impregnable fortress that eliminates the need for its residents to venture beyond its gates.

Tower Palace in Seoul’s Dogok-dong neighborhood

54 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

The History of Korean Architecture 55

Chapter Three

Korean spirit embodied in traditional architecture This chapter will explore 10 buildings that offer some of the best examples of Korea’s traditional architectural aesthetics. Six of these—the Seokguram-Bulguksa complex, the Janggyeongpanjeon Hall at Haeinsa Temple, Jongmyo Shrine, Changdeokgung Palace, Hwaseong Fortress, and Yangdong Village—have been designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites, underlining the global recognition of their value. Among the remaining four, the seowon (private Confucian academies) are currently preparing for UNESCO World Heritage Site designation. The other buildings covered in this chapter offer the best examples of the particular architectural styles in each period of Korean history. Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa Temple is an outstanding building, dating from the Goryeo period, that reflects the international style of its time, while Soswaewon exemplifies landscape architecture that reflects the views of life and nature held by intellectuals of its time, as well as the political and sociological background of the early

56 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Bulguksa Temple

Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 57

Joseon period (1392–1910). Seongyojang House, finally, is significant as a sophisticated example of late-Joseon period residential hanok architecture.

Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Grotto Bulguksa Temple, built in the 8th century, is the leading extant example of Silla religious architecture. It uses the natural slope of its site to express spatial hierarchy, while showing an outstanding sense of form with the natural connections between its spaces. Its sloping site means that the front of the complex rests on a long stone base. Meanwhile, the complex itself, which is reached by ascending stone staircases at each end of the stone base, consists of four realms: that of the Daeungjeon Hall, the Interior of Seokguram Grotto

Geungnakjeon Hall, the Birojeon Hall and the Gwaneumjeon Hall.

The realm of the Daeungjeon is a built embodiment of the content of the Lotus Sutra, while that of the Geungnakjeon embodies belief in

thought in one single complex is a characteristic feature of 8th-century Silla temple architecture.

the Pure Land (paradise). Anyangmun, the gate located in front of the

Seokguram Grotto, meanwhile, is unique in that it was created not

Geungnakjeon, represents the entrance to the Pure Land. The gate and

by finding and using a natural cave but by building an artificial one. The

the hall behind it thus constitute a set of structures representing paradise

grotto consists of a stone chamber, passageway and round dome. A statue

itself. The Birojeon Hall enshrines Vairocana Buddha of the Avatamsaka

of the Buddha sits beneath the dome, which was finished with an external

Sutra, while the Gwaneumjeon Hall enshrines Avalokitesvara, the goddess

earth covering. The halo behind the Buddha’s head is carved into the wall

of mercy. Ultimately, then, Bulguksa is a reflection of several strands

below the dome, forming a straight line of sight between the eyes of a

of Buddhist thought: the content of the Lotus Sutra, belief in the Pure

worshipper standing in the grotto, the head of the Buddha and the halo.

Land, the Avatamska Sutra and worship of Avalokitesvara. Beomyeongnu

The ceiling of the dome is crowned by a large, round stone carved with a

Pavilion, meanwhile, is located between the realms of the Daeungjeon and

lotus pattern, under which concentric circles of stones extend downwards.

Geungnakjeon halls: this represents Mt. Meru, the central world-mountain

Every second stone in the first three concentric circles protrudes slightly

in Buddhist cosmology. Accordingly, the stone columns below it are carved

inwards: these are the heads of long stones driven deep into the walls,

into cloud-like forms, creating an atmosphere befitting a high mountain.

like rivets, which provide the structural support needed to keep the dome

The building of temples combining four different streams of Buddhist

intact. Their role is thus both structural and decorative.

58 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 59

Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa Temple

The chunyeo (rafters protruding from the eaves at the corners) of

According to Samguksagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) and Samgukyusa (Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms), two of Korea’s most important ancient historical texts, Buseoksa Temple was built in 676 by the eminent monk Uisang upon his return to Korea following a period of study in China. Muryangsujeon Hall is built in the column-head bracket style, with brackets located only at the top of each column. These columns are famous for their beautiful use of entasis. Entasis is also used in the stone columns of Greek temples and in the wooden architecture of other East Asian countries such as China and Japan. Nowhere was this technique popular for longer than in Korea. It was used until the early Joseon period and manifested its full beauty in column-head bracket-style buildings.

Muryangsujeon’s roof, meanwhile, are supported by auxiliary columns known as hwalju. These are believed to have been added to the structure some time after it was originally built. This is because the chunyeo in the hall’s hip-and-gable roof are of the “lever” type. The weight of the roof thus presses down on the inner part of each chunyeo, lifting its outer part. Supporting this outer part from beneath with an auxiliary pillar is therefore contradictory; it is highly likely, then, that these pillars were not part of the original structure but added at a later date to support the corners of the roof.

Other buildings that feature lever-type chunyeo include the Bogwangjeon Hall at Simwonsa Temple, which dates from the Goryeo period (918–1392), and the Daeungjeon Hall at Bongjeongsa Temple, which dates from the subsequent early Joseon era. These are the only three known examples of hip-and-gable roof buildings with lever-type chunyeo.

The Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa, meanwhile, is of great significance due to the way it features details that echo 11th-century northern and southern Chinese architectural styles in one building. The soseuljae, a component found in its central roof bracket, in particular,

1

is an extremely old feature also depicted in Goguryeo tomb murals. The ungong, a component located above the soseuljae, however, is found only in the architecture of southern China. Ultimately, Muryangsujeon can be regarded as embodying an international style that combines native Korean forms dating from the Goguryeo period with newly introduced southern Chinese elements. Its status as the biggest and most beautiful example of the column-head bracket-style hip-and gable roof, where each column is topped by its own bracket, makes it worthy of global recognition.

2 1 Muryangsujeon Hall 2 The roof supported by hwalju, or auxiliary columns 3 Pillars designed using baeheullim (entasis).

3

Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 61

Janggyeongpanjeon Hall at Haeinsa Temple Haeinsa Temple houses one of the three important “treasures” of Korean Buddhism. These are the Buddha, the Buddhist canon and the Buddhist clergy. In Korea, these are housed respectively in Tongdosa Temple in Yangsan, Haeinsa Temple in Hapcheon and Songgwangsa Temple in Suncheon. These three “treasure temples” are thus often considered the most important in Korea.

The 80,000-wood blocks that comprise the Tripitaka Koreana housed at Haeinsa were carved over a period of 16 years during the Goryeo period in order to overcome Mongolian invasions of the Korean Peninsula at the time. This attempt by the people of Goryeo to unite the public spirit and find a peaceful solution, in accordance with the Buddha’s instructions to practice mercy, even in the face of such a national crisis, contains a message still relevant today.

Built in Silla in 802, during the North and South States period, Haeinsa sits on a southeast-facing slope. Each of its important buildings is located

1 A view of Haeinsa Temple 2 3 Exterior and interior of the Janggyeongpanjeon Hall

on a terrace of a different height, with the Janggyeongpanjeon Hall that houses the woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana at the furthest back, highest point in the temple complex. The Janggyeongpanjeon dates from the Joseon period and consists of four individual storage buildings. The Sudarajang building to the south and Beopbojeon building to the north are long, their façades measuring 15 kan, while the Dongsagango and Seosagango buildings are located at each end, forming a long, central courtyard. The Goryeo period woodblocks were relocated here in 1398, having previously been stored on Ganghwado Island.

These buildings are simple in structure and layout, remaining faithful to their function of storing the Tripitaka. Their foundations and the floor in each building are built up from a mixture of charcoal, lime, salt and sand to

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prevent the spreading of dust and maintain a certain level of humidity, thus

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preventing damage to the woodblocks. The four walls of the Sudarajang and Beopbojeon have upper and lower windows to ensure ventilation. The windows in the front and side walls are small above and large below, while those in the back walls are large above and small below, maximizing the ventilation effect. In overall terms, too, the windows of the Beopbojeon to

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Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 63

the south are altogether larger than those of the Sudarajang to the north, reflecting consideration of the flow of air through the entire courtyard.

The significance of Janggyeongpanjeon lies in its combination of the efforts of the people of Goryeo to overcome foreign invasions by peaceful means and the architectural innovations on the part of the people of Joseon in order to pass on the fruits of these efforts, and the message they contain, to future generations.

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Changdeokgung Palace The Joseon capital of Hangyang (modern-day Seoul) was home to five royal palaces. The first among these to be built by dynasty founder King Taejo was Gyeongbokgung, but the palace most loved by the dynasty’s many monarchs was Changdeokgung. Various kings left new buildings and gardens within its grounds over the years, reflecting their own particular tastes. Construction of Changdeokgung was begun by King Taejo’s son, King Taejong, in 1404, after which an ongoing series of additions and

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1 Inejongjeon Hall 2 A bridge over Geumcheon 3 Aeryeonji Pond and Aeryeonjeong Pavillion in Huwon Garden

improvements saw it grow into a substantial royal palace. Despite various large and small fires and other mishaps, notably the Japanese invasions

a naturally flowing layout. Its site, which adheres to the southern foot

of the late 16th century, repeated restorations and rebuilding projects

of a mountain, is elongated from west to east in terms of overall layout,

have ensured that the entire palace survives, intact, today. The existence

while the line of flow from the main gate to each inner part of the complex

of Donggwoldo, an early-19th-century painting of Changdeokgung and

also runs from west to east. Each individual area, however, faces south,

adjacent Changgyeonggung, is particularly helpful in offering a detailed

creating a series of pleasant environments infused with warm energy.

view of the palaces at this time.

