Korean beauty en by KOCIS

Korean Beauty

Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism

Korean Beauty

Contents

Korean Beauty 4

Yeobaek 9

Chagyeong 49

Meot 89

Gyeopchim 129

Haehak 161

Yunghap 193

Korea Contemporary 234

Appendix 241

Korean Beauty

Lee O-Young

Around the turn of the twentieth century, Westerners ﬂocked to Korea on hearing rumors that there was gold in the ground. Although many failed to ﬁnd it and went home, they did not regret the experience, because they knew, in the words of one missionary, that “the gold lay not in the ground of Korea, but in the hearts of the Korean people.”

In the secret of the gold that lies hidden in the heart, one of the cryptic symbols on the treasure map is meot. And this book has been made to help decode that symbol. The word meot may sound strange if you are not Korean, but once you learn its meaning, you will be able, like those Westerners of a century ago, to dig out the precious gold that lies deep in the hearts of the Korean people.

Actually, even native-born Koreans can rarely give a clear answer if you ask them what meot is. They know that meot is

similar to mat (taste), and they know what has no mat and what has no meot. But all you can do is to taste the meot for yourself in the uniquely Korean objects, customs, and behaviors that appear in this book.

The beauty of Chinese ceramics lies in their substantial size and mass, while Japanese ceramics are distinguished by colors as brilliant as a red stingray. But with Korean celadon vases or Joseon Dynasty porcelain “moon jars,” the beauty lies in the gentle curves. Is it the beauty of the curve, then, that deﬁnes Korean meot? And even then, what is the beauty of the curve?

When driven by function or efficiency, human beings make a straight line. That’s why most man-made objects are formed of straight lines, in contrast to the curved lines of nature. Whether you see it with your eyes or feel it with your heart, a straight thing is not natural.

In straight things there is no change or movement. Like direct sunlight, a bald straight line has no shade. In a word, Koreans would say that anything functional, efficient, unnatural, and bald has no meot. A footpath has meot, but an expressway has no meot.

In today’s parlance, meot is analog rather than digital. It has something ambiguous and irregular about it. It cannot be

quantiﬁed in numbers or weighed in a scale. That’s why one Japanese ceramics expert who loved Korean pottery said that the beauty of Korean ceramics lay in “the presence of regularity within irregularity and the ﬂow of perfection within imperfection,” for “regularity without irregularity is merely mechanical, while irregularity without regularity is nothing but chaos.” Thus, meot is born when regularity and irregularity are in harmonious balance. The Japanese expert admitted that Japanese ceramics “sometimes lose vitality through the habit of seeking only perfection.”

Here we can ﬁnd another deﬁnition of meot. Japanese ceramics have no meot. The reason why Korean ceramics have meot is that they don’t lose their vitality.

Nowadays, the business people and tourists who come to Korea are interested in the “Miracle on the Han River” that produced the country’s successful industrialization. But if they spend a lot of time with Koreans and encounter traditional Korean culture, they may ﬁnd, like their forefathers a century ago, that the real gold of Korea lies not in the ground but in the hearts of the people.

A tourist map is not enough. Let someone arriving in Korea for the ﬁrst time, or someone who has lived here for years, or indeed someone who was born Korean, hold this book in

their hands; for when they do, I believe they may ďŹ nd that mysterious and fantastic Treasure Island, the land of meot.

Yeobaek

Lee Joon

One of the things that highlight the special character of Korean artistic culture and the aesthetic values of East Asia, setting them apart from the artistic culture of the West, is the aesthetic of yeobaek, the void. Chiefly used in discussing the mode of expression in traditional East Asian pictures and landscape paintings, the term “void” refers literally to the empty space or unpainted portion as opposed to the objects depicted in the painting. By the standards of Western art, which portrays everything as far as possible by its shape, the void in an East Asian painting might seem a space that is unfinished or lacking in form. Indeed, it is not easy to find a corresponding term in the vocabulary of Western art. The only equivalent is “blank space,” which suggests the negative element of empty space and a deficiency in physical reproduction.

But in East Asian art theory, the void exists as a completed part of the work, and might be termed in a more positive sense the “unpainted painting.” In that sense, the void is not just unused space, but an entity that exists even in its non-existence, and that sublimates space to a higher plane. Of course, the beauty of the void is not unique to Korean art, but is shared by Chinese and Japanese art as well. But while Chinese art shows a continental forcefulness and an aesthetic of solid forms, and Japanese art tends to be decorative, delicate, and consummately artiﬁcial, Korean art is characterized by eliminating the artiﬁcial as far as possible and producing the work in a natural manner as if it were simply there from the beginning.

Especially in Korean traditional paintings, the void is frequently used not only to evoke the profound spaces of natural objects such as clouds, air, and sea, but also to show the allusive spirit of the Joseon Dynasty literati artists. In Bitter Cold d by the leading late Joseon literati artist Kim Jeong-hui, the aesthetic of the void

appears with great elegance. Outside of the simple house standing in the middle of the picture with pine and fir trees on either side, the work omits virtually all background. Through the image of the trees standing firm in the cold winter, and the completely empty void, it admirably expresses the artist’s desolate mood in his banishment to Jeju island, as well as the warm heart and unswerving fidelity of the pupil who has not forgotten him.

Viewing the Geumgang Mountains from Danbalryeong Pass by Jeong Seon, who developed his own distinctive style of “true view” landscape painting, depicts the wild scenery of the Geumgang Mountains’ 12,000 peaks, which the artist had seen and felt for himself, but also reﬂects the legend that anyone who comes to the Danbalryeong Pass will lose all attachment to worldly things. Divided along the diagonal, the picture dramatically contrasts the Geumgang Mountains, drawn like white crystals in the upper left part of the frame, with the worldly people who have come here, shown in dark ink to the lower right along with the Danbalryeong Pass itself, and thus it hints at the separate worlds of reality and nirvana. The use of the void throughout the frame creates an aura that gives the work a special power.

One of the articles in which the taste and sentiment of the Joseon Dynasty appears to the fullest is the white porcelain jar. Known as the “moon jar” from its full shape that resembles a full moon, this vessel has no decoration at all, yet it conveys a strong impression to many people through its indifferent and expressionless look. With its soft full moon shape, its pliant lines, and its warm milky coloring, it gives a natural and generous feeling. “Generous” here is meant to imply various nuances of tolerant, accepting, ample, leisurely, easy-going, and gentle—qualities that help explain why the white porcelain “moon jar” has remained a favorite for so long.

Smooth and round and accepting all things naturally, the beauty of the moon’s shape has nothing vulgar about it, but is full of elegance and dignity. In particular, the Joseon Dynasty moon jar is epitomized by the limitless depth that comes from the tranquil silence of a broad void.

The use of the void and a contemplative attitude toward nature, which we ﬁnd so often in Korean aesthetics of the past, is also interestingly realized in the works of leading ﬁgures in twentiethcentury modern art such as Chang Uc-chin and Park Soo-keun. In Chang Uc-chin’s A Riverside Scene, which makes maximum use of the aesthetic of the void although produced by the techniques of Western painting, we can read the feeling for elegant pursuits and the comical free spirit of an artist who lived without interest in worldly success, while in Park Soo-keun’s Homecoming, the hard life of the common people is poetically sublimated through the aesthetic of the void.

Since the 1970s, there have been many contemporary artists—such as Lee Ufan, Park Seo-bo, Suh Se-ok, and Lee Jong-sang—who actively practiced the art of the void through minimal artistic acts. One of Lee Ufan’s most important works, From Line, shows the simple act of drawing a line until the blue pigment in the end of the brush is used up, and then continuously repeating that act. The theory of Lee’s method is highly implicit and poetic: existing objects are suggested by dots, living things by lines, and the appearance and disappearance of these dots and lines implies birth and death, while the repetition of this process evokes the inﬁnite circulation of the universe, which has no beginning or end.

Actually, this aesthetic of emptiness using the void was applied in various ways by Western abstract artists of the mid-twentieth

century. Yves Klein, Mark Tobey, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Ad Reinhardt, Agnes Martin, and many other Western artists reﬂected Oriental philosophy and ideas such as meditation and Zen in their works. But what is important to note is that long before Western abstract art, the concept of emptiness and the void was very naturally ingrained in Korean tradition, culture, and reﬁned pursuits. Especially characteristic of Korean culture is its close relationship with the East Asian concept of unity with nature or “not two but one,” which seeks balance and harmony.

Kim Hong-joo’s Untitled, which depicts the crater lake on Mt. Baekdusan, leaves a large part of the painting as a void, implying that it is equal in importance to the painted portion. The sharp contrast between the precisely painted mountain peaks and the completely unpainted lake calls forth a new feeling quite different from that of the landscape paintings or images of Mt. Baekdusan that we have been accustomed to seeing. Suh Do-ho’s work that reproduces part of the front gate of his own traditional Korean house in the form of installation art, or Kim Sooja’s video work that observes nature by watching the slow movement of a river in contrast to the fast ﬂow of change in contemporary society, is also differentiated from the work of Western artists by an observant way of using the void.

This aesthetic of the void also appears clearly in the photography of Bae Bien-U and Boomoon, both receiving much attention internationally. Bae Bien-U mostly captures natural landscapes in the dense mist of dawn against a background of pine trees, creating a scene of lingering monotones like the void in a traditional ink painting. The photographs of Boomoon show natural landscapes centered on the horizon where the sky meets the land or sea, reproducing real spaces—white snowy ﬁelds—as the white void

in which nothing is painted, and thus hinting that there is no real separation between the visible and the invisible.

Thus, the character of the void is that it has no shape or boundaries, and is not something that can be touched, seen, or easily deďŹ ned in words. Yet through the relationship between seen and unseen, material and spiritual, self and other, interior and exterior, or center and periphery, it is continually expanding, forming new meanings, and producing diverse effects. A space in which a kind of energy resides, it is something invisible yet apparent to the eye, something that can be analyzed but that must be grasped through bodily feeling. Clearly showing the aesthetic character and spiritual values of Korean art, the aesthetic of the void retains its place in many forms of Korean artistic culture to this day.

Kim Jeong-hui, Bitter Cold

Chang Uc-chin, A Riverside Scene

Park Soo-keun, Homecoming

Bottle, White Porcelain with Rope Design in Underglaze Iron-Brown

Kim Chong-yung, Work 58-3

Bae Bien-U, Pine Tree Series

Suh Do-ho, Gate

Jeong Seon, Viewing the Geumgang Mountains from Danbalryeong Pass

Kim Hong-joo, Untitled

Lee Ufan, Correspondance

Boomoon, Naksan No. 8167, No. 8168

Kim Sooja, A Laundry Woman â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Yamuna River, India

Lee Ufan, From Line

Suh Se-ok, Dancers

Moon Jar

Koo Bohnchang, Vessel (HA 05-1)

Cheong Kwang-ho, The Pot 79

Chagyeong

Kim Bong-ryol

The monotonous scenery of the coast, or familiar everyday city scenes, can take on a new beauty when we look at them through the viewﬁnder of a camera. The scene in the viewﬁnder is one that already existed, but through subjective human choice it is cropped into a picture, and in this picture there is already aesthetic value. The landscape painters of eighteenth-century Europe used this principle to develop the genre of the “picturesque” painting, while Asian architects and artisans have realized the same principle in gardens and buildings.

Traditional Asian architecture and landscape gardening was a process of finding and showing the forms that lay hidden in nature. In creating a garden, two important principles were, first, an exquisite correspondence (ingyeong) with the shapes and topography of nature, and second, the bringing out (chagyeong) of the intrinsic forms in the natural interior and exterior views. So the first thing to do was to read the lie of the land around the garden, and to choose among the views that spread out before you.

Korea’s topography has been described as wrinkly. Between lines of mountains not particularly tall, rivers and streams flow through valleys large and small. The mountains are gently sloped and thickly wooded, with small hills close to the villages and larger mountains further away, forming a landscape of overlapping layers. As a result, when you open a window in a house, in any direction you can see a scene of mountains, fields, and rivers. So even without making a garden, the window acts like the viewfinder of a camera, forming a beautiful natural landscape from the surroundings. The topography of the Korean peninsula was a great gift to Korean architecture. It presented the simplest way of applying the principle of chagyeong.

