“Architecture informed by its context” A DISSERTATION Submitted by
Krishnaa S 2013701015
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE under FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING in
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING
ANNA UNIVERSITY CHENNAI 600 025 APRIL 2017
Abstract
A city has no criteria to set it apart. It is very elemental to the human existence and links a society through political, economic, socio-cultural aspects. Urbanism, as a result, is experienced and intertwined in the everyday life of the citizens as a physical phenomenon. The role of architecture in the city is constantly being inter-related with the urban context as from the very beginning of city forming, with no distinction between design and experience. City, a seemingly homogeneous metropolis, can have both monument and fabric existing in the same frame. With modernism contributing to the growth and distribution control of the city, the resulting urbanism manifested in a separation of architecture from the city. Since urbanism is a culture or the way of people who lives in cities, it is always best that urbanism is planned and coherent. We still undergo a physical reality of the city in different ways, whether coherent or fragmented, wherever the context of time and place be. The character and capacity of architecture in this physical reality is very strong, either as one of the pieces of the city or as a standalone catalyst/ focus. Architecture has the power to transform Urbanism, either instantly or in a long run. An effort to witness and acknowledge the impingement on the macro and micro scale, an openness in thinking what could be the change, is the key to understanding the human society changes and how it can change through both organic and intentional ways/ Architecture and the urban context, both lie in between the realm of tangible and intangible. Tangible and intangible are inseparable. Every physical entity creates a non-physical sense and behind every non-physical sense, there is a physical entity which moulds it. Everything impacts every other thing, either directly or indirectly. Direct impacts are predictable and evident to the naked eyes whereas indirect impacts are not that obvious. Hence, every architectural building / an entity doesn’t exist as an individual building / an entity. But with every built structures, it adds as another layer that not only impacts the existing and also brings about the changes in urban context.
How well are we (as an architect) aware of those direct and indirect impacts? Or have those many layers been overlooked?
Acknowledgements
I, sincerely, would like to thank my guide, Ar. Keval Kaushik, for his guidance and support to complete my dissertation on time. I’m indebted to the people who helped me with their thoughtful comments and conversations. I would like to express my gratitude towards my family, my friends, my architects, my co-interns and some people with great personalities who inspired me. Finally, I’m so grateful to the ‘Context’ which informed and created an impact in me and my perception either ‘directly’ or ‘indirectly’.
List of illustrations
Fig 2.3.1.1: Plan of Carcassonne
Fig 2.3.2.1: Noerdlingen church- Plan
Fig 2.3.2.2: Noerdlingen church- view
Fig 2.4.2.1: Plan of Naples
Fig 2.5.1.1: Three magnets theory
Fig 2.5.1.2: Visualisation of a ‘Garden city’- Plan
Fig 2.9.1: German urban fabric
Fig 2.9.2: Gehry’s dancing building
Fig 2.10.1: HSBC building, Hong Kong
Fig 2.10.2: HSBC building, Hong Kong
Fig 3.1.1: Ebbinghaus illusion
Contents 1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………….01 1.1 Research methodology and structure……………………………………...03
2. REMINISCING THE PAST………………………………………………………05 2.1 At the very beginning: Prehistoric civilisations…………………………….06 2.1.1 Independent shelters……………………………………………………07 2.1.2 The clusters………………………………………………………………07 2.2 Taking a permanent hold: Ancient civilisations……………………………07 2.2.1 Experimenting with the layout- planning…………………………..….08 2.2.2 Basics spaces figured-Architecture…………………………………...08 2.2.3 Gaining a clarity-Classical era………………………………………....09 2.2.4 Putting the grid on- Planning…………………………………………..09 2.2.5 Anthropometry take the front – Architecture…………………………10 2.3 Period of kingship: Medieval era……………………………………………11 2.3.1 Back to organic – Planning……………………………………………..11 2.3.2 Great heights – Architecture……………………………………………13 2.4 Historic repeat: Renaissance era…………………………………………...15 2.4.1 Organising the existence – Planning…………………………………..15 2.4.2 The Naples…………………………………………………………......…16 2.4.3 The power re-established………………………………………………..17 2.5 A complete transformation: Modernism era……………………………...…18 2.5.1 Different theories take shape –Planning……………………………….19 2.6 Buildings welcomed the context……………………………………………...21 2.7 Le Corbusier’s vision…………………………………………………………..21 2.8 The towers erected……………………………………………………………..21 2.9 Based on function: Modernism era…………………………………………...22 2.9.1 A new shape developed – Planning………………………………...…..24
2.9.2 Simplistic processes – Architecture……………………………………….…24 2.10 Current times: Contemporary era………………………………………………..25 2.10.1 HSBC building, Kong kong…………………………………………………..25 2.10.2 Wexner building……………………………………………………………....27 2.11 What was understood?