This method of devising layouts is commonly found in Joseon residential

Gyeongbokgung was built according to a symmetrical layout along a north-south axis in order to reflect the ideology of the newly-established

architecture, too, so that Changdeokgung can be regarded as something akin to a monarch’s own “cozy” home.

Joseon dynasty. Changdeokgung, however, was planned in accordance

Donhwamun, the palace’s main gate, is located at the southwestern

with the original topography of the site upon which it was built, producing

corner of its complex. Those passing through the gate and heading north

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Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 65

some distance, before turning to the right, come to the same geumcheon (“forbidden stream”) and bridge found in other Korean palaces. Further east, visitors come to a courtyard surrounded by a wall. This has the feel of a wider, open version of the vestibule of Michelangelo’s Laurentian Library.

While the library vestibule is connected to the reading room by a straight line, those arriving at the gate of this walled compound from the front courtyard of Changdeokgung must change direction and turn west (left) in order to enter the king’s courtyard. The front courtyard, surrounded by buildings and walls, becomes gradually narrower, converging like a perspective drawing. Those entering it, however, do not do so while facing the king head-on. Those making their way to the area where the king performed his daily duties or the area where he slept and ate had to turn

Jongmyo Shrine Jongmyo is a Confucian shrine built to enshrine the spirits of deceased kings and queens. These spirits are symbolized in the shrine by mortuary tablets in the form of long wooden sticks. The chamber at the far western end of the shrine contains the tablet of the founding king of the Joseon dynasty, with those to the east containing the tablets of his successors.

As time passed, the number of deceased monarchs and their mortuary tablets increased, necessitating extensions to the building. Jongmyo was initially built with seven kan, but this number was subsequently increased to 11, then to 15 in 1726 and to the current 19 in 1836.

Because of its function as a venue for the holding of ancestral rites,

once again to the east. The layout of this palace is analogous with the way Joseon was ruled not by a coercive absolute monarch but by processes that

Jongmyo Daeje underway in the plaza in front of Jeongjeon Hall, Jongmyo Shrine.

emphasized democratic procedures and gentle dialogue and compromise.

In fact, this style of layout was a legacy of the previous Goryeo dynasty, but Joseon-era Changdeokgung took a much more active approach to its embodiment, enhancing its functions and level of sophistication.

Huwon, an extensive wooded garden area, is located at the north of the palace complex. The entire garden covers an area of 580,000 m2 and can be divided into four different areas centered on ponds and pavilions. The design of each subdivision reflects the tastes of the monarch that created it. Buyongji Pond and Juhamnu Pavilion give a sense of the magnanimity of King Jeongjo, while the small buildings in the vicinity of Aeryeonji Pond offer a glimpse of Crown Prince Hyomyeong’s quiet, calm character. The water channels and various pavilions around Ongnyucheon Stream share a vision of the ideal world dreamed of by King Injo.

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Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 67

Jongmyo consists entirely of simple, restrained buildings. Jeongjeon Hall, the most important building of the shrine, rests on a broad, twotier stylobate known as woldae, which measures 101 meters from left to right. The building that stands on it consists of a very limited number of forms, such as the sillo (a special path reserved for the souls of deceased kings and queens whose tablets are enshrined in Jongmyo), panwi (square tablets marking the key stopping points for the performing of rites) and an extremely unadorned structure arranged in a simple composition that clearly demonstrates the architectural intentions behind Jongmyo. The use of color is also highly restrained. The shrine’s simple composition and structure, which incorporate only essential spaces such as the sillo, woldae, stylobate and walls, together with the extremely limited use of color and decoration, bring a symbolic dimension to shrine architecture.

The wide stylobate, seemingly extending outward to the ends of the earth, gives a sense of stability, while what appears to be an endless row of columns brings to mind the unbroken reign of a dynasty through the ages.

The roof, apparently defying gravity as it stretches horizontally towards

Yangdong Village Yangdong Village in Gyeongju, southeast Korea, is an example not only of a 15th-century village that survives in unaltered form, but of one that retains its original functions after 600 years of existence. The important beliefs of its villagers in each era are reflected in its tangible and intangible culture and it retains a diverse collection of buildings.

Yangdong is located at a point where two mountain peaks, one to the northwest and one to the southeast, form a ridge, and where two rivers, one flowing from west to north and one flowing from the south, meet and flow east to the sea. The ridge forms three consecutive valleys, giving the overall topography the shape of the Chinese character 勿 (pronounced “mul” in Korean). Jonggajip (a head family descended from clan founders or ancestors via the eldest son of each generation) houses are located at important points along the ridge, while the houses of farmers of low social A view of Yangdong Village

the ends of the sky, seems to speak of infinity.

The Jeongjeon is surrounded by a square wall. At the center of its southern side is a front gate, while at its eastern and western sides are an eastern gate through which officials participating in rites enter and leave and a western gate used by court musicians and other employees.

Jongmyo Daeje, the state rite performed in memory of the ancestors of the royal household, was the most important ancestral rite of the entire dynasty. In 2001, it was inscribed on UNECSO’s list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

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Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 69

of the people living there. They therefore did their best to refrain from actions that were taboo and to preserve order in the state, the village and the household. Traces of this attitude remain in each of the village’s buildings at a microscopic level and in its changes over the ages at a macroscopic level.

Seobaekdang, the oldest house in the village, takes the form of the Korean letter ㅁ (mieum). The anchae, centered on the inner quarters and kitchen, and sarangchae, centered on the reception room and study 1

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of the head of the household, are arranged here in an elaborate fashion.

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The house known as Gwangajeong, meanwhile, is also based on an ㅁ shape, but features an excellent view created by extending one end of the southern side of the square and adding a raised maru; this addition was part of the sarangchae. Mucheomdang consists of separate buildings, one in a ㅁ shape and one in a ㄱ (giyeok) shape. These comprise the anchae and the sarangchae, respectively. The gradually increasing independence and size of the sarangchae quarters and growing splendor of its external appearance can be interpreted as a reflection of the increasingly superior

1 The sarangchae at Gwangajeong 2 The maru in the sarangchae at Mucheomdang 4 The kitchen attached to the outside of the inner quarters at Hyangdan

3 A view of Hyangdan

status are concentrated in lower parts and along the banks of the river, giving Yangdong the layout of a typical Joseon-era yangban (aristocrats) village. The character 勿 was believed to carry positive meaning in terms of feng shui (pungsu in Korean). Feng shui, considered important when deciding upon the location of a city or palace, was also an important factor in selecting the position of a village.

Discovering and maintaining the positive aspects of feng shui, however, was considered fundamentally dependent upon the efforts and sincerity 70 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

position of men in Joseon society with the passing of time.

Hyangdan is another of the village’s most brilliant structures. Its layout differs to that of other houses in that its anchae faces south and its sarangchae north. Features such as the maru floor space located in front of the inner room in the anchae, the kitchen attached not to the inside but to the outside of the inner quarters, and the extremely large, two-story storage space beside the kitchen offer information about the layout of houses at this time. Hyangdan’s sarangchae is presumed to demonstrate the form of houses generally lived in by members of the ruling class in the early Joseon period.

Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 71

Soswaewon’s defining characteristic is its use of the natural valley in which it is located, almost unaltered and with additional features installed only where necessary, in such a way that each point in the garden has its own distinctive feel. The process of passing through each point on a walk through the entire garden constitutes a four-stage sequence of introduction, development, turn and conclusion.

The introductory section reaches from the bamboo forest at the entrance to the garden’s square pond. The tall, straight bamboo stems on either side of the path provide both sound and fragrance, while the years of growth visible in their gnarled roots also constitute a part of the garden.

The small, simple pavilion by the pond is a place for guests to wait.

The outer yard, blocked off by a wall, is at once empty and warm. The Views of Soswaewon Garden

wall can be used to hang works of art, while also serving to block northerly

Soswaewon Garden

winds and collecting warm sunlight from the south.

The 16th century was a time of political turmoil in Korea. Scholars who

elements, centered on a small valley through which a stream flows. The

had previously spent their time studying in the provinces entered the

water of the stream, the variety of unplanted, naturally seeded plants

political world in the capital and attempted to realize their own ideals.

and flowers, the birds that fly in and settle wherever they please and the

Those already in positions of bureaucratic power, however, had no

people playing baduk (Korean go game), or sitting on rocks lost in thought

intention of letting go of their own privileges. This inevitably led to a

or splashing water on their necks to cool down, all become elements of the

power clash and to several purges. The building of Soswaewon Garden

garden itself. The only artificial additions here are a water conduit carved

was connected to one of these purges, which took place in 1519. Its

from a log, and a waterwheel.

The middle yard contains all of the garden’s changeable and dynamic

creator, Yang San-bo, was a disciple of Jo Gwang-jo, a figure caught at the

The inner yard contains a small building for sleeping, reading and

center of the political maelstrom at the time. When Yang saw Jo banished

meditating. The irregular steps leading up to it are not an inconvenience

from the capital to a place near his own hometown, and branded a

but a way of encouraging self-cultivation because of the way they force

traitor and forced to die by drinking poison, he began to feel the world

those ascending them to slow down and walk carefully, providing an

was meaningless, and in turn searched for a place to live in seclusion.

opportunity to shed meaningless thoughts.

Soswaewon was the result of this search.