In the gazebos and pavilions deliberately constructed for the enjoyment of natural scenery, the chagyeong method is extended even further. The Mandaeru Pavilion of the Byeongsan Seowon Confucian Academy in Andong is a completely empty two-storey building comprising seven bays (kan, the area enclosed by four structural columns). When you climb to the pavilion and look out, the Nakdong River flows peacefully below, with Mt. Byeongsan stretching out above. The name “Byeongsan” suggests a mountain that resembles a folding screen (byeongpung) painted with pictures divided into multiple panels. Mandaeru is a building formed of nothing but a frame, its columns standing bare without any walls. The space from left to right between the columns, and from top to bottom between the eaves and the floor, forms an enormous empty picture frame. This architectural frame is filled with the scenery of mountains and rivers, and the frames of the seven bays extend to present the views of the long river and mountain as both divided and continuous. Thus the pavilion becomes a folding screen adorned with seven landscape paintings.

The method of using the building as a visual frame for the landscape outside has often been used in contemporary architecture too. When architect Bae Byung-kil designed Gallery Hyundai, he deliberately pierced the façade of the building with windows. In general, art gallery buildings avoid windows because the direct rays of the sun can hinder the preservation and appreciation of the art works. Nevertheless, this building was given windows to provide views of the old palace across the road. Seen through the frame-like windows of the gallery, the palace is no longer a relic but a series of works of art.

Welcomm City, Seoul, designed by leading Korean architect Seung H-Sang, is an example of a structure that uses whole buildings as

a visual frame. The headquarters of an advertising company, it is formed of four separate buildings. The complex is not very large, but the reason for dividing the buildings was to leave an empty space between them so that the views of the neighborhood in front and behind would be visible from each building. What this architect calls the “urban void” is rearranging the landscape of the city.

Gardens around the world are designed to present an idealized image of nature. The English picturesque garden re-created pastoral scenes of the countryside, while the arabesque garden of the Islamic world evoked a lush oasis amid the desert. A Korean garden, on the other hand, had no need to reproduce the forms of nature by artificial means. As you only had to raise your eyes to see rich and beautiful nature all around you, nature itself became a garden simply by the choice of a view. The goal of the Korean garden was to maximize the intrinsic beauty of nature with the minimum of artificial interference. Even if it was created artificially, the principle of landscaping was not to let the artifice appear but to make the garden look as if it had been created by nature in the first place. This might be called the epitome of the static view of nature, which respects nature just as it is.

Accordingly, artificial behavior that goes against the principles of nature was frowned on. As it was in the nature of water to flow from high to low, they did not make fountains that shoot water upward. Nor did they artificially change the topography. Where there was a slope, they built embankments to suit the slope and form step-like terraces, and where the land was level, they built walls to form a space suited to level land.

Some buildings became completely part of nature. Gaeamsa

Temple in Buan is a very small temple. When it was rebuilt in the seventeenth century, the whole country was in ruins after the Japanese invasions, and there were no economic resources for rebuilding a temple on a large scale. There was only enough money to build a very small Buddha Hall of only three bays. A site for the building was chosen below a mountain with two imposing boulders on its summit. The little building looked like another boulder that had rolled down from the hill behind, completely becoming a part of the natural scene. When you stand in front of this Buddha Hall, you can’t help exclaiming in admiration at the magniﬁcent scenery, but it is hard to tell whether the object of that admiration is nature or the man-made building.

Similarly, the Education Center for Uniﬁcation in Seoul, designed by contemporary architect Kim Won, stands within the Bukhansan National Park. This architect made the shape of the buildings resemble the surrounding jagged mountain peaks. The buildings themselves became artiﬁcial mountains, forming a new part of nature.

Nature is also a temporal being that changes with night and day and the changing seasons. Therefore, the principle of chagyeong must also accept the changes of time. For garden trees, broad-leafed trees that reﬂected the four seasons were preferred to evergreens and conifers, and they were not planted in straight lines. Koreans would enjoy the new green shoots in spring, rest under the thick shade of the leaves in summer, admire the beautiful changing colors in autumn, and contemplate the snow resting on the bare branches in winter.

Natural landscapes are not only to be seen with the eye, but also heard with the ear. Sounds of water, sounds of the wind, sounds

of rain drops, sounds of birds... all these are sounds that make one feel the presence of nature. The Soswaewon Garden in Damyang is a sonic garden where you can hear all these sounds. When you enter through a dense bamboo grove, you hear the wind rustling in the bamboo leaves, and throughout the garden, which centers on a stream, you hear diverse sounds of water: the calm sound of ﬂowing water, the powerful sound of falling water...

If you look carefully, you can see that the bamboo stems have been planted close together to amplify the sound of the wind by rubbing against each other. You can also read that the rocky floor of the stream was deliberately made uneven to maximize the sound of flowing water. The sounds in this garden have all been artificially selected and adjusted, but it is difficult to detect any artificiality. Instead, you have the illusion that the garden has been created amid natural sounds that were already there.

Nature is both a visual and an aural being, a being that embodies the changes of time. Consequently, chagyeong is not just a way of perpetuating the scenes that appear to the eye, but also of capturing the sounds perceived by the ear. One must also be able to feel in one’s whole body the changes of time and the seasons, and the accumulation of ages. Korean architecture and landscape gardening has developed on a principle of chagyeong that comprehensively shows landscape, sound, and time. As a result, it has put architecture and humanity at one with nature.

Kim Su-cheol, Summer Landscape

Mandaeru Pavilion of Byeongsan Seowon Confucian Academy (Previous pages) Seung H-Sang, Welcomm City, Seoul

Jeong Seon, The Inner Geumgang Mountains (fan)

Kim Won, Education Center for UniďŹ cation (Left) Gaeamsa Temple (Right)

Ahn Jong-yuen, Gwang Pung Je Wol (Previous pages) Choi Tae-hoon, Skin of Time

Jung Yeon-doo, Location No. 8

Soswaewon Garden in Damyang

Won Seong-won, Dreamroom â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Michalis

Buyongji Pond at Changdeokgung Palace

Kim Chang-kyum, Watershadow â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Four Seasons

Lee Hun-chung, See Nature in the Space

Kim Hee-soo, Rear Window No. 3

Yoo Seung-ho, Rear Window

Lee Myong-ho, Tree No. 2

Meot

Ahn Sang-soo

It is hard to express meott in a single word. Because it is a word that exists only in Korean, it cannot be fully translated into another language.

The sensitive instinct to feel meot is engraved as a beautiful design in our genes.

The realm that embraces meott is extremely broad. If there is lavish meot, t there is also plain and tidy meot. If there is stylish and sophisticated meot, t there is also humble meot. There is smart meot, t and there is quiet, unaffected meot. There is elegant and luxurious meot, t and there is childlike or countriﬁed meot. There is reﬁned meot and youthful meot, t masculine meott and feminine meot.

Meott shines out when the uniqueness of one thing resonates with many. When this resonance is missing, we sense a certain awkwardness. Awkwardness is precisely the absence of meot. Meott is resonance.

Following someone else cannot be called meot. Meott resides in uniqueness.

It is the thrilling, breath-taking moment in the Monk’s Dance when the robes rise into the air and time seems brieﬂy to stand still.

It is also the moment when the dancer’s art, engrained into her body by an accumulation of time and sweat, shows its own meot in the toe of the white sock that hides barely visible at the hem of her skirt. This might be called meott on a high level.

Meott has two faces. The beauty of contradiction lies in meot. Enlivening yet tranquil, lean yet rich, funny yet sad, loose yet sharp, empty yet full, meott includes both extremes. That’s why meott transcends different levels. It goes into a level, and then comes out again. It reaches a stage with meott on a high level.

Meott exists alongside mat. Matt and meott form a pair. Meott is deep and not easily seen, while matt is so direct that you can feel it in your skin. If meott is the moon, matt is the sun.

Meott is a refined pursuit. The beauty of meott lies in a flow, in riding on a flow.

When there is meot, t you seem to feel an energy, something living, with blood circulating.

Long ago, One spring, beside the Seomjin River, a green old man spoke: This is the Toad Ferry. If the beautiful daughter of Hanga ﬂoats by, a moonlight bridge will be placed across this river, and a moonlight ferry will appear. How can you soothe the spring fever of apricot blossoms? Behind that old man, I felt the meott of his poetic inspiration. When he dies, that meott will die with him.

Like the grain of wood, of ﬂesh, of breath, of water, or of the wind, meott also seems to have a grain. The grain of meot is the trace left by the ﬂow of the heart and spirit in many layers.

Oh, my. There is meot, t it has meot, t I feel meot.

Meott is fully absorbed in our lives. Meott is the essence of Korean beauty. The ﬁnest of the good and beautiful emotions that we feel: that is meot.

Digilog Samulnori: The Dead Tree Blooms

Jo Hui-ryong, Plum Blossoms

Ahn Sang-soo, Hangeul Ivy

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Han Sung-pil, How to Lie with SPACE â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Ivy Space

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Hwang Doo-jin, Chuijukdang (Left) Kim Kai-chun, Damdamwon (Right)

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Yi Hyeong-nok, Bookshelf and Various Utensils

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Document Chest

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Bae Se-hwa, Steam_11 (Left) Kwon Jae-min, Grow Up the Light-table (Right)

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Choi Byung-hoon, Afterimage 07-244

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Kang Ik-joong, World Expo Shanghai 2010, Korea Pavilion (Previous pages) Min Byung-geol, 3x3cm Movable Wooden Type Exhibition

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Shin Yun-bok, Beautiful Woman

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Norigae

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Pillows

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Yugi (Forged Brass Tableware)

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Baekjegeumdong Daehyangno

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Pensive Bodhisattva (Left) Seosan Maae Samjon Bulsang (Right)

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Gyeopchim

Yim Seock-jae

Gyeopchim, jungcheop, overlapping—these words express the same meaning in Korean, Chinese, and English. But let’s consider their frequency of use. Gyeopchim and jungcheop are common words in Korean. In English, “overlapping” is not considered a difficult word, but it is not used very frequently. This is because of differences in national character, culture, values, and lifestyle.

Korean culture is certainly fond of overlapping and uses it a lot. To begin with, this happens in speech. Korean often has ten or more adjectives to refer to the same quality. While sharing the same basic meaning, they express the subtle distinctions that Koreans like to ﬁnd in the speciﬁc ways that this basic quality appears in different situations. This is the aesthetic of overlapping.

In this, writing is no different from speech. Take a look at the Korean alphabet, hangeul. In all the world’s languages, there are not many that form syllables by combining the alphabetic elements in both vertical and horizontal directions, as hangeull does. Compare this to the way English or Japanese lines up the letters in a single direction, and you can easily see how a spatial concept has been added to language in an aesthetic of overlapping. It’s the same when the syllable ends with two ﬁnal consonants rather than one. To pronounce these, the position of the tongue inside the mouth must “overlap.”

Finally, let’s consider styles of speech. In Korean, if you say plainly, “I can’t,” it sounds not just rude but aggressive. The most common way of refusing a request is to say, “I guess it will be difficult.” This is because of the national dislike of cutting anything off deﬁnitively, and in a broad sense this too belongs to the concept of overlapping.

Why is this? Let’s take a look at the natural environment. Korea’s

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topography is mountainous, but except in certain areas, the mountains are not very rugged. The easiest kind of natural landscape to ﬁnd in Korea is one of mountain ridges, neither high nor steep, spreading out in overlapping layers. The close mountains look darker and the distant mountains lighter, as if they were formed from overlapping layers of cellophane. When people saw this, they must have wanted to be like that too.

This was true not only of the natural environment, but also ideologically. The Buddhist concept of “not two but one” is a typical example. It teaches that the concept of binary distinctions or pairs, which we understand as an important attribute of things and of life, is actually no more than a useless differentiation produced by human greed—an apparition created by the mind itself in order to have only good things, and on that basis to have more possessions. This is a warning against the spirit of differentiation; but in the everyday world, it must have been hard to follow the teachings of Buddhism like a virtuous priest and understand the attributes of all things as one, and the solution that was found was “overlapping.”

Because they wanted to be like the natural environment, and had a religious teaching that supported this aim, Koreans were able to reﬂect the aesthetic of overlapping in many aspects of their culture and lifestyle. This was equally true in clothing, food, and shelter.