3. DECIPHERING THE CONTEXT 3.1 What is ‘Context’?.............................................................................................28 3.2 What is context comprise of?...........................................................................29 3.3 Layers of the context……………………………………………………………….30 3.3.1 Background layers (Urban scale)……………………………………………30 3.3.2 Middle ground layers (Neighbourhood scale)………………………………30 3.3.3 Foreground layers (The protagonist)…………………………………………31
4. ARCHITECTURE AS PROCESS……………………………………………………..32 4.1 ‘Layers’ in architecture……………………………………………………………..32 4.2 It is a ‘process’………………………………………………………………………32 4.3 Layers answered ‘independently’…………………………………………………33 4.4 It is not a ‘product’…………………………………………………………………..34 4.5 Dynamism in architecture…………………………………………………………..34 4.5.1 Changes due to itself…………………………………………………………..34 4.5.2 Changes due to the context…………………………………………………..35
5. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………..37
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………40
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Introduction
Shelter, (among Food, Shelter and Clothing) being on the basic necessities of Human beings, has always found a way of existence/being from time immemorial. Starting from the pre-historic times up till today, shelter has seen an immense transition in its form and functional requirements. Buildings (the form into which 'Shelter' transformed), as basic as natural rock caves to the soaring skyscrapers of today, has seen a steadily growing evolution in its organisation and use. The reason for the rise of something called a 'Shelter/Building' was the existing conditions found in the immediate surroundings of it. In other words, the 'Context' of the building. There was a vice-versa effect observed at this instant, i.e., there were evident effects seen on the 'Context' because of the building as well. This effect on the locale can be 'Direct' or 'Indirect'. My study revolves around this particular observation noted that is caused by the 'Buildings'. With the increase in number, the human population started living together for the reason of mutual benefit. This led to the formation of 'Society', 'the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered community' as defined by the dictionary. As a result, there were groups of buildings (primarily residential in prehistoric civilizations and then multiplied in their functions). This eventually led to Urbanism, or in other words 'the development and planning of cities and towns'. This phenomenon can be observed everyday with the active participation of the citizens. During the early times this process of development was seen to occur in an unconscious manner with an organic character. The example for this can be seen in the layout of Jericho. Consisting of majorly a single-roomed house, the settlement grew organically with the number of people in the region. As time went by, this process of urbanism started happening with conscious efforts put in by the citizens. It included an organised setup for the layout of a civilization against the existing amoebic organic planning. This mode of development can be well explained with the grid-iron organisation of building in the ancient Roman
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civilization. Here there were deliberate steps taken to even organise and zone the overall layout with a distinct idea for the functioning of the whole. During both these stages of development the growth of the single (building) and the whole (civilization) went hand-in-hand. Both portrayed to complement one another without superimposing each other. The different buildings did have their own identity, yet, did not break the sense of the 'Whole'. Even in all these cases there were direct and indirect influences of the individual buildings on its surroundings (to be later discussed). But as time went, there were instances where a building, was treated as a unique element in the design process. Here, quite often, the impact the building has on its surroundings seem to be dramatic. This, sometimes leads to a negative impact for its 'Context' which might sometimes stagger the development of a few in the society. The coherent nature of the building with its environment seems to the most viable option for the undesirable to happen in the current setup of development. With this in mind, the Western world came up with the practice of Urban Design, as a viable solution to restore the drastic outcomes in the formation of an urban setup. But irrespective of the nature of urbanism (be it coherent or fragmented), there is always an outcome or an 'Impact' created by any building on its surroundings. This 'Impact' could be advantageous to us as in the case of....... or could be a demerit like. The extent to which any of these changes affect the 'Context' is also a part of my study by highlighting the aspects causing such changes are also analysed (Scale, Human association, etc.) Another main face of architecture is that it deals with the 'Tangible' and the 'Intangible'. Every process culminating as architecture involves a physical entity which in turn is to have an impact on its 'Context'. From an architect's point of view, the process of architecture comprises of answering and fulfilling the needs and requirements of that particular design. There are several attributes (layers) to each problem that needs to be answered by the architect. In other words, a product in architecture comprises a number of 2
layers with the apt solution for each. For the success or failure of a particular entity is decided based on answering these layers in the right way by the architect. Sometimes there may be layers which are overlooked by the architect (Louis Kahn's Richard Medical research Laboratory) or these layers might be interpreted and answered wrong with respect to the user. In turn the layers brings a change to its 'Context'. This aspect of Architecture is also to be discussed in the essay.