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Korean Gardens: Places for Amusement and Meditation King Munmu of Silla, who unified the Three Kingdoms in the 7th century, had a pond dug in his palace grounds, created hills, planted flowers and kept strange birds and animals. Anapji Pond, located in the southeastern city of Gyeongju, is the leading extant example of a Silla garden. The entire complex covers an area of 15,638m2, while its pond contains three artificial islands said to be inhabited by Taoist immortals.

The late Silla period saw the appearance of a garden that represented the ultimate in hedonism: Poseokjeong is a garden designed for floating cups of wine around an artificial waterway and reciting poetry. The waterway consists of a winding, 17-meter channel through which water was sent flowing. The garden was made famous by an incident in which the Silla king was killed by his enemies while enjoying a party there.

The rulers of Goryeo took advantage of their power to build luxurious gardens.

They planted rare trees and flowers around buildings, decorating gardens with eccentrically formed rocks and stones and erecting all manner of pavilions. They dug ponds in various shapes in their gardens, sometimes diverting water from a considerable distance away for use in artificial waterfalls or to send beneath buildings.

The most splendid gardens of the Joseon period were found in palaces.

Examples of this include Gyeonghoeru Pavilion and Amisan Garden in the grounds of Gyeongbokgung Palace and Huwon Garden in the grounds of Changdeokgung Anapji Pond in Gyeongju (left); Amisan Garden in Gyeongbokgung Palace (right)

Hwallaejeong Pavillion in Seongyojang House, Gangneung

Palace, which can be described as the most quintessentially Korean garden. It was common for the gardens of noblemen, on the other hand, to be frugal in design.

Hermitage gardens, too, were popular as a means of emphasizing the Confucian principle of introspection or as a result of going into seclusion after losing political power struggles. Dongnakdang Hall is an example of the former, while Soswaewon Garden reflects the latter. The design of Dongnakdang is an interesting one that features an opening in the wall by the sarangchae (men’s quarters), bringing the sound of a babbling brook and providing a visual sense of openness. Soswaewon is not particularly large, at 4,060㎥, nor is it extensively decorative; there is nothing rare or precious there, but it reflects the attitude which holds that all normal objects in the world are beautiful if observed closely, and that there is nothing that cannot achieve enlightenment. This is a defining characteristic of Korean gardens.

Wealthy individuals in the late-Joseon period began to build gardens more frequently near their homes or within the walls of their residential compounds. They sometimes dug square ponds adjoined by pavilions raised on tall foundation stones.

Examples of this include 19th-century Hwallaejeong Pavillion in Seongyojang House, Gangneung, and Hayeopjeong House in Samgaheon, Daegu.

Although styles vary somewhat according to era and social class, Korean garden styles can be clearly differentiated from those of neighboring countries and have their own defining characteristics. The frequent positioning of houses on sloping plots led to the development of rear terraced flower gardens. The feng shui-based belief that trees should not be planted in front of houses was well observed. Ponds created were square, with round islands in their centers, symbolizing the belief in a round heaven above a square earth and reflecting a belief in the importance of places that achieved harmony between yin and yang. Korean gardens are characterized by the importance they place in the symbolic nature of the inner qualities of their constituent objects, rather than in outward splendor or curiosity.

Korean Spirit Embodied Korean Modernism in Traditional andArchitecture Its Legacies 75

Mandaeru at Byeongsan Seowon

Dosan Seowon

Dosan Seowon and Byeongsan Seowon Confucian Academies The history of seowon in Korea dates back to Baegundong Seowon, built in 1542 in honor of An Hyang, the Goryeo Confucian scholar who brought Neo-Confucianism to Korea. Their purpose was to reform society by creating places dedicated to respecting ancient sages.

As described earlier, the 16th century was a time of extreme political conflict between scholars educated in the countryside and the entrenched bureaucratic powers of the capital. While the Confucian scholars from the countryside sometimes experienced defeat, Joseon, a Confucian state, was ultimately bound to take their side. In 1550, the king extended state recognition to seowon by donating to Baegundong Seowon a signboard in his own hand with the seowon’s new name of “Sosu Seowon,” along with slaves and land. Seowon thus became both educational institutions 76 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

for teaching Neo-Confucianism and political strongholds for Confucian scholars as they became power figures in their own right.

Because of their function of commemorating the Confucian scholars they respected, seowon were built in places connected to the scholars themselves.

Sosu Seowon is located in An Hyang’s hometown, while Dosan Seowon was built based on the grounds of the seodang (village schoolhouse) at which Yi Hwang taught his students. Byeongsan Seowon, meanwhile, stands close to Hahoe Village, the home of scholar Ryu Seong-ryong.

The lack of a clear system when seowon were first built means that Sosu Seowon, the very earliest, has no clear central building, while its sadang (ancestral shrine) and Myeongnyungdang Hall face in different directions.

None of its parts are distinct according to function, moreover, producing an appearance not only of asymmetry but of disorder. After Yi Hwang wrote Yisan Seowongyu, a set of rules for managing seowon, orderly

Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 77

complexes began to appear. Dodong Seowon, for example, features a main gate, assembly hall and shrine in an almost straight linear configuration, producing a sense of order and solemnity.

Dosan Seowon was built in honor of Yi Hwang following his death, under the leadership of his students. Dosan Seodang, the complex from which it was developed, was built by Yi himself and offers a glimpse of Yi’s character, with its combination of simplicity and strict adherence to the principles of his own life. Unlike the assembly halls of most seowon, which feature a central maru space with rooms for the masters to either side of it, that of Dosan Seowon only has a master’s room on the opposite side to that of the shrine. This is sometimes regarded as an expression of strong respect on the part of Yi’s students, who considered him their eternal master even after his death.

Byeongsan Seowon was originally built on the site of a seodang

Hwaseong Fortress In 1789, King Jeongjo relocated the tomb of his father, Crown Prince Sado, to Mt. Hwasan in Suwon. He moved the people living there to a site in the vicinity of nearby Mt. Paldalsan and built a new city named Hwaseong. This late-Joseon planned city was surrounded by Mt. Paldalsan to the west and by largely flat land in every other direction, in contrast to previous cities, which were surrounded by mountains to the north, south, east and west.

While early Joseon cities were built with an emphasis on administration, the new city of Hwaseong was located at a major intersection of traffic linking Seoul to the nearby provinces of Chungcheong-do, Jeolla-do and Gyeongsang-do; Jeongjo expected it to become an economic hub. In order to link Seoul and the southern provinces, the city’s roads were arranged in the shape of a cross, with government offices arranged along each side.

relocated to its position from elsewhere when Joseon statesman Ryu Seong-ryong served as a local government official. It is divided into three

Paldalmun Gate at Hwaseong Fortress

areas: one for study, one for holding ancestral rites and one where its janitors lived. While each separate area is symmetrical in layout, the seowon as a whole is asymmetrical. The dormitories on the left and right in front of the assembly hall, in particular, are situated in such a way that they converge slightly when seen from the front of the complex. In front of them is a two-story pavilion that offers views of the surrounding scenery.

Named Mandaeru, this pavilion has no doors, windows or walls but only columns, offering unobstructed views from all sides. Standing empty, it appears to have no function; in fact, however, its role is that of a frame for the outside vista. Framing the scenery of the riverbank and mountainside beyond, Mandaeru is a boundary between the natural and the manmade.

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Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 79

Manchu invasion of 1636. The stones were cut into uniform square shapes with raised points at their corners, so that each stone fitted into the next.

This was based on past experience gained from repairs to other Korean fortresses such as Bukhansanseong, Namhansanseong and Hanyang (Seoul)’s city walls. Jeong also designed a variety of defensive features for the fortress and invented several machines, including cranes, in order to reduce labor and construction costs.

Access to the walled city was provided by four main gates, in addition to which the fortress featured five secret gates for use in wartime. It also incorporated two sluice gates to allow water in and out. The northern sluice gate consists of seven arches, forming a bridge over which a pavilion was built, and is named Hwahongmun. This name means “beautiful rainbow”; indeed, the sight of the water spray rising here is considered one of the finest views in Suwon. Hwahongmun also features devices to stop enemies attempting to violate the the fortress secretly via the stream below. Another building that shows the same simultaneous pursuit of function and beauty is Banghwa Suryujeong. Though its original function was to keep watch on what went on outside the fortress, its shape as it thrusts into the air from atop a small cliff known as Dragon’s Head and is Banghwa Suryujeong (top) and Hwahongmun Gate (bottom) in Hwaseong Fortress

reflected in Dragon Pond below is that of the Chinese character 亞, which was popular at the time. Viewing the moon from this pavilion is considered

Construction of Hwaseong’s fortress wall began in 1794, five years after

another of the most beautiful sights in Suwon.

the city itself was created. Jeong Yak-yong, a rising scholar at the time,

The construction process of Hwaseong, the highlight of civil engineering

was put in charge of the construction work. Jeong studied Chinese fortress

in the late Joseon period, is recorded in an official report that survives

wall-building systems and related Western technologies until 1792. He

today. Lists of materials used, the officials in charge and the technicians

planned a stone wall of 7.75 m in height and with a total circumference

involved are all recorded.

of 4.2 km. His intention was to build a strong fortress that could prevent a repeat of past wars such as the Japanese invasions of 1592–8 and the 80 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 81

Seongyojang House The 19th century was a time when rich individuals, not just in Seoul but also in the provinces, as well as newly enriched landowners, became able to build large, sophisticated residences by drawing on their own financial resources. Seongyojang House, built in the city of Gangneung in Gangwondo, is the largest extant Joseon private residence today, almost palatial in A view of Seonggyojang House

its scale and grandeur.