First let’s look at architecture. In traditional Korean architecture there are no megalithic structures. Rather than constructing a single large building, the main method was to divide the whole into many parts and combine them by lining them up from front to back or from left to right. In a mountain temple, a succession of gates are placed along the line of the ridge to form a continuous space. The areas before and behind each gate take on a different meaning, and

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the gate performs the role of overlapping between the two realms. It teaches us that, just as the Buddha Hall seems to spread out a transparent membrane when we stand before the main temple, there is no need to make a rigid distinction between the mundane world outside and the world of nirvana within. From this alone, we may feel that enlightenment is not the end of self-cultivation, but that further training is needed to remain enlightened.

It’s the same with palace buildings. Although described as “nine-layered palaces,” they still must communicate with the outside world through a series of domains that overlap correctly through the medium of gates. Outside the Geunjeongjeon Hall at Gyeongbokgung Palace, the space is overlapped by as many as three gates (named, in order, Gwanghwamun, Heungnyemun, and Geunjeongmun), creating a suitably digniﬁed space for the audience hall of the royal palace. Rather than simply making the building itself very large, the architect calculated on giving the space an atmosphere through an aesthetic of overlapping that was felt in the process of entering.

But the epitome of overlapping in a palace is the roof. The reason why the roof is made so visible to the outside is to show distinctions of rank according to the principle that customs differentiate classes in an era of despotic rule, but the result is that it creates a scene of innumerable overlapping roofs. From the roofs alone, it would appear that even in the palace they were less concerned with rank than with living intimately together, and this means that ultimately, in their lives together, people were never free from Korean-style subjectivism—that is, from the philosophy of overlapping.

This is even more true of Korean tiled houses. In placing their bets on space, one of the things that Korean builders considered

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the ultimate betting place was the aesthetic of overlapping, and without question this reached its highest level in the Koreanstyle tiled house. Specialists in these houses commonly say that a 100m2 house is a large one, meaning that the actual ďŹ&#x201A;oor space is not as large as it appears from the outside. Why is this? To overlap the space. A space is cleared to form a yard â&#x20AC;&#x153;as empty as a hollow rice puffâ&#x20AC;? in which the actual house is a single-layer space just one room deep, dividing and crossing between the two sides of the yard. The room has a yard at both front and back, and from the perspective of the yard, the house and the room overlap.

Why was this done? It was a clever way of distinguishing separate domains while allowing for a variety of indirect means of communication in the extended family system. It was a clever way of using sunlight and wind to make the house warm in winter and cool in summer. It was a clever way of using the windows as picture frames to create an effect of varied landscapes, so that the occupants could always enjoy the pleasure of living with dozens of pictures around them. The decision whether to divide spaces into separate parts or overlap them is a very important fork in the road, and in their sense of form Koreans chose the path of overlapping. They chose it because, when they compared the strengths and weaknesses of the two methods, they judged that overlapping created spaces that were much more healthy for people in body and mind.

In the whole sphere of clothing, food, and shelter, the aesthetic of overlapping is epitomized by the Korean dish bibimbap (boiled rice mixed with vegetables and other ingredients). Using an aesthetic of mixtures created unexpectedly from diverse ingredients, this is a case where overlapping has matured so thoroughly that it has developed into mixing. When a wide range of ingredients

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are mixed together, the taste, smell, color, nutritional content, and other properties of each one create a chemical reaction that produces an unpredictable result. The intention is not to make something appear entirely as planned, decided, and expected by human beings. In making bibimbap, no one worries about their culinary skills. There may be master chefs of spaghetti, but I have never heard of a master chef off bibimbap. That’s because just by putting in this and that and mixing them, the ﬂavor emerges by itself as the elements produced by each ingredient overlap. There is no way to measure whether one cook’s bibimbap is better than another’s. Bibimbap is a dish without a special cooking method, and this is possible because of a delicate sense of taste that knows how to accept and enjoy the subtle differences that appear each time it is made. The Korean mind itself, accepting that each version is tasty in its own way, is surely the highest level of “overlapping.”

By the standards of Western or Japanese rationalism, absolutism, or individualism, the aesthetic of overlapping may seem vague or irrational. But the greatest strong point in the aesthetic of overlapping is its economy. To maintain an exclusive dichotomy takes tremendous energy. How can you divide things in two and then keep on living with just one side? Thousands of times you would be bound to wonder if you had made the right choice, and you would have to be as stubborn as an ox to stick to the distinction you had established. Truly you would need great energy to keep this up. One way to ease this effort is the aesthetic of overlapping. Life may be meaningless and the circumstances that surround us are constantly changing, but living in accordance with those circumstances is a way to get hurt less in mind and body.

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Donggwoldo

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Back Garden of Nakseonjae viewed from Chwiunjeong Pavilion

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Choi Jeong-hwa, Guns, Germs, and Steel (Previous pages) Lee Sea-hyun, Between Red â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 99

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Irodang House at Unhyeongung Palace

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Ahn Kyu-chul, Other People’s Rooms (Previous pages) Koh Myung-keun, Building – 28

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Jogakbo (Patchwork Wrapping-cloth) (Left) Chae Eun-mi, Gold Light Silhouette â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Crystal 2 (Right)

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Shin Sang-ho, Language

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Lacquered Box Inlaid with Mother-of-Pearl

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Han Ki-chang, The Garden of Roentgen

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Han Ki-chang, The Garden of Roentgen

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Bibimbap

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Haehak

Choi Joon-sik

The aesthetic sense embodied in Korean traditional arts is as diverse as Korea’s history is long, and is very difficult to summarize brieﬂy. But if there is something that stands out particularly in contrast to the artistic aesthetics of other countries, it might be called an aesthetic of pagyeok—iconoclasm—or an aesthetic of haehak—humor—that manifests itself in such concepts as asymmetry, spontaneity, and free spirit. Koreans seem to be born with an instinctive resistance to any strictly imposed system of order. This is even more apparent in comparison with the art of China and Japan, which otherwise belong to the same cultural region.

The most familiar example is palace architecture. The palaces of Korea, or more precisely of its last dynasty the Joseon (1392–1910), were modeled on those of China. But of the five palaces that currently survive in Seoul, only the first, Gyeongbokgung, follows the Chinese pattern, while the other four were freely designed. Chinese palaces, as can be seen from the example of the Forbidden City, were built strictly along a single axis from the first gate through the main audience hall to the final gate, and even the associated buildings were arranged symmetrically around this axis. The only palace of Joseon built on this plan is Gyeongbokgung. Starting from the second palace, Changdeokgung (listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site), the other palaces ignore this principle completely. To be precise, Changdeokgung is built along three distinct axes, while its ancillary buildings are far from symmetrically arranged. In this way, Koreans followed Chinese models in external appearance, but remained faithful to Korean spontaneity in the actual content.

There are so many examples like this that a whole book would not be enough to describe them, but here we will just mention

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some important examples from each genre. In music and dance, the iconoclastic or spontaneous spirit of Koreans appears in improvisation. The improvisatory element in Korean traditional music is so strong that at times it can seem like caprice. One of the important forms of Korean folk music is sinawi, i an ensemble in which only the rhythmic framework is ﬁxed and the whole piece unfolds through improvisation. Right from the beginning, it simply starts without any pre-arranged plan. So there is no “correct” way to play. If the musicians are well attuned to each other while playing, a harmonious sound will emerge. But even then, it is not likely to last long, because each musician plays according to his or her own taste. That’s why sinawii is known as music that only the greatest masters can play.

This spontaneity tends to shade into caprice, the most dramatic example being one relating to Sim Sang-geon, whose name was widely known until the 1960s as a great gayageum zither player. A student who took lessons from him stayed up all night memorizing the music Sim played, and the next day performed it identically. But Sim denied that he had ever played that music. The next day, the same thing happened again. In readiness, the student recorded Sim’s playing, then played it back to him the next day, insisting that the student was playing just as Sim had done. But Sim’s answer was enough to end the argument. “That’s yesterday’s music, not what I’m playing today.” To him, music was something that should be different every time you play it.

Korean traditional dance makes a sharp contrast with Western dance forms such as ballet. Ballet is an art of beautifully realizing a ﬁxed set of pre-determined movements. As a result, it bears little relation to the mental state of the dancer. Korean dancers, on the other hand, are less concerned with how their dancing will

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look on the outside, than with how best to express their feelings through dance. As a result, Korean dance has no ﬁxed movements. The dancers perform their dance spontaneously, according to the feeling of the moment, and the better they do this, the better they are said to dance. Thus Korean dance, too, is always different according to the circumstances.

Art is no exception, either. The art form in which the Korean sense of humor is most fully developed is folk painting. Within this genre, best known are the paintings of tigers. The tigers in these pictures look so cute that they seem closer to cats. Yet obviously a tiger is a tiger. I wonder how many of the world’s peoples portray tigers in such a comical way. But the Korean folk artist’s way of painting tigers was not just comical: it was also iconoclastic. Let’s take an example. Tiger and Pine Tree by the leading Joseon artist Kim Hongdo is perhaps the most perfect portrait of a tiger in all Korean art history. Every hair of the tiger’s fur seems alive. The folk paintings that imitate this picture are very crude in execution, but they are also very comical and iconoclastic. The humor is in the tiger’s face or the overall composition, while the iconoclasm is in a painting technique reminiscent of European cubism. What makes the tiger’s body look strange is that one part is painted as it would look from the front, and another part as it would look from the side. These paintings are realizations of the highly iconoclastic idea that a picture need not be painted strictly from a single viewpoint.

It’s the same way with ceramics. Among these, the porcelain vessels known as “moon jars” embody this concept best. Moon jars were much prized by the Joseon aristocracy for their asymmetrical and iconoclastic appearance. But not content with that, they also painted highly comical tigers on the surface of the jars. Thus comedy and iconoclasm were combined in a single object. This

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tendency can also be found in another type of ceramic vessel, the buncheong bottle. Buncheong ceramics look even more spontaneous and appealing than Joseon Dynasty porcelain. Not only is their shape unconventional, but the pictures painted on their surfaces are unbelievably comical. The most characteristic example has a painting of a fish floating upside down as if dead on the top of the vessel, but far from being grim, the fish looks comical, with its mouth open in a smile.

Finally let’s turn to iconoclasm in architecture. In the Manseru Pavilion at Seonunsa Temple, all the crossbeams are bent. Scholars of architecture say that these bent beams were used because they were structurally superior, but if so, there is no way to explain why beams like these are not found in Chinese and Japanese buildings. Instead, we must see this as a reﬂection of the Korean people’s distinctive aesthetic sense, an aesthetic sense that disliked anything symmetrical, perfect, or smooth. The walls of the Daeungjeon Hall at Cheongnyongsa Temple are even more dramatic. Not a single column is straight; indeed the columns are so bent that they look as if they have been distorted by a computer graphics program. The builders surely could have used straight timbers or applied some process to straighten the warped ones, but they chose to use the original wood virtually untouched.

That’s how coarse and crude Koreans are. Wood was not the only thing they used in this way. Even the foundation stones beneath the columns were brought and used in their natural state, without shaping. The lower part of the column was carved to ﬁt the rough stone and then simply erected on top of it. This is iconoclasm on iconoclasm. That’s why Korean art has not been very popular with Western people, who are so thoroughly accustomed to artiﬁcial things. Instead, Westerners applaud the art of Japan. But it should

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not be forgotten that among Japanese intellectuals there are many who admire this Korean aesthetic.

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Masks

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Bongsan Talchum (Left) Noridan (Right)

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Gwon Osang, Red Sun

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Kim Deuk-sin, Cat Snatching a Chick

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Lee Joong-keun, Catch Me If You Can (Left) Kwon Ki-soo, Life (Right)

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Kim Hong-do, Kang Se-hwang , Tiger and Pine Tree (Left) White Porcelain Jar with Magpie and Tiger Design in Cobalt Blue Underglaze (Right)

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Buncheong Bottle with Incised Fish Design

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Jang Seung-hyo, Laputa (Previous pages) Yoo Seung-ho, Pu-ha

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Sung Dong-hoon, Singing Tree

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Cheongnyongsa Temple Daeungjeon Hall (Left) Crossbeams of Manseru Hall, Seonunsa Temple (Right)

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Lee Ji-yen, Stars Twinkle in the Sky

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Yi Hwan-kwon, Jangdokdae

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Yunghap

Lee Dae-hyung

“At last the bell is made. Its appearance is as lofty as a mountain, and its sound is like a dragon’s call that resounds to the ends of the earth and even penetrates into the ground. May the beholder feel a sense of wonder, and the hearer receive good fortune.” (From the inscription on the Sacred Bell of the Great King Seongdeok, r. 702–737.)