1.1 Research methodology and structure (a) To understand and analyse the various styles of architecture till date and the impacts it created around the context in which it existed. With putting forth a rhetorical question of whether the building of earlier styles related to the surrounding context. Case studies will be in terms of these parameters,
The listing out of the most prominent styles of architecture and the reason behind the emergence of those styles.
Impacts on the surrounding context in terms of form and functionalism. (About which one of those did create an impact and did take into account the context to a large extent). Impacts include the mind set and behavioural pattern of the people.
(b) To understand and appreciate the vestige of many intertwined layers that comprises the building and its context which are interconnected to each other. Understanding the building individually, might be from the spaces within and how it relates to the spaces outside the building or from any aspects or by areas or openings, etc.
Location (in terms of orientation, site conditions, etc.)
Surrounding fabric of the context (in terms of figure and ground, morphology of the context, materials, kinds of structural systems, etc.)
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Architecture shouldn’t be perceived as an end-product or the final product, but should be perceived as ‘process’ which takes into account of many layers of the surrounding context. To talk about the relationship and the ratio between the tangible and intangible. With again putting forth a rhetorical question of how well are the architects aware of those indirect impacts? Or have those many layers of the context been overlooked? Analysis Based on two perspectives:
A building / entity designed by an architect who would have taken certain layers into account.
A building / entity designed by common people who are not aware of design layers.
The impact due to the combination of both cases.
Based on scale:
Its impact on a micro scale.
Its impact on a macro scale.
An approach to identify the layers which have been thought about and the layers which have been overlooked or haven’t thought about. To understand the subconscious change that did not exist earlier before the building came into existence. (c) After consciously understanding and taking into account of the overlooked layers, the study would be about the aftermath. An approach to understand and predict the subconscious changes consciously.
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Reminiscing the past
As it has been said, we should know the past in order to comprehend the present and build the future. In other words, history can be reinterpreted as ‘Case studies’. A case study is not a substitute for original thinking, but it will help in understanding how things worked out in those circumstances of that particular period. Every architectural style that has been emerged till date would have been influenced by its context and also would have created an impact around the context in which it existed. An ‘architectural style’ is an expression of a building / other architectural entity that is characteristic of a particular time period. A style might include form, method of construction, building materials and the regional character of a place. The chronology of styles till date comprises the classification of most architecture which discloses changes over time reflecting the lifestyle or the emergence of new ideas. When a style undergoes changes it usually does so gradually, as architects of that time learn and adapt new ideas. Sometimes, the newly emerged style would be a contradiction to the previous style. For instance, ‘Post-modernism’ means after modernism which conflicts with the idea and the elements of ‘Modernism’. The various styles of architecture are listed below in the chronological order.
Pre-historic times – 11,600 BC to 3500 BC
Ancient Egypt – 3,050 BC to 900 BC
Classical – 850 BC to 476 AD
Byzantine – 527 AD to 565 AD
Romanesque – 800 AD to 1200 AD
Gothic – 1100 AD to 1450 AD
Renaissance – 1400 AD to 1600 AD
Baroque – 1600 AD to 1830 AD
Rococo – 1650 AD to 1790 AD
Neo classicism – 1730 AD to 1925 AD 5
Art nouveau – 1890 AD to 1914 AD
Beaux arts – 1895 AD to 1925 AD
Neo gothic – 1905 AD to 1930 AD
Art Deco – 1925 AD to 1937 AD
Modernism -1900 AD to present
Post modernism – 1972 AD to present
Neo-modernism and parametricism – 21st century
Buildings under every architectural style in the list above have their own intricate values and significance at their respective periods. But for my field of study, it would be relevant to stick and talk about the styles from when architecture and urbanism started creating an impact.
2.1 At the very beginning: Prehistoric civilisations The roots for the existence of cities gain its hold form the time Humans started settling in permanent locations. The main reason which contributed to this Human activity was the creation of long-term dwellings in a particular location. This was the result of (the setting up of permanent dwellings) the discovery of various methods of gathering food (namely agriculture, fishing, hunting, etc.) required for the sustenance of their race. The characteristics of these structures raised was seen as a result of its immediate surrounding environment. Be it the material of construction, the form of the unit/units, the orientation and arrangement of these prehistoric setups (for example, in case of a river dependant society, the housing units were set up almost aligning the river as its backbone) were all reflections of what was available in the surroundings and methods to harness the advantages of what was around.