Seongyojang comprises a haengnangchae (servants’ quarters) that

windows of the central maru have their hinges at the top and can be lifted

includes its main gate, an anchae, a sarangchae, a byeoldangchae, a

upwards and outward to create a completely open space. This space has

sadang and a pond with pavilions. Among these, the anchae is said to

verandahs on three sides and an awning attached to the front, reflecting

have been built first. It features a central maru with an inner room and

the fact that the house always received large numbers of guests. Between

kitchen to the east and another room to the west. The inner room to the

the sarangchae and the room on the western side of the anchae was a

east and the room on the western side both feature large closets on their

building used as a study.

northern sides, allowing us to guess the affluence of the house’s former

A long haengnangchae stands in front of these buildings. On one side

occupants. A ㄱ-shaped separate building adjoins the anchae on one side

is a raised entrance gate leading to the sarangchae, while on the other

of its façade.

side is another gate with its roof at the same level as the rest of the

To the west of the anchae stands Yeolhwadang, the sarangchae of

haengnangchae, a form similar to that of Yeongyeongdang. The overall

the complex. Built in 1815, Yeolhwadang is a ㄱ-shaped building with a

layout of Seongyojang is that of a long, left-to-right complex with a

room at its corner and a central maru and raised maru to each side. This

mountain in the background. Nonetheless, the complex gives a sense of

type of raised maru, which sits atop a long foundation stone is a typical

depth thanks to its design, whereby none of its different areas reveals

feature of houses at this time

itself entirely upon entry. Those passing through the gate in order to reach

and is found in other well-

the sarangchae find their view blocked by the wall of the byeoldang and

known 19th-century buildings

turn naturally to the left, while those passing through the gate on the way

such as Yeongyeongdang and

to the courtyard of the anchae must change directions twice within the

Nakseonjae in Changdeokgung

two-kan guesthouse before arriving. In this way, Seongyojang produces a

Pa l a c e a n d U n h y e o n g u n g

dynamic feel, with free and natural connections between its spaces, based

Palace. The front and back

on an overall left-to-right layout.

Yeolhwadang

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Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 83

Hanok—Combining Humanity, Nature and Science Hanok have always been built in a variety of forms according to the status and gender of their occupants, and according to their use. The scale of a house (including size of plot, number of kan and height of surrounding walls) differed according to the status of its occupants, as did the form and permitted range of decoration (including dancheong painting, tiles and columns). The use of square or round pillars was determined by whether the space in question would be used by men or by women.

Heights of buildings, too, varied according to occupant status and location.

The large number of sloping plots in Korea meant that the carpenters who built hanok were particularly skilled at controlling building heights. Kitchen floors were built low and bang (heated room) floors were built higher up. Hot air from a fire lit in a kitchen fireplace would rise up and pass below the stone bang floor; the smoke was vented from a tall chimney on the far side. This design took advantage of the thermal effect whereby cold air entering a low space rises when heated. Large, flat stones called ondol were laid to form the floor of the bang, creating a domestic heating system observed the basic health principle of keeping the feet warm and the head cool.

The relatively low kitchen floor, meanwhile, created higher ceilings in the kitchen without increasing the overall height of the building, thus allowing the creation of a second story there. The resulting upper space was a kind of attic used for storing various items.

The doors and windows of a hanok, too, are extremely scientific in their design. The wooden lattices forming them were coated on the inside with traditional paper; their outer surfaces were therefore

thicker than the outer ones. The thinner outer surfaces admitted greater amounts of outside daylight, while the thicker inner surfaces provided a greater area for the paper to adhere to, increasing the surface tension of the paper and making the doors and windows stronger. Traditional Korean doors and windows feature a unique form known as angojigi. This design allows them to be opened up and outwards when hung by an upper hinge, or to be opened by sliding to the left or right along a horizontal axis. They were opened up and outwards when large objects needed to be carried through them and from side to side Top: Angojigi doors during normal use, when only a Bottom: Wooden lattice windows at Dongnakdang Hall maximum of half their total width could be open at a time.

Some traditional Korean doors and windows, however, go beyond such functionality to possess aesthetic and even emotional qualities. Dongnakdang Hall in Gyeongju features a stone wall with wooden lattice windows: more than mere functional devices for providing ventilation, these play an active role in bringing the nature outside the wall inside so that the hall suddenly becomes one with nature.

Hanok is a residential form that synthesizes many time-honored observations about nature. The depth of its eaves, for example, is determined in such a way as to block powerful summer sunlight that falls from a steep angle, while admitting the low-angle, warm sunlight of winter. This is what makes it a uniquely Korean, scientific yet beautiful application of wisdom gleaned through the observation of nature.

Kitchen fireplace called agungi

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Korean Spirit Embodied in Traditional Architecture 85

The language center (formerly the library) at Konkuk University in Seoul, built in 1956

Chapter Four

Korean Modernism and Its Legacies

In the period after Korea’s liberation from Japan and the Korean War, Korean architects began experimenting. To some extent, they were absorbing the ideas of modernism, despite their technical constraints and lack of experience. Architects who had come of age in Korea were beginning to set up offices such as the Synthetic Architecture Institute and the Institute of New Architectural Culture. It was still a fairly bleak environment, but an architectural culture was slowly beginning to blossom.

This was also the time when Korean architects began to have personal encounters with the greats of modernism, part of a burgeoning climate of overseas interchange. Lee Kwang-no worked for a year at the offices of I. M. Pei before coming back home to found the firm Muae Architecture.

Kim Jong-seong enrolled at the Illinois Institute of Technology and was influenced by the legendary German architect Mies van der Rohe, who was a member of the faculty there. Kim Tai Soo graduated from Yale University

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Korean Modernism and Its Legacies 87

The shrine itself sits atop a bluff overlooking the Hangang River, but the architecture does not defy the terrain. The sense of comfort that emerges from this natural positioning, the strict proportions, and an appropriate use of outside space is unquestionably a supreme architectural achievement.

Kim Jung-up and Kim Swoo Geun are two of the architects who arrived in this period to open up new horizons in modernism. Both were directly and indirectly exposed to Western modernism during their early years overseas; both would return to produce works of masterly and unique architectural style. Their contributions would prove pivotal in the process that unfolded from the 1960s and 1980s as Korea cast off its technical and conceptual limitations and acquired greater depth and artistic range.

Two Giants of Korean Modernism Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine, built in 1967

Kim Jung-up spent three and a half years working in the office of Le Corbusier. Returning to Korea, Kim began producing work that combined

and worked in the office of Philip Johnson. These were attempts—however

the formal qualities of the Swiss architect’s latest work with a uniquely

few in number—to gain personal experience with the currents of world

Korean sentiment—but with a modern twist. One of his most famous

architecture, and they would have a major impact on Korean modernism.

works today is the Seo Obstetrical Clinic, a bold curved structure in

Lee Hui-tae is considered one of Korea’s prominent architects. Lacking

exposed mass concrete. Fittingly enough for the building’s function, its

any experience with overseas architecture, he nevertheless succeeded

shape boasts a number of sexual metaphors, its images representing

in developing a style uniquely his own while working in the Korean

the uterus and phallus. Adding to its significance was its use of free,

environment. His masterwork, the Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine in Seoul,

organic curves at a time when box-like structures were the norm in Korea.

draws on traditional forms without resorting to exaggeration, creating

The design principle that informed its surfaces and shapes was that of

a spatial composition that conveys a sense of comfort. An indigenous

“reproducing circles,” and the result was a gorgeous use of curves that

Korean sensibility and aesthetic emanates from the columns in the

connect over the entire structure. This formal beauty is especially visible

gallery—reminiscent of the pillars in Korea’s old palaces—and from the

with the meandering inner spaces and the outer curves that overlap along

eave corners that arc downward like the slope of a thatched roof house.

the ramp.

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Korean Modernism and Its Legacies 89

Left: Exterior and interior of Seo Obstetrical Clinic Right: French Embassy in Korea

Another of Kim’s great accomplishments was the main building at Jeju

building. But while the forms may draw upon Korea’s lyrical traditions, they

National University. This, too, was an example of Kim giving full expression

are also a highly accomplished reinterpretation of them. This is especially

to his poetic sensibilities through an aesthetic of abundance. Round

visible in the arrangement of the buildings so that the roofs and outer

mushroom-like columns wrapped around three freely curving ramps,

structures seem to change from one second to the next as one moves along

create powerful shapes. The lower level was divided into several blocks,

the entrance road—an effect that has been described by some as echoing

while the top portion occupied a single block at the center; the roof called

the characteristics of Korea’s Buddhist temples. Kim’s work on the embassy

to mind a spaceship surging up toward the heavens. The abundance

would earn him the French National Order of Merit, Chevalier.

extended to the façade—eclectic mixtures of concrete, glass, metal, brick,

Kim Swoo Geun pioneered modernism in Korean architecture from the

and basalt. When it was built, it was called “21st century” architecture

1960s through the 1980s. He studied in Japan before returning home in

for the way it defied technical obstacles in its experimental design and

1961 and immediately making his presence felt with his designs for the

construction. Sadly, the building was torn down in 1996.