Born of the desire to overcome a time of chaos and open a new and united age, Seongdeokdaewang-sinjong (the Sacred Bell of the Great King Seongdeok) is a symbol of communication and unity. The clear and uniform resonance of a temple bell was the ﬁnest sound in the East, resounding far and wide in all directions. To recreate that pure, deep sound, 3088 speakers were brought together. Hyeongyeon by Han Won-suk was an ambitious attempt to revive the dormant resonance of King Seongdeok’s bell through modern technology and artistic imagination, using the combined forces of sound ampliﬁcation, electrical engineering, architectural engineering, and artistic direction to reproduce the shape of the bell full-size. But despite employing all the most advanced science and technology, that historic resonance could not be recreated accurately.

King Seongdeok’s bell is a good example to show the value of yunghap or fusion that lies hidden in Korean culture. This goes beyond a physical or chemical mixing of related ﬁelds, and is a kind of cultural and imaginative sympathy or communication that promotes harmony and reconciliation. To create a positive energy out of the conﬂict between dissimilar things and heterogeneous values, it does not make them become a single body by force. Instead, the important point is that it provides a space where different kinds can meet and communicate freely. Within that space, Korean artists have been able to create a variety of

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experiments that reﬂect the uniqueness of the individual rather than mass production methods, and a comical and iconoclastic visual language that transcends the canons of the time.

When they see this Korean visual art, which is so good at fusion, people call it dynamic and diverse—so much so that it is difficult to include all of it within a single critical frame. But rather than study the aesthetics of that dynamism and diversity itself, it is important to consider the political, economic, and social conditions that inevitably produced such a result. In particular, since modernization, speed has been an important element in forming the cultural identity of Korea. From the “New Village” movement that overcame the ravages of the Korean War of 1950–53 to the Seoul Olympics of 1988, the soccer World Cup of 2002, and now the G20 Summit of 2010, an extremely rapid growth has been compressed into the short span of 60 years. To maintain this highspeed drive, Korea has had to swallow everything whole. In the process, artists were bound to absorb and consume creations from a variety of fields including Eastern and Western literature, art, technology, science, games, comic books, films and songs, without having time to compare them. It became common to say that success would go to whoever could be first to receive “advanced culture” and adapt it to Korea. Popular culture from America, Europe, Japan, and Hong Kong was swallowed as if by a black hole and digested raw. But barely ten years after the country began to take its place as a major cultural consumer in Asia, Korea’s cultural identity entered a new phase.

In 1999 a Beijing youth magazine used the term “Korean Wave,” and an article about young Asians who loved Korean popular culture was transmitted back to Korea through the Internet. The brand name “Korea” began to be spoken of widely as a producer

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rather than just a consumer of media, technology, and global trends. This created a sense of pride that enabled Koreans to compare Korean things and Western things on equal terms, to ridicule the excessive flunkeyism that had taken deep root in the wake of modernization, and to reflect on themselves. This sense of pride also provided the strength to experiment with hybrid cultural codes through diverse visual languages. With user-created contents, it became easy to exchange images and videos. Cyworld, blogs, Facebook, and Twitter expanded the collective intelligence available to support changeability and plurality of values instead of submitting to the rules, frameworks, and distortions imposed by the media giants. But they still could not overcome the time lag between the cyberspace that advocated disparate combinations and voices from the margins and the reality that could not keep up with that pace. More precisely, the popular voice that recognized this time lag and limitation became louder, and expectations became correspondingly higher. It was like a kind of labor pain as “Koreans within Korea” were reborn as “Koreans within the world” or the “Global I.” At last they had attained the cultural confidence to bring out a new fusion without losing their identity.

A creative fusion is premised on an open platform that embraces diversity, freedom of expression, the breaking down of boundaries, and global networks. To young Koreans, who are accustomed to such terms as nomadism, diaspora, hybrid, and media convergence, a ﬁxed view through a static window has become unfamiliar. Instead, they are used to seeing the view through a car window, passing rapidly by them. They like to look through about ten windows at the same time for news, email, Cyworld, music channels, and YouTube. This phenomenon creates an ideal environment for artists. As a representative example, multi-media artists such as Choe U-Ram, Debbie Han, Jeon Joon-ho, and Lee

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Yong-baek have developed an iconoclastic visual language to address issues of technology fetishism, distorted cultural identity, and the corrupted ideology of capitalist society.

Choe U-Ram fuses art and science to produce mechanical creatures whose harsh and shocking forms express a message of criticism and warning about contemporary society’s increasing subordination to machines. Inspired by natural phenomena such as ﬁsh, moonlight, or wind, the narrative of how these mechanical creatures breathe, photosynthesize, and breed, foretells a none-too-distant future when human beings will worship technology instead of God.

Debbie Han poses the rather preposterous question “Where is your Venus?” by making a Venus with thick lips, a slant-eyed Venus, or a Venus with a hooked nose, all out of green celadon pottery. That is how Korea looks to Han, an artist who has returned to Korea from America. Highlighting the contradiction between having a Korean body and aspiring to Western beauty, Han breaks down boundaries between ideal and reality, West and East, beauty and ugliness. She questions an abstract and relativistic deﬁnition of the beauty that lies hidden in the ambiguity and uncertain identity produced by a hybrid of dissimilar components.

Jeon Joon-ho satirizes the current situation in which the ﬂow of money creates class distinctions and divisions, just as ideology divided people and made them suspicious of each other in the Cold War era. Walking around among animated banknotes of 1000, 5000, or 10000 Korean Won, we pass historic sites like Gyeonghoeru Pavilion, Ojukheon House, and Dosanseowon Confucian Academy, but no one pays attention to their cultural value. All that matters is monetary value as indicated by the number of “0”s. This is a work that gives an insight into the

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illusoriness of the virtual world created by human desire, ideology, and capital.

Alluding to a sculpture of the Virgin Mary lamenting with Jesus in her arms, Lee Yong-baek's plastic sculpture Pieta is a good example of a work that conveys a symbolic message of harmony. Only on close examination does it become apparent that the two ﬁgures, reminiscent of a futuristic cyborg, are actually one. The Virgin Mary takes the role of a mold, and Jesus a ﬁgure cast in the mold: one is the seed and the other is the skin that gave birth to the seed. As the concept of “two” ultimately originated in the concept of “one,” distinctions between mother and son, God and man, life and death, or original and replica become meaningless.

All these artists stress that art and politics, economy, science, and cultural issues can only attain their true value through communication and empathy rather than isolation. They are well aware that iconoclasm without a fusion of dissimilar elements can easily make itself an isolated island. Only when it has room to accept the exotic, look to the margins, and communicate with the world, can it become the foundation for creating cultural and spiritual heritage that will spread far and wide—just as the Sacred Bell of the Great King Seongdeok united people’s hearts with its gentle resonance.

Transcending physical fusion, chemical fusion, and economic fusion, a spiritual fusion can be observed in many places. I hope the various fusions created by Korean artists, who know how to be honest with themselves and to listen to the world, will both amaze the world with their iconoclastic originality, and become part of a history shared with the world.

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Seongdeokdaewang-sinjong

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Han Won-suk, Hyeongyeon

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Ceiling Structure of Soyojeong Pavilion

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Nam June Paik, The More the Better (Previous pages) Dabotap

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Choe U-Ram, Una Lumino (Anmopispl Avearium Cirripedia URAM) (Left) Yee Soo-kyung, Translated Vase (Right)

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Munjado

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Hong Ji-yoon, Minstrel, Romance, and Fantasy at Wonhyoro and Cheongpadong

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Kim Joon, Bird Land â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Chrysler (Previous pages) Jeong Seon, The Geumgang Mountains

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Kim Yoon-jae, Missing Geumgang Mountains Series 2

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Lee Lee-nam, New Geumgang Jendo

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Jeon Joon-ho, BooYooHaDa 4

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Kim Hong-do, The Washing Place, from 25-leaf Album of Genre Paintings by Kim Hong-do

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Debbie Han, Seated Three Graces

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Lee Young-mi, Between Dream and Memory: Floating Island

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Bae Joon-sung, The Costume of Painter â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Museum R, Legs Left 2 (Previous pages) Lee Yong-baek, Pieta

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Korea Contemporary

John Rajchman

Can art theory—the very creation of art-theory—itself be “globalized?” What new roles might Korean visual arts and visual arts institutions play in this process, given the unprecedented global scale of the production and reception of contemporary art throughout the world today? For it seems as if, in this new expansion, we are moving towards a situation in art as in art theory that, while “global,” is no longer simply “Western” or “European.” What new roles might East Asian countries, and in particular, Korea, play in this peculiar moment of transition and transformation—this contemporary moment and sense of the moment? Such are the questions of Korea Contemporary, as distinct from Korea Modern, when there seemed to exist a critical or theoretical center in Europe or America and where the question was how then to be “modern” without yet being “Western.”

The vitality of the debates and themes in this volume of

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contemporary Korean thought and criticism testiﬁes to this new situation, this sense of a new moment. But what then is “contemporary,” and what then is “Korean?” How are these two questions inseparable from one another? In what ways do they translate as a desire or an urgency, felt elsewhere in other ways, in Beijing or Berlin or Sao Paolo or New York? For the idea of contemporaneity in Korea Contemporary comes at a time of a larger shift in geographies and artistic itineraries, which is recasting the markers or parameters of inherited histories and landscapes. We can see this new geo-aesthetic situation in contrast to two earlier more “centered” voyages, to Paris and to New York.

Two centuries ago, one would travel to Paris, “capital of the nineteenth century,” in the words of Walter Benjamin, himself writing at a time of his own “voyage to Moscow” in the 1930s. Even if one didn’t actually go there, one could travel in one’s mind or one’s work or one’s own locale, adapting it accordingly. Paris was then the place one went to for the ferment of writers, movements, avant-gardes. It was a time, enshrined in the grand stories of European art and aesthetics told by Hegel when Europe believed that it could monopolize world history. For Hegel thought that in European and particularly German philosophy, the idea of art, born in Greek antiquity, would itself come to an end as it became absorbed into philosophical thought. Haunted by Revolution and then the specter of

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communism, there arose a great new problem in painting and in poetry: How could the arts free themselves from the enclosure of classical Renaissance Representation, and become “abstract,” and so collide with “modern life” and assume new forms? This problem of abstraction would then be taken up elsewhere, in many other voyages—for example in relation to notions of void or absence in traditional non-Western art practices which themselves had never passed through the European moment of perspective and science, and its sense of truth or realism.

But after the Second World War, these problems would be taken up anew and transformed, giving rise to new ideas of art, new ways of being an artist. We then find a second voyage, the voyage to New York. For after the Second World War, the European colonial empires would be dissolved and replaced by a “cold-war” situation that would not itself be undone until 1989, when the Berlin Wall came down and the Tiananmen student movement was crushed. For after the Second World War, New York, filled with European artistic and intellectual immigrés, was a city that, assisted by its great “modern” museums, became a kind of crucible of artistic transformation. Art history and art criticism would be completely transformed and would assume a new vital role in this situation. By the 60’s and 70’s there would arise a new idea of art itself, emancipating itself from the story and preoccupations of European Modernism, a “contemporary art” defining itself in sometimes

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defiant distinction from a “modern” one. No longer necessarily produced in studio or exhibited in a “white cube” space, no longer relying on the traditional skills of painting and sculpture, which were themselves in the process of expanding their fields— sculpture freeing itself from the “figure on the pedestal,” or painting from the “picture on the wall”—the visual arts moved into a new uncharted realm. At the same time, the traditional distinctions between “fine” or “high” art and popular or mass culture, everyday life and the role of bodies in it, and the circuits of new media and information were eroded or undone. One became an artist first (a conceptual, earth, pop or process artist); and the question of medium, so important in Modernism or Formalism, became secondary. The role of criticism itself changed as the old boundaries between art and criticism were transformed: criticism as a kind of writing, art; art as a kind of criticism, even of institutions. In this heady moment, visual arts and arts institutions would play a role without parallel for the modernisms in other arts—writing, architecture, or music—and offered a new space of intersection and experimentation among them—“sound-art” rather than music, “language-art” rather than poetry, “an-architecture” rather than a building. Because of its key role in this process, there thus arose the new “voyage to New York,” real or imaginary, and with it, new historical narratives of neo- and post- European art.

