문화재청 국제협력과 우리의 세계유산영문

World Heritage

Every nation has valuable assets they want to carefully preserve and hand down to posterity.

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple

These assets are called “national heritage.” They

Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple

are sources of pride and the origins of identity for

The Royal Ancestral Shrine of the Joseon Dynasty

the concerned nation; they further provide bases

Changdeok Palace

for understanding the history and culture of other

Hwaseong Fortress

nations to promote communication and enhance

Gyeongju Historic Areas

mutual respect and peaceful coexistence among humankind.

In order to protect national heritages of outstanding universal value, the international community created global devices in the name

World Heritage

of the “Convention Concerning the Protection

in

of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage”

Korea

(1972); “Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage” (2003); and the “Memory of the World Program” (1995). These UNESCO statutes and activities are aimed at

1995

preserving heritages carrying special significance for all humanity through common efforts beyond

2011

national barriers.

As of November 2011, Korea has a total of 10 cultural and natural assets inscribed on the World Heritage List, 11 assets placed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, and nine assets on the Memory of the world Register. People around the world feel an exalted sense of cultural unity through their heritages holding the coveted UNESCO titles. Likewise, Koreans also take

World Heritage in Korea

community recognizes their cultural prowess

1995

of these titles.

2011 Cultural Admini-

978-89-90620-49-1 04910 978-89-90620-47-7 (set)

Price

W 16,000

Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity Royal Ancestral Ceremony at Jongmyo The Pansori Epic Chants The Dano Festival of Gangneung Women’s Circle Dance Marvelous Feats of the Namsadang Clowns The Rites of Vulture Peak Yeongdeung Rites for the Goddess of Wind The Dance of Cheoyong Slow Lyrical Songs of Poetry The Living Tradition of Falconry Master Carpenter with Superb Expertise Memory of the World Hunmin Jeongeum The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests’ Zen Teachings The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat Printing Woodblocks for Tripitaka Koreana and Principles and Practices of Eastern Medicine The Records of Daily Reflections (Ilseongnok) Human Rights Documentary Heritage 1980 Archives

Heritage

Historic Villages of Hahoe and Yangdong

Miscellaneous Buddhist Scriptures

inherited from forebears through the endowment

ISBN

Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty

Royal Protocols of the Joseon Dynasty

immense pride in the fact that the international

from “Korea’s Precious Gifts to the World Community”

Dolmens in Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes

stration

Cultural Heritage Administration

nulwa

nulwa

Every nation has valuable assets they want to carefully preserve and hand down to posterity.

These assets are called “national heritage.” They are sources of pride and the origins of identity for the concerned nation; they further provide bases for understanding the history and culture of other nations to promote communication and enhance mutual respect and peaceful coexistence among humankind.

In order to protect national heritages of outstanding universal value, the international community created global devices in the name

World Heritage

of the “Convention Concerning the Protection

in

of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage”

Korea

(1972); “Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage” (2003); and the “Memory of the World Program” (1995). These UNESCO statutes and activities are aimed at

1995

preserving heritages carrying special significance for all humanity through common efforts beyond

2011

national barriers.

As of November 2011, Korea has a total of 10 cultural and natural assets inscribed on the World Heritage List, 11 assets placed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, and nine assets on the Memory of the world Register. People around the world feel an exalted sense of cultural unity through their heritages holding the coveted UNESCO titles. Likewise, Koreans also take

World Heritage in Korea

immense pride in the fact that the international community recognizes their cultural prowess

1995

inherited from forebears through the endowment of these titles. from “Korea’s Precious Gifts to the World Community”

2011 Cultural Heritage Administration

Cultural Heritage Administration

nulwa

nulwa

World Heritage in Korea

1995 2011

Cultural Heritage Administration, Republic of Korea Daejeon Government Complex Building 1 189 Cheongsa-ro, Seo-gu, Daejeon, 302-701 Republic of Korea Tel. 82-42-481-4650 www.cha.go.kr Planning: International Affairs Division Publication management: Yi Kyung-hoon, Director of the International Affairs Division Content coordination: Park Hee-ung, Choi Jae-hyouk, Park Seon-young, Hwang Yoo-sun, Kim Min-ok Text: Park Jong-boon, Lee Eun-hee Translation: Lee Kyong-hee, Min Eun-young Copyediting: Michael Heinz Photography: National Museum of Korea, National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, Kim Sung-cherl, Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies at Seoul National University, Hwaseong Museum in Suwon, Arumjigi Culture Keepers, Image Bank, Jeju Special Self-governing Province, Jongmyo Management Office, Changdeok Palace Management Office, Cheongju Ancient Printing Museum, Time Space, Korea Tourism Organization, Handok Medico-Pharma Museum, Haeinsa Temple, Nomination Committee for the May 18th Democratic Uprising Documents to the UNESCO Memory of the World, Cultural Heritage Administration

1995-2011 World Heritage in Korea

Published: December 26, 2011

Editing: Kim Seon-mi, Shim Seol-a

First print edition: December 22, 2011

Design: Lee Ki-joon, Choi Hye-jin

Compiled by the Cultural Heritage Administration

Marketing: Choi Eun-seel Paper: Jungwoo Paper Co.

Publisher: Kim Hyo-hyoung

Film output: Korea Communications

Published by Nulwa

Printing: Mir Printing Co.

Registration No.: 10-1795, July 26, 1999

Bookbinding: PUR Binding

2nd Floor, 617-8 Seongsan-dong, Mapo-gu, Seoul

World Heritage in Korea

Tel. 82-2-3143-4633 Fax 82-2-3143-4631 Email: nulwa@naver.com

1995

Homepage: www.nulwa.com

2011 © 2011 by the Cultural Heritage Administration ISBN 978-89-90620-49-1 04910 978-89-90620-47-7 (set)

Cultural Heritage Administration

* All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the Cultural Heritage Administration and Nulwa.

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From Korea’s Heritage to Humanity’s Heritage World Heritage / Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity / Memory of the World

Origin of the World Heritage Along with the pyramids, the Abu Simbel temples represent the brilliance of ancient Egyptian civilization. Also known as the “Nubian Monuments” or the “Temple of Ramesses Beloved by Amun,” the massive twin temples in southern Egypt were carved out of the mountainside; they extend some 60 meters into rock masses with their façades decorated with colossal statues of the pharaoh, mostly as tall as 20 meters. The temples were built over 3,000 years ago during the reign of Ramesses II (r. 1301-1235 B.C.) but are still preserved in good condition. The temple complex undoubtedly deserves its reputation as one of Egypt’s most prized historical monuments, but it became even more famous after being relocated due to dam construction.

The temples of Abu Simbel emerged as the greatest hurdle when the Egyptian government decided in the 1950s to build the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River to resolve severe electricity shortages and secure stable water resources. In 1959, Egypt requested help from UNESCO, stirring up a great response from the international community. Some 50 countries participated in an international donations campaign to save the ancient monument from being submerged in the rising waters of the Nile River after the dam construction. Under UNESCO’s full commitment, the relocation of the Abu Simbel temples was undertaken over four years beginning in 1964. The entire site was carefully cut into some 1,000 blocks to be dismantled, lifted and reassembled in a new location about 70 meters higher and 200 meters back from the river.

The relocation of the Abu Simbel temples rang an alarm bell in the

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international community, raising awareness of the necessity for nations to create

Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple; the Royal Ancestral Shrine of the

a global institution to ensure the preservation of heritage sites with outstanding

Joseon Dynasty (Jongmyo); Changdeok Palace; Hwaseong Fortress; Gyeongju

value for mankind. Accordingly, in its general conference held in November

Historic Areas; the Dolmens in Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa; the Royal

1972, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty; and the Historic Villages of Hahoe and Yangdong.

(UNESCO) adopted the “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World

In 2007, Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes was named a Natural Heritage site.

Cultural and Natural Heritage” (hereafter the World Heritage Convention).

Hence the organization kicked off its pioneering endeavors to ensure the

Preservation Obligations for the World Heritage

identification, protection, preservation and transmission to future generations of

Inscription on the World Heritage List means that a property is an important

cultural and natural heritage deemed worth being jointly shared and safeguarded

asset of humanity worthy of joint preservation efforts by humanity beyond

by humanity. Today, the World Heritage Convention is recognized as one of the

national or ethnic boundaries. It means the property qualifies for diverse forms

most worthy international statutes in operation under UNESCO’s initiative.

of international assistance needed for its preservation.

Most importantly, the inscription of a property on the World Heritage List

Pride Enhanced by World Heritage Designation

enhances the pride of a country or a region to which the property belongs, with

The World Heritage Convention defines world heritage as “cultural and natural

its value rediscovered and reaffirmed; it results in the prevention of further

properties which have been passed down by forebears so humanity lives along

damage or destruction of the property and more often than not the restoration

with them, and which should be handed over to posterity in respect for their

of its original condition with the support of the international community. The

value as unique and irreplaceable assets and sources of life and inspiration.” The

concerned locale becomes a popular international tourist destination, which is

convention further provides that it is incumbent on the international community

another remarkable benefit from designation.

as a whole to participate in the protection of world heritage of outstanding universal value, regardless of their sovereign territory.

Inscription on the World Heritage List entails not only advantages but also obligations. The signatory nations to the World Heritage Convention have the

The UNESCO World Heritage List comprises three categories, that is,

obligations to report to the World Heritage Committee on a regular basis about

“cultural heritage,” “natural heritage” and “mixed heritage.” As of November

the conditions of World Heritage sites in their territories and their preservation

2011, a total of 188 countries are signatories to the World Heritage Convention;

activities. Based on these reports, the World Heritage Committee evaluates

a total of 936 properties are inscribed on the World Heritage List, including 725

the conditions of individual properties and decides what actions are needed to

as cultural heritage, 183 as natural heritage and 28 as mixed heritage. The states

resolve problems in their preservation. One of such actions is the committee’s

parties to the convention can apply for inscription on the World Heritage List of

compiling of the List of World Heritage in Danger, which includes properties

properties located in their territories after registering them on the Tentative Lists.

requiring major operations and assistance for preservation. As of November

The World Heritage Committee makes the final decision on inscription at the

2011, the list includes 35 properties – 18 cultural heritage sites and 17 natural

proposal of the UNESCO World Heritage Center, which deliberates nominations

heritage sites.

with advice from expert organizations, including the International Council of

All properties on the World Heritage List are liable for deletion in case

Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Union for Conservation

their value and integrity has been seriously destroyed. In 2007, for example,

of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), based on their field inspections and

the World Heritage Committee made an unprecedented decision to remove the

evaluations.

Arabian Oryx Sanctuary in Oman from the World Heritage List, because the

As of November 2011, Korea has ten properties placed on the World

Oman government decided to reduce the size of the sanctuary for rare antelope

Heritage List. They include Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple; the

and other endangered animal species by 90 percent. The states parties to the

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World Heritage Convention should faithfully fulfill their obligations to preserve

preserve intangible cultural properties in their original condition. Some aspects

the World Heritage sites in their territories as well as maintain pride in their

inevitably become lost in the process of being transmitted from generation to

possession of properties globally recognized to have outstanding universal value.

generation, while others undergo constant transformation or re-creation. Unlike the preservation of tangible heritage, the “safeguarding” of intangible heritage

Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity

means providing for measures aimed at ensuring the viability for sustained

While the international community generally appears to pay more attention

transmission rather than conserving the original shape and condition. Judging

to the preservation of tangible cultural properties including architectural

that the activities by master artists and artisans are important in handing down

monuments, UNESCO has had great interest in the protection of intangible

intangible heritage to future generations, UNESCO encourages active support

cultural properties, recognizing their indigenous value.

to the states parties to the Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention so they can

UNESCO has made a series of efforts toward the preservation of intangible

create environments favorable to their activities.

cultural heritage as a mainspring of cultural diversity and a guarantee of sustainable development. Among outstanding activities are the UNESCO

Memory of the World

Recommendation on the Safeguarding of Traditional Culture and Folklore,

The UNESCO Memory of the World Program, launched in 1995, is an

adopted in 1989; the UNESCO Living Human Treasures Program, which started

international initiative to safeguard the documentary heritage of humanity

in 1994; and the Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible

against destruction or permanent annihilation by natural or man-made causes.

Heritage of Humanity in 1997. A total of 90 masterpieces handed down in 70

The program is devoted to the compiling and updating of the Memory of the

countries were designated on three occasions in 2001, 2003 and 2005. From

World Register, a compendium of documents, manuscripts, oral traditions,

Korea three items were placed on the roaster: the Royal Ancestral Ceremony at

audiovisual materials, library collections and archival holdings around the world;

Jongmyo; Pansori Epic Chants; and the Dano Festival of Gangneung.

reconstitution of dispersed or displaced documentary heritage; and increasing

In response to the growing awareness of the importance of intangible heritage

accessibility to and dissemination of these materials.

in the international community, UNESCO came to introduce a far stronger

Korea has nine items on the register, including Hunmin Jeongeum (Korean

statute than its earlier activities such as making recommendations, or identifying

Script); The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty (Joseon Wangjo Sillok); Anthology of

masterpieces, which by nature was an in-house cultural program. In 2003, the

Great Buddhist Priests’ Teachings (Jikji simche yojeol); The Diaries of the Royal

UNESCO general conference adopted the “Convention for the Safeguarding

Secretariat (Seungjeongwon Ilgi); The Royal Protocols of the Joseon Dynasty

of the Intangible Cultural Heritage.” Under this convention, the existing list

(Uigwe); Printing Woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana and Miscellaneous

of masterpieces was integrated into the Representative List of the Intangible

Buddhist Scriptures at Haeinsa Temple; and Principles and Practices of Eastern

Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Medicine (Dongui Bogam); The Records of Daily Reflections (Ilseongnok); and

Korea became a signatory to this convention in 2005. So far it has 11

Records of the May 18 Democratic Uprising in Gwangju.

intangible cultural heritage items on the Representative List. They include the Royal Ancestral Ceremony at Jongmyo; Pansori Epic Chants; the Dano Festival of Gangneung; Ganggangsullae Circle Dance; Namsadang Vagabond Clowns’ Play; the Rites of Vulture Peak (Yeongsanjae); Jeju Rites for the Goddess of Wind; the Dance of Cheoyong; Lyric Song Cycles (Gagok); Master Carpenter (Daemokjang); and Falconry.

In view of the inherent nature of intangible heritage, it is not easy to

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cultural prowess inherited from forebears through the endowment of these titles.

Korea’s Precious Gifts to the World Community

On behalf of the Cultural Heritage Administration of the Republic of Korea, I am pleased to present this English edition of World Heritage in Korea. This is a revised and expanded version of the first edition published in 2007, when our nation had fewer assets on the UNESCO lists than now. I hope this humble publication will help increase the understanding of Korea’s precious gifts to the world community among readers abroad. I also hope it will lead to greater

Foreword

interest in Korea’s rich cultural resources among the global community.

November 2011 Every nation has valuable assets they want to carefully preserve and hand down

Kim Chan

to posterity. These assets are called “national heritage.” They are sources of

Administrator

pride and the origins of identity for the concerned nation; they further provide

Cultural Heritage Administration

bases for understanding the history and culture of other nations to promote

Republic of Korea

communication and enhance mutual respect and peaceful coexistence among humankind.

In order to protect national heritages of outstanding universal value, the international community created global devices in the name of the “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage” (1972); “Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage” (2003); and the “Memory of the World Program” (1995). These UNESCO statutes and activities are aimed at preserving heritages carrying special significance for all humanity through common efforts beyond national barriers.

As of November 2011, Korea has a total of 10 cultural and natural assets inscribed on the World Heritage List, 11 assets placed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, and nine assets on the Memory of the World Register. The first stride was made in 1995 when three assets earned the World Heritage status: they were Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple; the Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple; and the Royal Ancestral Shrine of the Joseon Dynasty (Jongmyo).

People around the world feel an exalted sense of cultural unity through their heritages holding the coveted UNESCO titles. Likewise, Koreans also take immense pride in the fact that the international community recognizes their

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Intangible Cultural World Heritage

Heritage of Humanity

Memory of the World

From Korea’s Heritage to Humanity’s Heritage … 5

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple … 16

Royal Ancestral Ceremony at Jongmyo … 144

Hunmin Jeongeum … 178

Korea’s Precious Gifts to the World Community … 10

Epitome of Silla’s Divine Buddhist Art

Stately Ritual Invokes Peace and Prosperity

The Korean Alphabet Earns Global Recognition

Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple … 28

The Pansori Epic Chants … 147

The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty … 180

Challenge to Modern Conservation Science

Passionate and Mournful: The Root of Korean Music

Korean Palace Records Enrich World History

The Royal Ancestral Shrine of the Joseon Dynasty … 40

The Dano Festival of Gangneung … 150

Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests’ Zen Teachings

The Solemn Depth That Transcends Life and Death

Jubilant Recreation and Holy Rituals

… 182

Changdeok Palace … 52

Women’s Circle Dance … 153

The Oldest Book Printed with Movable Metal Type

Aesthetics of Harmony with Nature

Ganggangsullae Enjoyed under the Full Moon

The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat … 184

Hwaseong Fortress … 64

Marvelous Feats of the Namsadang Clowns … 156

Breath of History Comes Alive with Rigorous Fidelity

Joseon King’s New Architectural Experiment

Vagabond Troupes Entertained Commoners

Royal Protocols of the Joseon Dynasty … 186

Gyeongju Historic Areas … 78

The Rites of Vulture Peak … 159

Uigwe Document Details of State Events

Legacies of a Brilliant Cultural Flowering

Yeongsanjae Guides to the Way of the Buddha

Printing Woodblocks for Tripitaka Koreana and

Dolmens in Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa … 90

Yeongdeung Rites for the Goddess of Wind … 162

Miscellaneous Buddhist Scriptures … 188

Key to Bronze Age Culture on the Korean Peninsula

Jeju Islanders Pray for Plentiful Sea Catch

Still in Fresh Relief after a Thousand Years

Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes … 102

The Dance of Cheoyong … 165

Principles and Practices of Eastern Medicine … 190

A Spectacular Geological Museum

Talismanic Dance Incorporates Cosmic Energies

East Asia’s Prized Medical Encyclopedia

Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty … 114

Slow Lyrical Songs of Poetry … 168

The Records of Daily Reflections (Ilseongnok) … 192

A Glimpse into 500-year History of Confucian Monarchy

Gagok for Entertainment of Hermit Sages

From the King’s Personal Journal to State Chronicle

Historic Villages of Hahoe and Yangdong … 128

The Living Tradition of Falconry … 171

Human Rights Documentary Heritage 1980 Archives

Illustrious Traditions Imbued with Confucian Order

Like a Flying Arrow the Falcon Snatches its Prey

… 194

Master Carpenter with Superb Expertise … 174

Records of the May 18 Democratic Uprising in Gwangju

Contact Info … 196 References … 200

Daemokjang Leads Wooden Architecture

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple The Royal Ancestral Shrine of the Joseon Dynasty Changdeok Palace Hwaseong Fortress Gyeongju Historic Areas Dolmens in Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty Historic Villages of Hahoe and Yangdong

World Heritage

World Heritage

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple

▶

1995

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple Epitome of Silla’s Divine Buddhist Art

In December 2000, UNESCO added Gyeongju, the old capital of the Silla Kingdom (57 B.C.-A.D. 935), to its World Heritage List, designating five areas that contain a total of 52 officially recognized cultural properties of Korea.

However, the two most prominent sites of Gyeongju, Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple, were not included among the monuments and relics achieving UNESCO’s highly coveted inscription. In fact, they had already been inscribed in 1995.

Seokguram: World of Eternity beyond the Human Realm Overlooking the East Sea beyond mountain ridges from the southeastern tip of the Korean peninsula, Seokguram lies 565 meters above sea level near the summit of Mt. Toham. The cave chapel was originally built as a hermitage affiliated with a temple named Seokbulsa in accordance with the wishes of Kim Dae-seong, a state councilor during the reign of King Gyeongdeok of Silla. Its construction began in 751 and was completed in 774 under the reign of King Hyegong. The temple became dilapidated due to poor management in modern times but the hermitage has survived with its sublime beauty and profound religious symbolism.

The Buddha in the main rotunda of Seokguram as viewed from the antechamber. The rectangular antechamber has guardian deities, while the circular main hall enshrines the Buddha along with various bodhisattvas, arhats and Hindu gods.

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World Heritage

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple

▶

1995

Seokguram literally means “stone cave hermitage.” Unlike most other ancient cave temples in Asia, which were formed by nature or dug into hillsides and carved on rocks, Seokguram is a man-made grotto built of some 360 granite pieces and covered with earth. Cave shrines originated in India and became popular in the Dunhuang and Yungang regions of China before reaching Korea, where they attained a new level of development.

The interior of Seokguram consists of a circular main chamber, or rear chamber, with a dome ceiling, a rectangular antechamber and a corridor connecting the two chambers. The floor design reflects the ancient view of the universe that heaven was round and earth was square. It is reminiscent of the ancient burial mounds of the Silla royalty with a square front and round back, which are also known as keyhole-shaped tombs.

The undisputed centerpiece of Seokguram is the majestic Buddha in the circular main hall. A serene but powerful image epitomizing the aestheticism of Korean Buddhist sculpture, it envisages Sakyamuni, the Historic Buddha, at the moment he achieved enlightenment overcoming all obstacles and temptations.

The 3.5-meter-high Buddha is seated cross-legged on a lotus throne placed slightly toward the back from the center of the main rotunda, granting more space in front of him. He wears a faint, all-knowing smile with half-closed eyes in deep meditation. With a beautifully proportioned body and a robe with expressive fluid folds, the Buddha has his left hand in dhyanamudra, or the mudra of concentration, with the palm facing upward near the abdomen, and his right hand in bhumisparsamudra, or the earth-touching mudra, extended straight downward to call the earth as witness to his victory over the demon king Mara.

A large granite roundel adorned with lotus petals around the rim is set on the wall about one meter apart behind the Buddha, creating the illusion of an aureole around his head. This nimbus is uniquely separated from the Buddha.

When worshippers at the foot of the Buddha look up, they can see a perfect circle formed by lotus petals with those petals on the upper part of the roundel appearing larger than the petals near the bottom.

The main rotunda has a dome ceiling of intricately assembled square stone blocks, a wonder to modern architecture. As in all other parts of the grotto, no mortar was used. The stones are held together by stone rivets, which protrude to make the ceiling surface uneven, creating the illusion of depth in an attempt to emulate the vastness of cosmic space.

The main Buddha of Seokguram wears a serene, all-knowing smile, with his eyes half-closed in deep meditation. The majestic Buddha represents the aesthetic realization of Buddhist ideals.

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World Heritage

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple

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1995

chamber, which has bas-relief images of the Eight Guardian Deities, four on each of the two side walls. Two fierce Vajrapanis stand vigil on either side of the entrance to the passageway leading into the main hall. The Four Heavenly Kings are carved on the two walls of the corridor, two on each side.

The main Buddha is surrounded by three bodhisattvas, ten arhats and two Hindu gods carved in high relief on the wall of the rotunda. A graceful image of the Eleven-faced Avalokitesvara stands immediately behind the Buddha, with five arhats, or the disciples of the Buddha, lined up on each side. Next to the arhats stands Manjusri, the representation of divine wisdom, and his companion Samantabhadra. Next to these popular bodhisattvas are the two famous Indian devas, Brahma and Indra. There are ten niches above these images, each holding miniature statues of bodhisattvas, saints and faithfuls, all gathered to hear the Buddha’s words.

When it was built, an impressive pantheon of 40 divinities, including the Historic Buddha, occupied Seokguram, but only 38 images remain today. Two bodhisattva statuettes in the niches on the wall of the main chamber disappeared during the colonial period in the early 20th century. So did an exquisite five-story marble pagoda which stood in front of the Eleven-faced Avalokitesvara at the back of the Buddha.

Silla was the last of the ancient Korean Three Kingdoms to receive Buddhism but its people were intent on turning their entire territory into the blissful land of the Buddha. They believed they would be able to attain Buddhahood through the worship of the divine Buddha images. Seokguram owes its sublime beauty not only to the devout religious faith of the people of Silla but also to their artistic and scientific prowess, and engineering expertise.

A round granite plate decorated with lotus petals caps the domed ceiling, but cracks divide the capstone into three pieces. According to Samguk Yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms), a 13th-century source written by the

The Eleven-faced Avalokitesvara, carved in high relief, is often

Vajrapani stands guard in the

assumed to have been inspired by

antechamber.

a beautiful Silla woman.

monk historian Iryeon, the stone suddenly broke into three when the cave was about to be completed. Kim Dae-seong wept bitterly and fell asleep with his clothes on. During the night, gods descended from heaven and restored the stone to its original condition. Legend aside, Seokguram has been known

A dynamic and fierce-looking

In its original state, the ancient grotto chapel was an architectural masterpiece equipped with perfect self-conservation capabilities, such as natural ventilation, lighting, and temperature and humidity control. Paradoxically, modern science has fallen short of maintaining Seokguram’s self-preservation

The Hindu deva Indra, along with Brahma, is among the deities forming the cave pantheon in Seokguram.

capacity not to mention its original structure and appearance.

After long, dark years under the Confucian-oriented Joseon Dynasty, which suppressed Buddhism, the mountain grotto underwent a few rounds of repair

as an incredible work of art finished with the assistance of unworldly powers

work in the 20th century. During the colonial period (1910–1945), the Japanese

transcending the realm of humans.

completely dismantled and reassembled the grotto, which resulted in severe

The circular main hall is connected by a corridor to a rectangular ante-

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mistakes. Drainage pipes were buried under the cave to allow groundwater to

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World Heritage

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple

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1995

The cloistered sanctuary of Bulguksa is divided largely into three courtyards symbolizing the Impure Land of Sakyamuni Buddha, the Lotus Land of Vairocana, and the Pure Land Paradise of Amitabha, respectively. Each contains a worship hall: the Hall of the Great Hero dedicated to the Historic Buddha (Daeungjeon), the Hall of Vairocana (Birojeon) and the Paradise Hall of Amitabha (Geungnakjeon).

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World Heritage

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple

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1995

Korea’s brilliant tradition of classical Buddhist sculpture. The main Buddha, in particular, is widely adored as an enigmatic combination of masculine strength and feminine beauty, a personification of divine and human natures. The Elevenfaced Avalokitesvara draws no less admiration for its charming beauty depicted by a masterly hand. Each of the other bodhisattvas, arhats, the Four Heavenly Kings and the Vajrapanis also exhibit unique characteristics and high standards of artistic excellence.

Bulguksa: Architectural Realization of the Buddha Land While Seokguram’s sculptural works expressed the unfathomable meaning in the Buddha’s awakening, Bulguksa aimed to create an architectural realization of the Buddha’s teachings in the present world. The construction of the temple also began in 751, half way up the west side of Mt. Toham in accordance with the wishes of Kim Dae-seong, and was completed in 774. The grotto shrine was to honor Kim’s parents in his previous life, and the temple was for his parents in the present life.

An imposing complex of wooden shrines and stone pagodas built upon decorative stone terraces, Bulguksa expressed the wish of the Silla people that their kingdom would become the blissful land of the Buddha. Hence it was named the “Temple of Buddha Land.”

The cloistered sanctuary is divided into three main courtyards, each flow out. The chilly groundwater flowing underneath, however, had helped to control the temperature and humidity inside the cave to prevent dew formation.

Even worse, the entire cave was encased with cement, leading to water leaks and

decorative stone terraces stretching 100 meters across the front façade. The temple grounds

the erosion of the sculptures because the cave could no longer “breathe.” Later

can be accessed by climbing up

in the 1960s, the Korean government covered the concrete mass with waterproof

stone stairways named “bridges.”

asphalt, but water continued to leak and dew formed. Eventually, the problem of temperature and humidity control was resolved with mechanical devices.

containing a worship hall: the Hall of the Great Hero, or Daeungjeon, dedicated

Bulguksa Temple stands on

to the Historic Buddha; the Hall of Vairocana, or Birojeon, dedicated to The decorative stone terraces of Bulguksa show the exquisite harmony of carefully dressed stone

the Buddha of Great Illumination; and the Paradise Hall, or Geungnakjeon, dedicated to Amitabha, the Buddha of the Western Paradise. These three areas

slabs and undressed natural stones

stand for the Impure Land of Sakyamuni Buddha, the Lotus Land of Vairocana,

of diverse shapes.

and the Pure Land Paradise of Amitabha, respectively.

The elevated sanctuary stands on a series of beautiful stone terraces stretching

The wooden superstructure built over the antechamber in the 1960s remains

100 meters across the front façade. The terraces are built with carefully dressed

another mystery. The glass negatives of 1912-1913 which were recently disclosed

granite slabs and natural stones of various sizes, achieving a pleasant harmony

do not have such a structure at the entrance. Instead, they show one of the Eight

of rhythmic compositions. Along with the temple’s two famous pagodas, the

Guardian Deities in the antechamber, which stands nearest to the entrance on

Sakyamuni Pagoda (Seokgatap) and the Pagoda of Many Treasures (Dabotap),

either side, faces Vajrapani, the holder of the thunderbolt scepter.

the terraces and stairs attest to the prominent skills of Silla masons, who adroitly

These recent changes aside, the grotto shrine is a proud testimony to

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handled solid granite.