Freedom Center and the Walkerhill Hilltop Bar. The Freedom Center is a

Kim’s tour de force may be the French Embassy in Seoul, which was

monument of a structure, an architectural expression of the day’s national

completed in 1962. It actually consists of two buildings, the embassy

philosophy supporting liberty and opposing Communism. Kim’s powerful

proper and the ambassador’s residence, the bodies of the structures

architectural language is felt in the colonnade, the massive, boldly hoisted

topped with sleek roofs recalling the kinds used in traditional Korean

concrete eaves, the independent sculptural elements. It is, after all, a

architecture. The embassy roof is high, seemingly taking flight; the roof

monument, and the forms and scale are suitably exaggerated. But it also

of the ambassador’s home is low and more organically connected to the

boasts a capacious indoor space, with 70 percent of the floor area given

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Korean Modernism and Its Legacies 91

over to galleries, walkways, and lobbies. Inside are three open “street” spaces, helping to create a feeling of continuous flow.

The structure where Kim’s architecture reached its fullest maturity was the SPACE Group building. It was first built in 1971 and took seven years to expand. The result is perhaps the greatest representation of Kim’s chief themes: continuity in space, human scale, and a reinterpretation of the traditional Korean courtyard. The long buildings, positioned along slender slivers of ground, are designed to be entered from the side; at the center, a courtyard space becomes the focal point for all activity. The interior spaces are made diverse by contrasts of narrow and broad, high and low, closed and open. Outside and in, the texture of brick is left exposed, adding to the sense of familiarity. Kim often used brick in his structures, seeing it not just as an familiar material but also representative of the Old and new SPACE Group buildings (left, © Chung Kwangsik), brick façade of old SPACE Group building (right, © Osamu Murai) Source: Kim Swoo Geun Foundation

Kyungdong Presbyterian Church

© Osamu Murai (top) (Source: Kim Swoo Geun Foundation)

sort of hand-crafted technique best suited to a human scale.

Kim’s spatial characteristics find perhaps their best representation in a series of religious buildings he designed. Kyungdong Presbyterian Church, Masan Yangduk Cathedral, and Bulgwangdong Catholic Church are widely seen as his three greatest ecclesiastical buildings. The first two are entered by way of a narrow staircase that turns toward the back of the main building, functioning as a sort of mechanism for the visitor to enter a spiritual space. Inside, the sense of mystery is heightened as light shines through the windows onto dark and powerful concrete shapes.

Outside of all three buildings, a sense of artistry is emphasized with a structure that resembles hands folded in prayer.

Kim Swoo Geun’s technical experiments continued with his designs for the track and field and gymnastics stadiums for the 1988 Summer

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Korean Modernism and Its Legacies 93

Olympics in Seoul. He also experimented with traditional forms and

foreground . Tile roofs, pillars, and other traditional motifs found their way

organic arrangement of elements in his designs for the national museums

into concrete structures. This was perhaps the zenith of the construction

in Cheongju and Jinju. His significance lies first and foremost in the way he

drive, buoyed by rapid economic development. But it was in the following

ushered in an artistic revival—not just in architecture but in Korean culture

decade, the 1980s, that architecture really began to diversify. The arrival

in general—through his work with the magazine SPACE and through art

of postmodernism sparked attempts at freedom of form and expression.

theater The Love of Space. In a May 1977 article, Time magazine called him

The generational changing of the guard was hastened in the later part of

Seoul’s Lorenzo de’ Medici, comparing him to a figure that led the artistic

the decade, as first-generation architects like Lee Hui-tae, Kim Swoo Geun,

flourishing of Renaissance-era Florence.

and Kim Joong-up began to pass away one by one. By the early 1990s, a

Right around the time Western modernism was making its way into Asia

new group had emerged, and its members—most of them architects in

and the Third World, the movement was beginning to blend with regional

their thirties to forties—were posing very different questions from those

characteristics and assume a more indigenous, localized aspects. Kim

of the previous generation.

Jung-up and Kim Swoo Geun are significant in the way that they neither

The 4.3 Group Exhibition was staged in 1992 in a tiny gallery in Seoul’s

blindly adopted Western modernism nor uncritically followed the formal

Dongsung neighborhood. Fourteen architects participated, all of them

traditions of Korean architecture, but offered a new interpretation of

under the age of 50. They wanted to reform architecture, to introduce

the two. They were also masters of their craft who sought to show their

new methods of thinking into it. Where the allegiances of the previous

nation’s cultural potential through their work. Their rich body of work is

generation had been with function and design, the 4.3 Group adhered to a

both an important standard for the architects of the next generation, and a

more auteurist approach. They saw architecture as a form of culture, and

mountain they will have to scale.

approached it from the perspective of the humanities. Their interest was less in regional identity and more in the inherent value of the architecture,

The 4.3 Group and Architectural Humanities As Korea moved into the 1970s, it was experiencing unprecedented economic growth, but it was also facing a jarring transformation into an industrial society. A building boom in the Middle East helped spur improvements in construction technology, and corporate-funded companies began taking off. At the same time, the national government was spearheading projects to give direct form to the country’s traditions —part of a state policy to push elements of indigenous culture to the

94 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

its materiality and space. As far as traditional architecture was concerned, they favored a spiritual, conceptual approach over a formalist one. After the exhibition was over, they set about creating a culture of self-criticism, organizing research and seminars on Korean identity and traditional architecture. With the subsequent founding of the Seoul Institute of Architecture (SA), they began forging a new discourse, sharing their own ideals about what constituted architectural education.

The group, like most architects of this period, was concerned about

Korean Modernism and Its Legacies 95

Architects from the 4.3 Group participated in designing Paju Book City (left) and Heyri Art Valley (right)

spatiality and the relationship with the city. Buildings at the time were

perspective, but its members carried on with their experiments in

functional, insular with regard to the city they occupied, and the architects

architectural education at SA. By the 2000s, another turning point had

set about forging a more active relationship, one where the buildings were

arrived with the building of the Paju Book City and Heyri Art Valley. Built

part of the city structure. Yangjae 287.3, from a design by Joh Sung-yong,

in conjunction with the publishers, the Book City followed a master plan

is an example of this emphasis on presence with the urban structure,

drafted by the architect group that shared the same ideals and community

the creation of various intermediate spaces where building meets city.

values—the city as a way of restoring humanity. The designs were the work

They also tried to mine the rich vein of spatial concepts in traditional

of individual architects following these guidelines, representing their own

architecture and offer a more modern take on them. Seung H-Sang’s

attempts to achieve an ideal city. Despite the use of master plans, both the

Sujoldang Residence, for example, adhered to a “pauper’s aesthetic,”

Paju Book City and Heyri Art Valley today boast fascinating structures that

emphasizing the traditional virtue of spatial restraint. Min Hyun-shik’s

put the idiosyncrasies of the individual architects on full display. In 2010,

designs for the Gugak National Middle School and Korea National

the Book City was introduced to an international audience at the Venice

University of Cultural Heritage use the courtyard of the traditional hanok

Biennale’s Korea Pavilion.

house as a starting point for exploring the theme of emptiness.

The 4.3 Group itself did not last long after introducing its new 96 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Korean Modernism and Its Legacies 97

Standing at the Boundary of Korean and Global Korea liberalized its overseas travel policies in 1987, and the period from the late 1990s to the early 2000s saw the first major activity from a generation that had been allowed to travel abroad. Most were in their thirties at the time. Having been exposed to overseas education in architecture and gained experience with the practical side of the field, they came home to design work that showed a powerful identity. Inwardly, they contemplated the idea of “Koreanness,” and their architecture had an original grammar to it. Together, they signaled the arrival of a new contingent of auteurist architects in Korea.

Penumbra, a villa which has primeval and striking spaces, is the work of Kim Hun. Positioned naturally on a slope facing Cheongpyeong Lake, Penumbra

Photo courtesy of Studio Asylum

Public health centers in Mungyeong and Jeongseon © Kang Il-min (top), Kim Jae-kyeong (bottom)

it boasts powerful diagonals both inside and out. The interior, flowing in blocks along the slope, highlights the coarseness of concrete and stone; coupled with the dynamism of the oblique lines, it evokes a cave, or perhaps an old ruin. Indeed, Kim’s fascination with ruins is one of his chief sources of inspiration. He feeds the tension and vitality by adding elements that create a sense of unfamiliarity: the dynamic lines, welllike caverns, bridges, grades, exterior spaces, skylights, and a double shell. This is what gives his architecture work its primeval, raw quality—a metaphor for the experience of nature.

Kim Seung-hoy, creator of a series of public health centers, has an architectural firm called KYWC. Its name is short for kyeong yeong wi chi, a term that refers to the composition of Eastern painting; it means that the artist should be focused not on individual objects, but on the relationships between them. Like other architects of his generation, he

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Korean Modernism and Its Legacies 99

learned about postmodernism and deconstruction overseas, but the real starting point for his work has been modernism and its fidelity to the structure’s fundamentals and functions. Kim’s work has the order and polish of modernism, but with a Korean sense of negative space. Over a 12-year period, he built public health centers in various small Korean cities, a series that suggested a way for public buildings to respond to the urban context. His other work includes a residence series in Yangpyeong and Gwacheon, the result of a process of analyzing Korea’s old residential forms and using them as a basis for exploring new forms for a new age.

Moon Hoon, designer of Rock It Suda, Lollipop House, Sangsang Museum, and S_Mahal House, fancies himself something of a “heretic.”