Perhaps then it is characteristic of our contemporary moment

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today that these two grand voyages, to nineteenth century Paris, and to post-war New York, are no longer possible, no longer sufficient to capture the parameters in which art is being made, its criticism carried on, or the geographies in which it moves or travels. For young artists and critics throughout the world, the great problems of abstraction, and then its transformation or challenge in the “post-modern” contemporary art-forms, have become simply given, part of an inheritance to be questioned and transformed in turn. But what new voyages or itineraries will take, or are taking, their place? And to what new questions and ideas are they giving rise? In what ways will they help recast our sense of the force of these two earlier moments and related voyages? How, in particular, will they rethink the historical frames of the great Euro-American story that these earlier moments refracted? Perhaps the scale and ambition of contemporary art in Mainland China today, with its feverish plans for new exhibition spaces and museum activity, suggest one new force, as no doubt the preoccupations and institutions of post-war Japan was an earlier one. But what role might Korea play in this new ﬁeld, drawing not simply from earlier European or American ideas, but from its own peculiar situation and background? Such are the questions of Korea Contemporary.

In this light, it is perhaps useful to look back at two great postwar Korean artists, each being looked at anew in New York in this conjecture: Nam June Paik, whose video work was the

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object of a recent show at the Museum of Modern Art and Lee Ufan, now slated for a retrospective at the Guggenheim Museum. In the case of Nam June Paik, we now see a multilinear work, cutting across divisions not simply between sound or performance and the visual arts, but also between Europe, New York and Asia. With the porta-pack, in 1961, Nam June Paik invented what would be called “video art”, even if at that time it was rather different from much that goes on by that name today. For in inventing video art Nam June Paik created what in French theory is called a dispositif: a new arrangement of space, time and movement in a gallery, in a great struggle with broadcast television, the new “global village” it had created, the “information super-highway” to which it would lead. If this struggle now seems displaced or almost obsolete in a world in which Google battles with the Chinese State, it nevertheless forms part of a larger current theoretical question: what are dispositifs, what is their history, and how do contemporary moments arise in them? Within this history yet to be written we can see Nam June Paik’s invention not simply in an Asian context, in relation to Fluxus, but also, looking back, to Berlin Dada for example, and, looking forward, to new sorts of dispositifs in the visual arts and their role in the new history of exhibitions now being explored. For the history of art is not simply the history of objects, but also the history of the spaces in which they are arranged and connected to one another. With Lee Ufan, as with Nam June Paik, we ﬁnd a passage

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through post-war Japan, but one that tended to move more towards Paris and the problem of theory or philosophy than New York and its transformations of the idea of art. For MonoHa, perhaps more than Gutai or Fluxus, had strong relations with the whole question and questioning of representation in post-war French thought, and the attempt, in Asia, to find something like an “other space” to it. In this way, Lee Ufan helped define a new role for philosophy or theory, a new problematic of “thinking in art” as distinct from “theory about art,” which still remains contemporary. How do artists, with their peculiar means and preoccupations, think, often in affective and sensory ways, in such a way as to give us a new brain, a new body, and how does this thinking arise in a peculiar artistic zone to which theory is addressed and of which it has need? We thus find two contemporary questions: What is a dispositif? And what is thinking in art?

Perhaps these questions are ones through which the inventions of these two great Korean artists will today be mobilized across new lines and borders, or as part of other voyages. For it now seems the future belongs to those who are able to articulate the new global forces knocking at the door, along new paths and itineraries, and involving new kinds of research and exchange. That is why Korea Contemporary is more than a state of art or criticism; it is a time and a space for new invention.

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Appendix Yeobaek

Chagyeong

Meot

Gyeopchim

Haehak

Yunghap

Kim Jeong-hui, 1786–1856 %LWWHU &ROG Joseon Dynasty (c. 1844), ink on paper, 23.3x146.4cm National Treasure No. 180, private collection Image courtesy of the Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea

Kim Jeong-hui, who used the pen name Chusa, was a government official and scholar of the late Joseon Dynasty. He is also considered one of the greatest calligraphers of the Joseon Dynasty, having founded the Chusa-che style that takes its name from his pen name. As a scholar, he turned away from the dominant ideology of the ruling class and from abstruse metaphysical discussions to advocate the theory and practice of an objective, positivistic scholarship that sought truth on the basis of facts. One of Kim’s representative works, Bitter Cold is a “literati painting” done in gratitude to a pupil who had not forgotten Kim during his exile on Jeju Island and had twice sent him precious books from Beijing. Literati paintings are pictures painted as a leisure pursuit by members of the aristocracy to express their feelings, rather than works by professional artists. They place less emphasis on technique than on showing the noble sentiments of the literati. Painted rapidly with a “dry brush” technique in which the ink on the brush seems to be drawn lightly across the paper, Bitter Cold is a work that conveys a lofty combination of poetry, calligraphy, and painting, with Kim’s own painting and writing skills complemented by poems and words of appreciation from several famous ﬁgures. It also shows Kim’s struggles to maintain nobility and dignity even in lonely banishment.

Chang Uc-chin, 1917–1990 $ 5LYHUVLGH 6FHQH 1987, oil on canvas, 23.1x45.7cm Private collection Image courtesy of Chang Ucchin Foundation

Chang Uc-chin was born in Yeongi-gun, Chuncheongnam-do and graduated with a degree in painting from the Imperial University of Arts in Tokyo before working as a professor at Seoul National University. He died in 1990 at the age of 73. His life and his unique sense of form made him a major inﬂuence on a whole era of modern Korean art. When we examine his oeuvre, which combines a strong Korean identity with a personal artistic language, we can see that he was an artist who lived at both extremes of individual and universal, and for whom life and art coincided. In this painting, a humble Korean-style house stands against a misty riverside background, and the colors of the water and the sky merge in a blue dreamworld. A peaceful scene unfolds, with a crane and a dog loitering around the house while people enjoy a boat ride on the river. Through this painting, viewers can see how Chang lived like a literati painter of old, painting in pursuit of self-cultivation and liberation.

Park Soo-keun, 1914–1965 +RPHFRPLQJ 1962, oil on hardboard, 41.2x79.2cm Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Image courtesy of Doart Publishing

Born in Yanggu, Gangwon-do, painter Park Soo-keun was prevented by poverty from seeking formal training in art, but he began to work regularly as an artist after winning a national contest. His works capture the hard life of the common people after the Korean War, using simple compositions on a surface like rough granite, built up from multiple thick layers of paint. In Homecoming, one of Park Soo-keun’s masterpieces, we see the subjects that he liked to paint most: trees and women carrying things on their heads, expressing the hard life of the common people. The tree in the picture has bare branches, like a scene of cold winter or early spring before the new shoots begin to appear, representing the harsh conditions in which people lived at the time. However, we don’t see a cold and harsh depiction of reality so much as the artist’s distinctive warm nostalgia for his hometown.

242

%RWWOH :KLWH 3RUFHODLQ ZLWK 5RSH 'HVLJQ LQ 8QGHUJOD]H ,URQ %URZQ Joseon Dynasty (16th century), H. 31.4cm D. 7.0cm (mouth) 10.6cm (base) Treasure No. 1060, National Museum of Korea Image courtesy of National Museum of Korea

Porcelain, a kind of pottery made by coating a pure white base clay with a transparent glaze and ďŹ ring it in a kiln, is the most common form of ceramics produced during the Joseon Dynasty. This piece has a very characteristic shape for vessels from the early Joseon era with a ďŹ&#x201A;ared mouth, slender neck, round body, and broad base. The â&#x20AC;&#x153;voidâ&#x20AC;? space at the top of the jar is set off by a whimsical design of a rope hanging down from the neck. The rope design was created using a pigment rarely used at the time, iron-brown. The rope was ďŹ rst drawn in blue pigment, then gone over in iron oxide with a ďŹ ne, pliant writing brush to bring out the design. In the ďŹ ring process, the high temperature causes a chemical change in the iron pigment to produce a strong reddish coloring. This rope design was not a common theme in ceramics of the time, but seems to have been suggested by the appearance of a liquor bottle with a rope attached, and the vessel is outstanding for its simple yet free depiction, its restrained brushwork, and its reďŹ ned composition admirably balancing void and design.

Kim Chong-yung, 1915â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1982 :RUN 1958, iron plate, 57.5x14x23cm Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

Kim Chong-yung was born into an aristocratic family in Changwon, Gyeongsangnamdo, and graduated from Tokyo Art School. He lived in seclusion until Korea was liberated from Japanese colonial rule in 1945. Kim founded the sculpture department at the newly opened College of Art at Seoul National University. He is frequently cited by artists who are considered the pioneers of Korean contemporary abstract sculpture and was known as the possessor of a noble literati spirit and an outstanding expert in calligraphy. Work 58-3 is a masterpiece of metal sculpture, a medium that was rare at the time, and it stands out for its geometric yet organic curves. In this work we can glimpse Kimâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s forward-looking aesthetics that sought to realize the essence of pure forms on the basis of creative insights into nature and humanity. Through the simple shape produced by working only a little on the thick metal plates before welding them together, we can see the spirituality that the artist was pursuing.

Bae Bien-U, 1950â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

3LQH 7UHH 6HULHV 2006, color print, 160x310cm Artistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s collection Image courtesy of the artist

Bae Bien-U hails from Yeosu, Jeollanam-do, where the shores are dotted with beautiful islands. After graduating with a degree in design from Hongik University, he taught himself photography. One of Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s leading contemporary landscape photographers, he concentrates on natural sights indigenous to Korea such as pine trees, mountains, and the sea, turning them into abstract lines and surfaces. He likes to capture the delicacy of light and mist around dawn in monotone photographs reminiscent of Oriental ink paintings. In this work, one of the Pine Tree Series for which Bae Bien-U is best known, a pine tree stands in the center of a panorama, the hills and ďŹ elds on either side of it illuminated by the rising sun. To Koreans, the pine tree is a symbol of noble character and the emotional root of the nation. In Baeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work this natural element is captured in a simple and restrained composition that shows a modernist ethos with a lyrical and meditative attitude toward nature.

243

Suh Do-ho, 1962– *DWH 2005, silk, stainless steel tube, 326.2x211.5x100cm Private collection Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

Suh Do-ho was educated at Seoul National University and the Rhode Island School of Design, ﬁnally earning a Master of Fine Art degree at Yale. Based in New York since then, Suh is now an internationally exhibited artist. He began to receive critical attention with a re-creation of his traditional-style family house in Seoul using a jade-green diaphanous fabric. Suh’s work begins with memories of places he has inhabited and extends to introduce processes of the constant transformation of identity via experiences of diverse cultures. It expresses the contradictory condition of endless collisions and combinations between human identities and the socio-cultural spaces that control them. Gate reproduces at full size a portion of the traditional Korean house where the artist long resided, which his parents continue to occupy. It evokes anguish toward cultural identity and nostalgia and longing for home felt by an artist who travels the world like a nomad.

Jeong Seon, 1676–1759 9LHZLQJ WKH *HXPJDQJ 0RXQWDLQV IURP 'DQEDOU\HRQJ 3DVV Joseon Dynasty (1711), ink on silk, 36.0x37.4cm National Museum of Korea Image courtesy of National Museum of Korea

Jeong Seon liked to travel, and while roaming around the celebrated beauty spots all over Korea he developed a new kind of painting called “true view” landscapes, realistic pictures based on actual scenes. The name Danbalryeong Pass (“hair-cutting pass”) is thought to derive from the idea that when people get their ﬁrst view of the Geumgang Mountains, they become so enchanted that it makes them want to cut off their hair and become monks, shedding all attachment to worldly things. This painting shows visitors admiring the view of the Geumgang Mountains from Danbalryeong Pass. Compared to other “true view” landscape paintings, it has economical brushwork and omits some of the details of the scene, leaving space for the viewer to see the Geumgang Mountains through the void.