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Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple

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1995

bronze Buddha images, survived the disaster. The temple was only partially reconstructed after the war and never regained its old splendor. Thanks to the extensive excavation and rehabilitation undertaken from 1969 to 1973, the temple achieved its present state, which still falls far short of its original scale.

Various halls and cloisters were rebuilt at this time. They include the Hall of No Discourse (Museoljeon), the Hall of Vairocana (Birojeon) and the Hall of Avalokitesvara (Gwaneumjeon).

The main courtyard has the nation’s most famed pair of pagodas — the Pagoda of Many Treasures (Dabotap) and the Sakyamuni Pagoda (Seokgatap), standing 10.34 meters and 10.63 meters high, respectively, in front of the main worship hall. Most temples built during the Unified Silla period (676–935) have two stone pagodas with identical shapes rising side by side before the main hall. Whoever designed Bulguksa attempted a radical experiment by erecting two pagodas in dramatically different shapes, one next to the other and it was a resounding success.

The Sakyamuni Pagoda is noted for its princely dignity and simplicity, while the Pagoda of Many Treasures is unmatched for its ornate decorative style. The former is a prototype of Korean stone pagodas, a handsome three-story structure erected on a two-tiered foundation, while the latter resembles an elaborate wooden pavilion lavishly adorned with sculpted ornaments. Their arrangement was inspired by the legend that when Sakyamuni preached the Lotus Sutra on the Vulture Peak, the pagoda of Prabhutaratna, the Buddha of Myriad Jewels, emerged from the ground to praise his sermon. Thus the pagodas’ original names are the “Pagoda of Permanent Sermon by Sakyamuni Buddha” (Seokga yeorae The temple compounds on the terraces symbolize the world of Buddhas, while the ground down below symbolizes the world of humans. Stone stairways, named “bridges,” on two levels connect the two worlds. One set of stairways has the Bridge of the Blue Cloud (Cheongungyo) and the Bridge of the White

sangju seolbeop tap), and the “Pagoda of Permanent Witness by the Buddha of The Pagoda of Many Treasures (Dabotap) which symbolizes Prabhutaratna, the Buddha of

Myriad Jewels” (Dabo yeorae sangju jeungmyeong tap).

Various precious treasures were found inside the Sakyamuni Pagoda during

Myriad Jewels, is reminiscent of an

repair work in 1966. They included a paper scroll of the Pure Light Dharani

Cloud (Baegungyo). The other has the Bridge of Lotus Flowers (Yeonhwagyo)

ornate wooden pavilion featuring

Sutra, presumably printed in the eighth century. The scroll, 6.7 meters wide and

and the Bridge of Seven Treasures (Chilbogyo). Beneath the staircases today are

colorful decorative motifs.

6.2 centimeters long, is the world’s oldest material printed by woodblock.

traces of a stone bed, all that remains of a lotus pond that drew its contents from the water flowing down from Mt. Toham.

All of the temple’s original wooden structures, comprising some 2,000 kan, or bays, were burnt down during the Japanese Invasions of 1592-1598. Only stone objects, including the terraces, stairs, pagodas and lanterns, and gilt-

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The Sakyamuni Pagoda

The arts reflect the times. A century after the Silla achieved the unification of

(Seokgatap) represents the finest

Three Kingdoms through long military conflicts, Silla was enjoying its golden age

style of Korean Buddhist pagodas.

in the mid-eighth century. The cultural flowering of Silla culminated in its two

The three-story granite pagoda is admired for its proportions and simple yet graceful style.

brilliant achievements — Seokguram and Bulguksa, which stand out as ingenious works of Buddhist art and architecture with few peers in all of Asia.

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World Heritage

Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple

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1995

Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple Challenge to Modern Conservation Science

Goryeo (918-1392) was a devout Buddhist state. The depth of its faith is clearly stated in the words of King Taejo, the founder of the dynasty, at the outset of his Ten Injunctions, which he left as a will when he died. It says: “The success of the great enterprise of the kingdom should entirely owe to the powers of the Buddha.”

Through Goryeo’s rule over nearly five centuries, the worst national crisis to occur was the invasions of the Mongols. Faced with the third Mongol invasion in 1235, Choe U, the de facto ruler of Goryeo from a powerful military family, confronted the enemy but his troops were no match for the Mongolians who had been trained in archery and equestrian skills from early childhood. Many court retainers advocated surrender to avoid further bloodshed, which Choe refused to accept. He insisted on continuing to fight to repel the enemy.

As a means of soothing public anxiety and beseeching the benevolence of Buddha, Choe proposed publishing the Buddhist canon. A common belief in Buddhist states at the time was that compiling and keeping the Tripitaka would help ensure peace and prosperity. Goryeo had compiled the Tripitaka when the Khitans invaded in 1010. The Khitans withdrew when the Tripitaka was about to be completed.

It was not easy, however, to put together the numerous scriptures and produce their printing blocks in wartime. Moreover, production of the Haeinsa Temple is nestled in the lush woods of Mt. Gaya. The temple is located alongside a clean stream deep in the scenic mountain.

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Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple

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woodblocks was itself a costly, Herculean task that symbolized national power.

It required huge amounts of knowledge and advanced technologies.

In 1236, Choe set up the Office of the Tripitaka Compilation (Daejang Dogam) and began producing printing blocks. The project attracted numerous individuals, including monks, scribes, carpenters, and sculptors, who sought to end the war by appealing to the compassion of the Buddha. They carried out their mission with an undaunted spirit of patriotism just like the soldiers that fought on battlefields. The vast project was completed in 1251, owing to their selfless endeavors over 15 years. The canon was comprised of more than 52 million characters carved on both sides of a total of 81,240 wooden blocks, which would require a reader well-versed in Chinese literature some 30 years to read. The war went on despite the ardent wishes of the Goryeo people, but their effort resulted in a monumental spiritual and technical legacy for all of humanity.

The Tripitaka, or the “sutras in three baskets,” was compiled twice during Goryeo. The compilation of the first edition began in 1011, the second year of King Hyeonjong, and was completed in 1087, the fourth year of King Seonjong.

The project lasted for 76 years through six reigns. However, the Mongol invaders burned the printing blocks in 1232. Compilation of the second edition began in 1236, the 23rd year of King Gojong, and was completed in 1251, the 38th year of Gojong. This second edition is the Tripitaka Koreana, which is known by the Korean name Palman Daejanggyeong (The Great Collection of Scriptures

The Hall of Great Tranquil Light (Daejeokgwangjeon), dedicated to Vairocana, is the main worship

Buddha, the Dharma (teachings of the Buddha), and the Sangha (community of monks who deliver the Buddha’s teachings). As it houses the Tripitaka, a

hall of Haeinsa. The temple was

collection of the Buddha’s teachings, Haeinsa is appropriately called the “Temple

in Eighty Thousand Blocks) or Goryeo Daejanggyeong (The Great Collection of

founded in 802, during the reign of

of Dharma.”

Scriptures of Goryeo).

King Aejang of the Silla Kingdom.

The storage buildings for the Tripitaka Koreana are located on the highest

Initially, the printing blocks of this second edition were kept on Ganghwa

temple grounds. The site is highly symbolic in view of the fact that the hall of the

Island, the seat of Goryeo’s wartime government. Later the woodblocks were

Buddha usually sits at the highest and most important spot on most other temple

temporarily moved to Seoul when the island became a frequent target for

compounds. Moreover, Haeinsa keeps the printing blocks in perfect condition.

Japanese marauders and then in 1398, the seventh year of King Taejo of the

Since wood is vulnerable to fire, moisture and insects, it is incredible that all

Joseon Dynasty, to Haeinsa Temple, where they have been kept until today.

these blocks have been successfully preserved, without a single piece showing signs of decay or warping, for the past seven and a half centuries. What is the

Depository in Mountain Monastery

secret behind this miraculous feat?

Though the printing blocks were also made with special care to endure

Haeinsa Temple, built in 802 during the Unified Silla period, is nestled on Mt.

time and the elements, the storage buildings are the first true wonder. Tripitaka

Gaya in Hapcheon, South Gyeongsang Province. Since its founding Haeinsa has

Koreana is known as the world’s finest extant Buddhist canon in Chinese script

been recognized as one of Korea’s leading Buddhist monasteries. Particularly, it

but its depository, the only one of its kind in the world, is a no less wondrous

is known for representing one of the “three jewels of Buddhism,” that is, the

achievement of medieval science and technology.

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Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple

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1995

The Tripitaka Depository is located in the highest and innermost area of the temple compound.

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Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple

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1995

Fires and Wartime Destruction Haeinsa had seven fires between 1695, the 21st year of King Sukjong, and 1871,

The interior of a storage hall of Tripitaka Koreana, designed to facilitate natural ventilation and temperature and humidity control.

the eighth year of King Gojong of Joseon, but the Tripitaka archives remained

The printing blocks are preserved

completely unscathed, embellishing the mystery surrounding the seemingly

on long rows of shelves.

simple wooden buildings.

It is not known exactly when the two storage buildings, named Tripitaka Hall (Janggyeonggak), were constructed but they are evidently the oldest structures of Haeinsa, preserving the simple beauty of the wooden architecture of the early Joseon period (1392-1910). Historical records say that 46 kan, or inter-columns bays, of the archive buildings were reconstructed under orders of King Sejo in 1457, the third year of his reign. Some 30 bays were repaired with support from the royal family in 1488, the 19th year of King Seongjong. One of the two buildings, named the Storage of Sutra (Sudarajang), was repaired in 1622, the 14th year of King Gwanghaegun; the other building, named the Hall of Dharma Jewel (Beopbojeon), was repaired in 1624, the second year of King Injo.

The Tripitaka depository faced yet another crisis during the Korean War of 1950-1953. The area around Haeinsa was among the fiercest battlegrounds

One of the 81,240 printing blocks for Tripitaka Koreana, which is composed of more than 52 million Chinese characters.

during the internecine armed conflict. The South Korean and U.N. forces bombarded the area many times to suppress the North Korean guerrillas hiding in the mountains after being left behind by a troop withdrawal. However, the temple and the Tripitaka were miraculously saved from being reduced to ashes, thanks to people who appreciated their value.

The hero now admired for his “righteous disobedience” is Air Force Colonel Kim Young-hwan. Colonel Kim was ordered to destroy Haeinsa during the anti-

slope of Mt. Gaya which is 1,430 meters high, the elongated wooden pavilions

guerrilla campaign in September 1951. He led his squadron of jet fighters flying

face the southwest so as to receive sunlight for long hours — 12 hours a day in

over the area but decided not to drop a single bomb. Kim later said during an

the summer, nine hours in the spring and the autumn, and seven hours in the

investigation that he could not burn the nation’s invaluable cultural treasures in

winter. No parts of the buildings are in permanent shade. Thus they prevent

order to kill a few communist guerrillas.

the woodblocks from getting moist or from decaying, and they keep out moss, mildew and insects.

Scientific Design Utilizing Natural Conditions

The depository consists of four buildings — the two Tripitaka archives sitting back to back with a rectangular courtyard between them, and two annex

The depository buildings for the Tripitaka Koreana were designed to take

buildings standing on either end of the courtyard. The northern building is the

maximum advantage of the topography of the terrain. Resting on the highest

main archive named the Hall of Dharma Jewel, and the southern building is the

area in the temple grounds, at 655 meters above sea level on the middle of the

Storage of Sutra. The two small buildings facing the courtyard keep printing

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Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple

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1995

blocks for scriptures and other books published by the temple.

The Tripitaka archives are both 60.44 meters long, with 15 bays on the front and two bays on the sides, and have hipped roofs. They are simple wooden

Wooden grill windows on the front wall of the Hall of Dharma Jewel (Beopbojeon,

) and the

back wall of the Storage of Sutra

structures with no decorative elements other than vertically grilled, open

(Sudarajang,

windows. These windows are the core devices displaying the ingenious creativity

sized windows facilitate a smooth

of the medieval architects.

). The different-

air flow inside the halls.

Both buildings have two rows of wooden grill windows on the front and back walls divided by a central molding. The windows differ in size, which is the essential wisdom behind the efficient adjustment of air flow and sunlight ensuring maximum ventilation, temperature and humidity control.

In the case of the Storage of Sutra in the front, for example, the windows of the lower row on the front wall are about four times larger than those of the upper row, while the upper windows on the back wall are about one and a half times the size of the lower windows. In the case of the Hall of Dharma Jewel to

The two storage halls of Tripitaka

the back, the lower windows on the front wall are approximately 4.6 times the

Koreana stand on either end of a

size of the upper windows, and the upper windows on the back wall are about 1.5

rectangular courtyard. The smaller

times the size of the lower windows.

This is apparently a plan based on the theory of hydrodynamics and air flow.

The windows allow for maximum natural ventilation; fresh air is brought in through the large upper windows to circulate around the hall before escaping

halls facing the courtyard from either side house printing blocks for other books and scriptures produced at the temple.

The gate to the Storage of Sutra

through the windows on the opposite side. The small lower windows on the

is called the “moon gate” (wolmun )

back wall keep moisture from seeping in from the ground outside. Furthermore,

due to its round shape.

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Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple

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Thanks to all these considerations and devices, the temperature inside the depository halls can be maintained about 0.5 to 2 degrees Celsius lower than the temperature outside and the humidity can be kept 5 to 10 percent lower than the humidity outside. Even in dry spells the humidity inside the halls never falls below 40 percent.

The wood for Tripitaka blocks was processed through painstaking procedures to weatherproof the grain and retard decay. It was soaked in seawater for over three years, then cut into blocks and boiled in salt water. The blocks were then fully dried in the shade, exposed to the wind, before the surface was smoothed with a plane. Then the elaborate work of writing and carving began. After the text was engraved, each block was coated with a few layers of poisonous lacquer to repel harmful insects. Each corner was reinforced with metal clamps to prevent warping.

In recognition of its outstanding universal value as a legacy of medieval printing technology as well as unrivaled canonical content, the Tripitaka Koreana was placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2007. The inscription of the depository halls came much earlier in 1995, a tribute to the prominent wisdom of ancient Korean architects and engineers that defies explanation by modern science.

The Tripitaka depository halls at Haeinsa epitomize the medieval science and the back windows of the Hall of Dharma Jewel slightly differ in size from bay to bay. This also seems to be a design element utilized to maximize the hall’s conservatory function based on empirical judgment. However, modern science has yet to answer precisely how.

Another secret rests in the floors of the depository halls. Built upon thin granite foundations that facilitate smooth drainage, these buildings have clay

The two archive buildings are the oldest structures at Haeinsa.

It is not known when the simple

technology that took maximum advantage of natural environments. The only buildings exclusively used for storing woodblocks for Buddhist canon in the

wooden buildings were constructed

world, the simple wooden structures pose many riddles to modern conservation

but historic records say they

science.

underwent major reconstruction and expansion in 1457, and extensive repair in 1488.

floors with thick layers of salt, charcoal and lime underneath, which absorb excess moisture during the summer rainy season and maintain an optimum humidity level by letting out the moisture during the dry winter months. The clay walls of the buildings also help enhance these functions.

Each hall has two long rows of five-level shelves with an isle in between.

Each level of the shelves holds two rows of woodblocks, vertically placed one row upon the other with a little empty room on the top so the air can freely circulate. The printing blocks have thicker margins on the sides so the carved sections are always exposed to the air flow.

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World Heritage

The Royal Ancestral Shrine of the Joseon Dynasty

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1995

The Royal Ancestral Shrine of the Joseon Dynasty The Solemn Depth That Transcends Life and Death

“Your Majesty, please preserve the Jongmyo and Sajik!” This plea from court retainers is heard not infrequently in Korean period dramas when the king is remiss in looking after state affairs or when the country is in crisis. What are Jongmyo and Sajik? Why are they so important?

Two years after proclaiming the founding of a new dynasty in 1392, King Taejo of Joseon moved the seat of his throne to Hanyang, the present-day Seoul, from Gaeseong, reneging on his earlier pledge to retain the state name and systems of Goryeo. He needed a new seat of power to rule his fledgling kingdom away from the influence of old forces. With the site of the new capital chosen, Taejo decided where to build the main palace and ordered the construction of two other key facilities – the royal ancestral shrine and the altars for the gods of land and crops – to the left and right side of the palace, respectively.

Jongmyo, the royal ancestral shrine, was to house the spirit tablets of kings and queens, and the Sajik would comprise the altars for gods of land and crops. These were state institutions as important as the main palace, where the king would reside and rule: they were sacred places that would manifest the uncontested legitimacy and authority of the dynasty endowed from the spirits of royal ancestors and the gods of nature. “Preserving the royal shrine and state altars,” therefore, meant safeguarding the dynasty itself.

The Main Hall (Jeongjeon) of Jongmyo, the royal ancestral shrine of the Joseon Dynasty, and its courtyard are permeated by solemn tranquility. The courtyard is almost entirely covered with a platform of undressed rough stones.

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The Royal Ancestral Shrine of the Joseon Dynasty

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1995

The cultural and religious origins of Jongmyo date to the Zhou Dynasty (circa 1046-221 B.C.) of China, or even earlier. Joseon based its state ceremonial systems on those of the Zhou as provided in The Rites of Zhou (Zhouli, or Jurye in Korean), but devised its own style and procedures in the actual construction of the royal memorial shrine and ceremonial performances. This is why Jongmyo is recognized as one of the outstanding cultural legacies of Korea.

The Sobering Beauty of Simplicity, Repetition and Restraint The spirit tablets of kings and queens of the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), the last monarchy in Korean history, are enshrined in two halls on the compounds of Jongmyo: the Main Hall (Jeongjeon) keeps 49 royal spirit tablets and the Hall of Eternal Peace (Yeongnyeongjeon) keeps 34 tablets. The Main Hall has spirit tablets of those kings who command great respect and their queens, while the Hall of Eternal Peace has those of less worthy rulers as well as posthumous kings and their wives. Two of Joseon’s 27 kings, Yeonsangun and Gwanghaegun, both deposed due to misrule and demoted to prince, were denied the privilege of being honored in the shrine.

For the Joseon Dynasty, Jongmyo had symbolic intentions quite different from its palaces. It was the palace of past kings and queens, the sacred shrine of the royal family. Therefore, it is shrouded in a different ambience from the palaces. The solemn dignity and elegant serenity is due to the indigenous function of the shrine.

The halls and pavilions in Jongmyo, which are for keeping royal spirit tablets The royal ancestral shrine constituted the moral backbone of a Confucian

or preparing and performing veneration rituals, are simple and functional.

dynasty, the place where Korean royal families performed rites to venerate

They are typically devoid of ornate decoration in order to emphasize piety and

their ancestors, since the Silla period (57 B.C.-A.D. 935). China had imperial

solemnity.

ancestral temples, called taimiao, since ancient times, while in Japan, which

The Main Hall, noted for its unique architectural style and solemn ambience,

also belonged to the Confucian cultural sphere, the spirit tablets of emperors

is the largest among contemporary wooden structures in the world, with the

were ensconced at Shinto shrines. In China, the imperial ancestral temple of the

front façade running 101 meters along 25 bays. The impressive façade of the Main Hall, with its imposing roof and a series of frontal columns, comes into

Qing Dynasty remains in Beijing, but its buildings have been largely remodeled under communist rule and the traditional veneration ceremonies have been discontinued. In the Confucian cultural sphere, Korea is the only country where a royal ancestral shrine is perfectly preserved and veneration rites continue to be conducted in the authentic manner.

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The royal ancestral shrine rests at the end of a ridge stretching past Changdeok and Changgyeong

view when one steps inside the south gate of its compound. The hall stands on a two-tiered stone platform that nearly covers the entire square courtyard. The

palaces from Mt. Bukhan north of

broad stone platform, some 110 meters wide and 70 meters long, is covered

Seoul.

with roughly dressed granite blocks. The elevated ritual arena is bright and

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World Heritage

The Royal Ancestral Shrine of the Joseon Dynasty

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1995

open. Here the ritual officiants bow deeply and repeatedly and move in orderly

palace of deceased royal ancestors.

processions while musicians and dancers perform during the royal ancestral rites.

A stone-covered path runs straight north from the main entrance of Jongmyo

The Main Hall, facing the expansive stone platform, appears austere and

toward the Main Hall compound. The path has three lanes: the raised central

somber as if symbolizing the infinity connecting heaven and earth, and life and

lane here is also reserved for the royal spirits and ritual offerings, and stretches to

death. The thick round columns surmounted by a simple gabled roof form an

the Main Hall compound, while the lower side lanes for the king and the crown

image with soul-stirring appeal. The long series of identical columns and the

prince part from the spirit lane midway in the direction of the king’s pavilion on

A spirit road stretches toward

horizontal roof ridge stretching in parallel with the ground symbolize the eternity

the Main Hall and the Hall of

the right side. The king prepared himself for rites, bathing and dressing up, at the

of the royal lineage.

Eternal Peace, where the royal spirit

pavilion. The narrow path is covered with rough stones with fluctuating surfaces,

The Main Hall compound, surrounded with stone walls, has three gates.

A brick-covered walkway runs through the horizontal stone platform from the main gate on the south to the Main Hall. The narrow path is reserved for the royal spirits so no living soul is allowed to tread on or cross it. The two

tablets are housed, from the main

so the king would walk slowly with his mind focused on the ancestral rites.

entrance to the shrine compound.

The construction of Jongmyo began in 1394, the third year of Taejo, when

The narrow road is paved with rough stones with uneven surfaces.

Ritual officiants kowtow in the Main Hall, where the royal spirit

The colonnaded front façade

tablets are ensconced in cubicle-

the capital was moved to Hanyang, and was completed the next year. Along with Changdeokgung and Changgyeonggung palaces, Jongmyo originally formed part

other gates are for mortals: the east gate was for the king and the west gate for

of the Main Hall looks even more

like spirit chambers behind yellow

of an exclusive zone in the heart of old Seoul. It now lies apart from the two

musicians and dancers. Even the king was no more than a humble mortal in this

majestic at sunset.

curtains.

palaces across a road, which the Japanese made to “cut off the vein of Joseon”

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Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple

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1995

The Main Hall and its courtyard. The hall was repeatedly expanded and repaired to house an increasing number of memorial tablets for kings and queens to attain the present scale containing 19 spirit chambers and two side chambers.

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The Royal Ancestral Shrine of the Joseon Dynasty

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1995

during their colonial rule in the early 20th century.

Initially, the Main Hall had seven spirit chambers, flanked by a side chamber on either end. Frequent expansion was done to accommodate the spirit chambers of successive kings and queens, but the entire shrine was turned into ashes and the royal spirit tablets joined the king and the crown prince on their evacuation north toward Pyongyang when the Japanese invaded in 1592. The hall was rebuilt in 1608, the year Gwanghaegun ascended the throne, and again expanded several times. In 1836, the second year of Heonjong, the Main Hall attained its present scale with 19 spirit chambers, two side chambers each with three bays, and the corridors extended to the south from both ends.

The Hall of Eternal Peace is a smaller annex built to accommodate the growing number of royal spirit tablets. It was at first a six-chamber structure but attained the present scale with 16 spirit chambers in 1836, through repeated expansion and reconstruction. Though smaller, it basically has the same ground plan as the Main Hall and also has an elevated stone platform that covers almost the entire front courtyard. One distinctive feature is that the annex has four larger chambers covered with a taller roof at the center, while the Main Hall has an uninterrupted roofline and all of its chambers are of the same size. As a result, the annex has a somewhat comfortable feeling though not as majestic as the Main Hall, which is submerged in a stern atmosphere. The stone terraces in the backyard and the lush forest surrounding the compound add to the cozy feeling.

Neither the Main Hall nor the Hall of Eternal Peace faces due south but both are slightly tilted to the southwest. These royal memorial halls and all the other buildings for ritual preparations were situated to conform with the hilly topography so the natural contours of the land would not be destroyed.

In contrast to the austere and functional structures of individual buildings, the overall ground plan of the shrine was designed to harmonize succinctly and beautifully with its natural environment. So the otherwise monotonous ritual

kings, but when rites are performed, the doors are opened and bamboo screens

spaces were endowed with pleasant vitality.

are hung over them.

The two royal memorial halls are both long rectangular structures; they

An open front corridor runs the entire length of the façade of both halls,

have a huge single space inside with cubicle-like spirit chambers lined along the northern wall. The royal spirit tablets are aligned in these chambers from west to east in the order of reign. With a two-panel door for each chamber to the front, all three other sides are surrounded with blind brick walls with no doors or windows. The halls are kept dark for the peaceful repose of the souls of the dead

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providing an ideal space for rituals in all weather, and its shaded space gives The Hall of Eternal Peace (Yeongnyeongjeon) is an annex with the basically same interior

depth to the halls and accentuates their solemn atmosphere as sacred abodes of royal spirits. The Main Hall has 20 entasis columns standing in a row, creating

structure as the Main Hall, but

a magnificent view. The Hall of Eternal Peace was identically built but on a

smaller in scale.

smaller scale.

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The Royal Ancestral Shrine of the Joseon Dynasty

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1995

Space for Communion between the Living and the Dead The identical ritual tables set with carefully prepared food in glistening brass vessels and the same ritual procedures devoutly repeated by proud royal descendants dressed in ceremonial uniforms create a spectacle of classical elegance and formality during the royal ancestral ceremonies at Jongmyo, making one forget the daily routines of a modern society.

The stateliest rituals of Joseon, the royal ancestral ceremonies at Jongmyo were performed frequently around the year when the dynasty ruled Korea. They

A royal pavilion named Eosuksil,

included the five major ceremonies for offering new harvest, held regularly at the

where the kings and crown princes

positions after completing the long

prepared themselves for the

solemn ceremonies at the Hall of

ancestral ceremonies. It has a very

Eternal Peace.

Main Hall for each of the four seasons and toward the end of the year after the winter solstice. However, rites were held just twice at the Hall of Eternal Peace, in the spring and the autumn. These days, the royal ancestral rites are held once a year, on the first Sunday of May, under the auspices of the Jeonju Yi Clan Association consisting of descendants of the Joseon royal family.

A sequestered territory in the heart of a bustling metropolis, Jongmyo is comprised of more buildings than just the two royal memorial halls. They include the Hall of Meritorious Subjects (Gongsindang), the Hall of Seven Deities (Chilsadang), the Office of Ritual Affairs (Jeonsacheong), the Musicians’ Pavilion (Akgongcheong), the Royal Pavilion (Eosuksil), the Office of Incense and Ritual Supplies (Hyangdaecheong), and the Memorial Hall of King Gongmin (of the Goryeo Dynasty; r. 1351−1374).

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simple interior structure.

Hyangdaecheong is the office for managing and storing incense

Ritual officiants return to their

Jongmyo is a supreme architectural monument rich in political and religious symbolism, built by top-class architects and engineers of the past dynasty. The royal pantheon embodies the unique spiritual value and ritual decorum of a Confucian monarchy. Yet, it is far from ornate or extravagant.

With the minimum space necessary for ancestor veneration and characterized by highly refined simplicity minimizing color and ornament, the shrine is a

and other ritual supplies and for the

thought-provoking place that prompts reflection about the passage of time and

ritual officiants to stand by before

eternity as well as generational repetition and transmission. As the everyday

the royal ancestral rites begin. At the northern end of its courtyard are Mangmyoru, a slightly elevated

sounds vanish, it feels like time has stopped to open another world. The solemn depth transcending time and space overwhelms the visitor.

pavilion where the king observed the royal shrine, and a memorial shrine for King Gongmin of the Goryeo Dynasty and his Mongolian wife, Princess Noguk.

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World Heritage

Changdeok Palace

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1997

Changdeok Palace Aesthetics of Harmony with Nature

Royal palaces symbolized state sovereignty and regal authority as official residences of kings where they lived and governed. Seoul, the seat of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), has five royal palaces: Gyeongbokgung, Changdeokgung, Changgyeonggung, Deoksugung and Gyeonghuigung. Some of these palaces were built as replacements for those lost in wars or fires, and some when the royal family needed more living space.

Gyeongbok Palace, the first and main palace of Joseon, was built in 1395, the fourth year of Taejo, the founding monarch. Changdeok Palace was built in 1405, the fifth year of Taejong, the third ruler. It was primarily intended to be used as a separate palace in emergencies or when the king wanted to reside outside of the main palace. However, during the early years of Joseon, most kings preferred to live in Changdeok rather than Gyeongbok Palace, which was haunted by memories of bloody power struggles surrounding the throne.

After the Japanese Invasions of 1592-1598, when all of the palaces in Seoul were burned down, Changdeok Palace became the king’s official main residence and the financially-stricken court of King Gwanghaegun rebuilt it first. Gyeongbok Palace was left in ruins for over 270 years until Prince Regent Heungseon, the birth father of King Gojong, undertook his controversial reconstruction of the palace to boost the power of a waning dynasty.

Changdeok Palace was built in 1405, as a secondary palace of the Joseon Dynasty. However, the palace served as the official residence for the largest number of kings of Joseon through its five-century rule.

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Changdeok Palace

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1997

Eventually, Changdeok Palace was used more broadly throughout Joseon’s fivecentury rule.