His approach is to imagine structures through a form of eroticism, analyzing the female form and linking it to architecture. He connects architecture with fantasy. Atop the Sangsang Museum is a form reminiscent of a spaceship and driver’s seat. The S_Mahal House is given flexible contours by a sheath of billowing red curtains that encircle S_Mahal House

© Kim Yong-kwan

100 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Korean Modernism and Its Legacies 101 Sangsang Museum

© Kim Yong-kwan

its courtyard. Blurring the boundaries of reality and fantasy, Moon’s

is run and reflected this process in the building. By making the front of

architecture piques curiosity with an exterior that seems covered in

the building transparent, he showed a tangyakgi, an apparatus used to

netting, while forging emotional connections with impish imaginations

prepare medicine, as if it was the building’s heart. Castle of Skywalkers,

and “soft” architectural elements. He doesn’t mind being called a sort of

a dormitory and training facility for a professional volleyball team, is a

architectural shaman—someone who discovers and expresses the energy

building that illustrates Hwang’s interest in tradition and geometric order.

of Korea’s indigenous faith lurking in the latent unconscious. In that sense,

The circular running track touches the four sides of the square building,

he may be the most undeniably “Korean” of Korean architects.

and each of the spaces inside the building adheres to a strict geometric

Architect Hwang Doojin took on existing urban context in complicated

code comprising rectangles, circles and diagonal lines. The building’s

downtown Seoul by exploring geometric order and a constructive

structure reflects the structure of

mentality. At the former company headquarters of Open Books, which

a hanok, which is focused on a

faces the stone wall of Gyeongbokgung Palace, he attempted to connect

madang (inner courtyard). The

a building in the context of the old city. By creating a passageway that

building was also designed as an

links the inside of the building with the road behind it and by exposing

open structure to allow people in

the staircase on the side of the building to the exterior, he connected

each space to see each other.

the building to a city road. With Choonwondang Hospital of Korean Medicine, Hwang observed how the Korean traditional medicine center Choonwondang Hospital of Korean Medicine

© Park Youngchae

Castle of Skywalkers © Park Youngchae (top), Yun Suyeon (bottom)

Korean Modernism and Its Legacies 103

Skyscrapers like Boutique Monaco: Bundle Matrix, Nature Poem: Skipped Matrix, and S-Trenue: Bundle Matrix are drawing attention as attempts to inject a bit of irregularity into Korea’s monotonous urban environments. They leave empty or disjointed spaces between floors; in some cases, the building’s seams are opened up to create gardens, bridges, and other leisure spaces. These are the works of Cho Minsuk, an architecture who has forced one of the major dividing lines between his generation and the one that came before.

After studying in New York, Cho broadened his experience with different projects around the world. Where his predecessors had been focused on learning and appropriating the trends of global architecture, he is someone who actually worked on the ground with his international

Daum Space.1 on Jejudo Island, which was built to be the company headquarters of Daum Communications © Kyungsub Shin

contemporaries. Upon his r e t u r n t o Ko r e a , h e b e g a n

to ideas about “Korean sentiments” or “tradition.” Bold works like Dalki

presenting work that highlighted

Theme Park: I Like Dalki, the aforementioned Boutique Monaco, the Ann

and trenchantly dissected the

Demeulemeester Shop in Seoul, and the Daum Space.1 building have

dynamism of Korean society and

drawn major attention on the pages of such noted overseas journals as

cities. He has responded keenly

DOMUS and MARK.

to present-day Korea without

This latest generation of prominent architects has formed a strong

letting himself become shackled

backbone for the field, adding to the qualitative richness of Korean architecture and the diversity of architectural culture.

S-Trenue: Bundle Matrix in Seoul’s Yeouido district © Kim Yong-kwan

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Korean Modernism and Its Legacies 105

14 Whanki Museum Whanki Museum is dedicated to the work of painter Kim Whanki, one of Korea’s first generation abstract artists. It offers a mixture of both modern and traditional aesthetics—the former in the rectangular steel roof with rounded edges, the latter in a stone wall reminiscent of the rear garden at Gyeongbokgung Palace.

A Guide to Seoul’s Best Architecture 1 2 3 4 5

Gyeongbokgung Palace (see p40) Changdeokgung Palace (see p64) Deoksugung Palace (see p46) Jongmyo Shrine (see p67) Old Seoul National University Campus (see p51) 6 SPACE Group Building (see p92) 7 French Embassy in Korea (see p90) 8 Kyungdong Presbyterian Church (see p93) 9 Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine (see p88) 10 Seonyudo Park (see p122) 11 Urban Hive (see p123) 12 Boutique Monaco (see p123)

14 13 2 5 1 6 4 15 16

10

7

3

8

9

11 12

13 Bukchon Hanok Village Painstakingly preserved example of the old hanok cityscape, just paces away from the skyscrapers of downtown Seoul. In the past, its position near the royal palace meant that it was primarily home to powerful aristocrats and government officials. Today, it is occupied by around 900 traditional hanok buildings, which remain very much inhabited.

106 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

15 Ssamziegil This intriguingly structured shopping mall is located in Seoul’s Insa-dong neighborhood, a top tourist draw. The use of the word “gil,” or road, in the building’s name reflects the fact that the entire structure—a four-story complex encircling a diamondshaped courtyard—is linked into one road.

16 Ewha Campus Complex (ECC) Originality goes underground with this design by world-renowned architect Dominique Perrault, boasting 66,000 m2 of floor space. Perrault’s artificial valley extends from the road outside the campus through the university gate, offering a pedestrian walkway, plaza, and park all in one.

Korean Modernism and Its Legacies 107

Chapter Five

Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments Beyond the “City of Rooms” The Korea pavilion at the 2004 Venice Architecture Biennale was a house of rooms. Titled City of Bang (after the Korean word for “room”), the exhibition drew international notice with its clever analysis of Korea’s “room culture,” spotlighting the proliferation of businesses billing themselves to the public as “rooms”: singing rooms, steam rooms, video rooms, play rooms, drinking rooms. The room-filled landscape was monotonous, lacking any of the layers of the city. The exhibition examined a society of urbanization and the culture of high-rise apartment buildings, where urban spaces were simply and unsparingly used according to the need. City of Bang was later listed as one of the Biennale’s five most noteworthy exhibitions.

As the 2000s dawned, Korean architecture was beginning to extend its scope beyond single structures and into city spaces. Architects began 108 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity Boutique Monaco: Missing Matrix in Gangnam

Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments 109 © Kim Yong-kwan

Pedestrian facilities with a bus stop, elevator and elevated café on Hannamdaegyo Bridge

© Yun Suyeon

Renovated Cheonggyecheon Stream

imposing themselves on the fissures in these unplanned, uncertain cities,

it became less a part of people’s lives. Eventually, things reached the point

and worked to create richer landscapes. Policies were implemented to

where those hoping to visit the river had to travel through tiny concrete

create more pedestrian-friendly cities. Plans were created to rework the

tunnels underneath the highways. Seeking to improve the situation, the

areas surrounding major cultural attractions like Seoul’s Gyeongbokgung

city has since 2007 enlisted the young architects of renovation. One of

and Changdeokgung palaces, which had hitherto been disconnected from

them, Hwang Doojin, designed a structure that not only connected the

their urban environments. Plaza design was another focus, particularly

river’s bridges and the riverside with staircases and elevators but also

with the squares in front of Seoul City Hall and at the centrally located

integrated them with a café. This new infrastructure helped to once again

Gwanghwamun Gate. Architects began coming up with public designs that

turn the river bisecting the city into a popular attraction.

reconfigured these fragmented city settings.

Another example of rediscovering a waterway in the city center came

Another set of efforts focused on the neglected public spaces alongside

with the restoration of Cheonggyecheon Stream. Once, the stream

the Hangang River in Seoul. This was the “Hangang River Renaissance,”

had been called the “sewer of Seoul.” Like the Hangang River, it had

part of which involved making the river more accessible to pedestrians

been buried in the 1970s and paved over with an elevated roadway. In

through improvements in interchanges and bridges. Its sandy banks had

2003, amid growing demand for its restoration, the Seoul Metropolitan

once been a popular site for people fleeing the city’s heat, but frequent

Government decided to turn the project into one of its signature efforts.

flooding had caused serious problems. In the 1970s, they were covered in

The actual restoration took only a short time, and critics said the result was

concrete in the name of water management. Expressways and high-rise

more of an artificial waterway than a true recovery of the buried stream.

apartment blocks erected alongside the river further impeded access, and

But the change in the urban environment as the highway was removed

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Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments 111

and the waterway arose in the city center was nothing short of dramatic,

to revive the forms of the traditional Korean residence in a more modern

and the people who experienced it came away with a new perspective. A

context. The result summons memories of the urban hanok structures

focus on development and convenience had been abandoned in favor of

found in Seoul’s historic Gahoe-dong. Kim Hun’s residence, named

an experience with emptiness and nature in the city environment.

Serendipity, may seem insular from the outside, but the interior adds a sense of tension to the diurnal with a three-dimensionality generated by

A New Housing Culture between the Beehives High-rise apartment blocks are a defining part of Korean residential culture. As a part of modern architecture, such blocks were conceived as a high-density mode of living, a way of improving the workers’ residential environment. As Korea’s population density increased during the 1960s and the 1970s, apartments became commonplace, becoming the single most popular and representative form of living environment. By the 1980s, some

a bold use of diagonals. At the time it was built, this structure drew major attention for the unusual quality of its shape and spaces. An L-shaped residence by Cho Byoung Soo makes use of arrangements characteristic of traditional Korean architecture, while Kim Hyo Man’s Limgeodang building uses “skip floors” (offset half-stories) to create a three-dimensional quality in its interior, which is naturally linked to the exterior and given an interactive quality with various courtyards.

new alternatives were being introduced among the submissions for the athletes’ and journalists’ villages at the 1986 Asian Games

Houses in Ilsan built by Kim Hun (left, photo courtesy of Studio Asylum) and Kim Seung-hoy (right, © Kang Il-min)

and the 1988 Olympics. But large-scale blocks remained the norm, and as construction companies pushed to build big, the apartments evolved into a residential product that was less about diversity and more about optimal convenience and rationality. Architects were relegated to a small handful of standalone houses. With their emphasis on diversity, quality of life, and design, they worked to carve out an ever larger niche in the residential culture.