Kim Hong-joo, 1945– 8QWLWOHG 1993, oil on canvas, 210x320cm Sungkang Foundation of Culture Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

Born in Hoein, Chungcheongbuk-do, Kim Hong-joo obtained a BA and MA in painting at Hongik University. His paintings show figures, maps, writing, or flowers with delicate brush strokes reminiscent of embroidery, subtly combining symbolic imagery with rich artistic nuances. Painting with the grain of the canvas as if embroidering stitch by stitch with a fine brush, he has continually tackled the problem of reproduction and illusionism through his unconventional composition, his bold omission of background, and his critical dismantling and reconstruction of the subject. Overturning the relationship between figure and ground by filling the canvas with a single leaf or a landscape scene, he persistently interrogates the essence of painting itself. In Untitled, the subject is the crater lake on Mt. Baekdusan, and the contrast between the carefully reproduced mountain peak and the white void of the lake invites unlimited interpretations.

244

Lee Ufan, 1936â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

&RUUHVSRQGDQFH 2002, oil on canvas, 112.5x194.2cm

Lee Ufan has been producing his Correspondance series since the 1990s. The distinguishing feature of this series is that it presents spaces bearing only a very small number of brush strokes. Since the 1990s Lee Ufan has been gradually moving towards large canvases with most of the wide space left as void and only one or a few dots painted with vigorous strokes of the brush. However, the size, position, spacing, and brush stroke direction of each dot creates correspondances with other dots that give the whole work a powerful presence and tension. Using minimal units of expressionâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;dots and linesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and leaving unpainted expanses of void, Lee is creating a new compositional principle that connects the inside of the painting with the outside.

Boomoon, 1955â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1DNVDQ 1R 1R 2010, laserchrome print, each 210x140cm Artistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s collection Image courtesy of the artist

Since holding his ďŹ rst solo exhibition at the Seoul Press Center in 1975, Daegu-born Boomoon has been pursuing the concept of â&#x20AC;&#x153;photograph as attitude,â&#x20AC;? going beyond the expressive or documentary functions of photography to focus on the thoughts and ideas that come into our minds when we look at certain objects. His large-format landscape photographs provide a special visual and cognitive experience by making us feel the absolute power of nature. As a representative example, his Naksan series consists of blackand-white landscape photographs taken on wintry sea shores, with half the frame taken up by snow. The still land contrasts with the violent movement of the wind, snow, and waves to reveal a momentary landscape that cannot be seen with the eye alone. Although this is a natural scene that leaves no room for human intervention, through its photographic realization anyone can stand where the artist stood with his camera.

Kim Sooja, 1957â&#x20AC;&#x201C; $ /DXQGU\ :RPDQ Ĺ&#x; <DPXQD 5LYHU ,QGLD 2000, Single channel video projection, 10:30 loop, silent Artistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s collection Image courtesy of the Kimsooja Studio

A widely exhibited artist who has participated in many international exhibitions such as the Venice Biennale, Kim Sooja graduated from Hongik University and has been based in New York since the 1990s. In the 1980s, Kim introduced sewing into her work, which later gradually evolved into installations that utilize used clothes and everyday fabrics. She has deepened the meaning of the act of sewing by developing it conceptually as a combination of separate elements while expanding her work into the realm of performance and video art. In her video, A Laundry Woman, the artist reďŹ&#x201A;ects on life and death. Gazing at the Yamuna River in India, she seems to hope for puriďŹ cation of all things; not only the ďŹ&#x201A;owing water but also remnants from a nearby cremation site. The image of the artist is turned away from us, but viewers sense her affectionate gaze toward the departed and humanity in general.

245

Lee Ufan, 1936– )URP /LQH 1979, oil on canvas, 184x260cm Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

Born into a distinguished Confucian household, as a child Lee Ufan studied poetry and painting with a literati scholar. In 1956, Lee interrupted his studies of traditional painting at Seoul National University and moved to Japan, earning a degree in philosophy at Nihon University. There, he came under the influence of the Kyoto school of philosophy, which pursued deconstruction of the Western anthropocentric subjectivity. He introduced this way of thinking into the concept of his own artmaking to argue that “proposition” rather than “creation” best approaches truth. As an artist equally versed in theory and practice, Lee created an aesthetic of “encounter” and “emptiness” in his work. Distinct from Western minimalism or conceptual art, Lee’s work has realized Asian thought and also became the theoretical foundation for Mono-ha, the first truly Asian modernist movement. A representative example of Lee’s work, From Line suggests the circulation and infinity of the universe where there is neither beginning nor end through the repetitive appearance and disappearance of lines.

Suh Se-ok, 1929– 'DQFHUV 1989, ink on paper, 162x262cm Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

Suh Se-ok won the Prime Minister’s Prize in the first national contest in 1949, when he was studying Oriental painting in the College of Art at Seoul National University. Seeking to give Oriental painting a new contemporary form while maintaining its pure traditional spirit, he became the leader of a group called Mungnimhoe that was established in 1960, and spearheaded a renewal of Oriental painting. He led the way in an abstract trend within Oriental painting, and worked for many years training artists at his alma mater. Dancers is an important work in the People series that Suh has been working on for many years. Simplified human forms expressed in lines full of tension stretch across the frame with their arms on each other’s shoulders. From bottom up, the ink changes from thick to medium thickness, then again from thick to light, creating a strong natural rhythm. The strong, firm brushwork and the tension between ink and void arises from re-interpreting the traditional literati painting, tempering its cold spirit with a new warmth and dynamism.

0RRQ -DU Joseon Dynasty (18th century), H. 44.5cm D. 21.5cm (mouth) 16.5cm (base) Treasure No. 1424, Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

This kind of vessel is called a “moon jar” because of its nearly round shape and transparent milky glaze. This unique and characteristic form of Korean porcelain ware was in common use in the homes of the aristocracy during the Joseon Dynasty, and by the nineteenth century most reasonably well-to-do households had one or two. The surface is pure white without any kind of design or carving. The black stains on the middle part of this example appeared naturally when a liquid such as soy sauce soaked into the clay, for this was a vessel in practical use. The moon jar is considered the most Korean form, and with its round body and subtle white coloring, it has a natural air of friendliness. Because these vessels were very large, they could not be made in one piece on the potter’s wheel. They were made by a painstaking process of spinning the upper and lower halves separately and then joining them together. This example has very little distortion in the middle part where the two halves are joined, and its side curves form almost a perfect circle, giving the whole piece a sense of balance that makes it a deﬁnitive example of the mid-Joseon Dynasty moon jar.

246

Koo Bohnchang, 1953– 9HVVHO +$

2005, color print, 154x123cm Original Vessel from Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Image courtesy of the artist

Born in Seoul, Koo Bohnchang studied business administration and worked in a large company before formally studying photography at the University of Fine Arts in Hamburg, Germany in the mid-1980s. After returning to Korea, Koo studied the diverse expressive possibilities of photography as a medium through a variety of formal experiments such as pasting up photographs or stitching them with thread. These iconoclastic experiments caused a stir in the Korean photography world, which was dominated by more straightforward photography at the time. Koo opened up a new path for contemporary Korean photography by eradicating the boundary between photography and art. His Vessel series, which depicts Joseon Dynasty porcelain vessels scattered among sixteen museums in four countries, is a work that re-interprets the hidden beauty of Joseon porcelain through a delicate sensibility. By recapturing his impressions of seeing Korean porcelain kept in overseas museums, Koo not only caught the elegant external beauty of the porcelain, but probed into the deep and graceful feelings that ﬂowed within it. In doing so, he gently overturned the socially accepted meanings of lost, vanished, and small things.

Cheong Kwang-ho, 1959– 7KH 3RW 2007, copper wire, H. 240cm D. 225cm Artist’s collection Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

After graduating with a degree in sculpture from Seoul National University, Cheong Kwangho began to produce his works with an interest in the development of modernism in Korea. Previously having concentrated on object installations and their expansion in the exhibition context, he now focuses on the mutual awareness of object and cognitive subject and its surface expression. His method is not to strengthen the individual characteristics of painting or of sculpture, but rather to weaken them in pursuit of his own artistry and stance. Thus, while Cheong Kwang-ho’s works are both sculptural and painterly, they are neither sculptures nor paintings. The “moon jar” expanded into metal netting is a kind of phantom that exists only on the surface, standing at the boundary between object and image.

Kim Su-cheol, dates unknown 6XPPHU /DQGVFDSH Joseon Dynasty (19th century), ink on paper, 114x46.5cm Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

Kim Su-cheol was a literati painter of non-aristocratic status in the late Joseon Dynasty, and although his birth and death dates are not known, he is thought to have been active in the mid-nineteenth century. He was taught to paint by Kim Jeong-hui and excelled at painting both landscapes and flowering plants. In his early days, under the influence of his teacher, he painted many pictures embodying meanings in the literati style, but later he achieved an individual style with a new feeling characterized by radical simplification of forms, fresh thin colors, and unusual brushwork. His later works not only represent a new trend in the Joseon Dynasty art world, but are considered to give a contemporary feeling even today. In Summer Landscape, we can see Kim Su-cheol’s original style with its bold omission and distortion of objects and its use of emotive colors. The mountains and plains are portrayed with thin color and dots, showing an uncrowded composition appropriate to a summer scene, while the flat depiction of the scene, with no differentiation of near and far, gives a contemporary feel.

247

0DQGDHUX 3DYLOLRQ RI %\HRQJVDQ 6HRZRQ &RQIXFLDQ $FDGHP\ Joseon Dynasty (rebuilt 1572) Location: 30 Byeongsan-ri, Pungcheon-myeon, Andong-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do Image courtesy of BBU Studio

A Confucian academy (seowon) is a type of private institution that was set up all over Korea from the mid-Joseon period on to honor the memory of noted sages and educate people of ability. The Byeongsan Seowon is one such academy preserving the ancestral tablets of Yu Seong-yong, Chief State Councillor during the reign of King Seonjo (r. 1567â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1608). It originated in the late Goryeo Dynasty as a private school for the Yu family of the Pungsanhyeon district, but Yu Seong-yong moved it to its present location in 1572. Later, it produced many scholars while commemorating Yuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning and virtues. Its pavilion building, constructed without walls or doors so that one could look out in all directions, served as a place within the academy for cultivating the mind through nature. Unlike most pavilions, which are built on a spot that commands a full open view, Mandaeru, the pavilion of the Byeongsan Seowon, has a large mountain right in front of it, but its long horizontal design enables the occupant to view the whole of that mountain as an unlimited space.

Seung H-Sang, 1952â&#x20AC;&#x201C; :HOFRPP &LW\ 6HRXO Completed 2000, reinforced concrete structure Location: 190-10 Jangchungdong 2-ga, Jung-gu, Seoul Image courtesy of Irojae

Seung H-Sang is noted for his architectural philosophy of â&#x20AC;&#x153;the beauty of poverty,â&#x20AC;? which arises from a critical reaction to the domination of the twentieth century by Western civilization. After studying architecture at Seoul National University and the Vienna University of Technology, Seung studied with the giant of modern Korean architecture Kim Swoo-geun, then opened his own studio named Irojae and brought a breath of fresh air to the Korean architectural scene. One of his representative works, Welcomm City, consists of four box-like work spaces made from the weather-resistant steel plate material Corten on exposed concrete foundations. Between these four boxes are three independent empty spaces that Seung calls â&#x20AC;&#x153;urban voids.â&#x20AC;? These empty spaces are the most important element in this architecture, designed so that the changing sunlight, wind, and views of the city outside can be brought in through the gaps to the interior of the building.

Jeong Seon, 1676â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1759 7KH ,QQHU *HXPJDQJ 0RXQWDLQV IDQ

Joseon Dynasty (18th century), ink on paper, fan 28.2x80.5cm Gansong Museum of Art Image courtesy of Gansong Museum of Art

Jeong Seon (pen name Gyeomjae) was famous for his â&#x20AC;&#x153;true viewâ&#x20AC;? landscapes, including many paintings of Geumgang Mountains. One of Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most celebrated mountain ranges, the Geumgang Mountains are divided into four areasâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Naegeumgang, Oegeumgang, Singeumgang, and Haegeumgangâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;all of which have long been a source of inspiration to many artists for their outstanding natural beauty. The present work is a view of Naegeumgang or the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Innerâ&#x20AC;? Geumgang Mountains. Unlike an ordinary landscape painting, this one had to be skillfully arranged to ďŹ t the shape of a fan, with the painting centered in the middle part of the fan and a broad void left around the outside.