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2.1.1 Independent shelters Now, about the characteristics of the community as a whole, the permutation and combination of these individual units to form clusters was a notable factor. The strategy that was adopted for the setting up of these clusters was to protect the communities or societies against the existing wild environment. This was seen in the form of temporary boundaries created around the settlements (wooden fencing) that acted as methods of protection for the community. The presence of the required resources also seemed to be an influential factor for the setup of these prehistoric miniature 'cities'.
2.1.2 The clusters All these small settlements had their vision set in a particular direction (considering the arrangement of the settlements) in order to fulfil their basic needs and requirements. With no other complex vision or requirement, these setups were seen to have an organic structure and growth which completely depended upon the act of merely responding to the 'Context'. This period in history was composed of our ancestors who saw survival and increasing in number as the only essence of living. This act of survival, they found to be less difficult, with mutual coexistence. Hence this timeframe in history did not consider architecture as a separate entity but an aid for the sustenance of the human race.
2.2 Taking a permanent hold: Ancient civilisations With time there were several changes noted in the documented history. As these permanent dwellings started to establish in several pockets, humans started appreciating and positively exercising the benefits from their 'Context' to their advantage. With the betterment of the living conditions came an increase in the population. This was in turn associated with practices that were evidentiary
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order to increase the efficiency of the livelihood. All these changes were seen to reflect in the demands of architectural processes as well.
2.2.1 Experimenting with the layout - Planning From the view of the city, there were developments of services which aided the functioning of the city. The organisation of the city adopted a regular form with a grid iron pattern for its layout. This was evident from the discovery of the elaborate sewage and drainage systems laid through the city. This process of evolution of settlements can be well explained with examples from prominent areas of the world like India, Egypt, etc. During this period of the timeline architecture and urban planning did show a considerable advancement, but both these existed as two separate entities. They grew in response to the general needs, but architecture was not seen as an element influencing the urban structure. Instead it came out to be a result of only fulfilling the functions that needed to be satisfied. There were no conscious efforts made for the building to influence the surrounding or the 'Fabric' of the city. But in the example of an Egyptian civilisation of Akhetaten (located in the Egyptian archaeological site of Amarna), the urban planning underwent one particular process. There were permanent roads laid for this city along which adobe houses were erected. At the beginning of this city not all the area was filled with houses and this had irregular interruptions in the otherwise planned city. As time went there were houses erected and this changed the immediate surroundings of the unit. And also the houses could be modified according to its owner, but this was only under rare circumstances, with the permission of the surrounding neighbours.
2.2.2 Basic spaces figured - Architecture Considering a single residential unit, the growth in the number of its occupants demanded increase in its area. As a result, with the same ground cover, this was
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achieved with the vertical stacking of each units. Spatial organisation also seemed to have an evident step ahead. This could be noticed from the ruins of large structures which were later discovered to be storage houses with properly designed partitions. This would have resulted from a development agricultural practice of the settlement. The discovery of baths points out the change in the social mind-set of the people.
2.2.3 Gaining a clarity – Classical era Next in line, that strikes all our minds when we talk about architecture and urbanism is the Classical era. This includes both the Ancient Greek and Roman styles. Starting with the social composition, the people had well developed from their ancestors in all respects. Especially in the field of trade, there was tremendous advancement. This led to the rise of a group of people, the traders, who were not related to the field of agriculture at all. The introduction of a welldefined currency (banking) and a dedicated language (reading and writing) also helped in the process of up gradation of the city and its setup.
2.2.4 Putting the grid on – Planning The layout of these cities were also planned and executed against the organic growth of a city. Taking the Greek city planning into consideration, designed by Hippodamus, the orthogonal planning of the city is a stand out element. Going into the example of Athenes in specific, brings out the planning elements in detail Each of these function had a building designed for its use and were spatially organised according to the then present hierarchy. One notable character of the Ancient Greek city planning was the presence of the Agora, the open plaza, purely dedicated for socialising activities. This was an element that was the first of its kind. The reason for its new inclusion into the city planning was the due to the increase in the trade which demanded such an open space to facilitate the functioning of the activity.
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Considering the case of the Roman civilisation, the 'Grid-Iron' layout of its planning had been an influential design principle for the next several years. This layout pattern created, in its context, rigid plots which were suited for the construction of apartment blocks. Apart from this, the planning adopted zoning of the different elements of the city, namely the administrative, Residential and the Social ( that which includes the Thermaes or baths and the circus'). Each of these function had a building designed for its use and were spatially organised according to the then present hierarchy. One notable character of the Ancient Greek city planning was the presence of the Agora, the open plaza, purely dedicated for socialising activities. This was planned in such a way that there commercial units included in this area as well. This marks the beginning of how the overall plan included a space that supported social interaction to this large extent. This could be marked as a start towards the inclusion of a 'Direct Impact' that was consciously made.