Built in the late 1990s and early 2000s, the residential complexes of the satellite city of Ilsan became a test bed for young architects returning home from their studies overseas. Kim Seung-hoy designed a residence connecting two structures shaped like semicircular bolts, an attempt

112 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments 113

Yang Soo-in, Sosoljip is an attempt at a “net zero energy” house, a solution to the use of energy for power, water heating, and ventilation. Occupying a stunning location in Namhae, the house is designed to keep fossil fuel use to a minimum while harmonizing with the surrounding environment. Another architect, Left: Yongin Residence © Park Wan-soon Right: Sosoljip Bottom: The hallway in NBS71510 © Kyungsub Shin

Chung Hyuna, aims to design simply built houses that fully integrate spatial order and expression with structural methods and materials. This is especially true for Yongin Residence which integrates its interior and exterior while retaining an open courtyard. NBS71510, an

The Ilsan residential complexes offered a range of takes on Korean residential culture, each boasting its

urban residential unit designed by the OBBA, creates a practical yet striking public space in a public housing unit designed for affordable living.

own modern architectural grammar.

Evolution of Korean Modernism

Toward the later part of the decade,

By the 2000s, the focus of discourse was less on “Koreanness” and more

the new complexes of Pangyo began

on an evolved form of Korean modernism, as architects came to focus

taking on the same role. Today, the

more on the architectural artistry and identity of individual buildings.

next generation of thirty- and forty-

Cho Byoung Soo has been recognized for linking modernism with

something architects can be found

Eastern ways of thinking. His most famous works, including the Camerata

experimenting actively with new

Music Studio, Concrete Box House, and Earth House, exemplify his

approaches. This is especially visible

architectural interests over the years. All three begin from a restrained box-

in the diversity of structures and

like frame. In the case of Camerata, the interior of the simple box uses only

materials, including brick, concrete,

minimal materials—concrete, wood, and glass. The changing light of day

and copper plating.

produces an inner space that is rich and powerful. This is a characteristic of

There are also different attempts

Cho’s work: extreme restraint of shape, coarse yet somehow sophisticated

to vary the spaces where individuals

mass that introduces an experience of nature’s different qualities within.

go about their lives. Designed by

He is especially keen to exploit the qualities of his materials, involving

114 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments 115

himself deeply in details and construction like a true artisan. At the Concrete Box House, a large square has been removed from the middle of a 30 cm-thick roof without parapets. The structure was the result of a long process of experimentation and research. The thin sheet roof is irregularly supported by wood from old hanok structures; the interior is open to the sky, creating a building as backdrop for experiencing wind and sun, rain and snow, heat and cold. Next door to the Concrete Box House is the Earth House. As its name suggests, it is built as an open-roofed box that digs naturally into the earth. For this structure, Cho adopted the techniques of

1 2

traditional mud huts.

The architecture of Cho Byoung Soo retains a modernist sensibility without sacrificing the characteristics of Korea’s spaces. Today, it continues gaining international recognition as an example of work that possesses both a Korean feel and universal appeal. Cho himself has won many awards overseas and was introduced in the U.S. journal dwell in 2005 as one of three distinctive contemporary designers.

The late Korean-Japanese architect Itami Jun was a man between countries during his lifetime. Ironically, he is today seen as one of the most powerful examples of a “modern Korean architect.” He is best remembered for a series of works on the island of Jejudo, including the Podo Hotel, the Water, Wind, Stone art museum series, and the Bangju Church (“Church of Sky”). His work with the art museum series in particular shows architecture that responds to nature: the Water museum with its simple concrete squares and circles filled with placid water, the Wind museum with thin wooden boards that allow breezes to pass between them, and the Stone museum, finished with Cor-ten steel, where rays of sunlight break through to create a space that changes with the

116 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

1 Camerata Music Studio 2 Concrete Box House © Kim Jongoh 3 Earth House © Kim Yong-kwan 3

The Wind, Water and Stone art museums

© Kim Yong-kwan

rhythm of the day. They are attempts to convey the essential emotions

both indigenous materials and construction methods, and the result is a

of architecture through unpolished beauty, abstraction, solemnity and

successful example of modernizing the local. The radio station, situated in

tranquility. In this sense, Jejudo—with its beautiful scenery coupled with

a Himalayan corner, also produces a modern space using local materials

an often harsh environment and distinctively powerful terrain—may be the

and methods, unaided by construction equipment. Cases like these

best showcase for Itami’s work. In his search for purity of form, he rooted

exemplify the way Korean architects venture beyond their borders and

himself in the land’s tradition while striving to distill the currents of its

summon local color and identity in the broader world.

culture, dedicating himself to the pursuit of a tenacious artistic sensibility and free-spirited zeitgeist. “Modern Korea,” one critic called it, saying, “His architecture itself is modern art, using indigenous materials to achieve

Khmeresque, Won-Buddhist temple in Cambodia

© Park Youngchae

abstract beauty.” Itami eventually received a Chevalier medal from the French government for a lifetime of achievements in Korean modernism.

Meanwhile, the Korean architect Kim In-cheurl was busy overseas with designing a Won-Buddhist temple, called Khmeresque, in Battambang, Cambodia, and a radio station for MBC in Jomsom, Nepal. Both were examples of making full use of local geography, part of a more general movement of Asian architects building in other Asian countries. In the Cambodian case, Kim achieved both artistry and more practical ventilation goals by revealing cross sections of the perforated bricks (the most suitable kind for the local climate). His goal had been to use 118 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments 119

Landscape Architecture and the Transforming Cityscape A 1996 design competition to honor the 100th anniversary of Seoul’s Myeongdong Cathedral ended up by suggesting a striking new plan for the cityscape. The concept involved breaking down the boundaries between the building and the land surrounding it, creating a relationship between the two where the city terrain was part of the building and the building part of the urban landscape. Its creator was Kim Jong-kyu, someone had already forged his own style with a “landscape architecture” approach at Britain’s AA School in the late 1980s. The roots of this were “an inborn affinity for the land that he brought with him from Korea.” The competition was eventually abandoned, but Kim’s design helped launch the concept of landscape architecture in Korea. Increasingly, architecture has been focusing not only

Welcome City

© Osamu Murai

on individual structures, but also on their organic connection with cityscape

Welcome City, a design by Seung H-Sang, is an example of architecture

and land. The movement started at a time when the idea of landscape

being actively incorporated into a cityscape. Situated by the roadside, the

architecture was only just emerging around the world.

large building is divided into four large blocks to prevent it from obscuring the sightline of the residential area behind. The result is a structure that

Kim Jong-kyu’s submission to a design competition marking the centennial anniversary of Myeong-dong Cathedral Photo courtesy of M.A.R.U.

both shapes the landscape and facilitates visual interaction. It is not so much a free-standing object as an active participant in its own landscape— suggesting in the process the possibilities of a better environment. At its base is a bulky concrete stylobate; above are four blocks finished in Corten steel, the spaces between them lending themselves naturally to use as outdoor lounges. Simple and clean-cut though it may appear on the outside, the interior boasts an eclectic mixture of lines of movement.

Some projects provide more active examples of landscaping and architecture that focuse on using the land. When the water purification center on Seonyudo Island in the Hangang River outlived its usefulness in

120 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments 121

Top: Urban Hive © Park Youngchae Bottom: Boutique Monaco: Missing Matrix © Kim Yong-kwan

Completed in 2008, Cho Minsuk’s Boutique Monaco: Missing Matrix is another break with the traditional tower and its paramount emphasis on floor area and building-to-land ratios. In this towering structure, the excess floor area is offset with empty spaces burrowed throughout the Seonyudo Park

building. Designed for commercial

the early 2000s, a plan was set to rid it of its vestiges of industrial use and

and residential use, it boasts a variety

turn it into a park. But the creators of the winning entry, Jeong Yeong-seon

of parks and bridges embedded in

and Joh Sung-yong, opted not to remove the old facilities. Rather, they

these spaces. Inside the building, an

redesigned the land to incorporate the remains. Today, Seonyudo Park is

eclectic mixture of 49 different types

beloved by Seoul citizens for its scenic beauty.

of units is in place of the one-size-

Towers have also been used to transform cityscapes. Pinnacles of

fits-all “domino system.” Cho has

efficiency and rationality, these uniformly surfaced structures create

continued his “mass matrix studies”

skylines, but also bear much of the blame for their monotony. Seoul’s

over the years, injecting space into

Gangnam district is a veritable forest of skyscrapers, creating a kind of “gray

the monotony of the domino system

city” with their curtain walls and identical façades. Kim In-cheurl’s Urban

with new tower concepts like Nature

Hive suggests a new concept for the tower. Nicknamed “the Clacker” for its

Poem: Skipped Matrix, GWell Tower:

circle pattern, it has an exterior that is both a regularly patterned structure

Eroded Matrix, and S-Trenue: Bundle

and a window to the outside. The interior is finished with glass, giving

Matrix. Where efficiency was once

the structure depth with its double skin. It is unique and bold experiment

priority one, these are new structures

with form, material, and structure, and the contrast with the surrounding

that actively respond to the Korean

Gangnam curtain walls could not be clearer.

cityscape.