Center Stage of 500-year Joseon History Changdeok Palace, or the “Palace of Illustrious Virtue,” is nestled in a compound of some 480,000 square meters that sprawls around the foot of Mt. Eungbong, sitting in front of Bohyeon Peak with Mt. Bukhan in the distant background. Its numerous halls and pavilions were laid out rather freely to harmonize with the natural contours of the surrounding hilly terrain. The site plan markedly differed from the traditional Chinese-oriented style of palatial construction, which, as exemplified by Gyeongbok Palace, typically had a symmetrical arrangement of major halls and gates along the north-south axis on flat ground. The mountain palace lacked a man-made axis regulating its spatial layout. Instead, it followed native Korean values emphasizing harmony with nature, resulting in an intriguingly flexible ground plan.

Changdeok Palace today looks far different from its original appearance as depicted in the “Picture of the Eastern Palace” (Donggwol do), drawn around 1830. A highly valuable cultural asset itself, the court-style documentary painting provides an accurate view of Changdeok and Changgyeong palaces in the eastern part of the old capital city. Both palaces have not only been reduced considerably in scale but distorted in shape, due to the ruthless destruction that occurred under Japanese rule during the early 20th century. Palace structures

The entrance area around the “bridge over the forbidden stream” viewed from the pavilion atop the

entrance area, the office area, the royal residence, and a rear garden.

The entrance area has two major features – the main entranceway,

main gate of Changdeok Palace.

Donhwamun, meaning the “gate of sincere edification,” on the southern edge

were removed or turned into entertainment venues; some were moved from one

Locust, zelkova and wisteria trees

of the palace compound and the front courtyard where the Geumcheon, the

palace to another.

adorn the streamside.

Blending in with the topography, Changdeok Palace follows the basic geomantic (pungsu) principle of an ideal home with a mountain at the back and

“forbidden stream,” flows through. Outside the palace grounds, the stream joins the Cheonggyecheon flowing through the old city, symbolizing the unity of the king and the people.

water in the front. Still, the site plan faithfully reflects the three major rules of

The stone bridge spanning the “forbidden stream” represents the first step

palatial construction. That is, government offices are placed in the outer court

into the royal sanctuary. It is also the gateway to the office area, which has

and the private residence of the royal family is in the inner quarters behind;

the Office of Special Advisors (Hongmungwan), the Office of Royal Scribes

the royal palace is behind nine gates, with the king’s quarters surrounded by

(Yemungwan) and the Royal Infirmary (Naeuiwon), among other government

many layers of buildings and courtyards for the sake of security; and the eastern

offices. All of the court offices have been restored since 1991 after being removed

section of the palace is reserved for the crown prince, a symbol of rising power,

during the colonial period. Lording over these court offices are the Hall of

and the queen dowager and other senior ladies of the royal family.

Benevolent Governance (Injeongjeon), the throne hall, where many important

The grounds of Changdeok Palace are largely divided into four areas: the

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state events were conducted throughout the Joseon period, and the Hall of

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World Heritage

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple

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1995

The Hall of Benevolent Governance (Injeongjeon) is the throne hall in Changdeok Palace. Many official events and ceremonies took place at this pavilion throughout the Joseon Dynasty.

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World Heritage

Changdeok Palace

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1997

Administering Governance (Seonjeongjeon) which served as the king’s offices.

The royal residence comprises the bedchambers of the king and the queen as well as the palaces of the crown prince and queen dowager. The king and queen’s bedchambers, named Huijeongdang (Hall of Joyful Rule) and Daejojeon (Hall of Great Creation), occupy the innermost quarters of the palace. The crown prince’s residence, Junghuidang (Hall of Immense Joy), no longer exists; only a pavilion and part of a cloister remain. The queen dowager’s residence comprises Nakseonjae (House of Joy and Goodness), Seokbokheon (House of Frugal Happiness) and Sugangjae (House of Health and Longevity), all built during the reign of Heonjong in the early 19th century.

The rear garden, called huwon, or bugwon, meaning the “northern garden,” is the largest and most beautiful royal garden of the Joseon period. It was a favorite place for outdoor activities for the members of the Joseon royal family.

Embracing the Skies and Winds The rear garden of Changdeok Palace epitomizes traditional Korean landscape architecture characterized by the aesthetics of nature. The natural contours of hills and valleys, waterfalls and woods are conserved in their pristine condition by minimizing man-made elements.

Although it was mainly intended as a private space for the royal family to relax and enjoy leisure activities, the rear garden was also used for banquets and special military exercises like archery, which the king attended. The serene rural atmosphere was considered ideal for reading and academic research as well, not to mention demonstrations of tilling and silkworm growing by the royal family.

The rear garden occupies some 300,000 square meters, or 60 percent of the total palace grounds. However, it is not only due to the vastness of the premise

The Hall of Joyful Rule (Huijeongdang) was used as the king’s office. Rebuilt in 1920 after a fire three years before, the hall has

that a complete panoramic view remains perpetually elusive here. The exquisite

a protruding front porch for access

pavilions and small ponds are hidden here and there amid lush woods. They

by automobiles and coaches.

come into view only when one turns a corner or ascends a hill. The beauty can

The Hall of Great Creation

only be found by roaming around the meandering ravines and passages, which

(Daejojeon) was the queen’s

is a different style of gardening from most European palace gardens where the

bedchamber. The present structure

entire vista can be appreciated from a balcony or verandah.

Korean gardens are characterized by minimum human touches; gardens are designed to harmonize with nature, or to be integrated into it, the boundary

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was moved from Gyeongbok palace in 1920, after the original hall was burned down in a fire in 1917.

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Changdeok Palace

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1997

with nature often remaining unclear. Korean garden architects smartly utilized outdoor pavilions as a pivotal element in applying a garden concept to natural scenery. Mostly simple and frugal structures built on scenic spots, the pavilions are places where people stay for a while to appreciate surrounding nature.

Depicting the essential feature of garden pavilions, the renowned minister and writer Yi Gyu-bo (1168-1241) wrote in the Collected Works of Minister Yi of Korea (Dongguk Yisang gukjip): “As none of the numerous forms and images can evade the sight, nothing can match an open pavilion for watching distant scenery.”

In this respect, Changdeok Palace is an excellent example of traditional Korean gardens. Scores of small pavilions, each with a poetic name succinctly expressing its role or symbolically describing the surrounding scenery, were built

comfortable pleasure from nature rather than display desires to overcome it.

along streams, on the banks of ponds, or on terraced hillsides, all with nice views.

None of the countless trees in this garden have been trimmed in an artificial

The pavilions were thoughtfully designed so as not to overwhelm the natural contours but to add charming embellishments to nature. They were not built at

(Buyongji) viewed from Juhamnu,

one time but one after another as desired under different circumstances, or to

a two-story pond-side pavilion.

help fulfill the policy goals of individual kings.

The rear garden of Changdeok Palace expresses the philosophy behind Korean garden architecture: gardens are intended to be places to seek

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form; nor is there any lavish monument to a king. Ancient Koreans preferred

The area around the Lotus Pond

natural streams and waterfalls to ornate fountains as they felt obliged to obey The small but exquisite Lotus

This is the first among the many

Loving Pavilion (Aeryeonjeong) is

man-made ponds embellishing the

perched along the Lotus-loving

wooded rear garden of Changdeok

Pond, with its two stone plinths

Palace.

dipped in the water.

the laws of nature. In the palace garden they made simple ponds to enjoy angling and boating. In the verdant woods they recited poetry, drinking wine from cups that floated on a jade blue stream.

This Korean royal garden clearly differs from the globally admired gardens at

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Changdeok Palace

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1997

Versailles in France or Ryoanji in Japan. The gardens of Versailles are confined within the walls of the palace, and the garden of Ryoanji is far removed from the order of nature. In contrast, the rear garden of Changdeok Palace was made in a way to bring humans close to nature so they could appreciate the sounds of gurgling streams from the woods, the winds swishing through pine groves, the mountain birds chirping merrily, and the moon hanging from a tree branch. It offers an infinite scope of sights and sounds beyond all boundaries.

Frugality and Elegance Like all other royal palaces of Joseon, Changdeok Palace is neither ostentatious nor luxurious. The palace exemplifies the moral value of the Confucianoriented Joseon Dynasty which cherished modesty and frugality, doing away with extravagance. Its earliest basic statute, Joseon Administrative Code (Joseon gyeongguk jeon) has the following statement: “If a palace is ostentatious, it will cause trouble for the people; if it is shabby,

The Jade Stream (Ongnyucheon) flows along the innermost valley

it will not be able to show the dignity of government. Frugal but not shabby and

in the rear garden of Changdeok

splendid but not ostentatious — this must be what is beautiful.”

Changdeok Palace contains numerous stories from the five-century history

of Korea’s last monarchy as its center stage. In spite of its checkered history and lost splendor, the palace is revered as a preeminent repository of unique

Palace. It flows along a grooved

Korean traditions and aesthetics humbly but elegantly harmonized into nature.

channel around a rock before

In this context, UNESCO said upon its decision to inscribe the palace on the

falling like a cascade.

World Heritage List in 1997: “Changdeok Palace is an outstanding example of

The autumn scenery around

Far Eastern palace architecture and garden design, exceptional for the way in

the Virtue Worship Pavilion

which the buildings are integrated into and harmonized with the natural setting,

(Jondeokjeong), which has the

adapting to the topography and retaining indigenous tree cover.”

most unique appearance among all outdoor pavilions in the rear garden of Changdeok Palace. It has a wooden board engraved with prose in calligraphy by King Jeongjo, titled “Preamble by the Old Master of Ten Thousand Streams and the Bright Moon.”

The House of Extended Felicitation (Yeongyeongdang), built in 1828 by Crown Prince Hyomyeong in honor of his father, King Sunjo, emulates the frugal housing style of the literati.

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World Heritage

Hwaseong Fortress

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1997

Hwaseong Fortress Joseon King’s New Architectural Experiment

From antiquity, Korea has built so many fortresses that it is not an exaggeration to call it “a country of fortresses.” Throughout its five thousand years of history, Korea had to withstand warring rivalries between regional forces as well as numerous invasions by foreign countries. Almost all the states that existed across the Korean peninsula built fortresses to fortify their defense, and in the process, Koreans acquired advanced fortress construction techniques. During the Three Kingdom’s period (first century B.C.-A.D. seventh century), an especially large number of fortresses were built, which later provided important protection against invaders in a series of national crises during the Goryeo (918-1392) and Joseon (1392-1910) dynasties.

Hwaseong Fortress, located in Suwon, Gyeonggi Province, is a notable outcome of this long tradition of fortress construction. Being both beautiful and functional, Hwaseong has been praised as the quintessence of Korea’s fortress architecture. The defense stronghold is unrivaled by any other Korean fortresses, featuring an array of merits adopted from various fortresses of the then contemporary states of China and Europe. It is considered to be an outstanding work of military architecture making excellent use of military construction techniques from both the East and West.

Hwaseong Fortress was completed in two and a half years from 1794 to The west gate, Hwaseomun, and the northwestern observation tower viewed from the northwestern sentry tower.

Hwaseong Fortress, built considering the merits and demerits of existing fortresses in both Korea and other countries, is so functional and beautiful as to be called the “quintessence of Korean fortress architecture.”

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World Heritage

Hwaseong Fortress

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1997

1796 under King Jeongjo’s reign (1776-1800). Hwaseong generally refers to the rampart that runs for 5.7 kilometers and the attached facilities of various configurations and functions. However, it also refers to the entire city — Korea’s first planned city — that King Jeongjo constructed as part of his efforts to bring reform to his nation and open up a new era based on his political ideals.

Jeongjo’s Reformist Ideals Result in Korea’s First Planned City Before he took the throne, King Jeongjo was educated and trained to be a monarch under the loving protection of his grandfather, Yeongjo (r. 1724-1776), who would set the record for the longest reign (52 years) in the history of the Joseon Dynasty. Jeongjo was fortunate to have his grandfather’s support, but he also suffered from guilt and grief over the tragic death of his father Crown Prince Sado (1735-1762). The former heir to the throne had become entangled in a destructive power struggle, which eventually led his own father to kill him by locking him up in a rice chest.

“I am the son of Prince Sado,” declared King Jeongjo in front of all his retainers immediately after he succeeded his grandfather to the throne. For the new king, getting over the trauma of his father’s tragic demise and restoring his father’s honor was a task critical to reinforcing his royal authority. In 1789, as

The temporary palace in Hwaseong.

King Jeongjo stayed here when he made visits to his father’s tomb, but, in other times, it was used as local government offices. This palace was also the venue for the banquet to celebrate the king’s mother Lady Hyegyeong’s 60th birthday.

the first step to carry out the task, Jeongjo moved his father’s tomb from Mt. Baebong in Yangju (currently, Jeonnong-dong in Seoul) to Mt. Hwa to the south of Suwon, and renamed it Hyeollyungwon (Memorial Garden of Prosperity).

With regards to Hwaseong’s military purpose, the fortress played a significant

Since his father’s tomb was to be constructed at a site that the Suwon Military

role in reinforcing the defense of the capital city Hanyang (today’s Seoul). The

Command Office (dohobu) occupied, Jeongjo planned to construct a walled city

impregnable fortress equipped with advanced military facilities built to the south

in the vicinity, and move the military office to the new town, promoting it to

of the capital city could fortify the existing defense network, which had been

Suwon Magistracy (yusubu).

relatively vulnerable to an attack from the south. In addition, Jeongjo stationed

Most of all, the construction of Hwaseong Fortress embodies the filial piety

5,000 troops as the Outer Unit of the Royal Guards Garrison (Jangyongyeong)

of King Jeongjo. He built the fortress to protect his father’s tomb in Mt. Hwa as

in Hwaseong, displaying his military power to his enemies in and out of the

well as the new temporary palace at the heart of the fortressed city. (Hwaseong

country.

Haenggung was where the king stayed when he made visits to his father’s tomb,

The area around Hwaseong and Mt. Paldal was not only an important

and it was the largest in size among all the temporary palaces built in the Joseon

strategic point for the defense of Hanyang, but also a major transportation

Dynasty.) Furthermore, the fortress was part of the king’s ambitious plan to

point that connected the capital city to Chungcheong, Gyeongsang and Jeolla

bring about reform in politics by strengthening regal power and breaking down

provinces. Furthermore, the rapid development and expansion that was taking

factional politics.

place in Hanyang, triggered by economic prosperity during the early reign of

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World Heritage

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple

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1995

Banghwasuryujeong (pavilion) and Hwahongmun (floodgate). The names mean, literally, “pavilion for seeking flowers and following willows” and “brilliant rainbow gate,” respectively.

Consisting of seven arched sluices topped with a wooden pavilion structure, Hwahongmun traverses the Suwon Stream that runs through the fortress. Banghwasuryujeong, built along the ridge of the eastern hill, commands a vast view beyond the fortress wall. The pavilion and the floodgate together create one of the most popular scenic spots in Hwaseong.

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Hwaseong Fortress

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Jeongjo, called for the creation of a new city in its vicinity.

Against this backdrop, the king constructed a new city in Suwon and changed its name to Hwaseong. By promoting it to the level of military magistracy, attracting residents and turning it into a commercial center, the king hoped to transform it into a great city, second only to Hanyang. With the construction of Hwaseong, the capital city was now surrounded by four military magistracies in four directions — Gaeseong to the north, Ganghwa Island to the west, Hwaseong to the south and Gwangju to the southeast — and altogether, they formed a gigantic metropolitan area similar to metropolitan areas in the Han and Tang dynasties in China.

King Jeongjo did not spend the national budget on the construction project but used the money from the royal treasury, and the king personally took part in

Janganmun, the main gate located

the designing of the city. All the spending related to the new city — including the

to the north of the walled city. It is

wages of the officials working at his father’s tomb, the cost for the king and his

very similar in style to Sungnyemun in Seoul, but is larger and more

entourage’s travel to Hwaseong, and the city’s administrative expenditure — was

imposing. Besides, it has a chemise

paid for by the royal household, not by the people through their taxes. The king

surrounding the main gate for

wished to create “a new utopian city where ordinary people could lead a happy life” to prove that he was a benevolent ruler comparable to Yao and Shun, the

maximum protection from enemy attacks.

ideal emperors in the ancient legends of China. The construction of Hwaseong Fortress was the largest public work since the transfer of the capital to Hanyang exactly 400 years earlier in 1394. By constructing a new city as great as the capital in such a short period of time, this ambitious project heralded a new era of social change, in which a strong sovereign power would unite the nation.

King Jeongjo played a leading role in the construction project, overseeing its every step including overall designing and policy-making. In this process, a group of reformist scholars contributed to implementing detailed plans and supervising actual work on the site. They were scholars who supported the School of Practical Learning (Silhak), a scholarly movement that sought to extend their inquiries to embrace broader areas of learning, such as geography, natural science, agriculture and many other academic subjects. The most trusted of them all was Jeong Yak-yong, a young scholar at age 31. Having received a royal order to take charge of the entire construction process, he dedicated himself to building an ideal fortress using the best technologies available at the time.

The chemise of Janganmun viewed from its inner gate. The crescentshaped outer wall is a brick structure unlike the main fortress wall fitted together with stones.

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World Heritage

Hwaseong Fortress

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1997

Combination of Advanced Technologies from the East and the West The wall of Hwaseong Fortress forms an oval configuration with the city nestled at the heart of the enclosure. From the summit of Mt. Paldal, the wall runs down southward along the ridges while embracing and accommodating the natural surroundings. In some sections, the wall runs uphill and downhill through the mountain, and in others, runs across a stretch of flatland. A fortress enclosing both mountainous areas and a flatland is a unique form of architecture rarely found in the neighboring countries like China and Japan.

The circumference of the fortress wall is measured at about 5.7 kilometers, and its height is 5 meters on average. There are 1.2-meter-high battlements (crenellated parapets for firing weapons while protecting soldiers from enemy fire) constructed atop the wall. Viewed from the outside, the walls stand tall revealing the entire height from top to bottom, but the inner base of the walls was reinforced by dirt banks making the most of the natural terrain in composition. The battlements are built of bricks, and each of the merlons has an embrasure to allow shooters to fire against the attackers.

Hwaseong has four main gates: Janganmun to the north, Paldalmun to the south, Hwaseomun to the west and Changnyongmun to the east. Each of the gates is protected by another layer of curved wall, a semi-circular chemise attached to either side of the gate. Apart from these four main gates, there are five The wall of Hwaseong Fortress

secret exits along the wall. Additionally, there are two floodgates across Suwon

at night. A battlement (1.2 meters

Stream, which flows from the north to the south. One of them is Hwahongmun,

tall) is built atop the wall (5 meters tall at average), which runs 5.7 kilometers along its entire circumference. The outer face of the wall reveals its entire height from top to bottom, while the

Both the north and south gates have a guard platform (jeokdae) on their either side, which allowed the guards to observe enemy movements and attack the flanks of the enemies approaching the wall. Along the fortress wall, there are

ground within the wall is raised with

two platforms for arrow launchers (nodae), one on the west and the other on the

dirt, which hides a good portion of

east, and three observation towers (gongsimdon), which are hollow structures

its inner face.

Paldalmun, the south gate of the fortress. This beautiful and magnificent gate has almost the same structure as Janganmun

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the northern floodgate, with a beautiful pavilion structure on the top.

with ladders and a stairway spiraling up the interior wall. The archer’s platform and observation tower were completely new features which had never been applied to other fortress structures before.

Other notable features of the fortress include the bastion (chiseong), a

on the north, which is the main

portion of the wall projecting outward to form a walled terrace, facilitating

entrance to the fortress.

active defense against assaulting troops. Along the enclosure of the fortress, there

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Hwaseong Fortress

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1997

The western secret exit is located at a sequestered spot under the western command post on Mt. Paldal. There are five such secret exits along the wall of Hwaseong Fortress.

Battlements on the wall and the northeastern observation tower.

Hwaseong is the only fortress of the Joseon Dynasty that has this kind of observation tower, which has a support station for soldiers built on a raised platform of brick construction.

are nine bastions, some of which have cannon platforms (poru) hidden behind

them destroyed by floods and wars. No other fortresses in Korea have been

battlements and some others have roof structures (poru, a homonym of the

constructed with such a large number of defense facilities. Moreover, while most

previous poru) to hide the movements of the soldiers stationed there. There are

of the fortresses before it served exclusively for defense, Hwaseong was equipped

also sentry towers in the form of a wooden pavilion (gangnu) built high on the

with more features for attack.

corners of the wall to have an unobstructed view of the outside.

Among the numerous buildings in Hwaseong Fortress, the northeastern

The fortress has two buildings on its western and eastern sides, which were

sentry tower, known more widely as Banghwasuryujeong, is especially noted

used as military command posts (jangdae). There are also five beacon towers

for its architectural elegance. Placed on a high and narrow platform, the small

(bongdon) at which torches were fired to create smoke signals for emergency

building has a unique style that did not stick to established architectural rules,

communication with the adjacent fortresses or other military facilities nearby. A

yet its elegant simplicity epitomizes the beauty of Korean pavilions. Overlooking

different message was delivered according to the number of smoke strands rising

a pond underneath it, which is lined with weeping willows, the pavilion is in

from the round chimneys.

perfect harmony with its surroundings.

The fortress originally had 48 military facilities along its wall, which

It is said that King Jeongjo frequently emphasized aesthetics during the

served a wide variety of purposes including surveillance, attack, command

construction of the fortress. An anecdote has it that one of his retainers asked,

and communication. Currently, there are 41 facilities left with seven of

“Your Majesty, a fortress does fine as long as it is strong enough to defend against

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Hwaseong Fortress

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1997

Hwaseong was recorded in detail in a royal protocol entitled, Wonhaeng eulmyo jeongni uigwe (The Royal Protocol on King Jeongjo’s Visit to His Father’s Tomb in the Year of Eulmyo), which remains intact today. Every year in October, the Suwon municipal government holds the Hwaseong Culture Festival, in which the 18th-century royal procession is reenacted based on this document.

The fortress was restored to its original shape, after the damage and destruction inflicted during the Japanese colonial rule and the Korean War was repaired, based on another court document, Hwaseong seongyeok uigwe (The Royal Protocol on the Construction of Hwaseong Fortress). The protocol collected various kinds of official documents and also recorded the construction process in great detail, including the design, actual shape, size and characteristic features of every building, as well as the sources and uses of various building materials, their treatments, personal information about the hired workers, and the calculations of wages and other expenditures. The meticulous record enables posterity to have detailed information about the construction process, while giving modern people a glimpse of how the Joseon Dynasty appreciated the value of record keeping.

A truly original, practical and aesthetic work of architecture, Hwaseong Fortress is the epitome of the Joseon fortress, inheriting tradition while reflecting changing social ideals. Standing across a stretch of land that encompasses hills and flatland, the fortress has features characteristic of both mountain and enemy attacks. So, why do you try to make it so exquisite?” The king replied,

flatland fortresses. Other qualities unique to this fortress include its scientific,

“Beauty can easily subdue the enemy.” The king’s aesthetic awareness resulted in

reasonable and practical structural design as well as the construction techniques

a military fortress which is also praised for its aesthetic qualities.

that made use of a variety of building materials such as stone, brick and wood.

The construction of the fortress was successfully completed in the summer

Likewise, this military citadel is acclaimed not only for its defensive capacity but

of 1796. Aided by ground-breaking inventions and technologies, the project

also for its aesthetic qualities. In 1997, Hwaseong Fortress was inscribed on the

took an unusually short period of time to finish — two and a half years. In

UNESCO World Heritage List.

February 1795, when the construction was in its final phase, the king visited Hwaseong with his mother Lady Hyegyeong to hold a banquet to celebrate her 60th birthday. The new city was selected as the venue for the grand event, which is estimated to have been the most splendid and sumptuous of all the birthday celebrations of the royal family held in the Joseon Dynasty. The long and magnificent procession with the king and his mother in their respective sedan chairs left Seoul accompanied by high-level officials and troops, and crossed the Han River at Noryangjin before they finally reached Hwaseong. The royal trip to

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The beacon towers for sending out smoke signals are placed on top of a rectangular structure that juts out from the fortress wall. The gun embrasures on the exterior of the building enabled the soldiers to keep watch or fire guns to protect the beacon towers.

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World Heritage

Gyeongju Historic Areas

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2000

Gyeongju Historic Areas Legacies of a Brilliant Cultural Flowering

Gyeongju is a marvelous city, the cradle of precious vestiges that embody the history and culture of Silla (57 B.C.-A.D. 935), the golden age of ancient Korean civilization. Now a modest city with a population of 270,000 (as of 2010), the old capital of Silla sustains the vibrant spirit and aura of the millennium-long kingdom which attained a brilliant cultural flowering through the reigns of its 56 kings.

Silla began as a small tribal state named Saroguk in the southeastern edge of the Korean peninsula. Yet, it eventually overwhelmed its two stronger rival states, Goguryeo (37 B.C.-A.D. 668) and Baekje (18 B.C.-A.D. 660), to assemble a unified kingdom. Science, culture and the arts blossomed on a foundation of political stability and economic strength. With its doors opened wide to the outside world, Silla actively interacted with China and Japan and the Islamic world in West Asia. Gyeongju became an international city a millennium ago.

At its peak in the eighth century, Gyeongju had as many as 178,936 households (some 900,000 residents), suggesting that it was as prosperous as Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, Baghdad (present-day Iraq) of the Islam Empire, and Changan (Xian) of the Tang Dynasty in China.

Though its glorious era has long past and the city has recently underwent The Great Tumuli Park in central Gyeongju and Mt. Nam seen beyond create the unique cultural topography of the ancient capital.

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sudden changes in its urban environment due to road construction and housing

Mt. Nam Area: The World of Buddhas

development, Gyeongju has preserved its rich cultural heritage and ambience

Mt. Nam, or Namsan, meaning “South Mountain,” lies south of Gyeongju.

remarkably intact. The city boasts numerous historical monuments scattered all around like a huge museum; archaeologists can still be found digging here and there in search of resplendent cultural remains buried underground.

In recognition of the city’s value as a cultural asset worthy of humanity’s common effort for preservation, the UNESCO World Heritage Committee

Buddha in the Buddhas’ Valley

Gowibong (494 meters) and Geumobong (468 meters). Though it is not

(Bulgok) on Mt. Nam in Gyeongju.

towering, the mountain looks impressive with deep valleys and clear ridges that

The Buddha smiles a little shyly,

have interesting shapes when viewed from different directions.

with his head slightly lowered.

inscribed “Gyeongju Historic Areas” on the World Heritage List in 2000. The

Comfortably seated in a niche, this

areas are grouped in accordance with the nature of their historic remains — Mt.

is the oldest Buddha image in the

Nam, a renowned treasure trove of Buddhist art; the Moon Fortress, a royal

Spanning some 10 kilometers, Mt. Nam actually has two prominent peaks,

A rock-carved image of the

Namsan area.

The mountain embraces hundreds of Buddhist treasures, including temple This bodhisattva image at Sinseonam hermitage on Mt. Nam is carved in high relief against

sites with Buddha images, stone pagodas, lanterns and lotus pedestals, most of them dated from the seventh to the tenth century, hence it is called an “outdoor

palace site; the Great Tumuli Park, a cluster of burial mounds; the ruins of

A three-story stone pagoda

a shallow niche cut into a rock

museum.” Considered individually, most of the sites do not stand out because

Hwangnyongsa, a state temple; and the Mountain Fortress that served as the

on the site of Yongjangsa temple

face. It is sitting in a comfortable

they were seamlessly harmonized with their natural surroundings. For example,

on Mt. Nam. The 4.5-meter-tall

meditation posture with one leg

pagoda has only the upper tier of

pendant. A mass of clouds under

the pedestal, with the natural rock

the pedestal gives the impression

Yongjangsa temple has a three-story stone pagoda erected directly on a natural

serving as the virtual base.

that the image is floating on air.

rock instead of a man-made foundation.

capital’s defense structure. The listed cultural properties within the five locales amount to 52 items.

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images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are carved into rocks and the ruins of

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A night view of Anapji, a royal

Important historic sites are also found around the foot of this mountain.

They include Najeong, or “Ivy Well,” famed as the birthplace of the founding monarch of Silla; and the site of Poseokjeong, or “Abalone Stone Pavilion,” where an “abalone-shaped” water channel for floating wine cups remains as a

resort pond of Silla. It simulated a Daoist fairyland with artificial islands and peaks. The indented shorelines block a whole view of the pond from any angle.

reminder of the kingdom’s tragic last days.

Some stone terraces are all that remain of Yongjangsa today. Yet the temple is famous because the 15th-century genius writer Kim Si-seup wrote New Stories of the Golden Turtle (Geumo sinhwa), the precursor of the Korean novel, while

Moon Fortress Area: Memories of Glory over Millennium

staying here. A three-story granite pagoda stands on a rocky summit stretching

Only a few dynasties have lasted a thousand years throughout human history.

to the east as if it were embracing the temple site. While most other stone

Silla ruled for a millennium from one royal capital, Gyeongju, which was ideally

pagodas of Silla have a two-tier foundation, this pagoda rests on a single-tier

located, carefully designed and well-defended.

foundation; whoever designed the pagoda might have wanted the mountain to serve as its natural base.