2.2.5 Anthropometry take the front - Architecture Looking into the field of architecture as a separate entity, both these Classical style showed an immense amount of detailing and precision. This era was also marked by its famous Classical orders. The Greek civilisation had a highlighted importance for its realm of religion giving rise to state of the art designs for the temples. Similarly, the establishment of its administrative sector (through trade) also saw the necessary administrative blocks being put up. All these and the allied structures were set up in a well-defined city 'Fabric'. In the Roman civilisation there came about the design and innovation of several structures like the aqueducts, the bridges, well established road ways, etc. All of these can be considered to have had a conscious inclusion and planning so as to increase the economy.
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2.3 Period of kingship: Medieval era With the gradual disintegration of the Western Roman Empire, there was serious fragmentation seen in the area. This was due to the separation of land among several rulers and their empires as each took a part of the defeated Roman Empire. This period of our history sees the domination of the Religious system and the feudal system over the entire society. And with the formula known for the effective working of a society, every Feudal leader was ambitious to start an independent empire. Continuing the knowledge of trade and politics from their Roman predecessors, the newly set up empires were successfully established. This period also saw the rise in importance of the merchant class in the society. They were so prominent that separate independent organisations, the Guilds, were organised.
2.3.1 Back to organic - Planning When compared to their predecessors, the Medieval societies did not portray a remarkable growth and development in the in the field of city planning. Since the main notion of these new empires was to acquire and gather power and position, the planning of their societies seemed to loosely continue in the footsteps of the Romans. With a constant lookout for wars of succession, these independent societies grew within well protected and fortified walls. Even the road networks laid across the cities were all irregular in nature as a way to protect themselves against the attacking battalion. This seemed to work by confusing the enemy entering into the premises of the city. With the same reason in mind (the protection of the city), these cities were organised on an uneven terrain. Most often being a centrally designed city, these cities had a prominent Church at its heart, these urban societies had radial organic planning, connecting the large open market space and the other areas. The Church usually opened into a large open space which
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served to house several small shops and other social elements of the cities. The road ways laid in these towns had well distinct ones for wheeled vehicles and for pedestrians. This approach for the road networks could be seen as the first of its kind starting from this example.
Fig 2.3.1.1: Plan of Carcassonne
A drawback of these cities, noted in most of the then urban set ups, was the congestion of the cities with the over growing population (which was facilitated by the stable growth of the economy and agricultural produce). Since these cities were all fortified, the area enclosed within them only took into account the population with which the city started. But as time went, the growth of population seriously impacted the density of these towns leading them to have grave living conditions (unsupervised and unaltered drainage systems giving rise to hygiene issues).
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2.3.2 Great heights - Architecture Looking specifically into the individual structures of the medieval times shows considerable changes from its predecessors. As in the case of residences, they were completely independent elements. They did not show any active participation in the overall city planning. Yet, the facade did take into account the nature of the road on which it in placed. Having driven by religion, Churches were given immense importance. The tall, elaborately designed facade (with tracery, gargoyles, rose windows, etc.) of the Church was the first of its kind. There were guild halls also built during this time of the history (with the growth of importance for the trading class of this era).
Now looking at the city with both these layers put together helps us draw few inferences of this era in our history. This era shows to have architecture influencing the 'Context' in the city as a whole. With the nature of the Church opening into a vast open space or a Plaza shows the entry of an individual architectural entity into the overall planning of the city. The open space here is connected to and a part of the Church. The same area also facilitates as a ground supporting small shops. These elements together have added on to the life of the city. These shops placed in the 'Context' of the open plaza and the Church opening into the same 'Context' creating a common ground for interaction, thereby leading to an involvement of architecture with its Urban 'Context'.
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Fig 2.3.2.1: Noerdlingen church- Plan
The residential units were treated as separate entities, being to themselves and not getting involved in the city planning as a whole, considering the planning of it. But when it came to the facade of the building, there were few rules which had to be followed in order to be coherent with the other existing buildings (residential units). This is a point where these independent units start responding according to its 'Context'. This way the building started to add meaning and giving rise to a defined 'Fabric' to the city. This was described as "Coherent planning along aesthetic lines�.