248

Kim Won, 1943–

(GXFDWLRQ &HQWHU IRU 8QLıFDWLRQ Completed 1987, granite exterior Location: 73-13 Suyu-dong, Gangbuk-gu, Seoul Image courtesy of Kimwon Architect & Group Forum

Kim Won majored in architectural engineering at Seoul National University before studying architecture in the International Postgraduate Course in Housing and Planning at Bouwcentrum, the Netherlands. He is an environmental activist who has always insisted that the first concern of architecture and urban planning for a new era should be environmental issues, and his own work puts that into practice. The Education Center for Unification, which aims to stimulate national pride and prepare for the reunification of the Korean peninsula, was built on a generous plot of land on Mt. Dobongsan donated by a private businessman. As an environmentalist, Kim did not want to cut into the sloping mountain site, so he planned the Center in six separate buildings divided according to function—Training Hall, Exhibition Hall, Welfare Hall, Living Hall, etc.—and connected them with exterior stairways that followed the natural slope of the land. Each building has skylights in the roof to make the whole building bright and airy, and the complex was designed to provide varied views of the beautiful surrounding scenery from different angles.

*DHDPVD 7HPSOH Founded 634 (rebuilt 1783), Treasure No. 292 Location: Gamgyo-ri, Sangseo-myeon, Buan-gun, Jeollabuk-do Image courtesy of Park Jeong-hoon

Gaeamsa Temple was ﬁrst built in 634 in the Baekje Kingdom but moved to its current location during the Goryeo Dynasty in 1314. During the Joseon Dynasty, Gaeamsa was burned down in the Japanese invasions of the 1590s and rebuilt in 1783. As the whole country had been laid waste by war, the temple could not be restored to its earlier more extensive state, and only a single Buddha Hall was built, with each side just three bays long. Buddhist temples generally aim to reproduce the Buddhist paradise in their arrangement of buildings, each with a different function, and in their harmony with the surrounding mountain scenery. The rebuilt Gaeamsa consisted only of a single modest building, but its interior created a kind of Buddhist paradise with its lavish decoration.

Ahn Jong-yuen, 1952–

*ZDQJ 3XQJ -H :RO &OHDU 0RRQ DQG :LQG $ʍHU 5DLQ

2008, stainless steel, D. 700cm Phoenix Island Agora, Jeju Island Image courtesy of the artist

Born in Miryang, Gyeongsangnam-do, Ahn Jong-yuen graduated with a degree in art from Dong-A University, Busan, and went on to major in ﬁne art at New York’s School of Visual Arts. Through experimental works in a variety of media including two-dimensional, threedimensional, and installation works, Ahn has developed an avant-garde oeuvre that crosses the boundaries between old and new media, and between public and private realms. Located where the land meets the sea at Seopjikkoji near Seongsan Ilchulbong (“sunrise peak”) on Jeju Island, Ahn Jong-yuen’s public art work Gwang Pung Je Wol adds a ritual, epic note to a building designed by Mario Botta in the shape of a pyramid. Measuring some 7 meters in diameter, it is a “moon of the earth” that stands at a point of contact between the natural and the artiﬁcial, a fantasy that sublimates the character of the location into an artistic language.

249

Choi Tae-hoon, 1965â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 6NLQ RI 7LPH 2009, stainless steel (plasma technique), 350x350x300cm Banyan Tree Hotel Image courtesy of the artist

Choi Tae-hoon majored in sculpture at Kyung Hee University and its graduate school. Using the plasma technique, he examines the roots of life through such subjects as humanity, nature, and the universe, and in Skin of Time he structuralizes the meaning of time and life. To Choi, the great river of time is both a mother that conceives life and at the same time a poison that corrodes life. He gives life to dead forms like derelict pyramids and burntout old trees by casting light on them, and uses the plasma technique to dissect the traces of time. Through an upside-down pyramid that deďŹ es the laws of gravity and a tree that ďŹ lls up its interior, he represents the overturning of time. Through the tree bark built up in multiple layers and light emanating from inside, he represents the outer crust of time.

Jung Yeon-doo, 1969â&#x20AC;&#x201C; /RFDWLRQ 1R 2007, color print, 122x159cm Artistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s collection Image courtesy of the artist

Born in Jinju, Gyeongsangnam-do, Jung Yeon-doo graduated with degrees in sculpture from Seoul National University and Britainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Central Saint Martinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s College of Art and Design, then completed a masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree at Goldsmiths, University of London. He was the ďŹ rst Korean artist since Nam June Paik to exhibit at New Yorkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Museum of Modern Art, and the ďŹ rst Korean artist to hold a solo exhibition at a major gallery in France. By showing the whole process of manufacturing a fake, Jung Yeon-dooâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s works declare that everything is fake, giving food for thought to the ďŹ xed ideas of audiences accustomed to the visual media. They make one question the truth of everything that we see, hear, or feel. In his Location series, Jung examines the boundary between reality and unreality. The gap between the background of the work, which is obviously faked, and the ďŹ gures nonchalantly acting as if the background were real, becomes a metaphor for our age.

6RVZDHZRQ *DUGHQ LQ 'DP\DQJ Constructed 1530 Location: 123 Jigok-ri, Nam-myeon, Damyang-gun, Jeollanam-do Image courtesy of BBU Studio

The mid-Joseon scholar-official Yang San-bo (1503â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1557) lost all interest in worldly success when his teacher Jo Gwang-jo was banished due to factional strife. He went home to build a garden which he named Soswaewon, meaning â&#x20AC;&#x153;clean and cool.â&#x20AC;? A ďŹ ne example of a Korean garden, Soswaewon centers on a little valley with a ďŹ&#x201A;owing stream. In constructing each of the buildings, the space was carefully planned to harmonize the natural with the artiďŹ cial, creating a neo-Confucian paradise that resembled the original beauty of nature. The garden has about ten buildings which can be grouped according to functional and spatial characteristics in four areas: Aeyangdan, Ogokmun, Jewoldang, and Gwangpunggak. Within the garden are groves of bamboo, pine, zelkova, and maple trees, and around it are natural-looking walls of earth and stone, bearing stone plates and wooden plaques inscribed with the names Aeyangdan, Ogokmun, and Soswaecheosayanggongjiryeo. In one of the buildings, a wood engraving of Soswaewon made in the 31st year of King Yeongjoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reign (1755) has been preserved, and from this we know the original appearance of the garden. In this beautiful garden we can sense the noble character and loyalty of Korean scholar-officials.

250

Won Seong-won, 1972– 'UHDPURRP ş 0LFKDOLV 2002, color print, 70x100cm Artist’s collection Image courtesy of the artist

Won Seong-won, who hails from Goyang, Gyeonggi-do, graduated from the sculpture department at Chung-Ang University, the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf, and the Academy of Media Arts Cologne. She began to produce photographic collages with her Dreamroom series, which realizes the dreams of her friends who live in small rooms. Dreamroom – Michalis is one such work, created for her friend Michalis from Cyprus. It brings the columns of a Greek temple and the stream water from Michalis’s home into his room. Having ascertained her subject’s wishes, Won sets off to take photographs as if collecting the world, then cuts out hundreds of photographs for a single work and carefully assembles a photo-montage with a computer mouse. The attraction of Won’s work is the pleasure of ﬁnding a variety of stories hidden within the work: not only a plausible image created by digital editing but the artist and her friends, the conversations they had about their dream spaces, and the feelings of friendship that emerge from these fantasy spaces spliced together by time.

%X\RQJML 3RQG DW &KDQJGHRNJXQJ 3DODFH Location: Waryong-dong, Jongno-gu, Seoul Image courtesy of BBU Studio

Changdeokgung is a Joseon Dynasty palace built in the fifth year of King Taejong’s reign (1405). At that time there was already a main palace in Seoul, Gyeongbokgung, as well as the Royal Ancestral Shrines (Jongmyo), so Changdeokgung was created as a royal villa. Located to the east of Gyeongbokgung, Changdeokgung and the adjoining Changgyeonggung were together known as the “eastern palaces.” Unlike other palaces which had orderly spatial arrangements, Changdeokgung was built on the southern slopes of Maebong Peak, and its main buildings were laid out according to the natural shape of the land. Buyongji is an artificial lotus pond in the back garden with a pavilion. Reflecting the idea that heaven was round and the earth square, a round island symbolizing heaven was made in a square pond that symbolized the earth. To the south of the pond is a pavilion that forms the shape of a cross when seen from above. This place was used by the king to hold congratulatory banquets for those who had passed the civil service examinations. The surrounding scenery of the Changdeokgung back garden, changing with every season, is much admired. Showing clearly how Korean culture values harmony with nature and respect for its principles, Changdeokgung and its back garden have been recognized as an important piece of landscaping, and designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997.

Kim Chang-kyum, 1961–

:DWHUVKDGRZ ş )RXU 6HDVRQV 2006–2007, video installation, 14 min. Savina Museum of Contemporary Art Image courtesy of the artist

After graduating with a degree in painting from Sejong University, Kim Chang-kyum went ﬁrst to Italy to study sculpture at the Academia Carrara, and then to Germany to study with Jannis Kounellis at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf. The technical process of synthesis in video installations and photography and the resulting synthesized image are important themes that run through Kim Chang-kyum’s work. In Watershadow – Four Seasons, images are projected onto a white tub to create the illusion that there is water in it. In addition to ripples and water sounds, the image of a person is visible in the water, along with scenes that change from spring to summer, autumn, and winter. At times, a person’s shadow seems to pass over the tub, making the water become agitated or disappear, and showing the viewer how surprising time can be.

251

Lee Hun-chung, 1967– 6HH 1DWXUH LQ WKH 6SDFH 2006, installation, 500x300x50cm Gangha Museum of Art Image courtesy of the artist

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Kim Hee-soo, 1977– 5HDU :LQGRZ 1R 2007, photo collage and resin coating on wood panel, 25x20cm Artist’s collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Yoo Seung-ho, 1974– 5HDU :LQGRZ 2009, binoculars, tripod, ﬁshing line, plastic, spray, acrylic, dimensions variable Image courtesy of the artist

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252

Lee Myong-ho, 1975â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 7UHH 1R 2006, color print, 160x310cm Artistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Jo Hui-ryong, 1789â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1866 3OXP %ORVVRPV Joseon Dynasty (19th century), colored ink on paper, 124.8x371.2cm National Museum of Korea Image courtesy of National Museum of Korea

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Ahn Sang-soo, 1952– +DQJHXO ,Y\ 2007, steel, typographic installation at Lock Museum Image courtesy of the artist, Photographed by Park Gi-su

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Han Sung-pil, 1972– +RZ WR /LH ZLWK 63$&( 2009, installation project at the SPACE Group, solvent print on canvas, 720x1680m 7KH ,Y\ 6SDFH ıQDO UHVXOW

chromogenic print, 152x122cm, private collection Image courtesy of SPACE Group

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Hwang Doo-jin, 1963– &KXLMXNGDQJ Korean-style house in Gahoe-dong, Jongno-gu, Seoul Image courtesy of Park Young-chae

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103

Kim Kai-chun, 1958–

'DPGDPZRQ Completed 2008, lecture hall of Kookmin University Graduate School of Techno Design Image courtesy of Park Young-chae

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104

Yi Hyeong-nok, 1808–?