122 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments 123

Reinterpretation of Hanok The modern era brought rapid urbanization to Korea, and with it a rise in population density. The traditional hanok building became part of this urbanization trend. In urban hanok neighborhoods, smaller “C”-shaped and square-shaped models with central courtyards began to appear, many of them occupying small parcels of larger plots where they butted up against their neighbors. But these urban hanok buildings failed to establish a market in their productivity or technology. Increasingly they were shunted to the periphery of Korean architecture. For a while, architects had neither the leisure nor the inclination to work in the hanok style. But Clubhouse at the Lake Hills Suncheon Country Club

in the early 21st century, the situation began to change. Architects began experimenting with new ways of configuring the structures.

Cho Jung-goo, designer of the hanok hotel Ragung, has tried to standardize and commercialize the style’s frame material. This is part of

© Kim Yong-kwan

to deal with the hurdles of high material and construction costs. He has also made various attempts to combine the hanok style with modern architecture.

a strategy to enable mass production that would lower material prices

Cho Nam-ho makes active use of Western-style wood structures. His

and help boost the hanok’s popular appeal. Some difficulties remain: as

design for the Guest House of Kyowon Group Training Center, built in

the frame lengths became shorter, the kan—the space between pillars—

2000, was an example of him experimenting with new possibilities for

became somewhat small. But Cho’s work is very significant as an attempt

wooden buildings using a light-frame construction method called the

Hanok hotel Ragung in Gyeongju

“2 x 4 technique.” He also made active use of hanok-style wood frames with modern materials like copper plating in his Gangchon Training Center design at the University of Seoul. Cho’s experiments with the inherent structural aesthetic of wood have not been confined to hanok buildings.

Even now, he continues working to expand the range of possibilities for building in wood.

An accurate study of the wood timber structure lays the groundwork for understanding the space of Korean traditional architecture like hanok, and interpreting under a modern perspective. The clubhouse of Lake

124 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments 125

Gahoeheon, a hanok in Gahoe-dong designed by Hwang Doojin (top); Fazio House at the Phoenix Springs Country Club (left); Tongin Market Art Gate (right) © Park Youngchae

Hills Suncheon Country Club is an excellent example of a reinterpretation of hanok. The client asked, “What is the essential quality of Korean traditional architecture and its structure,” and architect Ken Min Sungjin did formal and structural experimentation instead of directly mimicking the traditional style. The intended design to express the curve of the hanok’s eave is made into an inverted arch-shaped structure. As a result, not only is the clubhouse able to have a long-spanned, large open space but also displays an excellent example in reinterpreting lines and shapes of traditional architecture in a modern way.

The architect who truly began the reinterpretation vogue was Hwang Doojin. Hwang designed a number of buildings in the hanok village of Gahoe-dong in Seoul, an experience that saw him analyzing the system of wooden structures and reconstructing them in spatial terms. While his earlier work was mainly about improving on the spatial limitations of the old hanok, eventually he began to experiment with more modern materials and methods in the hanok system. For the hanok banquet hall of the Phoenix Springs Country Club in Icheon, named Fazio House, he developed a model with a glass roof above a wooden frame; for the Tongin Market Art Gate, he attempted a lighter structure using steel and glass. Seeing hanok as a system rather than a simple tradition, Hwang has focused on building it into a new kind of space, demonstrating further possibilities for the evolution of the form. Based on this, Hwang continued to design contemporary buildings that still retain the essence of hanok like Castle of Skywalkers.

A new tradition is taking shape: instead of simply echoing the traditions of Korean architecture, architects are analyzing it, breaking it down, experimenting with building a new system. It is an evolution for modern and traditional methods alike—and an example of a style that is uniquely Korean.

126 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments 127

Peter Bartholomew: A Passion for Hanok Hanok preservationist Peter Bartholomew came to Korea with the U.S. Peace Corps in 1968, bringing with him his love for historic architecture. “From primary school, I had an avid interest in old buildings,” he says. “They were made by hand and had a style to them, and that style represented the period they were built.” Naturally enough, this interest transferred to Korean architecture after he came to Korea. “Like everywhere in the world, [Korean architecture] speaks of its region, of its climate, of its people, of its economy, of its society, of family, of personal relationships, of art,” he says. “Everything you can read through architecture.”

While Bartholomew has a keen interest in all forms of Korean traditional architecture, he’s particularly known for his enthusiasm for hanok. “First and foremost, it’s a very human building,” he says. “The materials are all natural, as in the case of all pre-modern architecture. Wood, stone, clay, roof tiles and paper. So everything is very human.”

He also lauds the execution of its woodwork, resulting in a space where everything is in perfect balance. “There’s no length, width, depth or height that is too long, wide, deep or high in proportion to the others around it. Everything is in beautiful and perfect balance.” The same goes for finishing of the wood. “Grooving the wood in a very discrete, not garish way, is absolutely exquisite in terms of style as well as in execution.”

He reserves particular praise for the artistic elements of hanok. “For example, in the sliding doors of very fine houses, the latticework on the doors is the development of a Chinese character, which has a philosophical and poetic meaning behind it,” he says. “It usually represents the atmosphere or environment the owner wants in the home.” Throughout hanok you’ll also find placards built into the architecture with Chinese characters, some representing a desired atmosphere, and others simply lofty ideals.

128 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Rakkojae, hanok boutique hotel in Gahoe-dong, Seoul

“Everywhere you look, there is artisan work, there is art work, there is balance and harmony from one section of the building to the next.”

Not simply artistic, hanok is also a piece of scientific engineering. “The sunlight pours into the building in the cold weather, and stops coming into the building in the summertime when the sun is high,” he explains. “The way the air moves through the building is cooling in the summer. The heating system under the floor is unique. Similar things exist, but nothing to the extent that Korea has done it where every centimeter of the house is heated by a wood fire you have to light only once every one to two days.”

The merging of art and science produces a house that is quite extraordinary.

Pushing the Envelope: New Ideas and Experiments 129

APPENDIX

Further Reading

Books on K-Architecture

Websites on K-Architecture

Iwatate, Marcia et al. (2006) Korea Style. Tuttle Publishing

Korean Institute of Architects

www.kia.or.kr

Jackson, Ben (2012) Korean Architecture: Breathing with Nature. Seoul Selection

Korea Architects Institute

www.kai2002.org

SPACE Magazine

www.vmspace.com

Jung, Inha (2013) Architecture and Urbanism in Modern Korea. University of Hawaii Press Kim, Bongryol (2007) The Secret Spirit of Korean Architecture. Saffron Books Kim, Dong-uk (2006) Palaces of Korea. Hollym International Corporation Kim, Sunghong and Schmal, Peter (Eds.) (2008) Contemporary Korean Architecture: Megacity Network. Jovis Kim, Sunghong et al. (2012) New Horizon in Korean Architecture. Usd. Korean Institute of Trad'l Landscape Arc (2008) Korean Traditional Landscape Architecture. Hollym International Corporation Lee, Sang-hae (2005) Seowon: The Architecture of Korea's Private Academies.

Hollym International Corporation Yim, Seok-jae (2011) City as Art: 100 Notable Works of Architecture in Seoul.

Hollym International Corporation

130 K- Architecture: Tradition Meets Modernity

Further Reading 131

About the Author Lim Jinyoung Lim completed her bachelor’s and master’s in architecture at Sungkyunkwan University in Seoul. Having headed the editorial team for SPACE magazine, she is now a freelance writer, submitting pieces on Korean architecture to publications in and out of Korea, such as MARK and AR Asian Pacific . Lim planned and edited Faster and Bigger , a collection of architecture essays; supervised the +architect series, editing monographs in the series for Mass Studies, Cho Byoung Soo, Woo Kyu Sung, and Yoo Kerl. She has also edited monographs of global architects such as HHF Architects of Switzerland and 3XN of Denmark.

Ryoo Seong Lyong A traditional architecture professor at Keimyung University, Ryoo earned his bachelor’s, master’s and doctorate at Korea University. He completed an academic report for restoring Sungnyemun Gate, and helped build a modern hanok in Dorae Hanok Village in Naju as part of a civic cultural legacy project for the National Trust. Ryoo won a prize for academic writing from the Architectural Institute of Korea, and jointly authored Dictionary of Concepts in Korean Architecture (2013) and Architectural Guidebook to Seoul (2013).

Credits Planner Writer Translator

Korean Culture and Information Service Lim Jinyoung, Ryoo Seong Lyong Colin Mouat, Ben Jackson

Edited & Designed by Seoul Selection

Photographs Front cover Daum Space.1 © Kyungsub Shin, Gyeonghuigung Palace © Robert Koehler Back cover The former library at Konkuk University © Robert Koehler Korea Tourism Organization 28, 29, 34, 36, 39, 45, 59, 60, 69, 72, 74, 75, 80, 82, 83, 85 Robert Koehler 4, 10, 12, 18, 26, 31, 38, 42, 47, 49, 54, 55, 62, 65, 67, 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 86, 88, 90, 91, 93, 106, 107, 111 Ryu Seung-hoo 8, 96, 97, 122, 107, 122, 129 Yonhap Photp 20, 24, 25, 28, 37, 50, 52, 85, 124 Image Today 30, 32, 44, 53, 56, 62, 72, 84, 85