Fig 2.3.2.2: Noerdlingen church- view
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2.4 History repeat: Renaissance era After the fast reorganisation of the various cities from the defeated and fragmented Roman Empire, resulted in cities with no well-defined clarity. Yet it gave rise to an urban setup with a modified perspective of a city, expressed in a subtle manner (the introduction of open plaza's), as seen in the previous discussion. Later, the existing social structure under went further advancements aided by the healthy growth of it economy. With this improvement in the economic background, the importance given to Religion and State power also seemed to increase in the political face of the society. Now with enhanced power in hand and a better and stable vision in mind, the groups operating the city (the Church and the state) now came up with a social set up, which seemed to be appropriate to them in order to gain maximum out of the city.
2.4.1 Organising the existence - Planning With the power vested in the hands of the Church and the State, the other groups that the city composed did not have much of its influence in the city planning. Hence the city was planned through a particular perspective taken into account. The main focus of the city planning in this era was seen to concentrate on the development of a network of roads. Elaborately designed focal points (here the Churches and the buildings representing the State) were seen to be aiding agents that connected the road ways through the 'Fabric' of the city. The reason for the betterment of the road structure to be addressed with utmost importance was because of the increase in the population. Hence the aim was to formulate a better working city. With the use of the Churches and the state buildings as nodal points there were several open public spaces to enhance the social aspect of the city were created. The planning of the roads was given the treatment of architecture. As in, the road networks that were laid were done
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elaborately with landscaping elements such as open gardens, fountains, etc. The introduction of the star-shaped fortified city was a prominent feature of this era. This was seen to be a more refined option to resist the attack of the enemy.
2.4.2 Naples The most important city of Southern Italy has been Naples. Rapid growth away from the classical grid pattern centre of the city, combined with a royalty which had vastly increased its physical domain 2and temporal powers, brought forth a need to give the overall city a common bonding arrangement during the 16th Century. To this end, a relatively straight street was constructed to connect the “country” palace in the hills behind the city with the “city” palace, which was located in close proximity to the harbour. At the base of the hills, a redirection of the street was made necessary by topography and the desire to retain essential existing features of the city. The redirection was facilitated with a “junction sector”, a wide avenue section approaching a piazza in size and character. Thus, the overall concept of the street could be preserved by movement through the piazza-like space, using the language of a piazza to preserve continuity where the use of the normal language of the street would have been lost. The “city” palace, with its piazza, was strongly oriented towards the port, redirecting the force of the street. Thus, it connected with and met the force of the economic life blood of the city, as well as with the forces which controlled that artery. The powerful new street, held taut by the two palaces, which equally represented power in the city, was thus intended to serve as a central axis, collecting all of the important activities of the city into one viable core.
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2.4.3 The power re-established The architecture of this period was identified as a repetition of history. With the rise of a completely different language of the buildings in the medieval period, the people with a considerable say in the society saw it as a loss of the Classical style and moved towards re-establishing the essence of the Classical style. There were several typologies of buildings that came about, namely Hospitals, Cathedrals, Country houses, Political buildings, etc. Architecture of any of these building typologies were grand in scale adopting the essence and principles of the Classical styles of architecture. One prominent feature notices in this period was the placement of Loggias in public spaces. Having its main aim in the development and organising of the road networks, this era in architecture portrayed a formal perspective to the cities. Considering the impact of architecture on the urban planning, in the cities we can see a more focussed and deliberate intervention of the open public spaces. These spaces were observed to, to an extent, continue into one another. This is evident with the arrangement of Loggias throughout the city. These Loggias were seen as walk ways for the general public and also was noted to provide a connections to different spaces. For example, it was seen to connect different buildings when used along the road and the buildings, and also between the exterior and the interior of a building in case the Loggias flank the building. Continued after this was the Baroque style in architecture. Here there were no considerable changes in the city planning from its predecessor. It was a more artistic form of architecture and even this method was, to an extent, continued to the overall planning (through symmetry, monumentality, etc.). One of the main examples of urban planning during the time of Baroque style is Baron Haussmann's most celebrated restructuring of Paris between 1853 and 1870.
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Fig 2.4.2.1: Plan of Naples
2.5 A complete transformation: Modernism era Ever since the birth of the merchant class, there is a separation that is observed in the city's functioning. This separation is seen to have developed between the agricultural sector and the newly formed merchant class. As time went this merchant class gained more fame and hence was given separate privileges (as seen in the previous era). This distinction further widened giving rise to two different groups, an 'Urban' setup and a 'Rural' setup. As these traders developed into well-established business men and industrialists, they started setting up their practices and industries in close proximity with one another (of the business men itself). Due to their immense success these business localities were seen as the city centres. Agricultural land was seen to make up the 'Rural' circle which formed the fringe of the cities. This elevation in the 'Urban' was a magnet that attracted several from the villages who migrated in order to gain better living conditions. This simultaneously caused the city to get over crowded, leading to congestion of the cities.