The old city of Gyeongju was meticulously laid out in square blocks that were bordered by 15-meter-wide lanes, equivalent to today’s four-lane streets,

Similarly astounding is the bodhisattva image of the Sinseonam hermitage,

divided for horse-drawn vehicles and pedestrians. Drainage ditches ran parallel,

carved in high relief on a south-facing rock overlooking Gyeongju. Stylistically

beyond which houses stood. The houses had tile roofs and were heated with

rare for a Unified Silla stone image, this 1.4-meter-high bodhisattva is sitting in

charcoal. The atmosphere was clean and pleasant around the city as charcoal

a playful posture, or lalita, with one leg pendant. In contrast, the full round face

produced no smoky smell or soot. The roofs of temples were said to have

is rather solemn looking, as if immersed in deep thought. Unlike its clean-cut

“glittered against the sky like the Milky Way” and the lotus-crowned pagodas

facial features, the folds in the bodhisattva’s robe are shallow and seem to vanish

“stood in unending lines like flights of wild geese.” The city had 35 “golden

into the clouds carved under the pedestal, giving the impression that the image is

mansions” of aristocrats. Given these affluent cityscapes, the royal palaces must

floating on air.

have been even more luxurious.

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It is not known exactly where the early rulers of Silla lived. However, historical records such as Samguk Yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) suggest their palace was near Najeong, where Bak Hyeokgeose, the founder of the kingdom, was born, or the Five Royal Tombs (Oreung) located northwest of Mt. Nam, where the founding king is said to have been buried. According to Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms), “Walls were built and named Wolseong in the 22nd year of King Pasa (r. 80-112), and the king moved in to live there in the seventh month of the year.”

Gyeongju has two famous palace sites — Wolseong (Moon Fortress) which is also called Banwolseong (Half Moon Fortress), and the Palace of Crown Prince, or Imhaejeon (Pavilion on the Sea), and the adjacent royal resort, Anapji (Pond of Geese and Ducks). The Moon Fortress surrounded the main palace where most of the Silla kings lived. Encircling the palace compounds, walls were built of stone and mud to the north, east and west, while natural cliffs and a flowing stream formed the southern border. Stone terraces and moats were built along the northern and western borders, and a gate on the eastern border led to the Palace of the Crown Prince.

Large-scale building sites have recently been discovered north of Gyerim (Cock Grove) and around Seongdong-dong. These impressive underground remains with cloisters and hallways are believed to be additional palace sites.

Continued efforts are needed to uncover the original appearance of the ancient royal capital from its deep layers of time.

The only extant painting dated to Silla, this image of a flying horse embellishes a birch bark saddle flap, which was found in 1973 during excavation of a burial mound in Gyeongju. The tomb was later named the Flying Horse Tomb

Great Tumuli Park Area: Enigma Beyond Description Many ancient burial mounds scattered around the city center form Gyeongju’s unique cultural topography exuding an enigmatic atmosphere. There are some

(Cheonmachong).

largest royal headwear ever found in tombs of the Silla period. It was excavated from the northern mound

as 23 meters, others flattened so much that they can hardly be discerned. The

of the Great Tomb of Hwangnam

nobility of Silla.

the Silla tombs in terms of the scale of burial grounds and the quality of excavated relics.

A small number of these tombs have been excavated and their interiors surveyed, but none of the tomb occupants have been identified. Instead, the tombs have yielded myriad artifacts, including gold crowns and other gold accessories, glass cups, stoneware and paintings of flying horses on tree barks,

A gold crown known to be the

150 tombs of the Silla period in the central district of Gyeongju, some as high earthen mounds are the tombs of kings, queens and other members of the

Tumuli Group of Nodong-ri and the Tumuli Group of Noseo-ri. They represent

(Hwangnam Daechong). Six gold crowns in similar shapes have thus far been discovered.

providing vivid glimpses into lifestyles of the time. Most of the artifacts are housed at the Gyeongju National Museum.

The Heavenly Horse Tomb (Cheonmachong), one of some 20 tombs on the grounds of Great Tumuli Park, is the only Silla burial mound which has been excavated and opened to the public. The burial chamber is not a subterranean space because the coffin was not buried but placed above ground and covered

Particularly, the huge mounds in the present downtown area were built

with piles of stone and mud. The tomb’s name comes from the birch bark saddle

during the fifth to the sixth centuries, when Silla’s royal power was swelling.

flaps painted with flying horses found inside. The tomb also yielded a gold crown

These tombs are clustered in a few prominent groups, including the Tumuli

recognized as the largest and most ornate royal headpiece of Silla ever found.

Group of Hwangnam-dong, which has been made into Great Tumuli Park, the

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The Great Tomb of Hwangnam (Hwangnam Daechong), also in the Great

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The ruins of Hwangnyongsa, one of Silla’s state Buddhist temples, in Gyeongju, with foundation stones exposed through archaeological excavations which have been under way since 1976.

Some 40,000 artifacts have been retrieved from the ruins.

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objects were unearthed from the ruins. The temple began to be built in 553, the 14th year of the reign of King Jinheung, and continued through many reigns.

It was completed with the casting of a giant bell in 754, the 13th year of King Gyeongdeok’s reign.

Historical records say Hwangnyongsa housed a huge ritual bell four times taller than the Sacred Bell of King Seongdeok (3.75 meters tall), which is one of the largest and most beautiful bells in the world. More famously, an 80-metertall nine-story wooden pagoda stood on the temple grounds, rising as high as 20-story buildings today.

Legend also has it that the temple had a five-meter-tall golden statue of the Buddha and two attendant bodhisattvas, which were cast with 55,000 geun of iron and 30,000 pun of gold sent by King Asoka of India. The Indian king is said to have sent the material and scale models for the images after repeated attempts had failed in his country. A 1.82-meter-tall decorative tile for the end of a roof ridge attests to the temple’s legendary scale and grand architectural style. The nine-story wooden pagoda, which could be seen from anywhere in Gyeongju, is said to have been erected to show off Silla’s growing power to its nine neighbors.

Mountain Fortress Area: The Royal Capital’s Defense Strongholds Tumuli Park, is the largest among all extant Silla tombs. The gourd-shaped twin mounds are 80 meters from east to west, 120 meters from north to south, and 23 meters high. Excavations have found that a man was interred in

The stone pagoda of Bunhwangsa, one of Silla’s state temples. The pagoda was built with stones cut

A basin surrounded by mountains, Gyeongju had military fortifications built along its natural defense line. Myeonghwal Mountain Fortress (Myeonghwal

like bricks but in an earlier wooden

Sanseong) is the only mountain fortress of Silla included in the World Heritage

the northern mound and a woman in the southern mound. The man’s burial

pagoda style. Only three stories

areas. Built with undressed stone during the early years of Silla, this fortress on

chamber contained remains of a young woman believed to have been buried for

remain of what is assumed to

Mt. Myeonghwal east of Gyeongju greatly contributed to the defense of the royal

her master. Hence the tomb is assumed to have been made before King Jijeung (r.

have been a seven- or nine-story structure.

500-514) banned sacrificial burials.

capital along with fortresses on Mt. Nam and Mt. Seondo. King Jabi temporarily resided in Myeonghwal in 475, which suggests the fortress was of considerable scale.

Hwangnyongsa Temple Area: Symbol of National Strength

Gyeongju has an unusual history as the capital of a kingdom that lasted over a thousand years. It is a historic city with rare records stretching from

Hwangnyongsa (Temple of Imperial Dragon), the largest and most splendid

the ancient to medieval and modern ages. The history of Gyeongju spanning

state temple of Silla, was burned down when Mongols invaded in 1238, leaving

two millennia has incomparable historical and cultural value as the birthplace

only the foundation stones of buildings and statues. Although the temple no

of Korean culture. This is the reason why Gyeongju is admired and has to be

longer exists, the vast ruins have drawn enormous attention. The estate thus

developed into a city of global renown where antiquity and modernity are

far surveyed amounts to 380,086 square meters and more than 40,000 antique

happily harmonized.

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Dolmens in Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Key to Bronze Age Culture on the Korean Peninsula

It is believed that humans began to inhabit the Korean peninsula around 700,000 years ago during the Paleolithic era. With an early agricultural society taking shape, the Bronze Age was in full swing around 1,000 B.C. The increased use of bronze tools, made from an alloy of copper and tin or zinc, characterized this period. As a result, tilling and livestock breeding developed into major means of livelihood. A widespread use of bronze implements yielded surplus farm products, which led to the emergence of power groups and social classes.

Bronze wares are most often excavated from megalithic barrows known as dolmens, or “goindol” in Korean, which literally means the “propped stone.”

The dolmens are burial sites representative of the Bronze Age. While interment of the dead may have been the primary intention of early humans in creating the dolmens, the various burial offerings like earthenware, stone tools and bronze ware provide modern people with a vital glimpse into their society. They are important archaeological remains from the early stage of civilization found in natural environments, not inside museums.

Dolmens are found all over the world, but are notably concentrated in the Northeast Asian countries of Korea, China and Japan. Among these countries, Korea is veritably the “kingdom of dolmens,” with a far larger number of the stone cists distributed throughout North and South Korea. Some 30,000 The dolmen group in Jungnim-ri, which is part of the world’s densest dolmen cluster in Gochang County, a UNESCO World Heritage site.

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dolmens have been found in South Korea and 10,000 to 15,000 in North Korea, which together account for over 40 percent of all dolmens identified around the world.

Korea Has 40 Percent of All Dolmens Worldwide Megalithic culture fully blossomed on the Korean peninsula in view of the degree of concentration and diversity in the forms and scales of dolmens discovered in the country. Dolmens are seen everywhere around Korea; they are so common that they can be mistaken for plain rocks sometimes. Running into them while tilling the fields, oftentimes farmers inadvertently removed or smashed what they deemed to be “troublesome rocks.” A considerable number of dolmens in Korea have presumably been destroyed in this way.

A great majority of dolmens in Korea are clustered along the west coast areas,

A view of mountain slopes stretching from Maesan-ri to Dosan-ri, Jungnim-ri and Sanggap-

particularly in Jeolla provinces where some 20,000 dolmens have been identified.

ri, in Gochang County, where

Among these, dolmens at the World Heritage sites in Gochang, Hwasun

dolmens are scattered. Bronze Age

and Ganghwa are in good condition, appropriately clustered and diverse in style, serving as important clues for studying the formation and evolution of

people built shelters on low hills overlooking broad fields.

prehistoric megalithic structures.

Korean dolmens look quite different from those in other regions. They are largely divided into two types, “table” and “checkerboard,” depending on the shape and position of the burial chamber. A table dolmen is built with three to four well-dressed stone slabs that are set upright to surround an above-ground burial cist and a large flat capstone that serves as the roof. The checkerboard dolmen, or the go-table dolmen, has an underground burial chamber made by erecting stone slabs or piling up broken stone fragments. A flat capstone laid on low propping stones covers the chamber. Some dolmens, resembling the checkerboard type, have no support stones but a capstone sits directly over a chamber. Another modified type found only in Jeju Island has several upright slabs aligned along the edge of a capstone to surround an above-ground cist.

The capstones vary in shape and size, weighing from scores to hundreds of tons. Moving such heavy stone blocks must have required a large workforce but how the huge dolmens were built without any heavy equipment remains a mystery. Empirical archaeology has found that 16 to 20 men must have been needed to move a 1-ton capstone over a distance of 1.5 kilometers; assuming

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A rock quarry near a mountain top in Hyosan-ri, Hwasun County, North Jeolla Province, preserves the remains of quarrying for dolmen construction in this area.

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2000 A typical table-type dolmen at Dosan-ri, Gochang County. Two propping stones, each 1.9 meters tall, are set up some 65 centimeters apart and covered with a thin, broad capstone. It is one of the finest-shaped dolmens in Gochang.

that round logs and ropes were used, 200 men were required to move a 32-ton capstone.

To make a dolmen, the first task was gathering stones of appropriate size

The dolmen cluster at Jungnim-ri, Gochang County, photographed around 1992, before its inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage

and shape, or breaking off necessary pieces from a boulder. In order to break off

List. Over 100 dolmens are

a stone piece from a rock base, a deep groove was made along the grain on the

scattered over terraced rice

rock surface and a wooden stake was wedged in and moistened with water. Then as the wood swelled the rock would crack off.

paddies.

task required skilled masons and civil engineers who knew how to break off stones from rock boulders, how to transport the stones more easily, and how to lift and precisely position a capstone upon the propping stones.

The table-type dolmen required more labor to build because the capstone had to be lifted to cover an above-ground burial chamber. Dolmens with smaller or no propping stones were relatively easier to build as there was no need to lift a heavy capstone. Therefore, those who built table dolmens may be assumed to

Stone slabs hewn in this method were moved on rolling logs. With propping

have possessed superior power. The checkerboard and capstone dolmens tend

stones erected in pits, dirt was piled over the stones until a gentle-sloped dune

to have fewer artifacts or even no artifacts at all. Generally, table dolmens are

was formed. The capstone was moved up along the slope and then the dirt

found in the northern regions of the Korean peninsula, and dolmens with smaller

underneath was removed. A dead body and funerary goods were placed in the

or no propping stones in the southern regions, including Jeolla and Gyeongsang

empty space between the propping stones. The cist was then sealed with flat

provinces. Hence the former type is classified as the “northern style” and the

stone slabs.

latter types the “southern style.”

This is the way the dolmens are assumed to have been built. No doubt the

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Gochang: The World’s Densest Dolmen Cluster Hundreds of dolmens in varying sizes are found along the foot of the mountain

This large checkerboard dolmen

at Jungnim-ri, Sanggap-ri and Dosan-ri in Gochang County, North Jeolla

at Maesan-ri typifies the “southern-

Province. They are scattered over slopes stretching some 1.8 kilometers from east to west. As many as 447 dolmens have been identified so far here, demonstrating its reputation as the world’s largest and densest cluster of dolmens.

While the majority of dolmens in Gochang belong to the checkerboard type,

style” dolmens of Gochang.

A huge dolmen named Pingmae Bawi, meaning “stone hurling rock,” in Hwasun weighs over 280 tons. This dolmen was

the table dolmens at Jidong Village, Dosan-ri, have high academic value as

considered a natural rock when

they mark the southern limit of the northern style. Considering no remarkable

it was discovered in 2000, but

funerary items have been found in dolmens in this area, it was probably a common burial custom among people of all classes at the time. The dolmens

ensuing archaeological excavation and survey concluded that it is a prehistoric man-made structure.

might have been graves of people who settled in the fertile land here around 400500 B.C. Still, there must have been some class distinction between those who possessed bronze implements and those who did not. In this regard, the dolmens might have been family burial sites of tribal leaders.

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Dolmens in various shapes, including those which have lost capstones, dot an area in Daesin-ri, Hwasun County.

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A famous table-type dolmen at Bugeun-ri, on Ganghwa Island, off the west coast. It is considered to be one of the most aesthetically sophisticated dolmens among some 30,000 dolmens found across South Korea.

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to south, with a capstone measuring 6.4 meters by 5.23 meters, 1.12 meters

Hwasun: Arena for Firsthand Education on Megalithic Culture

thick, and weighing some 50 tons resting on top. The big propping stones are

A total of 597 dolmens dot an area spanning some five kilometers along a valley

tilted some 30 degrees to the east, forming a long rectangular burial chamber

named Bogeomjae, which straddles Hyosan-ri in Dogok-myeon and Daesin-ri in

resembling a passageway. The capstone is positioned almost parallel to the

Chunyang-myeon, Hwasun County, South Jeolla Province. Reported to academic

ground.

circles rather recently in 1995, these dolmens were found buried under bushes

Like most other table-type dolmens which are vulnerable to robbery and

in remarkably good condition. They include table, checkerboard and capstone

consequent man-made damage, this internationally renowned dolmen was also

dolmens. Scores of them weigh over 100 tons. One of them, named “Pingmae

found to contain no funerary objects. Some scholars suggest it may have been a

Bawi,” meaning “stone hurling rock,” is 7.3 meters long, 5 meters wide and 4 meters thick. Estimated to weigh some 280 tons, this is indisputably one of the largest dolmens in the world.

A dolmen stands at the end of a ridge of Mt. Goryeo on Ganghwa Island, with one of its propping stones tilted under the weight of

A survey on 35 dolmens at Jidong Village in Daesin-ri resulted in the

the capstone.

monument to a certain group of prehistoric residents or a ritual altar, rather than a burial site.

Dolmens are among the most common types of prehistoric megalithic structures. Among other comparable monuments are the pyramids in Egypt and

discovery of diverse artifacts including stone implements and earthen vessels.

the Americas, Stonehenge in the United Kingdom, the Carnac menhir alignments

These dolmens were probably built sometime between 800 B.C. and 500 B.C., as

in France, the moai statues of Easter Island in Polynesia, and the Tarxien

radiocarbon dating of charcoal retrieved from a burial cist pointed to 550 B.C.

Temples in Malta. These prehistoric remains, differing in shape and function, are

and thermoluminescence dating of earthenware to 770 B.C. Another significant feature of this dolmen cluster is that a rock quarry has

generally believed to have been used for interment of human remains, memorials, or ritual sites.

been found nearby the mountain top, where traces of quarrying for capstones

Distinctively concentrated at the early phase of agricultural settlement, these

and stone fragments remain. They offer a glimpse into the early masonry

stone structures, particularly dolmens, are highly valuable historical remnants.

techniques and the construction process of dolmens.

They provide vital clues to the cultures, social structures and political systems as well as the spiritual world of prehistoric people. Dolmens have thus been objects

Ganghwa: Table-type Dolmens in Aesthetic Forms

of extensive academic interest and studies. However, no clear theories have been established yet as to the origins of these enigmatic monuments of early man,

A total of 127 dolmens are scattered around the northern foot of Mt. Goryeo

their stylistic evolution, chronology and relations among artifacts unearthed

stretching over the five villages of Bugeun-ri, Samgeo-ri, Gocheon-ri, Osang-

from them. With many crucial questions remaining unresolved, dolmens require

ri and Gyosan-ri in Gwanghwa County, which belongs to the great Incheon

continued research and imagination.

metropolitan area. Seventy of them in comparatively better states are on the World Heritage List.

These dolmens characteristically lie on diverse terrain, including mountain bases, hills, flat lands and mountain ridges. They are located some 100-200 meters above sea level, notably on higher altitudes than most other dolmens around Korea, which are on average 300-350 meters above sea level.

In the middle of the farming field in Bugeun-ri stands a famously beautiful dolmen. One of the largest dolmens in Korea, this impressive structure consists of two 2.45-meter-tall propping stones standing upright side by side from north

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Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes

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Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes A Spectacular Geological Museum

Jeju Island was created by the volcanic activities that went through four stages between 1.2 million and 250,000 years ago. With diverse and unique volcanic features and beautiful landscape stretching in every direction, the entire island is a virtual volcano museum.

Formed in the Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era, which is a relatively recent geological past, the initial volcanic landforms of Jeju Island have been well preserved, providing precious information about global volcanism.

Some of the best examples of Jeju Island’s volcanic landforms are Mt. Halla, its 368 parasitic cones, and the lava tubes formed by explosive eruptions of basaltic lava. Specifically, the mountain has the world’s largest number of parasitic cones (called oreum in the Jeju dialect) to be derived from a single volcano. These sites are highly regarded not only for their superb scenic beauty but also for their research value as examples representing the earth’s geological history.

The UNESCO World Heritage Committee selects a World Natural Heritage in view of the site’s natural beauty, properties as a habitat for endangered species and its geological features that shed light on the history of the earth. In other words, the site’s outstanding scenic beauty is not the sole condition for an inscription on the World Heritage List, but its exceptional geological and ecological values are also assessed as important prerequisites. As such, more Seongsan Sunrise Peak, a parasitic cone created by an underwater eruption, creates outstanding scenery against the backdrop of the surrounding sea.

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Baengnokdam, or the White Deer Lake, at the summit of Mt.

The peak of Mt. Halla in the

Halla is a basin-shaped crater

background of a colony of royal

lake, 111 meters deep and 1,720

azalea and dead fir trees at the

meters in circumference. There is

parasitic cone named Witseoreum.

a local legend that this lake was

The mountain is a shield volcano

frequented by mountain gods

with gentle slopes except for the

riding white deer.

steep lava dome at the top.

weight is placed on the site’s objective qualities, including its contributions

around the mountain (about 8.3 percent of the entire island) has been designated

to scientific research, rather than on aesthetic considerations, which can be

as a natural reserve.

inherently subjective.

The overall shape of Mt. Halla is simple, but it features the diverse

In 2007, UNESCO listed Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes as a World

topography and geology of a volcanic mountain, including a lake-filled crater at

Natural Heritage in recognition of its landscape of surpassing natural beauty,

the summit, a cluster of rocky cliffs to the southwest of the summit composed of

unique volcanic landforms and ecology. Juju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes,

rock pillars with bizarre shapes (columnar joints formed by cooling of lava), and

comprised of three sites — Mt. Halla Natural Reserve, the Geomunoreum Lava

40 or more parasitic cones. The mountain has a wide range of climate conditions

Tube System and Seongsan Sunrise Peak — is the first natural site in Korea to be

and distinct vegetation distributions along altitudinal gradient, displaying

placed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List.

magnificent landscapes varying by season and location.

Baengnokdam (White Deer Lake), an oval-shaped crater lake at the summit

Mt. Halla Natural Reserve: Unique Geography and Ecology

of Mt. Halla, has an east-west diameter of 700 meters and north-south diameter of 500 meters. It is 111 meters deep and 1,720 meters in circumference. On the

Jeju Island has an oval shape and is 70 kilometers from east to west and 30

whole, Mt. Halla is an aspite-type shield volcano (a volcano with gradual slopes

kilometers from north to south. It is 1,847.2 square kilometers in area, about

formed from fluid lava flows traveling across a broad area of land), but its steep

three times as large as Seoul, the capital city of Korea. At the center of the island

summit has the characteristics of a lava dome (a mound-shaped protrusion

is Mt. Halla, a volcano rising 1,950 meters above sea level, and the mountain’s

resulting from the slow extrusion of viscous lava from a volcano). Mt. Halla is

gentle slopes descend from its peak all the way down into the sea, making the

unique in that it is a shield volcano which erupted on a continental tectonic plate.

island look like one big mountain. The area covering 151.35 square kilometers

Shield volcanoes are not common all over the world, taking up less than 10

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percent of the world’s volcanoes. Furthermore, most other shield volcanoes occur in oceanic plates.

The mountain is a habitat for a wide variety of plants from its base up to the top. It has the distinct vertical distribution of flora along its slopes from subtropical to temperate and polar plants. Its flora encompasses various species growing in a wide range of climate zones from the northern limits of the subtropical zone to the southern limit of the polar zone.

Mt. Halla is a habitat for more than 1,800 plant species, almost half of over 4,000 species growing in Korea; it is in itself a virtual ecological park and botanical garden. Especially noteworthy are a variety of arctic-alpine plants including many endemic species and the forest of Korean fir (Abies koreana) on the slopes near the summit.

The arctic-alpine plants inhabiting Mt. Halla include 33 species endemic to Jeju Island, one genus endemic to Korea, 56 species for which Jeju is their

Geomunoreum (456 meters above sea level) is just a mediumsized volcano, but is the source of lava flows that formed the entire Geomunoreum Lava Tube System. Its special geological and topographical characteristics resulted in unique vegetation and flora distribution which created a combination of warm-temperate and cool-temperate plants.

southern range limit, and three species for which the island is their northern range limit. These plants are valuable plant genetic resources of excellent research value.

One of the numerous parasitic cones distributed all over Jeju Island, Geomunoreum (465 meters above sea level) is located to the northeast of the Geomunoreum Lava Tube System: An Unimaginable Mystery

island. The volcano erupted repeatedly between 300,000 and 100,000 years ago, and lava flows from these eruptions traveled down its northeastern slopes

Jeju Island has over 90 percent of its land covered with basalt, a dark-colored

to the coastline, creating over 20 caves along their course. Collectively called

rock of volcanic origin. Parasitic cones, distributed all over the island from Mt.

the Geomunoreum Lava Tube System, this site retains traces that show how

Halla to the coastal areas, contribute to the volcanic landscapes unique to this

these massive lava tubes were formed and evolved into their current state. The

island.

lava tube system consists of 20 or more lava tubes of various lengths, structures

Jeju has a total of 368 parasitic cones created as a result of repeated volcanic

and components. Among them, the Geomunoreum volcano and five lava tubes

activities that occurred more than 100 times between 1.2 million and 250,000

of exceptional qualities — Manjang Cave, Gimnyeong Cave, Bengdui Cave,

years ago in the vicinity of Mt. Halla. Considering the size of the island, it is the

Dangcheomul Cave and Yongcheon Cave — have been included in the UNESCO

highest concentration of parasitic cones in the world.

World Heritage List.

Parasitic cones have created numerous scenic spots all over the island, which

Manjang Cave runs 7,416 meters without stopping, and Gimnyeong Cave

are praised for their majestic beauty, including Baengnokdam at the peak of

has long been called the Snake Cave for its meandering passage. About 80-100

Mt. Halla, Seongsan Sunrise Peak (Ilchulbong), Suwol Peak, Mt. Songak, Mt.

meters apart from each other, the two lava tubes are presumed to have been

Sanbang and Sangumburi Crater.

created by one long lava stream, and been blocked in the middle by hardened

While Mt. Halla and its 368 parasitic cones are volcanic landforms viewable

lava, which separated it into two tubes. Bengdui Cave, a habitat for endemic

above ground, lava tubes are the result of volcanic activities manifested below

species of spotty belly greenlings and spiders, is noted for its complicated,

the ground.

labyrinthine structure. While Dangcheomul Cave and Yongcheon Cave are

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The inside of Yongcheon Cave. Although the cave has a typical configuration of a lava tube, its wide variety of speleothems make it look like a gigantic limestone cave. The cave formations were created by rainwater that infiltrated into the cave carrying the carbonate sand covering the ground above.

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Speleothems in Yongcheon Cave. Rainwater dissolved with carbonate infiltrated into the lava tube, producing a variety of speleothems. Clockwise from top left: white cave corals, star-shaped cave popcorn, cave pearl, and yellow cave corals.

Millennium Lake at the end point of Yongcheon Cave. A large part of the lake, including its size, remains unknown.

indeed lava tubes, they feature a wide array of speleothems, or limestone cave

largest in scale, runs 14.6 kilometers from the volcano; the second, parallel to the

formations, creating beautiful, otherworldly landscapes. The two lava tubes are

first tributary, is 13.2 kilometers long; and the third reaches out 8.2 kilometers to

quite different in size, the former being very small and the latter gigantic, but

the northwest of the volcano. Combined end-on-end, the three tributary systems

both offer spectacular views with a variety of speleothems generally found in

would be about 36 kilometers long.

limestone caves, such as soda straw, stalactite, stalagmite, column, cave coral, cave pearl, cave flower, curtain (bacon sheet), flowstone, rimstone, etc. In terms of size, shape, distribution and concentration, the speleothems in the two lava

Seongsan Sunrise Peak Tuff Cone: A Key to Understand Hydrovolcanic Eruptions

tubes are extremely rare examples unequaled by any other lava tubes in the

Parasitic cones distributed all over Jeju Island are diverse in shape. Most of them

world. It is presumed that these beautiful cave features were formed by rainwater

are cinder cones, formed by an eruption from the ground. The volcanic products

mixed with carbonate sand on the ground, which infiltrated the caves and

spewed out from a volcano, fell to the ground and accumulated in the form of

deposited calcium carbonate which was dissolved in the water.

rock fragments with numerous dark or reddish holes, called cinders or scoria.

The Geomunoreum Lava Tube System starts from the Geomunoreum volcano

Some other cones are composed of tuff, a type of rock consisting of

and advances toward the coast until it ends at Dangcheomul Cave. The main

consolidated volcanic ash formed by magma-water eruptions, which occur when

tube system branches out into three tributary tube systems: the first system, the

molten magma comes into contact with sea water or ground water. Parasitic

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cones composed of tuff have two types: Firstly, tuff cones have elevated crater floors and steep sides, and secondly, tuff rings look like low hills with gentle slopes since they have a relatively small amount of tuff accumulated around a large crater.

Seongsan Sunrise Peak (179 meters above sea level), protruding from the coastline of Jeju Island at its eastern tip, is a typical hydromagmatic volcano created between 120,000 and 50,000 years ago by an underwater eruption from a shallow seabed. As the name Ilchulbong (Sunrise Peak) implies, sunrise viewed from here is a truly magnificent sight.

The crater, 570 meters in diameter and 90 meters deep, has steep slopes. The tuff cone has an impressive appearance reminiscent of a castle or a colossal crown, and its bowl-shaped crater has preserved its original form intact. The crater’s three sides except for the northwestern portion have been eroded Gimnyeong Cave has long been nicknamed the Snake Cave for its meandering passage, which measures 705 meters in length.

This enormous lava tube exhibits distinct lava flow lines on its walls.

by waves and reveal the inner layers of the volcano, serving as an important resource for geological studies on ancient volcanic activities.

Seongsan Sunrise Peak was originally an island, but the repeated deposit of sand and sediments has created a 500-meter-wide sand bar that runs for a 1.5-kilometer stretch to connect the peak to the main land of Jeju Island.

Apart from the sites mentioned above, the volcanic land forms of Jeju Island include Mt. Songak, a monogenetic double volcano consisting of an outer tuff ring and an inner cinder cone, which shows how marine eruptions transform into land eruptions. Additionally, Mt. Sanbang is an example of a lava dome, built by viscous lava that piled up around the vent forming the mountain-like dome.

Jeju Island is the only place in the world that displays such a wide variety of volcanic landforms in such a small area of land, serving as a virtual volcano museum.