%RRNVKHOI DQG 9DULRXV 8WHQVLOV Joseon Dynasty (19th century), Eight-panel standing screen, color on paper, 139.5x421.2cm Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

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106

'RFXPHQW &KHVW Joseon Dynasty (19th century), Chinese mahogany and paulownia wood, 21.2x108x28.4cm National Museum of Korea Image courtesy of National Museum of Korea

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Bae Se-hwa, 1980– 6WHDPB 2010, walnut, 110x63x65cm

Private collection Image courtesy of Gallery SEOMI, photographed by Park Myung-rae

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Kwon Jae-min, 1976– *URZ 8S WKH /LJKW WDEOH 2009, walnut (wood carving), 220x83x150cm Korean Cultural Centre UK Image courtesy of the artist

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Choi Byung-hoon, 1952– $ʍHULPDJH 2007, laminated walnut veneer (black varnished) on beech veneer, black granite, 174x55x90cm Vitra Design Museum Image courtesy of the artist

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Kang Ik-joong, 1960– :RUOG ([SR 6KDQJKDL .RUHD 3DYLOLRQ 2010, H. 19.8m, external installation on three-story steel structure Image courtesy of Ahn Graphics

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Min Byung-geol, 1968– [ FP 0RYDEOH :RRGHQ 7\SH ([KLELWLRQ 2008, variable installation, wood Artist’s collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Shin Yun-bok, 1758–1817 (?) %HDXWLIXO :RPDQ Joseon Dynasty (19th century), color on silk, 114.2x45.7cm Gansong Museum of Art Image courtesy of Gansong Museum of Art

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1RULJDH Joseon Dynasty Image courtesy of Park Jeong-hoon

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3LOORZV Vin Collection by Gang Geum-seong Design by Gang Geum-seong Produced by Suryusanbang Image courtesy of Suryusanbang, Photographed by Park Jeong-hoon

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Created by Yi Bong-ju, 1926– Holder of Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 77 Image courtesy of Ahn Graphics

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%DHNMHJHXPGRQJ 'DHK\DQJQR Baekje period, gilt-bronze incense burner, H. 64cm W. 11.8kg Treasure No. 287, Buyeo National Museum Image courtesy of Buyeo National Museum

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3HQVLYH %RGKLVDWWYD Three Kingdoms period (early 7th century), gilt copper, H. 93.5cm National Treasure No. 83, National Museum of Korea Image courtesy of National Museum of Korea

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6HRVDQ 0DDH 6DPMRQ %XOVDQJ Late Baekje Period (late 6th century), granite relief, H. 2.8m (main ﬁgure) National Treasure No. 84 Location: 2-1 Yonghyeon-ri, Unsan-myeon, Seosan-si, Chungcheongnam-do Image courtesy of BBU Studio

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'RQJJZROGR Late Joseon Dynasty (c. 1824â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1828), color on silk, 16-panel folding screen, 273x576cm National Treasure No. 249 Korea University Museum & Dong-A University Museum, Busan Image courtesy of Korea University Museum

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%DFN *DUGHQ RI 1DNVHRQMDH YLHZHG IURP &KZLXQMHRQJ 3DYLOLRQ Location: Waryong-dong, Jongno-gu, Seoul Image courtesy of BBU Studio

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Choi Jeong-hwa, 1961â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

*XQV *HUPV DQG 6WHHO 2009, installation of plastic baskets, dimensions variable Image courtesy of National Museum of Contemporary Art, Korea

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Lee Sea-hyun, 1967– %HWZHHQ 5HG ş 2009, oil on linen, 300x300cm Artist’s collection Image courtesy of the artist

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,URGDQJ +RXVH DW 8QK\HRQJXQJ 3DODFH Location: Unni-dong, Jongno-gu, Seoul Image courtesy of Yim Seock-jae

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Ahn Kyu-chul, 1955–

2WKHU 3HRSOHŖV 5RRPV 2006, 840x840x200cm, mixed media installation Cyan Museum of Art Image courtesy of the artist

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Koh Myung-keun, 1964– %XLOGLQJ ş 2007, ﬁlm and plastic, 70x50x50cm Private collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Late Joseon Dynasty (19th century), 57x57cm The Museum of Korean Embroidery Image courtesy of The Museum of Korean Embroidery

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Chae Eun-mi, 1967– *ROG /LJKW 6LOKRXHWWH ş &U\VWDO 2009, gold leaf injection model and mother-of-pearl, 105.6x105.6x7cm Collection of the Royal Family of Dubai Image courtesy of the artist

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Shin Sang-ho, 1947– /DQJXDJH 2008, glazed ceramic, 500x450cm Artist’s collection Image courtesy of the artist

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/DFTXHUHG %R[ ,QODLG ZLWK 0RWKHU RI 3HDUO Joseon Dynasty (17th–18th century), wood inlaid with mother-of-pearl, 8.0x31.3x31.3cm National Museum of Korea Image courtesy of National Museum of Korea

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Han Ki-chang, 1966– 7KH *DUGHQ RI 5RHQWJHQ 2010, X-ray ﬁlm on panaﬂex fabric, LED program, mixed media, 600x146cm (p.154), 450x900cm (p.156) Artist’s collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Gwon Osang, 1974â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

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Kim Deuk-sin, 1754â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1822 &DW 6QDWFKLQJ D &KLFN Joseon Dynasty (late 18thâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;19th century), thin color on paper, 22.5x27.2cm Gansong Museum of Art Image courtesy of Gansong Museum of Art

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Lee Joong-keun, 1972– &DWFK 0H ,I <RX &DQ 2009, photographs, computer graphics, digital print, diasec, 150x150cm Private collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Kwon Ki-soo, 1972– /LIH 2010, Acrylic on canvas on board, 220x220 cm Artist’s collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Kim Hong-do, 1745–1806 (?) Kang Se-hwang, 1712–1791 7LJHU DQG 3LQH 7UHH Joseon Dynasty (late 18th century), ink and light colors on silk, 90.4x43.8cm Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

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:KLWH 3RUFHODLQ -DU ZLWK 0DJSLH DQG 7LJHU 'HVLJQ LQ &REDOW %OXH 8QGHUJOD]H Joseon Dynasty (late 18th century), H. 42.0cm D. 16.1cm (mouth) 16cm (base) Gyeongju National Museum Image courtesy of Gyeongju National Museum

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%XQFKHRQJ %RWWOH ZLWK ,QFLVHG )LVK 'HVLJQ Joseon Dynasty (15th-16th century), H. 19.5cm The Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka Image courtesy of The Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka

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Jang Seung-hyo, 1971–

/DSXWD 2009, original 3-dimensional photo collage, 140x240cm Private collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Yoo Seung-ho, 1974– 3X KD 2000, ink on paper, 116x77.5cm National Museum of Contemporary Art, Korea Image courtesy of the artist

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Sung Dong-hoon, 1966– 6LQJLQJ 7UHH 2007, stainless ceramic, H. 12m Korea Ceramic Foundation Image courtesy of Korea Ceramic Foundation

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&KHRQJQ\RQJVD 7HPSOH 'DHXQJMHRQ +DOO Goryeo Dynasty (built 1265) Treasure No. 824 Location: 28 Cheongnyong-ri, Seoun-myeon, Anseong-si, Gyeonggi-do Image courtesy of Ahn Graphics

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188

Lee Ji-yen, 1979– 6WDUV 7ZLQNOH LQ WKH 6N\ 2010, digital photo collage, 84x112cm Private collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Yi Hwan-kwon, 1974–

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Han Won-suk, 1971– +\HRQJ\HRQ 2008, 3088 speakers, H. 375cm D. 227cm Gwacheon National Science Museum Image courtesy of the artist

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&HLOLQJ 6WUXFWXUH RI 6R\RMHRQJ 3DYLOLRQ Location: Back garden of Changdeokgung Palace, Waryong-dong, Jongno-gu, Seoul Image courtesy of BBU Studio

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Nam June Paik, 1932–2006 7KH 0RUH WKH %HWWHU 1988, installation with 1003 TV monitors, H. 18.5m National Museum of Contemporary Art, Korea Image courtesy of Ahn Graphics

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Choe U-Ram, 1970–

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Yee Soo-kyung, 1963â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

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0XQMDGR Late 18th century, ink and color on paper, each 74.2x42.2cm Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

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212

Hong Ji-yoon, 1970â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

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Kim Joon, 1966– %LUG /DQG ş &KU\VOHU 2008, digital print, 210x120cm Private collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Jeong Seon, 1676–1749 7KH *HXPJDQJ 0RXQWDLQV Joseon Dynasty (1734), thin color on paper, 94.1x130.7cm National Treasure No. 217, Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art Image courtesy of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

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Kim Yoon-jae, 1982– 0LVVLQJ *HXPJDQJ 0RXQWDLQV 6HULHV 2009, acrylic, ink, and color on mixed media, 45x45x45cm Private collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Lee Lee-nam, 1969– 1HZ *HXPJDQJ -HQGR 2009, video installation, LED TV, 500x300x50cm, 7 min 30 sec Private collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Jeon Joon-ho, 1969– %RR<RR+D'D 2003, digital animation, 7 min 10 sec National Museum of Contemporary Art, Korea Image courtesy of the artist

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Kim Hong-do, 1745–1806 (?) 7KH :DVKLQJ 3ODFH IURP OHDI $OEXP RI *HQUH 3DLQWLQJV E\ .LP +RQJ GR Late Joseon Dynasty, color on paper, 28x23.9cm Treasure No.527, National Museum of Korea Image courtesy of National Museum of Korea

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Debbie Han, 1969–

6HDWHG 7KUHH *UDFHV 2009, Lightjet print mounted on aluminum, 180x250cm Santa Barbara Museum of Art Image courtesy of the artist

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Lee Young-mi, 1972–

%HWZHHQ 'UHDP DQG 0HPRU\ )ORDWLQJ ,VODQG 2009, variable installation, ceramics and mixed media, each piece 35x15x17cm Artist’s collection Image courtesy of the artist

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230

Bae Joon-sung, 1967– 7KH &RVWXPH RI 3DLQWHU ş 0XVHXP 5 /HJV /Hʍ 2009, oil on canvas, lenticular printing, 181.8x290.9cm Private collection Image courtesy of Yeonhui-dong Project

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232

Lee Yong-baek, 1966– 3LHWD 2008, ﬁbre-reinforced plastic and iron plates, 400x340x320cm Artist’s collection Image courtesy of the artist

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Special Advisor Lee O-Young

Writer, Former Minister of Culture

Editor in Chief Seung H-Sang

Architect, Principal of Iroje Architects & Planners

Board of Editors Bae Bien-U

Photographer, Professor of Seoul Institute of the Arts

Min Joo-sik

Professor of Aesthetics, Yeungnam University

Yoon Jin-sup

Art Critic, Professor of Honam University

Authors Lee Joon

Deputy Director of Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

Kim Bong-ryol

Architect, Professor of Korea National University of Arts

Ahn Sang-soo

Typographer, Graphic Designer, Professor of Hongik University

Yim Seock-jae

Architecture Professor of Ewha Womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s University

Choi Joon-sik

Religious Studies & Korean Studies Professor of Ewha Womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s University

Lee Dae-hyung

Curator, Director of Curating Company Hzone

John Rajchman

Professor in the Department of Art History and Archeology, Columbia University

Korean Beauty 2010 Edition

Publisher

Seo Kang-soo

Published by

Korean Culture and Information Service Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism 15 Hyojaro, Jongno-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea Tel: 82-2-398-1914 ~20 Fax: 82-2-398-1882

Printed

October 28, 2010

Issued

November 10, 2010

Special Advisor

Lee O-Young

Editor in Chief

Seung H-Sang

Board of Editors

Bae Bien-U, Min Joo-sik, Yoon Jin-sup

Authors

Lee Joon, Kim Bong-ryol, Ahn Sang-soo, Yim Seock-jae, Choi Joon-sik, Lee Dae-hyung, John Rajchman

Translators

Andrew Killick, Cho Sukyeon

Copyeditor

Gene H. Lee

Managing Director

Kim Ok-chyul

Producer

Park So-hyoun

Art Director

Moon Jang-hyun

Designer

Seok Soo-ran

Photographers

Lim Hark-hyoun, Cho Ji-young

Coordinators

Lee Dae-hyung, Kim Bo-mi

Editing Assistants

Moon Hee-chae, Kim Moon-jeong

Printing

Geum Gang Printec

Prepress

Ace Color

iPad App Director

Sung Ki-won

iPad App Designer

Jung Eun-hye

iPad App Programmer

Won Jae-yeon

ÂŠ 2010 Korean Culture and Information Service All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright holders.

Printed and bound in Korea.

ISBN 978-89-7375-120-4 03600

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