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2.5.1 Different theories take shape - Planning With this as the background, there were several proposals that were put forth in order to sort out this issue in the urban setup. The major ones which could be seen to create impacts on the society were the 'Garden city' put forth by Ebenezer Howard and the 'Contemporary city' by Le Corbusier.
Fig 2.5.1.1: Three magnets theory
The main idea behind the 'Garden city' was to include the benefits of both the prosperous vibrant town and the pleasant natural country side. In the proposal of this planning, Howard visualised the residences to be located in a less dense, spacious surrounding where the occupants belonged to various social classes to promote the sense of shared environment. The other most significant point considered here was to decentralise the high commotion urban centres.
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Fig 2.5.1.2: Visualisation of a ‘Garden city’- Plan
In this mode of planning there was special attention given to the street. With very few vehicles at the time of its origin, the design of the plan was based on merging the various defined spaces together, by minimising the use of physical barriers. A usual layout consisted of a central street that aided in supporting occasional vehicular movement. Right adjacent to this the street was flanked by pedestrian footpaths on either side. The two separate mediums of movement were differentiated only with the difference is the materials used. Even the level difference between the two was not much. The next medium for movement was the front open lawn area onto which the houses open onto. For reasons of maintenance, the lawn is separated from the footpath by flanking knee level bushes. But a conscious effort of not using fencing was done. Finally comes the house that has a well-established passage of entry from the footpath, indicating the axis of entry. Taking the overall plan, this organisational setup included with it open public park spaces which was another mode through which social interaction was established. As far as possible, the Garden City planning eliminated the entry of unwanted vehicles into the layout (except for the owner's vehicles).
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All of this was to make sure that a healthy was given to the working class who deserved better living and working conditions amongst the crowded 'Urban ' setup. Welwyn Garden City, also in Hertfordshire was also built on Howard's principles.
2.6 Buildings welcomed the contexts All these were elements which were used with conscious practice in order to make the whole setup with freedom of movement through the whole of the Garden city without any restrictions. At the community level this was seen to encourage a healthy relationship between the residents. Here the buildings (residential units) are designed in such a way so that it welcomes an onlooker into the site. This way the architecture of the building can be said to extend its function into its 'Context'. This was done by including a strong, noticeable entry axis to the house which can be viewed from the street.
2.7 Le Corbusier’s vision Amongst the several theories put forth for urban planning, Corbusier also came with a futuristic solution. He called it the 'Contemporary City'. The planning of this was based on distinct zoning of the various functions of the city. Such organisation of the city was seen as 'The ' solution in overcoming the then existing chaos of the city.
2.8 The towers erected Starting at the centre of the city, Corbusier placed blocks of sixty storied structures dedicated for as the urban centre. This was seen to place in the midst of a green pocket. Surrounding this were the Residential units that were properly segregated according to the social classes that were existing within the city. Right at the city centre, where the urban centre was, and the network for 21
travelling was set up. All the modes of transportation were seen to come and converge at this point. A fancy idea of having flights land on a runway placed between the towers was also part of the plan.
Many of his disciples became notable in their own right, including painterarchitect Nadir Afonso, who absorbed Le Corbusier's ideas into his own aesthetics theory. Lúcio Costa's city plan of Brasília and the industrial city of Zlín planned by František Lydie Gahura in the Czech Republic are notable plans based on his ideas, while the architect himself produced the plan for Chandigarh in India. Le Corbusier's thinking also had been profoundly affected by the philosophy of Futurism and Constructivism in Russia at the turn of the 20th century.
2.9 Based on function: Modernism era With the seriousness of the society in mind, the elaborate designing and facade treatments started to be cut down from the designing process. Deriving from the 'serious' urban context the buildings were seen to be more functional in their design and eliminated the 'unwanted detailing' as described. Being visible in the Bauhaus that was started as one among the first of these examples. Here the main aim was to fulfil the functional purpose of the buildings first was the main criteria. Later with too much of regularity in the cities building started creating a monotony in the entire setup. To break this came up buildings that were classified under 'Expressionism', which were seen to literally express the purpose and reason for the building. Likewise there were several forms of expressions of these buildings.
But the major point noticed in these buildings was that the buildings ended with themselves. Even with their expression to the surroundings, the buildings were 22
not seen to have a significant contribution to their 'Context'. It was there for a hard set reason, but the building was there mainly to fulfil its own purpose.
Fig 2.9.1: German urban fabric
Irrespective of the existing surrounding building language and 'Fabric' of Germany, the Bauhaus was seen to not only standalone but also was noticed that it did not extend its purpose into the 'Context ' of the city.