In Jeju Island, various types of volcanic landforms, a wide range of climate conditions and the resulting ecology, and the island’s indigenous culture are unfolded in a relatively small and confined space in unique and beautiful harmony. This harmony, the result of a new order created from a concoction of natural, ecological and cultural features, is what makes Jeju Island so special.

The inside of Dancheomul Cave.

Speleothems typically found in limestone caves, such as stalactite,

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Specifically, the island’s natural environments are of great importance as scientific, cultural, industrial, and tourism resources, and its numerous parasitic

stalagmite, and columns, create a

cones and lava tubes have immense research value for studies on global volcanic

mysterious sight in the lava tube.

activities.

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Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty A Glimpse into 500-year History of Confucian Monarchy

In Elementary Learning in Four Characters (Saja sohak), a textbook of Chinese characters for young children in the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), there is a phrase that says: “Conduct memorial services with the utmost care to pay tribute to your distant ancestors and respect your roots (追遠報本 祭祀必誠).”

Koreans in the past believed their ancestors were the root of their existence.

As an individual was regarded as a bridge between his ancestors and his descendants, there was an inseparable continuity in the bloodline. This deeprooted tradition of ancestor worship was firmly consolidated during the Joseon era, when Confucianism was the state religion.

People had a strong faith in the principles of geomancy. They believed that burying their family members at auspicious sites would lead the deceased to absorb good spirits from earth, and then the souls of the dead would, in turn, bring good fortune to the living descendants. Therefore, taking good care of their ancestors’ graves was considered a duty of all living people. The people of Joseon had absolute respect for their ancestors, so that their graves were also regarded as special places in which their spirits “reside” in a concrete sense of the word.

Confucian ethics asked the ruling class to serve as examples of moral conduct for ordinary people. The royal family of Joseon, who were the champion of Confucian world views, attached a special meaning to the tombs of the supreme Hyeolleung is a tomb complex where Munjong, the fifth king of the Joseon Dynasty, and his wife, Queen Hyeondeok, are buried. The mounds of the two tombs are placed on the respective low hills in the complex. The king’s tomb is shown behind the T-shaped shrine in the middle, and the queen’s tomb is on the right behind the small pavilion housing memorial monuments.

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ruler and his family, and decorated them as solemn and sacred places. In this sense, the royal family took great care to regularly visit their ancestors’ tombs and conduct grand memorial services to set an example for ordinary people and assert the moral authority of the royal family and their rule.

The Joseon Dynasty produced 27 kings during the 518 years of its history from the foundation in 1392 and its collapse in 1910, including the Korean

The bird’s-eye view of Geonwonneung, the tomb of King Taejo (Yi Seong-gye), who founded the Joseon Dynasty. It was modeled after Hyeonjeongneung for the Goryeo king Gongmin and his wife Princess Nogukdaejang, the greatest tomb complex of

Empire (1897-1910). Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty refer to 42 units

the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392).

of tombs of its kings and queens. Excluding the Jereung of Queen Sineui, the

However, by introducing new

consort of King Taejo (r. 1392-1398), and the Hureung of King Jeongjong (r.

features, such as the different arrangement of stone objects and

1398-1400), which are located in Gaeseong in North Korea, 40 units of the royal

the low walls around the mound,

tombs are seated in Seoul and its suburbs. In 2009, all of the 40 royal graveyards

the tomb served as a reference

in South Korea were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

UNESCO acknowledged the historic value of the Joseon royal tombs in

model for the construction of new tombs later in the Joseon Dynasty.

terms of their unique architectural style and landscaping based on Confucianism; the ongoing conservation of a living tradition through the performance of prescribed rites; and the integrated management system that is consistent in all the tombs scattered in multiple locations. However, the royal tombs of Joseon are meaningful in ways that surpass being mere burial sites for dead kings and queens, and places with unique architectural and landscaping styles. A tomb’s physical features, such as its location or the identity of the person buried in it, tells us a lot about the owner’s status or the political circumstances he or she was subjected to at the time of burial. Stone structures and objects surrounding the mound, as well as their stylistic characteristics, also offer information about the period’s aesthetics and artistic trends. Constructed in accordance with Confucian doctrines and etiquette for over 500 years, all the 40 royal tombs display a common spatial layout, reflecting the spiritual values cherished all throughout the dynasty. Then again, each of them bespeaks of different political and cultural atmospheres and capabilities at the time of their construction.

Communion of the Sacred and the Profane The sites for the royal tombs of Joseon were chosen based on their natural surroundings and distances from the capital city Hanyang. One of the most essential conditions was the auspiciousness of the site in terms of geomantic principles — that is, a site where a hill meets a flatland, having its back protected

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by a hill and facing toward water. It had to be a secluded spot naturally isolated

and the stone figures of civil and military officials — show distinctive styles that

The Burial Area in Mongneung

The stone figures of civil and

of King Seonjo (r. 1567-1608)

military officials guarding

exemplifies the configuration of

Heolleung, the twin tombs of King

the royal tombs of Joseon. The

Taejong and Queen Wongyeong.

recognized by geomancers as an auspicious place which would bring good

Burial Area has been partitioned

The stone objects at Heolleung are

geographical features of its surroundings. Some tombs have only one mound —

fortune to the descendants of the deceased. It had to be a sacred place far from

into three sections by long stone

the greatest in number of all other

beams laid on the ground, with

royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty.

for either a person or a couple (danneung or hapjangneung); some have twin

different stone objects placed in

All the stone objects are arranged

or triple mounds arranged in a horizontal row (ssangneung or samyeonneung);

each section.

in two pairs, excluding a single

and others have two mounds placed in a vertical row (dongwon sanghareung)

pair of stone pillars. Specifically,

or on separate spots (dongwon yigangneung) in the same complex. In spite of

by the neighboring geographical features, and also should be 4 kilometers or more from Hanyang but within 40 kilometers from it. The site should be

human activities, which lay separated from nearby towns so that their residents would not have to face any burdens related to attending to the king on his trip to visit the tomb.

Once the site for a royal tomb was decided, the compound was divided,

the stone figures of attending officials have been carved in bold

embody the aesthetics and artistry of the time of the tomb’s construction.

The mound of a tomb was built in various ways accommodating the

the diverse arrangement of the mounds, other stylistic elements are basically the

according to Confucian etiquette, into the Burial Area (the sacred realm), the

relief and have generous smiles

same, including the protective stone wall and railings around the base of the

Ritual Area (a realm where the sacred and the profane merges) and the Entrance

on their faces, as if expressing the

mound, and the stone tiger and stone sheep, which were supposed to guard the

Area (the profane realm). The construction of royal tombs was dictated by a set of prescribed rules detailing the size of the compound, the scale of the mound, and the arrangement of auxiliary buildings and accessory objects, including the stone figures in front of the mound. In spite of the uniformity in the overall layout, each tomb has minor differences in style, reflecting the time of its creation.

magnanimous spirit of the king who is known to have been good at both literary and military arts. The stone figures of civil and military officials are standing in two pairs in the middle and lower sections,

mound, the low wall and pine trees around the three sides of the mound.

The Burial Area consists of three sections — upper, middle and lower sections — partitioned by long stone beams laid on the ground. The dead king’s spirit was believed to reside under the mound in the upper section, attended by

respectively (left). The stone figures

civil officials in the middle section, and military officials in the lower section.

Some of the accessory objects of a tomb — including the protective stone wall

of a military official (center) and a

In general, the upper section has the stone figures of a tiger and a sheep, a

and railings around the base of the mound, the stone table in front of the mound,

civil official (right).

stone table, and a pair of stone pillars, in addition to being surrounded by a

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Graveside Rites in Memory of the Deceased Graveside rites, which have been conducted for the last 600 years, are living traditions which add to the value of the royal tombs. In the Joseon Dynasty, ancestral rites were considered a duty for all humans regardless of their social status. Memorial rites held at the tombs of ancestors were a sacred undertaking that reminded people of the fact that they were part of a bloodline that had lasted for generations, not a lone entity in the universe.

Ever since the Joseon Dynasty was founded, the graveside rites have been held by the royal family according to rigorous protocol. Following the liberation of Korea from Japanese colonial rule in 1945, the tradition has been carried on by the Jeonju Yi Clan Association, who have offered a memorial service at the royal tombs on the anniversary of the tomb occupant’s death. Thanks to the graveside rites, the royal tombs of Joseon are more than just a group of memorable works of historical architecture; they are the cultural heritage of a semicircular wall. A stone lantern and figures of civil officials are placed in the middle section, and stone figures of horses and military officials occupy the lower section. The periphery of the mound was a place reserved for the owner of the tomb, so that access to it was strictly limited.

The Ritual Area is the place where the living pay tribute to the deceased. A typical memorial service began with the king dismounting his sedan chair and

Yeongneung is the tomb of

The stone lantern in Geonneung,

living tradition.

the posthumously enthroned

the tomb of King Jeongjo. Erected

King Jinjong, the eldest son of

close to the stone table in front

King Yeongjo, who died three

of the mound, the stone lantern

reinforced by the fact that each of the graveyards is a historic site complete in

years after he was proclaimed

shares common stylistic features

itself, and that the tombs of all the kings and queens have been preserved intact,

the crown prince. The bridge

with the kind usually found in

over the “forbidden stream” and

Buddhist temples, suggesting the

almost all of them in their original forms and on their original sites.

the red-spiked gate mark the

influence of Buddhist art.

The value of the royal tombs of Joseon as a World Heritage site is further

The 40 units of the royal tombs inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage

entering the red-spiked gate which signified entering into holy grounds. Then,

border between the sacred and

List are all located in Seoul and its suburbs. This is because a regulation in

either the king or the ritual officiants would make a deep bow four times on the

the profane worlds, discouraging

Joseon’s oldest law book Grand Code for State Administration (Gyeongguk

bowing stand, and went to the T-shaped shrine set with a table of sacrificial food,

people from straying into it aimlessly.

walking on the “homage path” consisting of two lanes — one for the spirit of the deceased and the other for the living king. Generally, the T-shaped shrine is surrounded by a few other buildings with specific uses: a stone basin (for burning the written prayer), a servants’ house, a royal kitchen, and a monument pavilion.

The Entrance Area is a space for the management of the tomb and preparation of memorial rites, which has a tomb keeper’s house and storage shed for ritual supplies. The “forbidden stream” in the Entrance Area marks the

daejeon) stipulated that all royal tombs should be constructed within 100 li (approximately 40 kilometers) from the city gates of Hanyang. One exception is

A stone sheep and a stone tiger stand guarding the tombs of King Hyojong and Queen Inseon in another Yeongneung. A stone sheep represents a prayer for the repose of the deceased, and a stone tiger is a guardian protecting the tombs.

Jangneung, the tomb of King Danjong, who was killed by his successor amidst political strife. His tomb was recovered and properly titled some 240 years after his death.

What is noteworthy is that the tombs of Yeonsangun and Gwanghaegun, the 10th and 15th kings of Joseon, were not endowed with the title of a king’s tomb. In Joseon, the tombs of the royal family were classified into three

boundary between the sacred realm inside the royal graveyard and the profane

categories with different names according to the status of the tomb occupant.

world outside. The bridge over the stream leads to the red-spiked gate, which is

The highest category of royal tombs, entitled with a name ending with neung or

the threshold to the Ritual Area.

reung in Korean, has the tombs of kings and queens, including those who were

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Each of the tombs of kings and queens had a house in the complex which was used as the office and residence of tomb keepers ( jaesil ). Only a small number of them remain intact, and the tomb keeper’s house in King Hyojong’s Yeongneung has been preserved in the best condition.

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posthumously enthroned. The second category, with a title ending with won in Korean, includes the tombs of crown princes, crown princesses, and the parents of kings who were not kings or queens themselves. The lowest category, with a title ending with myo in Korean, has the tombs of the other lower-level members of the royal family.

Many royal couples are buried in the same tomb complex, as exemplified

Hongneung, the tomb of Emperor Gojong, has a style and layout different from those of earlier royal

by Heonneung for King Taejong and Queen Wongyeong, or by Yeongneung

tombs. The shrine is not T-shaped

for King Sejong and Queen Soheon. There are also some royal couples, each of

but is of a linear structure. There is

whom occupies a separate tomb complex, as in the case of King Danjong and his consort Queen Jeongsun, buried in Jangneung and Sareung, respectively. In some other cases, a number of separate tomb complexes which are located close to one another form a district of royal tombs.

To take some examples, Donggureung, located in Guri, Gyeonggi Province, is a cluster of nine royal tombs, and Seooreung in Goyang, Gyeonggi Province,

no stone object around the mound, but instead, the stone-paved “homage path” to the shrine is lined with the statues of attending officials as well as figures of giraffes, elephants, lions, camels, horses and haetae , a mythical creature.

consists of five royal tombs. In Namyangju in the same province, the tombs of Emperors Gojong (Hongneung) and Sunjong (Yureung) form a district called Hongyureung.

second largest cluster of royal tombs next to Donggureung. Other than the five

Donggureung, meaning literally “the nine royal tombs to the east of the

tombs of kings and queens, there are tombs of a crown prince, a royal concubine,

capital,” is the largest cluster of royal tombs including Geonwonneung, the tomb

and a lower-level member of the royal family. The district started to form as

of King Taejo, the founder of Joseon, which is located at the absolute back of

Gyeongneung was created here, which is the tomb of King Deokjong. The eldest

the district of nine tombs. When King Taejo passed away in 1408, King Taejong

son of King Sejo, Deokjong died at the age of 20 in the third year of his father’s

took great care to find the most auspicious site for his father’s tomb, sending his

reign, and was posthumously enthroned later when his son King Seongjong

geomancers to various places, such as Paju, Goyang, Guri and others, to assess

ascended the throne.

the suitability of these places. Finally, he chose the current site, with pine woods

The most interesting part of Seooreung is the tombs of King Sukjong and his

at the back and overlooking an open expanse ahead. Some have associated the

three queens and one concubine: Queen Ingyeong, Queen Inhyeon, Queen Inwon

shape of the ridge down the hill from the mound with the figure of a retainer

and Lady Jang Huibin. Queen Inwon’s Myeongneung is located on a higher hill

bowing to the king. Unlike other royal tombs, the mound of King Taejo’s tomb

to the left of the twin tombs of King Sukjong and Queen Inhyeon, and Queen

is covered with silver grass rather than typical lawn grass. It is said that King

Ingyeong’s Ingneung and Lady Jang Huibin’s Daebinmyo are also close to the

Taejong had the dirt and silver grass of Hamheung brought to the tomb for his

king’s tomb. Lady Jang Huibin was King Sukjong’s concubine and mother of

father, who had missed his hometown Hamheung.

King Gyeongjong. She was once the woman most loved by Sukjong, but was

Donggureung is an important cultural heritage site, which testifies to the

accused of conspiring against Queen Inhyeon, and died by drinking poison as

vicissitudes of the dynasty during the 500 years of its existence, as well as the

ordered by the king. Her tomb had been located at a deserted place in Gwangju,

change in the tomb construction style. Besides that, the site has a superb natural

Gyeonggi Province, but was moved to this district in 1970.

landscape with leafy woods all over the district and a stream running across it.

Seooreung, meaning “the five royal tombs to the west of the capital,” is the

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The concentration of royal tombs in these districts may be because these areas were evaluated to be auspicious sites based on geomantic principles, but

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different from its predecessors. Emperor Gojong proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire and became an emperor in 1897.

The royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty are unique examples of historic sites where the tombs of all the kings and queens of a dynasty have been preserved and managed with an integrated management system. Embodying the history, culture and value system of the dynasty that lasted for 500 years, these royal tombs are Korea’s outstanding cultural heritage. In addition, the tomb sites and the adjacent forests, which have been methodically managed since the time of their creation, serve as precious greenbelts for people living in Seoul and its suburbs.

some kings’ personal wishes to be buried close to their father or grandfather may also have contributed to the formation of these districts.

There are a relatively larger number of royal tombs in the northern part of

After conducting a memorial rite at Geonwonneung, the ritual attendants are leaving the royal graveyard. These graveside rites,

Gyeonggi Province, including Seoul, Guri, Goyang and Paju, than in the area to

which have been held regularly

the south of the Han River. For the kings of later generations to make regular

until today, are what make the

visits to the tombs of their ancestors, the distance from the capital city was an

royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty a cultural heritage of a living

important consideration, and having to cross the river must have been considered

tradition, rather than just a group

a burden.

of memorable works of historical

Hongyureung is the most recent of the royal tombs of Joseon. As the tombs of two emperors, Gojong and Sunjong, this complex has a style and layout

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architecture. This ritual continuity is seldom found in other royal tombs of the world.

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Historic Villages of Hahoe and Yangdong Illustrious Traditions Imbued with Confucian Order

In 1992, Prince Charles of Britain visited the village of Yangdong during his trip to Korea to get a glimpse of a place where the traditional Korean landscape has been preserved. When Queen Elizabeth II visited Korea in 1999, she complimented the village of Hahoe as the “most Korean place in Korea.”

What does it mean to be “the most Korean?” It is not easy to give a simple answer to this somewhat abstract question. However, if the question is narrowed down to “the most Korean place,” the answer could be the traditional villages as Prince Charles and Queen Elizabeth II thought they were.

The Epitome of “Koreanness” In modern times, urbanization and industrialization in Korea have destroyed traditional villages in great numbers. Nonetheless, there exist some villages that have maintained their natural environments and original cultural landscapes for hundreds of years. The Cultural Heritage Administration entitles such places “traditional villages” to preserve their culture and have their values as cultural heritages known to the wider public. Some notable examples include Hahoe Village in Andong, Wanggok Village in Goseong, Seongeup Folk Village in Jeju, Oeam Village in Asan, Nagan Folk Village in Suncheon, and Yangdong The complete view of Hahoe Village overlooked from Buyongdae Cliff. The Nakdong River flows into the village making a wide circular turn around its perimeter and then flows out; hence it was named Hahoe, meaning the village “at a river’s bend.”

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Village in Gyeongju. Among them, the villages of Hahoe and Yangdong were inscribed as the UNESCO World Heritage sites in 2010. Founded around the 15th century during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the two villages have well-preserved traditional architecture surrounded by natural environments that reflect the legacy of Confucian thoughts and principles. Their residents also have maintained the Confucian lifestyle and other cultural traits of the distant past.

Traditional villages of Korea can be classified into two categories. One is the same-clan village, which consists of one or two clans who have been living in the village for generations, exercising substantial control over village affairs. The other is the mixed-clan village, which, as the name implies, is composed of many different clans. In the Joseon Dynasty, it was one of the Confucian ideals for each clan of the noble class called yangban to create its own village in a place with auspicious geomantic properties and scenic beauty. Therefore, many of the yangban families formed a community where the majority of its residents were relatives with the same last name. These communities contributed to having Confucian culture take root in the provinces. Hahoe and Yangdong are elite clan communities, which can be traced back to the noble families of the Joseon Dynasty.

The houses and streets of Hahoe.

Most of the significant houses are concentrated at the center of the village. The houses are not evenly aligned since each of them faces the river that surrounds the three sides of the village.

Yangban originally referred to government officials recruited through highlevel state examinations, but gradually turned into a hereditary social class.

They often worked for the government, but some of them settled down in local communities, devoting themselves to their studies and teaching young students

Hahoe: A Stroll through Ancient Alleyways, Stone Walls and Courtyards

based on Confucian ideology and ethics. Their social status and economic power

Along with Yangdong, Hahoe is another elite clan community that produced

gave them considerable influence on their communities. High-ranking officials or

many prominent figures. The village has maintained the typical Confucian

prominent scholars produced in a noble clan elevated and consolidated the clan’s

landscape of a clan community, which includes clan head family residences,

collective social position. The honored clan would build grandiose residences

ancestral shrines, study halls, pavilions, Confucian academies and private schools,

for clan head families (daejongtaek or pajongtaek) as well as ancestral shrines

surrounded by untainted natural environments.

(sadang), ritual halls (jaesil), buildings for housing monuments of familial virtues

Although it is not known exactly when Hahoe was first established, the

(jeongnyeogak), outdoor pavilions (jeongja), study halls (jeongsa), private

village has been home to the Pungsan Ryu clan ever since the clan’s founder Ryu

schools (seodang), and Confucian academies (seowon), which in turn gave the

Jong-hye settled down here in the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty. Later, the

clan still greater influence on the local community.

village developed into an elite clan community as it produced many distinguished figures among his descendants, such as Ryu Jung-yeong (1515-1573; pen name Yibam) and his two sons, Ryu Un-ryong (1539-1601; pen name Gyeomam) and Ryu Seong-ryong (1542-1607; pen name Seoae).

Ryu Un-ryong held a series of important posts in the Royal Secretariat, and

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served as governor of Hwanghae Province. In addition, working as a member of the Royal Lectures, he earned the trust of the king. His younger brother Ryu Seong-ryong was one of the prize pupils of the eminent Confucian scholar

Yangjindang, the residence of the head family of the Pungsan Ryu clan descending from Ryu Unryong. It is one of the rare houses

Yi Hwang (pen name Toegye), and he spent a large part of his life living and

built in early Joseon. The house

studying in his hometown. He served as prime minister and military chief of staff

faces due south rather than the

during the Japanese Invasions of 1592-1598. Ryu Seong-ryong’s memoir of the

river, which is also uncommon in Hahoe.

war titled A Record of Penitence and Warning (Jingbirok), along with the Diary in the Midst of War (Nanjung ilgi) written by Admiral Yi Sun-sin, are valuable works of historical literature providing a detailed explanation of the war.

These influential natives of Hahoe helped change the cultural landscape of the village. Ryu Jung-yeong built Yangjindang (House of Cultivating Truth), the residence of the head family of the Ryu clan. His two sons built a series of study halls — Wonji Jeongsa, Binyeon Jeongsa, Gyeomam Jeongsa, and Ogyeon

The inner quarters of Hwagyeongdang, one of the prestigious residences in Hahoe.

Built later than Yangjindang or Chunghyodang, the house seems

An ancestral rite to pay tribute to

to show off its presence with its

the erudition and moral virtues

size and height.

of Ryu Seong-ryong and his third son Ryu Jin is held at Byeongsan

Jakcheon), Juiljae (Home of Juiljae) and Hadong Gotaek (Old House in East Hahoe).

Hahoe is also home to many ancient books and documents, as well as other

Jeongsa. As the residence of the head family of the senior line descending from

Academy twice a year, in spring

cultural relics. Some of them are national cultural properties, including Ryu

Ryu Seong-ryong, Chunghyodang (House of Loyalty and Filial Piety) was

and fall. A day before the rite,

Seong-ryong’s war memoir mentioned above, A Collection of Treasure Books

expanded and rebuilt from the house in which his eldest son and eldest grandson had lived. These two residences of clan head families stood as the two main

all the participants in the rite get together in the main hall to be

of the House of Ryu Seong-ryong, A Collection of Treasure Relics of the House

assigned individual tasks.

of Ryu Seong-ryong, and the masks used in the traditional mask dance handed

pillars of the community. Besides, there are many buildings designated as cultural

down in the village. One of the village’s intangible cultural properties, the Hahoe

properties by the government, including study halls, Confucian academies, and

Mask Dance Drama (Hahoe byeolsingut talnori) is the oldest mask dance drama

many ancient houses, such as Hwagyeongdang (House of Harmony and Respect,

in Korea, and was performed by commoners. On the other hand, Boating under

or the North Village Residence), Yeomhaengdang (House of Contemplation

Fireworks (seonyu julbulnori) was a noblemen’s game, in which only members

and Action, or the South Village Residence), Jakcheon Gotaek (Old House of

of the Ryu clan were allowed to participate. On the night of the full moon in

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Along with Hahoe, Yangdong is one of the most famous elite clan communities in Korea. It is a mountain village with traditional houses nestled on the ridges of Mt. Seolchang.

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the seventh lunar month, a long rope attached at intervals with bags of burning charcoal was hung across the Nakdong River between Buyongdae Cliff and the river bank on the other side. On the river, under fireworks shot into the sky, groups of noblemen aboard boats enjoyed poetry writing and drinking alcohol.

It was quite a sophisticated leisure activity enjoyed only by rich noblemen in the pristine natural environment.

Hahoe is famous for its natural environments which possess a charming harmony with its cultural landscape rooted in Confucianism. Where the Nakdong River meets Mt. Hwa, which rises 271 meters above sea level, the river changes its course and bends around a low hillock which is the seat of Hahoe, meaning the village “at a river’s bend.” Some liken the village to a lotus blossom

Hyangdan (Juniper and Birch House), the head family residence of the Yeogang Yi clan’s Hyangdan

floating on the water, and others describe it as resembling a gigantic yin-yang

branch, is one of few examples of

symbol (taegeuk) formed by the mountain and the river.

residential architecture before the

Buyongdae Cliff commands a sweeping view of Hahoe. Study halls and

Japanese Invasions of 1592-1598.

The outward appearance of the

Confucian academies are scattered around this scenic point with a rugged cliff

residence is quite magnificent, or

rising from the river. Viewed from the cliff, the village is bounded by the river

ostentatious by some standards,

on its south, west and north, and the land connected to Mt. Hwa is a field for farming, which is the source of livelihood for the residents of the village.

but the interior structure is rather closed and stuffy.

Hahoe is accessed by a mountain pass to the entrance of the village. The main road that cuts across the cluster of houses leads to an over 600-year-old zelkova tree at the heart of the village, which is said to have been planted by Ryu Jong-hye, the founder of the Ryu clan of Hahoe. The main road branches out in various directions into alleyways that lead to the riverside or to the farming field.

In Hahoe, there are 150 households living in 127 houses. Unlike the houses in other traditional villages, which invariably face due south or southeast, houses in Hahoe are not aligned to face a fixed point because each of them was built to overlook the view of the river that almost encircles the village. The main road divides Hahoe into north and south villages. Large residences such as

Gwangajeong (Pavilion with a

Yangjindang and Hwagyeongdang in the north village and Chunghyodang and

View of Agricultural Fields) is the

Yeomhaengdang in the south village serve as the center of each neighborhood.

Smaller houses with tiled or thatched roofs that flock together around the residences were the dwellings of commoners and servants in the Joseon era. At a glance, the houses seem to have been built quite haphazardly, but the entire village stands in excellent harmony with its natural surroundings, creating a picturesque landscape.

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first structure that catches the eye from the entrance of Yangdong.

Seated high on the hill, it overlooks a wide expanse of the Angang plains and Hyeongsan River. The thatched-roof houses at the foot of Gwangajeong belonged to the servants of the residence.

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(1492-1553; pen name Hoejae). Son So had five sons, and the Sons of today’s Yangdong are the head family of the senior line descending from his second son Son Jung-don (1463-1529; pen name Ujae), who served as minister of public works and minister of personnel, among other high-ranking government posts.

Yi Eon-jeok, on the other hand, was highly acclaimed as Joseon’s first scholar to have a thorough understanding of Neo-Confucianism expounded by Zhu Xi (1130-1200) of Chinese Song Dynasty. He investigated into the origin of NeoConfucianism and systematically formulated the doctrine in a series of books.

Later, his academic legacy was passed down to Yi Hwang, and further developed by him.

Producing such prominent figures as Son So, Son Jung-don and Yi Eon-jeok, Yangdong emerged as an elite clan community in the period between the late 15th and early 16th centuries. What is noteworthy about Yangdong is that its dominant two clans were the descendants on the maternal side of the original natives of the village. However, toward the end of the 17th century, sons-inHahoe is a living community which has retained its centuries-old lifestyle

law and descendants on the maternal side were denied the right to inheritance

based on Confucian philosophy and ethics. The clan organization exercises

and excluded from ancestral rites, and the village turned into a patriarchal clan

control over any important decision-making process concerning community

Located on a sunny spot on the

affairs. They publish and update the genealogical record of their clan, and

Galgok hill beyond the back streets

conduct a variety of ancestral rites as well as collective village rites to promote

of Yangdong, the house of Jeong

unity among the kinship community.

Yangdong: The Soothing Power of Tradition

Sun-i is a typical thatched-roof

community.

Yangdong is surrounded by Mt. Seolchang, which is located to the north of the city of Gyeongju. Described in terms of geomancy, the four ridges sloping

house commonly spotted in the

down from the mountain top form the terrain in the shape of the Chinese

village.

character 勿, and the houses are nestled on the valleys between the ridges.

An ancestral rite at Seobaekdang, the clan head

There are a total of 150 units of tiled-roof and thatched-roof houses including uninhabited ones. While the residences of clan head families and of other noble

When ancient Koreans chose a site for settlement, they considered not only

family residence of the Wolseong

families are located high on the hill basking in sunshine and commanding a nice

the general conditions of the site itself but also its surroundings, including the

Son clan. This rite is offered to

view, houses of commoners and servants are spotted on the low-lying ground

natural beauty or the presence of arable land nearby. While Hahoe is a riverside

the founder of the clan, Son So, whose high merit resulted in the

near the entrance of the village. A vast stretch of the Angang plains unfolds in

village, Yangdong is nestled on the ridges of Mt. Seolchang (161 meters). Both

government granting him the

front of the village. The plains are the source of livelihood for the residents of

villages are seated in the midst of breathtaking nature far from large cities.

bulcheonwi status, which permitted

Yangdong, who make a living by farming. Since the houses are hidden between

Yangdong began to thrive as the Wolseong Son clan and the Yeogang Yi clan settled down in the village. The Son clan began with Son So (1433-1484; pen name Yangmingong), who moved into this hometown of his wife in the early Joseon period. The Yi clan was founded by Yi Beon (1463-1500; pen name Chanseonggong) as he married the eldest daughter of Son So and had a family here. Yi Beon’s eldest son is the famous Confucian scholar Yi Eon-jeok

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his ancestral tablet to be enshrined permanently by his descendants.

The family strictly abides by the traditional ritual etiquette concerning the procedure of the rite, foods to be offered, clothes

the ridges, the view of the entire village is not revealed from afar, so its size and configuration is grasped only when one approaches it closely.

Yangdong is also a treasure trove of ancient architecture. There remain as many as four houses built before the Japanese Invasions, which survived the

to be worn by the participants, and

widespread destruction that was caused by the war. The first of the four houses

many other requirements.

is Hyangdan, which is the house of Yi Eon-jeok, built as the king’s present when

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he was appointed as the governor of Gyeongsang Province. Concerned about his retainer’s ailing mother, King Jungjong granted the house to Yi, so that he could take care of his mother while living with her there. Secondly, Mucheomdang (meaning the house of “no disgrace to ancestors”) is the clan head family residence of the Yeogang Yi clan. Thirdly, Seobaekdang (meaning the house of “writing the word ‘endurance’ a hundred times”) is the clan head family residence of the Wolseong Son clan. Finally, Gwangajeong is the old house of Son Jungdon. Besides these, there are numerous buildings which have been designated as cultural properties, including Confucian academies, outdoor pavilions and private residences.

At the entrance of the village, the first buildings that come into sight are Gwangajeong and Hyangdan. Each of them seated on a hill opposite of each other, both of the residences command an open view of the Angang plains. At such excellent sites, the head family residences of the two noble clans stand side by side with a small valley between them. For a long time, these two clans have served as the two main pillars of the village, which have worked for the development of their community through competition in good faith. It is a rare case for two different clans to have coexisted in harmony in one village for over 500 years.

In Yangdong, there are a large number of ancient trees, as if to symbolize the long history of the village. At the foot of Gwangajeong, there is a ginkgo tree that is over 500 years old, standing guard over the village entrance. The juniper tree in Seobaekdang is also over 500 years old. In addition, there are many old books and documents handed down from the Joseon Dynasty, including the metal type print of Supplement to the Comprehensive Mirror for Government (Tonggam sokpyeon) and the Portrait of Son So. In Yangdong, important life cycle ceremonies, including coming-of-age rituals, weddings, funerals and ancestral rites, have been upheld in a traditional way, and folk games to promote

Oksan Academy, founded in honor of the famous local scholar Yi Eonjeok, has the typical ground plan

cultural heritage suggesting an “old and new” way of making today’s towns and cities into cohesive communities. It is possible to ascertain the precise meaning

of Confucian academies with an

of the question regarding what it means to be “the most Korean place” if one

the unity of the village community, such as tug-of-war, have also been preserved

entranceway, the main auditorium

considers how individual houses form a village and how they relate to nature

until today.

and a memorial shrine standing

around them, rather than pay attention to individual structures as an isolated

Visiting Korea’s historical villages of Hahoe and Yangdong, one can catch

back to back.

subject of appreciation.

a glimpse of “Korean” sensibilities and landscape, in which nature, geography, scenery, architecture, space, culture and people have interconnected relationships with one another to form a unique community. In the 21st century, wherein the concept of a village community is lost on most people, they are a valuable

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Royal Ancestral Ceremony at Jongmyo The Pansori Epic Chants The Dano Festival of Gangneung Women’s Circle Dance Marvelous Feats of the Namsadang Clowns The Rites of Vulture Peak Yeongdeung Rites for the Goddess of Wind The Dance of Cheoyong Slow Lyrical Songs of Poetry The Living Tradition of Falconry Master Carpenter with Superb Expertise

Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity

Royal Ancestral Ceremony at Jongmyo Stately Ritual Invokes Peace and Prosperity

Gods, or supernatural beings, are not recognized in Confucianism, but instead ancestral spirits are venerated as objects of divine worship. As an absolute

Music and dance performances

monarchy that upheld Confucianism as its ruling ideology, the Joseon Dynasty

are an integral part of the royal

placed utmost importance on worshipping the spirits of royal ancestors.

ancestral rites at Jongmyo.

Therefore, Jongmyo which housed the spirit tablets of past kings and queens was the loftiest pantheon, and the rites performed at this royal shrine were the state roles. Hundreds of officiants were assigned to perform the 27 different roles

events of primary importance.

needed for the elaborate rites.

Throughout the five-century rule of Joseon, the major regular rites at Jongmyo were conducted five times a year – on the most auspicious day during

Vessels in an array of shapes and decorative patterns, each containing a

the first month in each of the four seasons and the twelfth month. In addition,

symbolic meaning, were used for the rites. The vessels also differed in alignment,

irregular rites were held to report important events in the royal household and

depending on the season and usage. Sixty-three types of vessels were needed

the country to the royal ancestral spirits. The rites were drastically simplified

to offer all kinds of grains, rice cakes, soups, meat dishes, fruits, dried meat,

during the colonial period (1910-1945). Even these brief rites of “mere incense

pickled fish, and drinks, as provided in the ritual manuals. The rites proceed

burning” were suspended during the chaotic post-liberation years. In 1969 the

with inviting and welcoming the royal ancestral spirits, serving food and wine to

Jeonju Yi Clan Association, consisting of descendants of the royal family of

entertain the spirits, and finally bidding farewell to them.

Joseon, began holding the rites once a year on the first Sunday of May. Hence,

Confucianism emphasized the role of music in cultivating virtuous human

despite the dynasty’s demise, the royal ancestral rites have been performed for

character as well as promoting the unity of gods and man, heaven and earth, and

over 600 years.

yin and yang. Accordingly, music and dance are indispensable for each phase of the rites to celebrate the civil and military achievements of preceding kings and

The solemn state rites conducted by the king were prepared with the utmost

invoke the prosperity of the royal household.

care and devotion, and each ritual step was executed with strict formality.

The solemn song suites for the rites at Jongmyo were composed by King

Preparations began days ahead with all the participants purifying their bodies and minds so that no impure elements could taint the holy procedures. On the day of the rites the ritual officiants, musicians and dancers donned ceremonial robes with different colors, patterns and accessories according to their rank and

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Lined up in an orderly formation, the dancers perform to celebrate

Sejong, the fourth ruler of Joseon, in the 15th century to replace Chinese music

the illustrious military achievements

and instruments that had been played at royal ancestral rites since the 12th

of past kings.

century Goryeo period. Sejong, who also created the Korean script, Hangeul,

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The Pansori Epic Chants

Passionate and Mournful: The Root of Korean Music

Since ancient times, the Korean people have been renowned for their enjoyment of song and dance. Pansori, or the epic chant of Korea, is a genre of indigenous traditional music that has stirred the hearts of Koreans for ages with its passionate, mournful sounds. In a pansori performance, the singer recites a long narrative (saseol) to the rhythm of a drum, while combining it with singing (chang), recitatives (aniri) and bodily gestures (balim or neoreumsae). If the focus is on the song, it is music; if the focus is on the arrangement of words, it is literature; and if the focus is on theatrical factors, it is a composite art form that falls under the category of drama.

Pansori is often compared to Western operas, such as “Aida,” “Carmen” or “La bohème,” but in contrast to the spectacular stage of a Western opera, created by a large number of performers including a dance troupe, a chorus believed that playing foreign music was improper for rites honoring ancestors

and a symphony orchestra, and embellished by elaborate costumes and lighting,

who had enjoyed native Korean music during their lifetime.

the stage of a pansori has just a solo singer holding nothing more than a single

The majestic and solemn rites at Jongmyo have represented the culture of the

folding fan and who appears along with a drummer carrying a single drum. And

Joseon royal household as well as the nation’s time-honored tradition of filial

“Joseon Cultural Landscape” by Kim

piety expressed in the daintiest style. The rites have attained a high standard of austere aestheticism while they have been devotedly conducted over six centuries.

The superb architectural space, the stern ritual procedures, the graceful music and dance – all these succinctly combined to create a sublime ceremony for spiritual communion between the living and the dead. Today, the royal ancestral ceremony at Jongmyo is recognized as the world’s only traditional Confucian ritual preserving its venerable, authentic style.

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yet, a pansori’s melody captivates the audience, at times violently filling the stage

Jun-geun (style name Gisan), from

like the downpour of a waterfall, while alternately caressing the audience like a

the collection of Kim Yang-seon,

spring breeze.

Some 300 ritual officiants are

displayed at Soongsil University

positioned to perform their

Korean Christian Museum. In

It is not known exactly when, how, or by whom pansori began to be

respective roles. Although the

traditional attire with a horsehair hat

performed because the musical tradition originated from folk tales that had been

Joseon Dynasty passed into history

(gat ), the singer performs pansori

passed on orally. The stories, most of which were very long and were often told

a century ago, the royal ancestral

as he stands holding a folding fan.

rites continue to be performed by

Before him, there is a drummer in

descendants and relatives of the Yi

similar attire, responding to the

believe that pansori has about 300 years of history due to the fact that the lyrics

royal family.

singer with the rhythm of his drum.

of “The Song of Chunhyang” (Chunhyang ga), were translated into a poem in

in song form, eventually evolved into narrative songs (chang). However, some

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survived until today: “The Song of Simcheong” (Simcheong ga), “The Song of Chunhyang” (Chunhyang ga), “The Song of Heungbu” (Heungbu ga), “The Song of the Underwater Palace” (Sugung ga) and “The Song of the Red Cliff” (Jeokbyeok ga).

In a pansori performance, the singer (soriggun or gwangdae) performs alone with the drummer (gosu). The singer plays the roles of all the characters that appear in a given work. To take “The Song of Simcheong” as an example, the singer plays Sim Cheong (the heroine), her father, her evil stepmother, the Buddhist monk, the merchant, the king, etc. To completely perform one work of pansori, it could at most take up to eight hours, or minimally a few hours.

To complete a pansori performance from beginning to end is not a trivial matter. Pansori does not have a musical score and has only been transmitted orally. Often, one section is excerpted to be performed for a short program, and sometimes the singer improvises on some part (deoneum) according to the subjective feeling or the situation at that moment.

Still, it is neither the singer’s talent alone nor the accompanying rhythms of the drummer that makes a pansori performance perfect. Besides the singer and the drummer, another factor that completes a performance is the audience. The pansori performance is only complete when an enraptured audience exclaims words of encouragement and delight (chuimsae; akin to “Ole!” “Bravo!” etc.).

classical Chinese and are contained in the Collected Works of Manhwa (Manhwa jip), written by a man named Yu Jin-han in the mid-17th century, during the

Pansori is often compared to Western opera. However, unlike the stage of an opera that is

reign of King Yeongjo of the Joseon Dynasty. The author stated in the book that

filled with lighting and elaborate

the poem was based on a song that he had heard while sightseeing around the

costumes and which is created by

Honam region, or the southwestern province of Jeolla.

The works of pansori are counted with the unit madang, literally meaning a “courtyard,” which used to be the usual venue for a pansori performance.

During the reigns of the Joseon kings Jeongjo and Sunjo, there were numerous works of pansori, and 12 selected works called yeoldu madang (literally “twelve courtyards”) were particularly famous. However, just five works have

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the collaboration of a symphony, a dance troupe, a chorus, etc., a pansori stage typically consists of a lone singer holding a folding fan and a drummer who measures out the rhythm on his drum and gives short, guttural cries of encouragement (chuimsae ).

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keeping the tradition alive.

The offering ceremony of the Gangneung Dano Festival is a commemorative

The Dano Festival of Gangneung

rite in honor of the three “deities” — Kim Yu-sin (the mountain deity of Daegwallyeong Pass), Monk Beomil and his wife (the village deities). Kim Yusin (595-673), a military official of the Silla Kingdom, is said to have made a The Gwanno mask drama,

famous sword in Gangneung when he was young, and with it, he unified the

consisting mainly of dance and

three separate kingdoms of Korea. After his death, he was believed to have

mime, is the only wordless form

Jubilant Recreation and Holy Rituals

of Korean masked performances.

The Gangneung Dano Festival is

who promulgated Buddhist doctrine in Gangneung toward the end of the Unified

a traditional Korean festival which

Silla Period and established the Gulsansa and the Sinboksa temples. According

combines recreation and ritual offerings, featuring a diverse array

Dano is the fifth day of the fifth month according to the lunar calendar. Ancient Koreans viewed dates that had two repeating odd numbers as being particularly

become the mountain god of Daegwallyeong Pass. Beomil was a renowned monk

to a folk tale, the monk died and became the deity of Daegwallyeong Pass and

of folk activities which take place

married a daughter from the Jeong family. A memorial rite is offered to the

throughout the festival period.

couple on the 15th day of the fourth lunar month, which is believed to have been

auspicious. As a result, the first day of the first lunar month (seol), the third day of the third lunar month (samjitnal), the seventh day of the seventh month (chilseok), and the ninth day of the ninth month (junggujeol) were all considered holidays because they all overlapped odd numbers. On these holidays, people played fun games and prepared dishes in accordance with the season.

In particular, dano was the day in which the cosmic yang energy (positive, male energy) was strongest and was considered the biggest holiday along with the New Year’s Day and the Harvest Moon Festival (chuseok). People ate rice cakes made from surichwi (a kind of herb found in marshes), exchanged folding fans as a reminder of the imminent hot season, and played folk games such as swinging (geune) and wrestling (ssireum).

Most of all, the “Double Fifth Day” was closely connected with farming. It was roughly around the time when the grains had been planted in the field, and when rice planting in the paddy was completed and the hectic spring farming

A procession carrying the sacred tree during the welcoming ceremony for the Daegwallyeong

was basically finished. After completing the preparations for one year of farming,

mountain deity, which signals

a commemorative service was held to pray for a bountiful harvest and to take a

the start of the Dano Festival in

break and enjoy playing games. This was called “Danoje,” meaning the Double Fifth Festival.

Danoje is a traditional event that combines recreation with ritual offerings.

It used to be carried out everywhere throughout the country, but today it is a gradually disappearing tradition. Of all the Danoje festivals, the one held in Gangneung, Gangwon Province, has a particularly long history and is robustly

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Gangneung. After the ceremonies for the mountain deity and village deities, the sacred tree which is inhabited by the male village deity is carried down and is kept in the shrine for the female village deity located at Hongje-dong until the last day of the festival.

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The Dano Festival of Gangneung

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their wedding day.

Currently, the festival starts off on the fifth day of the fourth lunar month with the ritual preparation of wine for the deities. After holding a welcoming

Women’s Circle Dance

ceremony for the mountain deity on the 15th day of the fourth lunar month, the festival is celebrated for five days beginning on the third day of the fifth lunar month and lasting until the seventh day. On the last day, the festival finishes with a departure ceremony to send the mountain deity back to Daegwallyeong Pass.

Ganggangsullae Enjoyed under the Full Moon

The recreational part of the festival is enthusiastically celebrated for five days starting on the first day of the fifth lunar month. In the festival locations along Namdaecheon stream, an exorcism rite by shamans consisting of over 20 acts is held, and many scenes of folk games take place throughout the area.

They include traditional farmers’ music and dances, the Gwanno mask drama

The full moon rises 12 times in a year. The moon is largest at the first full moon

and other performances, swinging, wrestling, and tug-of-war competitions. The

in the lunar New Year (daeboreum) and the harvest moon that rises in the eighth

shamanic rite, called dano gut, is a grand-scale ceremony, with spectacular rituals

lunar month during the Korean thanksgiving holidays (hangawi, or chuseok). On

continuing throughout more than 20 acts. Another performance that cannot be

these moonlit nights many find it impossible to stay indoors. “Kwaeng-geurang

missed in the festival is the Gwanno mask drama, in which a story is told not in

kwaeng kwaeng kwae kwaeng kwaeng kwaeng dudu dida dudu diung! It is only

words, but through music, dance and mime. The word “gwanno” means “slaves

on this day that regardless of class or social status, men and women of all ages

belonging to government offices,” who were the players of its original form

can all enjoy the day as a single group. Villagers enjoy the holiday that starts on

hundreds of years ago. During the Dano Festival, the entire city is in a festive

the lunar New Year’s Day, going around to each house playing music. . .” (from

mood, with open-air markets bustling with sales and scenes of merrymaking

the novel Spirit Fire (Honbul) by Choe Myeong-hui). On this day, men play the

taking place here and there.

farmers’ band music to increase the festive mood, and women hold hands and skip together in a traditional circle dance (ganggangsullae). Under the bright full moon the women taste the feeling of freedom and pray for a bountiful harvest in the year ahead or celebrate the joy of the harvest. The circle dance, which The circle dance starts off slowly

combines song and dance, is Korea’s representative pastime for women in a group.

with the participants holding hands and collectively moving in a circle.

Gradually, the circle breaks up into a long line of women holding

ganggangsullae, ganggangsullae.

hands, creating various patterned

The moon is rising from the east sea,

movements mimicking acts like “play, tortoise,” “breaking off the

Whose moon is it? Ganggangsullae.

straw mat,” “tying and untying the

It is the petty official Kang’s moon, ganggangsullae.

on roof tiles.” The photo shows dancers in a movement called the “parade of field mice.”

outside the east window, ganggangsullae.

fern,” “rolling and unrolling the string of herrings,” and “treading

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The moon is rising, the moon is rising,

Where has Kang gone, ganggangsullae.

Not knowing that the moon has risen?

Ganggangsullae, ganggangsullae.

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movements change briskly and dynamically. Sometimes, dancers experience a moment of complete abandonment to such an extent that one dancer stated, “When the dance reaches a climax, even the thought of my husband or my children vanishes from my mind completely. Only my body lost in ecstasy exists!” Indeed, there is a hypnotizing quality to the circle dance, so that it is not uncommon for participants to end up spending the entire night performing the dance.

The ganggangsullae circle dance is prevalent in the southern Jeolla province, especially in places like Haenam, Muan, Gangjin, Boseong, and Goheung, and the offshore islands of Jindo and Wando. There is a theory that Admiral Yi Sunshin invented the dance during the Japanese Invasions of 1592-1598, but there are also many competing theories on the dance’s origins. Theories on the origin of the name of the dance itself are also numerous. What is clear, however, is that in days when there were few games for women, the circle dance served as a favorite pastime for women. Made up of simple movements accompanied by a song with an easy melody, the dance could be quickly learned so that anyone could participate. In addition, it was a game that bonded the women who participated into a community consciousness. While many women held hands in a circle and responded to the singing, the exhilarating melodies played with the traditional Korean instruments added fervor to the dance.

Keeping in step with the cheerful and repetitive melody, a woman with a good voice sings the first part of each line, leading the chorus, and the other women respond with the refrain, “ganggangsullae.” As the full moon starts to rise, they hold hands and begin to move to the right as if they are drawing

Starting when the moon rises in

a circle on the ground and slowly accentuating their actions with a variety of

the early evening and lasting until

patterned movement with such descriptive titles as “play, tortoise,” “breaking off

it sets in the west, the circle dance

the fern,” “rolling and unrolling the straw mat,” “tying and untying the string of herrings,” and “treading on roof tiles.” In addition, they can improvise and change the song lyrics as they sing aloud, allowing their words to give full vent to the joys and sorrows of the women.

The first part of the dance is slow, but the rhythm becomes faster as it progresses to the latter part; as the dancers gradually become more excited, their

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is so enjoyable and dynamic that women often end up spending the entire night dancing under the moon. According to the tempo of the melody as sung by the singer who leads the chorus, the speed of the entire group’s movement also changes.

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Marvelous Feats of the Namsadang Clowns Vagabond Troupes Entertained Commoners

During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), there were nomadic troupes of entertainers called namsadang, who traveled across the nation and engaged in a wide array of performances, including singing, dancing, playing musical instruments, acrobatic feats, mask dances and puppet plays. They were very popular among commoners who seldom had an opportunity for entertainment or an outlet to relieve the weariness of their hardworking lives.

In general, the performances of a namsadang troupe took place at the village square with the repertoire consisting of the farmer’s band music (pungmul), a dish-spinning show with rhetoric and singing (beona), acrobatics on the ground (salpan), tightrope walking with rhetoric and singing (eoreum), a four-act mask drama (deotboegi), and a puppet play (deolmi). Each of these separate acts was conducted one by one seamlessly over the course of a long program.

While the dish spinning and tightrope walking were acrobatic feats that

children from poor families or runaways joined the troupe to become performers,

required highly trained skills, the four-act mask drama and puppet play resemble

and although the troupe consisted of lower-class people like poor peasants and

comic satires of society and social issues. The main themes of the mask drama

Performances of the namsadang

included the hypocritical noble class, the depravity of Buddhist monks, the

troupe were not just a simple

orphans, it operated under strict organizational rules.

Performances of the namsadang troupe were popular among commoners,

conflict between the first wife and mistresses, and the sorrows and pains of

pastime or recreation, but a form of

but held with contempt by the noble class. Therefore, when a troupe arrived in

lower-class commoners. Of the two acts that take the form of dramas, the puppet

integrated arts — the combination

the periphery of a village, they had to seek permission to go into the village for

of dancing, instrumental music,

play is special in that it has retained its traditional form until today as one of the

acrobatic feats, mask dramas

most frequently staged pieces in the modern repertoire of namsadang troupes.

A namsadang troupe was composed of 40-50 individuals, including the leader (called mogabi or kkokdusoe), planner (gombaengisoe), chief of each performance part (ddeunsoe), training performers (gayeol), beginners (ppiri), advisors (jeoseungpae), and porters who carried props and installations. Mostly,

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a temporary stay and performances. First, they would choose a site on a nearby

and puppet plays. They were

hill having great visibility from the village and display all sorts of amazing

entertainment for commoners,

feats. Meanwhile, the planner of the troupe would go into the village and attain

The puppet play at the end of the

which offered them solace amidst

namsadang troupe’s program

their hardworking lives. The

satirized society in a roundabout

program starts with the farmers’

way.

band music (below).

permission from the village authorities to enter and perform for the villagers.

It is not known exactly when the namsadang troupes and their performances came into being. Based on orally transmitted stories, they are presumed to

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The Rites of Vulture Peak

Yeongsanjae Guides to the Way of the Buddha

“All living beings must die, and all those who meet must part,” says a widelyquoted Korean proverb. Humans are mortal. In Buddhism, it is believed that the dead can be freed from anguish and suffering by understanding Dharma, or the

A four-act mask dance drama is

laws of the Buddha, even after death. The Rites of Vulture Peak (Yeongsanjae)

part of the regular repertories of

namsadang vagabond entertainers.

are a combination of exorcism, memorial service and Dharma celebration, which

It features exciting dance moves and witty banter among humorous

prays for posthumous enlightenment. The rites are served on the 49th day after

characters.

a person’s death because Buddhists believe that the fate of the deceased for the next life is determined in the 49 days that follow death.

Vulture Peak refers to Mount Gridhrakuta in India, where Sakyamuni

have appeared in the beginning of the Silla period (57 B.C.-A.D. 935). Written

Buddha delivered his discourses during his lifetime to an endless mass of people

records on namsadang troupes and their activities are very few, and if any, most

who gathered to listen to his teachings. This assembly was a favorite motif for

of them depict their performances in a negative light because they were the arts

Buddhist art in Korea, and a large number of paintings were produced under the

of the lowest class. From antiquity, there were many kinds of itinerant troupes

title “Sakyamuni Buddha Preaching to the Assembly on Vulture Peak” (Yeongsan

of entertainers, including those of female entertainers (sadang-pae) and of pole-

hoesangdo). The Rites of Vulture Peak are a reenactment of this assembly and

top acrobats (sotdaejaengi-pae). However, the name “sadang” as in namsadang

one of the most important Buddhist memorial services for the deceased to guide

is considered to have been used in the late Joseon era. Their unknown origin

The Rites of Vulture Peak are

their souls in the cleansing of the sins they committed in this world and to

notwithstanding, performances of the namsadang troupes were significant in that

accompanied by Buddhist ritual

help them be reborn in the Buddhist paradise. Sometimes, these rites are also

they served as entertainment for commoners, their soul-stirring music and comic

music that pays tribute to the

performed to pray for the nation’s peace or success in war.

satires of society eased the common people’s frustration and gave them carefree moments of escape from the daily grind of manual labor.

virtues of the Buddha. Called

beompae , it is one of the three representative genres of traditional

for three days and nights. Koreans often describe a state or a place of great

Korean vocal music, along with the

commotion using a phrase of Buddhist origin “yadan beopseok,” in which

lyric songs of poetry (gagok ) and epic chant (pansori ). It also had an

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The original form of these rites was a magnificent ceremony performed

“yadan” means an outdoor podium and “beopseok” means the venue for a

influence on Korea’s classical court

Dharma meeting where the Buddha’s laws are preached. This phrase came to

music.

have this meaning because the Buddha’s teachings attracted so many people that

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The drum dance is an important part of the Rites of Vulture Peak. Starting in a slow tempo and gradually building into a tempestuous crescendo, the dance is intended to salvage the souls of all living creatures.

important part is the prayers offered to the Buddha, and because of this long and solemnly exquisite ritual of prayers the Rites of Vulture Peak take more time than other memorial services for the deceased.

Music is an indispensible part of the Rites of Vulture Peak. All through the rites, monks chant ritual songs (beompae) and play two-stringed zithers (haegeum), drums, double-sided drums (janggu), six-stringed zithers (geomungo) and other instruments. They also perform the cymbal dance (barachum), butterfly dance (nabichum) and drum dance (beopgochum). Beompae, the ritual songs used in various Buddhist memorial services, are one of the three it caused a great commotion. It is said that over three million people gathered

representative genres of traditional Korean vocal music, along with gagok (lyric

when Sakyamuni preached the Lotus Sutra on Vulture Peak.

songs of poetry) and pansori (epic chant).

As the Rites of Vulture Peak are a grand-scale event, they go through a

The Rites of Vulture Peak are a ceremonial representation of the

The Rites of Vulture Peak are not artistic performances for an audience

complicated procedure composed of a variety of spectacular and solemn rituals.

Assembly on Vulture Peak, where

but actual religious rites in which a multitude of people participate in solemn

The outdoor rites begin by hanging a large painting of “Sakyamuni Buddha

Sakyamuni Buddha delivered his

reverence. These rites are intended to guide the souls of the dead and also

Preaching to the Assembly on Vulture Peak” as a representation of the assembly on the actual site of sermon during the Buddha’s lifetime. Next a procession ushers the objects of worship — the Buddha, bodhisattvas, guardian deities, and the soul of the deceased — into the temple and to the altar. It is followed by a sacrificial rite that pays homage to the invited deities, and the final step is a farewell ceremony to send the guests off. Of all the procedures, the most

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sermons to the mass who gathered there. Combining exorcism, memorial service and Dharma

help the living get closer to the teachings of the Buddha by participating in the spiritual ceremony.

meeting, the rites pay homage to the virtues of the Buddha and bodhisattvas, guide the dead to the Buddhist paradise, and pray for the happiness of the living.

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Yeongdeung Rites for the Goddess of Wind Jeju Islanders Pray for Plentiful Sea Catch Local women actively participate in

It is nearly impossible to discuss Korean culture without mentioning the

the rites to appease the goddess of the wind. As the rites approach,

shamanic rituals called gut. Even in modern times, any attempt to have a genuine

they prepare food offerings to be

understanding of Koreans and their culture requires some amount of knowledge

laid out on the altars under colorful

about the age-old shamanic tradition, which involves the “disentangling” of

banners adorning fishing boats.

knots, or conflicts; the knots between humans and nature, the knots between people, and the knots that exist within our inner selves. It aims to help people ritual custom has almost disappeared from the entire island except for in a very

reconnect with their true nature and inner vitality.

small number of fishing towns.

The Jeju Rites for the Goddess of the Wind (Jeju chilmeori yeongdeunggut)

The rites are held in the second lunar month to pray for a good harvest

are a series of shamanistic rituals indigenous to Jeju Island. They are held to worship the goddess of the wind (otherwise called the “yeongdeung halmang,”

and a plentiful sea catch, and the most authentic of all the versions of the rites

meaning Grandmother Yeongdeung), who is believed to help the local female

performed in Jeju are those held in the island’s main shaman shrine, named

divers (haenyeo) acquire an abundant harvest. According to the local folklore,

Chilmeoridang, in Geonip-dong, Jeju City. The Chilmeoridang shrine honors

either the “Land of the Heavenly Son” (in the south of the Yangtze River in

the “dragon king” and the “queen of the sea,” who are believed to protect

China) or the “Island of One-eyed Giants” is known to be the home of the

the villagers and their livelihoods. The original location of the main shaman

goddess. On the first day of the second lunar month, the goddess leaves her

shrine was on the hill by the sea halfway between Jeju Port and Sara Peak, but

home and arrives in Jeju Island, via Udo Island to its east. In Jeju, she travels all

it was moved to the entrance of the walking trail leading to the peak. It was

along its coasts and sows the seeds for marine life, including seaweed, abalone,

named Chilmeoridang (literally meaning, “seven-headed shrine”) because the

and top shell, before she goes back to her home via Udo again on the 15th day of the same month.

A set of rites to entertain this goddess of the wind is recorded in the 15thcentury geography book, Survey of the Geography of Korea (Dongguk yeoji seungnam), as a religious event for fishing communities; it shows that the faith in the goddess of the wind existed in the Joseon era or even earlier. The rites were held in many villages all over Jeju Island until the mid-20th century, but now the

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The rites for the wind goddess are shamanic rituals held annually in the second lunar month to pray for

topographical features of the site where the original shrine stood resembled a creature with seven heads. The rites performed in the main shaman shrine

calm seas and an abundant harvest

include sacrificial services offered to the three deities — the dragon king, the

from land and seas. The rites

queen of the sea and the goddess of the wind.

comprise acts for welcoming and bidding farewell to the goddess,

The rites for the goddess of the wind last for two weeks in the second lunar

with the latter being more elaborate

month, from the welcoming rite on the first day of the month to the farewell

and colorful than the former.

rite on the eve of the full moon. The second lunar month is called by the locals

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The Dance of Cheoyong

Talismanic Dance Incorporates Cosmic Energies

The Dance of Cheoyong (Cheoyongmu) was derived from a legendary folk tale about a mythical character named Cheoyong. It is a mask dance that has been passed down for over a thousand years from the Silla Kingdom (57 B.C.-A. D. 935). Also called the Dance of Cheoyong in the Five Directions (Obang cheoyongmu) and noted for its majestic and vigorous movements, this is the only form of Korean traditional court dance performed by dancers wearing masks.

The folk tale is set in Silla during the reign of King Heongang (r. 875-886).

Cheonyong, the son of a dragon, met the king on the beach in Gaeunpo (today’s Ulsan) and joined his entourage. He married a Silla woman and lived in Sorabeol, the capital city which is today’s Gyeongju. One day, he came home to find his wife in bed with a stranger. Surprisingly, Cheoyong just turned around and left the room, dancing and singing a song of his own composition: the “month of the wind goddess.” The rites begin with the head shaman (called “simbang” in the local dialect) singing and dancing to the accompaniment of

Under the bright moon in the capital

cymbals, drums and hand-held gongs (kkwaenggari) in front of a table set with food as offerings and a string of colorful banners. The welcoming rite involves

I reveled the night away.

Back home, I found four legs in my bed.

The most elaborate version of the

invoking the wind goddess, praying for an abundant catch and appeasing the

rites is held at the main shaman

The two are mine, but

souls of ancestors. In the farewell rite, offerings of wine, rice cake and grains are

shrine in Geonip-dong, in which

To whom do the other two belong?

presented to the goddess, and village elders craft and launch straw boats into the sea. Spring comes as the goddess of the wind departs the island. The goddess, having been properly honored by the villagers, reciprocates by making the sea resourceful and calm as she leaves the island.

The rites represent a folk religion unique to Jeju Island, and the only shamanic ritual of the island’s famous female divers.

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not only its residents but the

She was mine but has been taken away from me.

fishermen and female divers from

But what could be done about it?

all over the island participate. The head shaman presides over the

The Dance of Cheoyong is the only

rites while singing and dancing to

form of Korean traditional court

music played on assorted musical

dance performed by male dancers

Impressed by his nonchalant response, the stranger revealed his identity as

instruments, including cymbals,

wearing human masks. Its moves

the “plague spirit.” He knelt down before Cheoyong and said, “I’ve done a

drums and hand-held gongs.

are majestic and vigorous.

horrible thing, but you didn’t get angry with me. Your generosity fills me with

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This dance is special in that its origin and development process are relatively well known, unlike many other traditional dances.

The masks and costumes are also noteworthy. Each of the five dancers is dressed in a robe in one of the colors representing the five cardinal directions: blue (east), red (south), yellow (center), black (north) and white (west). They wear a red mask with a pair of earrings and an official’s hat decorated with peony blossoms and a branch of peaches. Their outfit consists of an insignia embroidered in red and green, a band of green cloth hung from either side of the shoulder, dark blue wide pants with red embroidered patches attached on the knees, a short outer skirt, a gilt-bronze waist belt, white trailing sleeves, and white leather shoes.

The five dancers wearing five differently colored robes represent the East Asian philosophical principle of yin and yang, and the five elements. They wear red masks because the color red is associated with the power to drive away evil spirits, and their white leather shoes represent a wish to brighten the world with every step they take. The same is true for their white sleeves. All in all, the Dance of Cheoyong, an epitome of Korean dance, is packed with symbolism, incorporating traditional Korean philosophy and values into its costumes and movements.

The current version of the dance is accompanied by an ensemble of two small flutes (piri), a wooden clapper (bak), a large bamboo flute (daegeum), a twostringed zither (haegeum), a double-sided drum (janggu) and a large hanging drum (jwago). This assortment of instruments is largely different from that awe and admiration. From now on, when I see even the picture of your face, I

which is typically used for court banquets.

swear I won’t go into that house.” Believing this tale, people started to hang the picture of Cheoyong on their doors to drive away evil spirits.

Until the end of the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), the Dance of Cheoyong was performed by a solo dancer as a ritual to ward off evil spirits. In the subsequent Joseon Dynasty, during the reign of King Sejong (r. 1418-1450), the Dance of Cheoyong was combined with the Crane Dance and the Lotus Pedestal Dance, and developed into the current form called the Dance of Cheoyong in the Five Directions, performed by five dancers at banquets or other festive occasions in the royal court and government offices. The performance of the dance was discontinued for a while toward the end of the Joseon Dynasty, but was revived by the Conservatory of the Yi Royal Family during the Japanese colonial rule.

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The Dance of Cheoyong is based on a folk tale of Silla about a man named Cheoyong, known to be a dragon’s son, who lived during the reign of King Heongang. When the plague spirit, disguised as a man, tried to seduce his wife, Cheoyong drove it away by dancing to a song that he composed on the spot.

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Slow Lyrical Songs of Poetry Gagok for Entertainment of Hermit Sages

The songs of gagok are classified into male solo songs, female solo songs and male-female duet songs. The photos show a female singer (left) and a male singer (right) performing solo pieces

Gagok refers to a genre of Korean vocal music composed from traditional

respectively.

three-line poetry (sijo) and accompanied by an ensemble of native instruments, consisting of a twelve-stringed, or else six-stringed, zither (gayageum or geomungo), a large, or else small, bamboo flute (daegeum or sogeum), a two-

The songs of gagok enjoyed in the early Joseon era had three different

stringed zither (haegeum) and a two-sided drum (janggu). In the Joseon Dynasty

tempos: The songs with slow, medium and fast tempos were called mandaeyeop,

(1392-1910), vocal music was roughly divided into two kinds according to

jungdaeyeop and sakdaeyeop, respectively. However, the slow- and medium-

the class of people who enjoyed them. First, aristocrats and literati enjoyed

tempo songs have disappeared, and the present form of gagok has been derived

three genres of songs composed from poetry. The term “sijo” mentioned above

from the fast-tempo variety.

refers not only to the poetic genre itself but also the songs composed from

There are about 40 pieces of gagok that have been transmitted until today.

the poetry — the songs with simple melodies and rhythms, which were often

These songs have adopted three different modes: the pyeongjo mode used for

sung without accompaniment. On the other hand, if the same poetry was set

peaceful and placid melodies; the ujo mode, for bright and energetic melodies;

to more sophisticated songs accompanied by an ensemble it was called gagok.

and the gyemyeonjo mode, for sad and plaintive melodies. Some of the songs are

Lastly, songs composed from the prose-poetry named gasa were longer and had

supposed to be performed by male solo singers, some by female solo singers, and

more complicated melodies. These three types of vocal music enjoyed by the

the others by male-female duets.

aristocracy were nicknamed the “proper songs (jeongga)” to distinguish them

For example, the lyrics and the performance detail of a song titled “The

from commoners’ songs, such as the pansori epic chant, folk songs (minyo) and

Willow Becomes Thread” are as follows (It is a female solo piece in the placid

other “miscellaneous songs” (japga). Among the three types of “proper songs,”

pyeongjo mode with the fast sakdaeyeop tempo.):

gagok is considered to be the most artistically sophisticated form.

Most of the gagok songs are very slow, with lyrics composed of about 40

(Instrumental Prelude)

syllables uttered in 11 minutes, and melodies ranging within only two octaves.

(Chapter 1) The willow becomes thread

The clearly enunciated lyrics and serene melodies make the songs easy to

(Chapter 2) The nightingale becomes a shuttle

understand. A gagok song consists of five chapters, including an instrumental

(Chapter 3) Together they weave a fabric of my sorrow for ninety days of

prelude (daeyeoeum) and interlude (jungyeoeum), combining vocal and instrumental music in a single piece.

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spring (Interlude)

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The Living Tradition of Falconry Like a Flying Arrow the Falcon Snatches its Prey

Unlike other forms of hunting, falconry is an indirect method of hunting that uses a trained falcon. It involves domesticating a falcon so that it captures wild prey. In order to engage in falconry, the falcon must first be hunted and captured and then it must go through the process of being domesticated. Falconry’s original purpose began with hunting, but after going through a long period of history, it also came to have the additional purpose of sport.

According to a record in “Biographies (Yeoljeon)” of the History of the Three Kingdoms (Samguk Sagi), King Jinpyeong (r. 579-632) of the Silla (Chapter 4) So, tell me.

Kingdom became so enraptured by falconry that he neglected matters of state, and as a result the state official Kim Hu-jik requested that after his death, his

Who is it that says the time of green trees and fragrant grass (Chapter 5) Is even better than the time of flowers?

body be buried by the roadside along King Jinpyeong’s hunting route to make

(Postlude)

the king realize the error of his ways. This was because the king had lost himself to hunting. Falcon hunters often declare that, “The person who has never

In Korean, the lyric consists of just 43 syllables, and the song is performed

A scene from the painting “Seokcheon in His Leisure Hours

for over 11 minutes. Singing such a slow song for over a 10 minute period is considered sufficient to calm one’s mind, wiping away anxiety and sadness.

(Seokcheon hanyu do )” (1748)

Gagok is a genre of vocal

by Kim Hui-gyeom (style name

Although these songs are neither exciting nor cheerful, they are attractive in a

music that was enjoyed by the

Hwawon). In the scene, Jeon Il-

serene, elegant and meditative manner. Neither high-strung nor lax, the tunes

aristocracy, which is distinguished

sang, a military official of the late

from commoners’ songs, such as

Joseon Dynasty, whose courtesy

the pansori epic chant, folk songs,

name was Seokcheon, sits leisurely

flow softly and resonantly.

Experts of world music have shown special interest in the Korean lyric songs of gagok, praising them as “songs that cleanse one’s body and soul,” or “the slowest songs in the world, an entertainment for hermit sages.” The lyric songs of poetry, if presented to the wider public, would likely be enjoyed and loved by music fans all over the world, serving as a cultural medium to spread Korean

experienced the joy of capturing and domesticating a falcon cannot comprehend the feeling of accomplishment experienced when the falcon you have raised like it was your own child completes its first hunt. Falconry enables one to have a rapport with nature, and it is the best way to build great character.”

In the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), falcons were distinguished into many kinds according to their quality, appearance, and their state of domestication:

and other “miscellaneous songs.”

in a pavilion where he is avoiding

a smart falcon with white feathers was called songgolmae; a falcon with blue

The lyric songs composed from

the summer heat. The falcon

feathers was called haedongcheong; a falcon that was captured and domesticated

the traditional poetry of sijo were

resting on the back of his hand,

accompanied by an ensemble

with a red tag and a bell attached

of traditional wind and string

to its tail, gives us a glimpse of

had lived in the wild for several years; and a sujini was a falcon that had

instruments.

falconry at that time.

been domesticated for several years. At that time, Korea’s falcons were called

before it was a year old was called a boramae; a sanjini was a falcon that

culture around the world.

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its sharp claws, it begins to eat by tearing at the head and eyes with its beak. If the falcon is hastily pulled away from its prey, it can break into a violent rage that could result in its death. To minimize damage to the pheasant and prevent the falcon from eating its fill, there is no choice but to separate the pheasant from the falcon, but it must be stealthily stolen away; the falcon is then allowed to eat some part of the head or else the head of the prey has to be removed and given to the falcon.

The falcon has been a loyal hunter for the Korean people. As said above, the falcon does not hunt if it is not hungry. For thousands of years, however, it has offered up the pheasants it captured to people and yet, it still flies in the blue sky as it always has in pursuit of the pheasant. Due to this acquired nature, the falcon is recognized as a bird of great fidelity and nobility.

Falconry originated in Asia and it appears to have expanded to other areas through trade and cultural interchanges. Currently, falconry is practiced in some 60 countries. In 2010, the nomination for registration on the UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity jointly consisted of 11 countries: South Korea, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Belgium, the Czech Republic, France, Morocco, Qatar, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Spain and Mongolia. The occasion was even more significant given that it was the first registration jointly comprised of Eastern and Western nations.

haedongcheong or haecheong and were renowned as intrepid, excellent hunters.

A falcon used for hunting had a bell attached to its tail in addition to a falcon tag (sichimi) with the owner’s name and address written on it. In Korean, the phrase “to remove the falcon tag (sichim-ireul tteda)” additionally means “to feign innocence.” This double meaning comes from a story of a man who removed the tag from a falcon that had flown into his house and pretended to be its owner.

for hunting, falconry is an indirect hunting method that uses a

Once the falcon takes flight, the falconer begins the chase and follows the bird. If a falcon captures a pheasant and is allowed to eat until it is full, it will be not able to hunt again. At this crucial moment, the falconer has to be very careful. Usually after a falcon captures a pheasant and gains controls over it with

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Unlike other traditional methods

domesticated falcon to catch pheasants, rabbits and other prey.

Falconry was created for hunting, but over its long history it has also become a sporting pastime.

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tile makers, repairers, masons, plasterers, ornamental painters, and others.

Carpenters who built palaces or fortresses were the highest class of carpenters,

Master Carpenter with Superb Expertise

and were treated with prestige. There were times when the court carpenters were given government positions.

In the 18th century, however, the court carpenters no longer held government positions. Their job title was changed into pyeonsu, and master carpenters called dopyeonsu supervised the construction of government buildings and

Daemokjang Leads Wooden Architecture

temples. Compared to the earlier title daemokjang, the new title denoted the lowered social status of carpenters, and this may be attributable to the rise of Confucianism in the Joseon Dynasty, which placed academic learning ahead The ceremony of raising the main ridge beam of Gwanghwamun,

A house is where a family lives. But it also serves as a marker of its owner’s social

the main entrance of Gyeongbok

status and wealth. That seems to explain why many palaces, residences of noble

Palace, held on November 27,

families, and Buddhist temples were built to be more majestic and imposing than

2009. Many artisans of traditional architecture, headed by a master

the others. In the past, all the Korean houses, whether it was a royal palace, a

carpenter, participated in the

Buddhist temple or a commoner’ house, were wooden structures.

The construction of a traditional wooden building goes through a number

columns, and the framework is completed. Then, the walls are put up, the roof

left timeless masterpieces for their descendants to inherit.

The institution of appointing master carpenters in traditional Korean architecture is Korea’s first technical field to be inscribed on the list of UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Its inscription is more meaningful in

placed crossbeams, and fitted

that master carpenters are the ones who supervised the restoration of Changdeok

raising the ridge beam for the

planning and structural designing. Next, the wood is cut into various beams and

carpenters and other artisans in many fields pursued perfection in their arts, and

ceremony, and erected columns, the bracket system before finally

of processes. First, the construction begins with the purchase of timber, layout

of martial arts and practical skills. Regardless of their changed status, master

Palace, which is a World Heritage site, as well as Gwanghwamun, the main

roof, marking the final step of the

entrance of Gyeongbok Palace, and Sungnyemun, the southern gate to the old

construction.

capital city Seoul.

is covered with tiles, and some parts of the surfaces are painted with colorful designs. Naturally, larger houses need heavier wooden beams and roofs, and the frameworks also have to be stronger.

Traditional woodworking techniques, including the skill to connect wooden beams, require a long period of training to master. Also the carpenter should have a comprehensive knowledge of various tools and the ability to use them skillfully. Therefore, skilled carpenters are produced through decades of apprenticeship and field experience.

In traditional Korean architecture, joiners and carpenters had distinctively different responsibilities. Joiners (somok) worked on small-scale woodworks, such as doors, railings, parts for sculpting and furniture, while carpenters (daemok) built the framework of a building, consisting of columns, beams, rafters, angle rafters, lintels, bracket systems, etc. A person responsible for

Carpenters assemble the lintel and install the purlin support. In traditional Korean architecture, woodworking jobs were divided into joinery and carpentry.

Carpenters were responsible for setting up the framework of a building, and making and installing

the entire field of woodworking was a master carpenter (daemokjang), who

columns, beams, rafters, angle

also headed all the artisans involved in the entire construction procedure —

rafters, lintels, bracket systems, etc.

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Hunmin Jeongeum The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests’ Zen Teachings The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat Royal Protocols of the Joseon Dynasty Printing Woodblocks for Tripitaka Koreana and Miscellaneous Buddhist Scriptures Principles and Practices of Eastern Medicine The Records of Daily Reflections (Ilseongnok) Human Rights Documentary Heritage 1980 Archives

Memory of the World

The pages from Explanations

and Examples of the Proper Sounds to Instruct the People

Hunmin Jeongeum

(Hunmin Jeongeum harye ) that

five basic constants (ㄱ, ㄴ, ㅅ, ㅁ, ㅇ), resembling the shapes of vocal organs, symbolize the five elements of the universe — metal, wood, water, fire and earth

that it was invented by a specific

earth and heaven, the three origins of the universe. Representing the essential

individual for a clear purpose.

unique in the world history of scripts. Hangeul is humanity’s only script that was

Sounds to Instruct the People that explain the rules for combining consonants and vowels. The book, in the collection of the Kansong Art Museum, is believed to have been published in the early part of the

theories of East Asian philosophy, these basic consonants and vowels were developed into the initial 28 letters by adding strokes. Of the original 28 letters, four (ㆆ, ㅿ,

,

●

most writing systems used by nations around the world were therefore regarded as a “god’s gift.” This is the reason why Hangeul, the Korean script, is considered

●

the shape of the mouth when pronouncing the respective sounds, stand for man,

The pages from Explanations

changes over a long period of time. With their clear origins remaining mysterious,

— from which all life arises; and the three basic vowels ( , ㅡ,ㅣ), resembling

in the world history of scripts in

and Examples of the Proper

to generation. They have generally evolved slowly and gradually, undergoing

At the time of its invention, Hangeul had 17 consonants and 11 vowels. The

letters of the newly invented Korean is called Hangeul today, is unique

Writing systems used by mankind have been handed down from generation

scholars. The book, measuring 32.3cm by 20cm, has 33 leaves.

explain the basic usage of the 28 script. Hunmin Jeongeum, which

The Korean Alphabet Earns Global Recognition

creation of the script and its usage, and a preface by Jeong In-ji, one of the

) fell into disuse as time passed, so Hangeul now consists of

24 letters. The letters are simple and easy to learn. Properly combined as needed they can express any sound in the Korean language.

UNESCO awards the annual King Sejong Literacy Prize to those who have made outstanding contributions to the eradication of illiteracy around the world.

ninth lunar month of 1446 at the

German linguist Martin Haspelmath has suggested that October 9, Hangeul Day,

latest.

be celebrated as “World Linguistics Day.”

devised by a specific individual at a specific time for common use by an entire nation. In other words, it is a “human invention” which was scientifically and systematically created.

Hangeul was personally created by King Sejong. It was completed in 1443, the 25th reigning year of Sejong, and promulgated in 1446 through the publication of Hunmin Jeongeum (Proper Sounds to Instruct the People). As he clearly stated in this book, Sejong devised the writing system with wishes that “all people would learn it with ease and use it daily with comfort.” The noble intention of the 15th-century monarch became widely known in modern times after the original edition of Hunmin Jeongeum was discovered in the 1930s.

Although the cover and the first page were missing, the book clearly stated the purpose for devising a new script and a detailed description of its composition and usage. It consists of two parts. In the first part, the sage king announced the promulgation of the national script and explained that it consisted of 28 letters which were to be combined into syllabic blocks to express the Korean language. The second part has “Explanations and Examples of the Proper Sounds to Instruct the People” (Hunmin Jeongeum haerye), written by eight scholars under Sejong’s orders to introduce the basic principles in the

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No other country in the world keeps comparable historical records of past dynastic periods with reliable contents in such immense quantities. China, Japan

The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty

Korean Palace Records Enrich World History

and Vietnam, which also belong to the Confucian cultural sphere, have annals The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty (Joseon Wangjo Sillok )

Shilu (The Annals of the Ming Dynasty) and Qing Shilu (The Annals of the Qing

which were preserved at the

Dynasty). The Joseon annals do not exceed Chinese annals in volume but they

Joseon royal archives on Mt. Odae.

cover a longer period. Moreover, the Joseon records are the only publications of

These are part of an edition taken to Japan during the colonial period and mostly destroyed during the Great Kanto Earthquake in 1923.

Seventy-four volumes survived the earthquake and were returned to

The king’s life itself was tantamount to national history in dynastic states.

Korea, 27 volumes in 1932 and 47

Accordingly, all the official events attended by the king and the king’s daily life

volumes in 2006.

were recorded in various ways. Annals of individual kings were often the most

of past dynasties, but none of them cover entire monarchies except Huangming

their kind that are handed down in printed editions. All annals in other countries were hand-copied.

Four copies were printed for all of the Joseon kings’ annals to be preserved in four royal archives scattered in mountainous areas so the precious texts could be safely preserved for posterity.

Access to the annals of Joseon kings has been greatly limited for the general

The Annals of King Jungjong

public as the entire texts were written in Chinese characters. Now their Korean

authoritative among the official records of states. In Korea, the annals, or sillok,

are records of the 36-year reign

texts can be easily browsed on the Internet (http://sillok.history.go.kr), thanks to

meaning the “veritable records,” referred to the official documents of events

of Joseon’s 11th monarch. This

the efforts of some 3,000 translators and other concerned experts over 25 years.

during a king’s reign. They were compiled by the state in chronological order according to year, month, date and hour.

The Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) amassed official records that covered some

is a proofreading edition used for reprinting after the Japanese

Terminology and indices are classified in a way to facilitate a smooth search

invasions of 1592-1598. The pages

through the vast content. The digital annals are expected to encourage active

have many red proofreading marks.

research.

172,000 days in over 472 years under 25 kings. Although they are called Joseon Wangjo Sillok (The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty), there is no book with such a title. The records instead are the collective documentation of the successive Joseon reigns, and individually titled according to kings, such as The Annals of Taejo, Gangheon the Great (Taejo gangheon daewang sillok) or The Annals of Cheoljong the Great (Cheoljong daewang sillok).

Annals were compiled after the death of each king under stern rules and regulations. A temporary office called the Office of Annals (Sillokcheong) was set up to carry out the task. Distortion of historical facts was strictly forbidden and so was arbitrary addition or deletion.

The annals dealt with a wide array of topics from trivial daily occurrences in court to major administrative affairs. They covered numerous areas including politics, economy, diplomacy, law, astronomy, medicine, arts, religion, society, culture, people and customs. In total, the Joseon annals consist of 1,188 books in 1,707 volumes containing some 64 million Chinese characters, a virtual encyclopedic compendium of state administration without a precedent.

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who served as the French consul to Korea from the late 19th to the early 20th

Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests’ Zen Teachings The Oldest Book Printed with Movable Metal Type

centuries. After several decades, Dr. Park Byeong-seon, a Korean bibliographer, Heungdeoksa temple site.

significantly proved that Korea invented and used metal type printing for the first

As Buddhist relics including the

time in the world. In the late 1960s, Dr. Park discovered the Jikji at the National

fragment of a bronze gong were unearthed in 1985 with inscriptions

Library of France, and found an inscription on its last page that the book had

of the temple’s name on them, the

been printed with movable metal type at Heungdeoksa in 1377. Afterwards,

site was confirmed as the place

through strenuous endeavors and research, she managed to have the book

where Heungdeoksa temple once stood.

recognized as the earliest surviving work of metal type printing in 1972.

Although it has been a while since the world recognized the presence and

The metal print version of the Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests’ Zen Teachings (a photo-

the value of the earliest work of metal type printing, the location, or even the existence, of Heungdeoksa mentioned on the last page of the book was not

Korea has a long and distinguished printing tradition, which began with the

graphic edition). It was published

known and no relevant record was found until 1985. At that time, on a temple

woodblock printing technology introduced from China around A.D. 700. The

in 1377, some 70 years prior to

site in Uncheon-dong, Cheongju City, a team of researchers found the fragment

Great Dharani Sutra of Immaculate and Pure Light (Mugu jeonggwang dae daranigyeong), presumed to have been printed in 751 during the Silla period, is the world’s earliest extant work of woodblock printing. The Tripitaka Koreana (Goryeo daejanggyeong) was printed with a collection of wooden printing blocks, which, beginning in 1236, were carved over 15 years. Korea’s advanced woodblock printing technology led to the invention of movable metal type. In

the Gutenberg Bible, which was printed with movable metal type in Germany. The book consisted of two volumes, but the first volume is lost. The second volume is housed in the Division of Oriental

of a bronze Buddhist gong and a bronze rice bowl with a distinct inscription “Heungdeoksa” on each of the excavations. With the location of the temple finally identified, the value of the Jikji was further reinforced.

Yet, the Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests’ Zen Teachings, which greatly

Manuscripts at the National Library

contributed to advancing human civilization, has not returned to its birthplace.

of France in Paris.

It remains in France, housed in the National Library of France in Paris.

the West, Johanness Gutenberg of Germany is known to have invented metal type in the mid-1400s, but in Korea the technology was already in use some 200 years earlier.

Proof for this statement is found in the Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests’ Zen Teachings (Jikji simche yojeol), which was printed around 1377 in Heungdeoksa Temple in Cheongju, Korea. Compiled by the Buddhist monk Baegun Hwasang (1298-1374), the book is an abstraction of the Buddha’s teachings, words of Buddhist patriarchs, dialogues, letters and other materials.

The key word of the title “jikji (直指)” came from the Zen phrase “jikji insim gyeonseong seongbul (直指人心 見性成佛),” meaning “attaining enlightenment by looking directly into the human mind.” It is remarkable that a temple in the countryside printed books with metal type early in the Goryeo Dynasty, and the fact itself demonstrates that metal type printing technology was put to widespread use in the period.

It is presumed that 50-100 copies of Jikji were printed at the time. One of the copies was taken to France by Victor Emile Marie Joseph Collin de Plancy,

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First, the royal diaries, consisting of 3,243 volumes and 242.5 million

The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat Breath of History Comes Alive with Rigorous Fidelity

characters, recorded court events of 288 years on a daily basis without missing even one day. Its volumes are four times as large as the Annals, which were The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat recorded state affairs on a daily basis. Unlike The Annals

recorded for 472 years.

Second, the Royal Secretariat made it a rule to make a detailed record of

of the Joseon Dynasty , which were

any meeting that the king had with his retainers, which were always attended

kept secret while the king on the

by chroniclers and scribes. While the annals of individual kings are secondary

record was alive, the diaries were open for reference to assist in policy-making processes.

The covers of seven volumes of

The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat ,

historical material edited by chroniclers after the pertinent king had died, the diaries are primary sources recorded almost in real-time by scribes during the king’s reign and also containing related documents without revisions.

Third, the content of the annals was strictly kept secret while the reigning

In the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon)

which recorded the general

king was alive. However, the diaries were regarded as a reference material

was a government agency that was in charge of assisting the king in dealing

administrative affairs, documents

concerning state affairs, which could be consulted when seeking similar examples

with state affairs, providing consultation, and delivering the king’s orders and instructions. Equivalent to today’s presidential secretariat, it was first installed during the reign of the third king Taejong and lasted until the end of the 26th king Gojong’s reign. Seungjeongwon ilgi, or The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat,

transmitted to and from the king, and daily events in the palace. As the title of the Royal Secretariat changed many times, the diaries sometimes had different names in Korean, such as Seungseonwon

from the past.

Fourth, the diaries are thorough and detailed records that did not fail to capture even the momentary mood swings of the king, let alone his words and actions. While the annals were focused on the result of each event, the diaries

are detailed records of daily court events and general administrative affairs

ilgi , Gungnaebu ilgi , Biseogam ilgi ,

included the background, motives and process of each event, as well as the

including the documents delivered to or handed down from the king. The diaries

Biseowon ilgo and Gyujanggak ilgi .

details and implications of their results.

have excellent historical value not only in that they served as the primary source for The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty (Joseon wangjo sillok), but in that there is only one original version.

The diaries began to be written in the early days of the dynasty, but many of them were burnt to ashes during the Japanese Invasions of 1592-1598. The remaining 3,243 volumes contain the record of more than 105,000 days over 288 years from the first year of King Injo (1623) to the fourth year of King Sunjong (1910).

Each entry of the diaries begins with the date, that day’s weather condition, and the names of the secretarial staff on duty, and then provides the king’s daily routine with information about the time and place of each event. The secretariat was staffed by six royal secretaries and two scribes as well as some officials dispatched from other government offices.

If compared with The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, which is another court record of Joseon included in the Memory of the World Register, the characteristics of The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat become more distinct:

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(banchado), which depicted the royal procession made in the particular event.

Royal Protocols of the Joseon Dynasty

They are highly artistic paintings produced by court artists who were regarded as The Royal Protocol on the Wedding of King Yeongjo and Queen Jeongsun (Yeongjo

The extant royal protocols are divided into four categories by the nature of

jeongsunhu garye dogam uigwe ),

the event recorded: First, various rites in the king’s life, such as birth, investiture,

which reports the process of

enthronement, wedding and funeral; second, state events such as royal ancestral

preparing for the marriage of the 66-year-old king and the 15-year-

Uigwe Document Details of State Events

the best painters of the time.

rites, spring plowing ceremonies and banquets for foreign envoys; third,

old queen in 1759. The king

important publication and construction projects; fourth, happy occasions in the

welcoming his bride in a splendid

royal family. As diverse state ceremonies were held in Joseon, the types of royal

procession is vividly depicted in the “relative rank chart.”

protocols are also numerous.

For the publication of each royal protocol, five to nine copies were made

In the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), keeping records was an important part of its culture and thus, a variety of historical materials were produced. The most

The Royal Protocol on the State Funeral of Empress Myeongseong (Myeongseong hwanghu kukjang

notable examples include The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty (Joseon wangjo

dogam uigwe ). The copy of the

sillok) and The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon ilgi), both of

royal protocol for the king’s

which are listed as Memory of the World by UNESCO; The Records of the Border Defense Council (Bibyeonsa deungnok), which are journals on the activities of the highest legislative organ of the mid-Joseon era and thereafter,

viewing is distinguishable at a glance since it was made with high

including transcribed and type-printed versions. One copy was delivered to the king and the rest were stored in various departments and history archives. The copies offered to kings were made with the utmost care, using fairly artistic binding styles. The kings’ copies had been stored in the Royal Library and Archives (Gyujanggak) before they were moved to its new Outer Office in

quality materials and bound with

Ganghwa Island in 1782, the sixth year of King Jeongjo’s reign. The movement

beautiful decorations.

was done to ensure the safe storage of the books, but it eventually led to the

consisting of 237 volumes that cover the period of 276 years from 1617 to 1892;

plunder of about 300 volumes by French troops, who invaded the island in 1866.

and The Records of Daily Reflections (Ilseongnok), the 2,327-volume journals of the kings who reigned for the period of 150 years from 1760 to 1910. In addition, the royal protocols (uigwe) are an excellent embodiment of the recordkeeping tradition of the Joseon Dynasty.

The word uigwe is the combination of “ui” as in uirye (ceremony) and “gwe” as in gwebeom (standard). That is, it is the term for comprehensive reports on memorable ceremonies and events held by the royal family or the state.

The royal protocols were published for the succeeding generations to refer to them as exemplary models for similar events. As such, the protocols contained immaculate details on the entire procedure of an event, including the information about assigned jobs, names of the people responsible for them, the number of workers mobilized, the cost of goods used, general expenditures, and even the rewards given to outstanding workers. Combining text with related illustrations, the protocols have been acclaimed not only for their faithful information but for their aesthetic value. Of special note are the paintings vividly depicting the actual scenes and objects. For example, each royal protocol has a “relative rank chart”

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wood, soaked in sea water for three years and then boiled in brine. The blocks’

Printing Woodblocks for Tripitaka Koreana and Miscellaneous Buddhist Scriptures Still in Fresh Relief after a Thousand Years

surfaces were coated with two or three layers of lacquer; both of their ends were reinforced with strips of wood; and the four corners were fixed with copper plates. All these were measures to prevent damage from humidity, bugs and A woodblock for the Treatise

on the Lotus of the True Law sutra (Myobeop yeonhwagyeong non ),

The Janggyeong Panjeon Hall in Haeinsa Temple, which houses the Tripitaka

part of the Tripitaka Koreana . The

printing blocks, was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1995 in

woodblocks had long been thought

recognition of the scientific storage of the woodblocks. The ancient Koreans who

to have been made from birch wood, but recent scientific research identified that most of them were made from wild cherry and wild

The Tripitaka refers to a collection of Buddhist scriptures (discourses of the Buddha), laws and treatises (commentaries on the scriptures and laws). Scores of

pear wood, which are easily found across Korea, especially along the

others, however, the Korean version, produced in 13th century Goryeo Dynasty, is unrivaled in terms of comprehensiveness and accuracy.

The Tripitaka Koreana was printed on 81,240 woodblocks, each of which is 68-78 centimeters in width, 24 centimeters in length and 2.8-3.4 centimeters in thickness. Each block weighs about 3.5 kilograms and is carved with 322

left such an outstanding cultural heritage were also aware of the importance of its storage and preservation.

Apart from the woodblocks for the Tripitaka Koreana, which were produced between 1232 and 1251, Haeinsa is a depository of a total of 5,987 woodblocks for miscellaneous Buddhist scriptures from the period between 1098 and 1958,

south coasts.

different versions of Tripitaka were produced in classical Chinese during several Chinese dynasties, in Mongolia, in Japan, and in other Asian countries. Among

warping.

including treatises on Buddhist precepts and history, literary anthologies by The woodblocks for the

Tripitaka Koreana packed tightly

renowned monks, and woodblocks of Buddhist paintings. Among them, the

on the shelf in two tiers. Each

Suchang Edition of Avatamsaka Sutra (Flower Garland Sutra) is known to have

block is reinforced at either end

been created earlier than the Tripitaka Koreana in 1098. Unlike the Tripitaka

by attaching thick wooden strips, and its four corners are fixed with

Koreana, which was a task commissioned by the state, these woodblocks for the

copper plates, making the block

miscellaneous scriptures were produced by the temple for their own use, and

both strong and beautiful.

altogether they were listed as a Memory of the World by UNESCO.

characters (23 lines of 14 characters) on either face. Roughly speaking, the entire set of woodblocks contains more than 50 million characters. Each character on the block, carved in the Chinese script, occupies the space of 1.5×1.5 centimeters, and the font has been stylized from the calligraphy of Ouyang Xun, a scholar of the Chinese Tang Dynasty. The numerous characters are neatly carved with beautiful uniformity. The carvers worked with incredible dedication; they are said to have taken a bath before they set out to work on the blocks as a symbolic act of cleansing their body and soul, and that they bowed three times before they carved every single character. In addition, the text was carved with remarkable accuracy, which was achieved through a rigorous correction procedure as recorded in Special Record of Review and Rectification (Gyojeong byeollok), in the appendix to the Tripitaka Koreana.

Apart from their artistry and perfection, another remarkable thing about the woodblocks is that they have been preserved for more than 750 years without warping or deformation. The blocks were made from wild cherry and wild pear

Printing Woodblocks for Tripitaka Koreana and

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A woodblock used to print the

Principles and Practices of Eastern

Principles and Practices of Eastern Medicine

Medicine (Dongui Bogam ) in the 19th century. The borderlines of each page cover an area of 24×37 centimeters, the typical page size of old Korean books.

East Asia’s Prized Medical Encyclopedia

to the development of Oriental medicine. It has been in practical use in Korea, and has also been published in China and Japan in a variety of editions. The

The illustration at the very beginning of the book depicts the organs inside the human body with their characteristics, which is not an anatomical representation of the organs but a kind of conceptual diagram showing that the human body operates according to the principle of yin and yang, and the five elements (ohaeng, or wuxing in Chinese), which is a central concept in East

The medical guidebook was so

and Japan, bringing about further

medicine. For hundreds of years since its publication, the book has contributed

acupuncture and how to apply the needles.

and Practices of Eastern Medicine .

published repeatedly in China

of Korean Medicine) is the fundamental guidebook for traditional Korean

dosage of drugs; and 5) “Acupuncture” about the spots on the body suitable for

The first edition of the Principles

popular in Asia that it has been

Dongui Bogam, or Principles and Practices of Eastern Medicine (a.k.a. Exemplar

diagnosis and treatment; 4) “Remedies” about the processing, prescription and

developments in Oriental medicine.

Containing many principles that are

Asian philosophy. It also expresses a profound philosophical idea that a human being is a microcosm of nature which is analogous to the macrocosm of nature.

The book has also been acclaimed for its ideas about preventive medicine, which places prevention of disease ahead of its treatment, and the holistic

acceptable from the perspective of

approach to treatment emphasizing its spiritual aspect — that is, peace of mind

the present-day Western medicine,

rather than external administration of drugs.

it is expected to contribute to the integrated development of Eastern and Western medicine.

book contains many principles that can be adopted for modern medical practice, so it is expected to promote alternative medical practices and an integrated development of Eastern and Western medicine.

The medical book, featuring over 4,000 diagnoses, thousands of items of information about medicinal plants, animals, and minerals, was published in 1610, the second year of the reign of King Gwanghaegun. As people suffered from various diseases following the Japanese Invasions of 1592-1598, the king ordered the distinguished royal doctor Heo Jun to compile a book of medical, therapeutic and pharmaceutical information that could be used by ordinary people without difficulty. Heo Jun is a legendary figure in Korean medicine. Born as the son of a second wife, which was a despised social position in Joseon, he rose above his misfortune by dedicating himself to treating the sick and finally became the king’s personal physician, the highest medical position at the time.

The 25-volume medical guidebook explains the cause and diagnosis of diseases, the drugs needed for each disease and how to prepare them, as well as extensive information about acupuncture and moxibustion in five chapters: 1) “Internal Medicine” about the fundamental elements that constitute the human body; 2) “External Medicine” about the functions of each body part and related diseases; 3) “Miscellaneous Diseases” about the basic principles of

190

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Principles and Practices of Eastern Medicine

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2009

191

on daily reflections is very important in a scholar’s endeavor to advance his learning. I have kept his teaching in mind since my childhood days. Ilseongnok

The Records of Daily Reflections (Ilseongnok)

embodies this teaching. Every night I examined what I did during the day; at the end of every month I examined what I did during the month; and at the end of every year I examined what I did during the year. While doing so over many King Jeongjo intended to record every aspect of governance to reflect upon his state management

From the King’s Personal Journal to State Chronicle

and for easy reference in the future, so the content is marked with headings and descriptions.

A book cover of The Records

The Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) compiled an array of official chronicles of state administration in different formats, including The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty (Joseon wangjo sillok), The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon ilgi) and The Records of the Border Defense Council (Bibyeonsa deungnok).

of Daily Reflections (Ilseongnok ), written in the style of the kings’ journal. The record is comprised of

years, I realized I could grasp many things concerning what was gained and lost, and what was expedient and what was not, in the orders given and things accomplished. This is what I found through my daily reflections.”

While most pre-modern historical records are documents of past events, Ilseongnok describes ongoing events of contemporary history from each era.

Even more uniquely, it was written according to the kings’ wishes to look back on their rule and use as reference for the future. Although written in the style of the king’s diaries, this is an official record of state administration compiled in a

2,329 volumes covering 150 years

single handwritten edition. It is comprised of a total of 2,329 volumes, although

from 1760 to 1910.

33 volumes covering 21 months remain missing.

Ilseongnok, or The Records of Daily Reflections, is differentiated from other state publications in that it originated from a king’s personal journal.

King Jeongjo (r. 1776-1800), the 22nd ruler of Joseon, began keeping his personal journal during his days as grand heir. His daily practice of reflecting upon his own deeds and academic progress was inspired by a simple remark by Zengzi, contained in The Analects of Confucius (Lunyu), that “Each day I reflect upon myself on three accounts.” Jeongjo continued to write his diaries everyday even after ascending the throne. Due to the ever increasing burden of his duties, however, in the fifth year of his reign he instructed the royal library to record daily events of his rule and write out clean copies for his approval on every fifth day. Hence the king’s personal diary evolved into an official court document; the government of Joseon continued to keep the official journal until its final days in 1910.

Jeongjo intended the record to be a veritable chronicle of all aspects of his governance that could be referred to easily when need arose. Therefore, he ordered the journal to be compiled under specific headings and descriptions, instead of recording events in a simple chronological order. The title of the journal was also borrowed from Zengzi’s remark.

According to Collected Works of Hongje (Hongje jeonseo), an anthology of his writings, Jeongjo said in 1784, the eighth year of his reign: “Zengzi’s teaching

192

Memory of the World

The Records of Daily Reflections (Ilseongnok )

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2011

193

well as the photos and video images of shocking scenes taken by domestic and foreign press while Gwangju was isolated from the rest of the country with all of

Human Rights Documentary Heritage 1980 Archives

its communications severed. Lastly, there are documents produced by civil society groups, individuals and concerned organizations under military governments after the uprising in order to uncover the truth about the events in Gwangju and Citizens of Gwangju march on the street during the May 18 Democratic Uprising in 1980,

Records of the May 18 Democratic Uprising in Gwangju

place around Gwangju, South Jeolla Province, from May 18 to May 27, 1980, and a series of relevant events afterwards include documents, photographs and video footage concerning the pro-democracy movement, punishment of the perpetrators of its brutal suppression, and compensation for victims.

The movement by citizens of Gwangju and South Jeolla Province during the chaotic days in early 1980 following the assassination of President Park Chung-

The uprising in Gwangju not only provided crucial momentum for

demanding the withdrawal of new

the democratization of Korea but also exerted positive influence on the

military leaders and establishment

dismantlement of the Cold War regime in East Asia and pro-democracy

of a democratic government.

A record of daily events during

Documentary materials related to the May 18 Democratic Uprising, which took

restore the reputation of those unduly punished on charges of subversion.

the May 18 Democratic Uprising in 1980, kept at a local district office.

A message to students advocating democracy around the country, written during the May 18 Democratic Uprising in 1980

movements in various countries in the region by showing the tragic consequences that occur when illegitimate state powers infringe upon the honor and dignity of citizens.

In recognition of the universal significance of the May 18 Democratic Uprising, related documentary materials were placed on the UNESCO Memory of the World Register in May 2011. The relevant documents are possessed by the Gwangju Metropolitan City, National Archives of Korea, ROK Army

which marked an epoch in Korea’s

Headquarters, Library of the ROK National Assembly, U.S. State Department,

democratization process.

and the May 18 Memorial Foundation.

hee marks an epoch-making event in the history of Korea’s democratization.

They rose against a new military government which took power through a coup after Park’s assassination on October 26, 1979, demanding the withdrawal of new military leaders and establishment of a democratic government.

The events in May 1980 were called the “Gwangju incident” for nearly a decade before it was officially named the “May 18 Democratic Uprising” and its contribution to Korea’s democratization was publicly recognized in 1989. In 1990, the Korean government began paying compensation for losses suffered by citizens during the resistance and legal actions also started against two former generals-turned-presidents and senior members of military staffs who were considered responsible for the bloody suppression of the uprising.

Documentary items related to the democratic uprising in Gwangju are largely divided into three types. The first type includes documents produced by state institutions which came to power in 1980, documents on military operations, and records of investigations and trials by military judicial bodies. The second type comprises documents produced by civilian organizations and individuals before and after the uprising, including statements, declarations and posters, as

194

Memory of the World

Human Rights Documentary Heritage 1980 Archives

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2011

195

World Heritage

1

Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple Year of Inscription Year of Creation

4

1995

Year of Inscription

774 (Unified Silla)

1997

Cultural Property Status

Cultural Property Status Location

National Treasure No. 24

999, Jinhyeon-dong, Gyeongju, North

Gyeongsang Province Opening Hours Contact

07:00-17:30, all year round

Seokguram Temple Office (Tel. 054-746-9933)

Home Page

http://www.sukgulam.org

Cultural Property Status Location

Contact

• 09:00-17:30 (in November and March)

County, and Sanggap-ri in Asan-myeon, North Jeolla

Opening Hours

• 09:00-17:00 (from December through February)

Province

• 06:00-18:30 (from March through October)

• Admission for guided tours at specific hours

Contact

• Closed every Monday

Home Page

http://www.cdg.go.kr

Cultural Property Status

Year of Creation

1995

Restored in 1457 (Joseon; 3rd year of

1997

Home Page

Jongmyo Shrine Year of Inscription Year of Creation

1995

1395 (Joseon; 4th year of King Taejo)

Cultural Property Status Location

Historic Site No. 125

155 Jongno, Jongno-gu, Seoul

10

http://www.dolmen.or.kr

Hahoe Village Cultural Property Status

Province

• Naega Dolmens (Incheon Metropolitan City’s Monument

Location

No. 16)

Gyeongsang Province

09:00-18:00 in summer

Hwaseong Office (Tel. 031-228-4410~2)

Home Page

http://hs.suwon.ne.kr

Contact

City’s Monument No. 32)

(Tel. 054-853-0109)

• Ganghwa Bugeun-ri Jeomgol Domens (Incheon

Home Page

Andong Hahoe Village Preservation Association http://www.hahoe.or.kr

Metropolitan City’s Monument No. 31) Spread over Bugeun-ri, Samgeo-ri, Osang-ri, etc. in

Location

6

Ganghwa County, Incheon Metropolitan City

Gyeongju Historic Areas Year of Inscription

2000

Contact

Tourism (Tel. 032-930-3626~8)

Silla Kingdom (57 B.C.-A.D. 935)

Location

All across Gyeongju, North Gyeongsang Province

Contact

Gyeongju City Culture & Tourism Department

Ganghwa County Department of Culture and

Home Page

http://tour.ganghwa.incheon.kr

(Tel. 054-779-6396) Home Page

http://culture.gyeongju.go.kr

Yangdong Village Cultural Property Status Location

Important Folklore Material No. 189

Yangdong-ri, Gangdong-myeon, Gyeongju,

North Gyeongsang Province Contact

Gyeongju Yangdong Village Office (Tel. 054-

779-6105) Home Page

8

http://yangdong.invil.org

Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes Year of Inscription

2007

Cultural Property Status

• Gimnyeong Cave and Manjang Cave Lava Tubes (Natural

year round; closed every Tuesday

Monument No. 98)

• Tour begins 20 minutes past each hour

• Bengdui Cave Lava Tube (Natural Monument No. 490)

• From March through September, an additional tour is

• Dangcheomul Cave Lave Tube (Natural Monument No.

offered at 5:00 p.m.

384)

• Independent tours are possible on Saturdays

• Yongcheon Cave Lave Tube (Natural Monument No. 466)

http://jm.cha.go.kr

Important Folklore Material No. 122

Hahoe-ri, Pungcheon-myeon, Andong, North

• Ganghwa Daesan-ri Dolmens (Incheon Metropolitan

• Mount Halla (Natural Monument No. 182)

Home Page

2010

Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910)

• Ganghwa Dolmens (Historic Site No. 137)

• 09:20-16:20, admission for guided tours in Korean

Jongmyo Management Office (Tel. 02-765-0195)

Year of Inscription

Ganghwa Dolmen Site

Historic Site No. 3

Opening Hours

Contact

Historic Villages of Korea: Hahoe and Yangdong

Maehyang-dong and Paldal-ro in Suwon, Gyeonggi

Year of Creation

3

http://royaltombs.cha.go.kr

Year of Creation

07:00-17:30, all year round

http://www.haeinsa.or.kr

Home Page

Cultural Property Status

Contact

10, Chiin-ri, Gaya-myeon, Hapcheon County,

Home Page

Royal Tomb Museum of the Joseon Dynasty (Tel.

02-972-0370)

Historic Site No. 410

1796 (Joseon; 20th year of King Jeongjo)

Spread over Jangan-dong, Sinpung-dong,

Opening Hours

National Treasure No. 52

Haeinsa Temple Office (Tel. 055-934-3000)

• Closed every Tuesday

Spread over Hyosan-ri in Dogok-myeon, and

Jeolla Province

Hwaseong Fortress

South Gyeongsang Province Contact

• 06:30-17:30 (from November through February)

http://www.gcdolmen.go.kr

Contact

09:00-17:00 in winter

Opening Hours

Gochang Dolmen Museum (Tel. 063-560-2576)

Hwasun Dolmen Site

Year of Inscription

King Sejo) Location

and Yeongwol in Gangwon Province

Daesin-ri in Chunyang-myeon, Hwasun County, South 5

Tripitaka Depository at Haeinsa Temple

Cultural Property Status

Spread over Jungnim-ri, Dosan-ri in Gochang

Changdeok Palace Management Office (Tel.

Location

Year of Creation

Yangju, Gimpo, and Hwaseong in Gyeonggi Province;

Location

Location

http://www.bulguksa.or.kr

Year of Inscription

Historic Site No. 391

Historic Sites Nos. 193-210

Seoul; Guri, Namyangju, Yeoju, Goyang, Paju,

Cultural Property Status

Cultural Property Status

2

Location

• 09:00-18:30 (from April through October)

Home Page

Bulguksa Temple Office (Tel. 054-746-9913)

Home Page

2009

1408-1926

Cultural Property Status

Gyeongsang Province 07:00-17:30, all year round

Year of Creation

Gochang Dolmen Site

15, Jinhyeon-dong, Gyeongju, North

Opening Hours

Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty Year of Inscription

The Bronze Age

Historic Site No. 122

02-762-8261) Historic Site No. 502

9

2000

Opening Hours

Contact

Bulguksa Temple

Year of Creation

99 Yulgongno, Jongno-gu, Seoul

Location

Dolmens in Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Year of Inscription

1405 (Joseon; 5th year of King Taejong)

Year of Creation

Seokguram Grotto

7

Changdeok Palace

• Seongsan Sunrise Peak (Natural Monument No. 420) Mt. Halla Natural Reserve; Geomunoreum Lava

Location

Tube System in Gujwa-eup in Jeju; and Seongsan-ri, Seongsan-eup in Seoguipo, Jeju Special Self-governing Province Contact

World Natural Heritage Jeju (Tel: 064-710-6576)

Home Page

196

http://jejuwnh.jeju.go.kr

197

Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity

1

The Royal Ancestral Ceremony at Jongmyo

5

Memory of the World

Namsadang Vagabond Clowns’ Play

1

Falconry

Year of Inscription

2009

Year of Inscription

Period of Creation

Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910)

Period of Creation

Late Joseon Dynasty

Cultural Property Status

Year of Creation

• North Jeolla Province’s Important Intangible Cultural

Cultural Property Status

Heritage No. 20

Collection

• Daejeon Metropolitan City’s Intangible Cultural

Seongbuk-gu, Seoul

Heritage No. 8

Contact

Cultural Property Status

Public Viewing

Important Intangible Cultural

Cultural Property Status

Contact

Important Intangible Cultural

Property No. 3

First Sunday of May, every year, at Jongmyo

Contact

Shrine

Namsadang Nori Preservation Association (Tel.

02-557-3880) Preservation Society of the Jongmyo Ancestral

Home Page

http://www.namsadang.or.kr

Contact

2010

Year of Inscription

Korea Folk Falconry Preservation Association (Tel.

5

1997

1446 (Joseon; 28th year of King Sejong) National Treasure No. 70

Kansong Art Museum (Tel. 02-762-0442) http://www.hangul.or.kr

2007

Year of Creation

Period of Creation

Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910)

Cultural Property Status

• Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, Seoul

National University

Cultural Property Status

The Pansori Epic Chants

Contact

Period of Creation

From the mid-Joseon Dynasty and

wonsa Temple (Tel. 02-392-3007)

thereafter

https://www.kfa.ne.kr:44302/ (KTFPA)

Yeongsanjae Preservation Association at Bong-

Home Page

http://bongwonsa.or.kr

Important Intangible Cultural

Contact

• Jangseogak Archives, The Academy of Korean Studies

National University (Tel. 02-880-5316)

11

Master Carpenter Year of Inscription

7

http://www.pansorimuseum.com

Important Intangible Cultural

The Jeju Rites for the Goddess of Wind Year of Inscription

Important Intangible Cultural

Property No. 71 The Dano Festival of Gangneung Year of Inscription

2005

Period of Creation

Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910)

Cultural Property Status

Contact

Jeju Chilmeoridang Yeongdeunggut Preservation

8

Institute)

Period of Creation

Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910)

http://lib.aks.ac.kr/web (Jangseogak Archives)

of the fourth lunar month to the fifth day of the fifth

Cultural Property Status

lunar month)

Property No. 39

Gangneung Danoje Festival Committee (Tel.

Home Page

033-641-1593~4)

2009

9

National Treasure No. 151

Important Intangible Cultural

6

Printing Woodblocks of the Tripitaka Korana and

National University

Miscellaneous Buddhist Scriptures

• National Archives of Korea, Busan Branch

Year of Inscription

Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies (Tel.

=ko_KR&fs=1&

2011

1980-1997

Collection

• May 18 Archive of Gwangju City Hall

Period of Creation

• Archive of May 18 Memorial Foundation

• 1011-1251, Goryeo Dynasty (Tripitaka Koreana )

• May 18 Research Center of Chonnam National

National Archives of Korea, Busan Branch (Tel. 051-

• Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties (Miscellaneous Buddhist

University

550-8001)

Scriptures)

Contact

Cultural Property Status

Home Page

http://kyujanggak.snu.ac.kr (Kyujanggak Institute)

• National Treasure No. 32 (Tripitaka Koreana )

Gwangju City Hall)

http://www.archives.go.kr (National Archives)

• National Treasure No. 206 (Miscellaneous Buddhist

http://www.518.org (Archive of May 18 Memorial

Scriptures)

Foundation)

http://sillok.history.go.kr

Haeinsa Temple; 10, Chiin-ri, Gaya-myeon,

Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests’ Zen Teach-

Hapcheon County, South Gyeongsang Province

ings (Jikji simche yojeol )

Contact

Year of Creation Collection

http://www.danojefestival.or.kr

2007

Year of Creation

02-886-5316)

Year of Inscription

http://www.youtube.com/v/hz38uVwbuZc&hl

Archives for the May 18th Democratic Uprising against Military Regime in Gwangju

Collection

3

Human Rights Documentary Heritage 1980

Year of Inscription

The Dance of Cheoyong Year of Inscription

http://kyujanggak.snu.ac.kr (Kyujanggak

http://kyujanggak.snu.ac.kr (Kyujanggak

1997

Home Page

Association (Tel. 064-753-7812)

• Held from May to June every year (from the fifth day

Home Page

Home Page

Year of Inscription

Important Intangible Cultural

Property No. 13

Contact

Jangseogak Archives (Tel. 031-709-8111)

Contact

2009

Cultural Property Status

The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty (Joseon Wangjo

• Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, Seoul

2010

Home Page

Institute for Korean Studies, Seoul National University)

Collection

Property No. 74

Gochang Pansori Museum (Tel. 063-560-2761)

Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies (Tel.

Sillok )

Cultural Property Status

Cultural Property Status

Property No.5 Home Page

http://www.falconry.kr (KFFPA)

Property No. 50

2003

Contact

Home Page

Important Intangible Cultural

Year of Inscription

Cultural Property Status

2

042-272-5314)

Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, Seoul

National University Contact

2009

National Treasure No. 153

Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, Seoul

Collection

02-886-5316)

Year of Inscription

1760-1910

Collection

Korea Traditional Falconry Preservation Association (Tel. The Rites of Vulture Peak

2011

Year of Inscription

063-433-6760) 6

The Records of Daily Reflections (Ilseongnok ) Year of Inscription

Jongmyo Shrine Management Office (Tel. 02-765-0195) http://www.jongmyo.net

8

(Uigwe )

Kansong Art Museum, Seongbuk-dong,

Home Page

The Royal Protocols of the Joseon Dynasty

Rites (Tel. 02-765-2124) Home Page

3

Hunmin Jeongeum (Korean Script)

2001

Properties Nos. 56 and 1

2

10

Year of Inscription

Contact

2001

http://518center.gjcity.net (May 18 Archive of

http://altair.chonnam.ac.kr/~cnu518 (May 18 Research Center of Chonnam National University)

Haeinsa Temple Office (Tel. 055-934-3000)

Home Page

1377 (Goryeo; 3rd year of King Wu)

Ahn Jong-cheol (Tel. 062-376-6644)

http://www.haeinsa.or.kr (Haeinsa Temple)

http://www.sutra.re.kr (Research Institute of Tripitaka

National Library of France in Paris

Koreana)

Cheongju Ancient Printing Museum (Tel. 043-

269-0556) 9 4

Lyric Song Cycles (Gagok )

The Ganggangsullae Circle Dance

Year of Inscription

2010

Year of Inscription

2009

Period of Creation

Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910)

Period of Creation

Unknown (A theory exists that it began

Cultural Property Status

during the 1592-1598 Japanese Invasions) Cultural Property Status

Important Intangible Cultural

Property No. 18 Contact

Haenam Usuyeong Ganggangsullae Preservation

Association (Tel. 061-533-8810) Home Page

http://www.ggsr.kr

Important Intangible Cultural

Property No. 30 Contact

Gagok Inheritance Center (Tel. 055-221-0109)

Home Page

http://igagok.org

http://www.jikjiworld.net

Home Page

Principles and Practices of Eastern Medicine (Dongui Bogam ) Year of Inscription

4

The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon Ilgi ) 2001

Period of Creation

Joseon Dynasty

Cultural Property Status Collection

National Treasure No. 303

Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, Seoul

National University Contact

Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies (Tel.

Home Page

Year of Creation

2009

1613

Cultural Property Status

Year of Inscription

02-886-5316)

198

7

National Treasure No. 1085;

Treasure No. 1085-2 Collection

National Library of Korea; Jangseogak Archives,

The Academy of Korean Studies Contact

National Library of Korea (Tel. 02-535-4142)

Jangseogak Archives (Tel. 031-709-8111) Heo Jun Museum (Tel. 02-3661-8686) Home Page

http://www.heojunmuseum.go.kr

http://kyujanggak.snu.ac.kr

199

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