Fig 2.9.2: Gehry’s dancing building
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The example of Frank Gehry's Dancing house also seems to prove this fact. Amongst the orderly organised background, the dancing house seems to stand apart with a hint of continuation of its 'Fabric'. But considering its function, the building has not significant impact on its context.
2.9.1 A new shape developed- Planning When considering the case of urban planning in the contemporary times, there has been a shift in the perspective considered for this purpose. In contrast to traditional planning, which concentrated on improving the physical aspects of buildings and streets city planning is increasingly concerned with the social and economic aspects of city living. The process of city planning is a highly complex, step-by-step procedure, usually involving a series of surveys and studies, development of a land-use plan and transportation plan, preparation of a budget, and approval of a unified master plan by various agencies or legislative bodies. City planners are usually part of an urban planning board or governmental agency that must take into account the characteristics and long-range welfare of the people of a particular urban community—their employment opportunities, income levels, need for transportation, schools, shopping areas, hospitals, parks and recreational facilities. They must face the problems of traffic, congestion, and pollution; they must also consider the availability of police, fire, and sanitation services, the limitations posed by zoning and other regulations, and the problems of funding. In recent years, residents of many communities have demanded greater participation in the planning of their own neighbourhoods, and some planners have worked closely with community groups during various stages of the planning process.
2.9.2 Simplistic processes - Architecture The design of a building was almost only based on the functions that it has to satisfy. Having this basis for the design process the building did not relate too
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much to its context. Yet there were example, like the Prairie house, which to a certain extent took its features form the landscape. But when examining the impact of a building with its surroundings was not a prominently noted factor.
2.10 Current times- Contemporary era
Architecture, so far, was considered only as building. Its influence on the surrounding 'Context' was not a main element in its planning, but was seen to evolve towards that view without much of deliberation. It was noticed, mostly, to 'just happen'. In other words, there was 'Indirect impact noticed more often against a deliberate one. But here on there came up several examples wherein, architecture was seem to take into consideration its 'Context' and bring out designs with 'Direct impact' on its surrounding, having the 'Context' in mind.
2.10.1 HBSC building, Hong Kong This well-known building is dedicated as the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank Headquarters. It was designed as an example of High Tech architecture. As a whole, the building functions well as a bank with an open plan. It has adopted new methods for its structure and for the other internal functions has embraced new ideas. The whole building is lifted on a stilt. The lower space is a dedicated open area for common use of the city. It functions as an open area for pedestrians which seems to be a part of the pedestrian movement.
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Fig 2.10.1: HSBC building, Hong Kong
At times, the same area undergoes a transition. It is seen to act as an open ground to support a large public gathering. This way the building is seen to extend into its surrounding 'Fabric' to support its 'Context' by extending its use to the usual public and has in turn created a healthy environment for social gathering.
Fig 2.10.2: HSBC building, Hong Kong
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2.10.2 Wexner Centre Next, considering the example of the Wexner centre e for the arts would give a better understanding of how buildings were beginning to be designed with the 'context' in mind. The Wexner Centre for the Arts is The Ohio State University’s "multidisciplinary, international laboratory for the exploration and advancement of contemporary art". This building took into the design process the existing planning established in the immediate surrounding 'Context of the building'. With this in mind, the centre for art was designed complementing the urban setup by incorporating a strong axis in the design as a continuation of the 'Context' onto the building.
2.11 What was understood? Urbanism, as portrayed in the beginning, is the 'the way of life characteristic of cities and towns'. Hence the definition and the functions of life were found to lay in the composition of these cities that were designed. As seen through the various eras of Architecture, it can be said that the essence of the planning and architecture is the social composition, the needs and wants of its people along with the 'context in mind. In the very beginning, there were not many impacts that architecture as an individual created. Only with time and fully understanding and analysing the needs of a community did these impacts come out and portray themselves. But, even in far back history there were these impacts identified in the societies. Most of these were unconscious in their origin. Architecture was seen to start consciously influencing its context when all other basic necessities were fulfilled. Therefore, it can be said that these impacts come into existence by the consideration of various factors or 'layers' in its process.
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3
Deciphering the ‘context’
3.1 What is context? The very definition of context is, “The circumstances that form the setting for an event, statement, or idea, and in terms of which it can be fully understood.” Which indicates that in order to understand any concept, idea or even something which is more tangible, context is indispensable. Let’s interpret it with simple terms and examples to comprehend. A context is merely a background to something in the foreground. A phenomenon that acts a setting which influences and determines the nature or the meaning of an entity in the foreground. In fact, they both are interlinked to each other. To say in other terms, they both are in coexistence. None of them can be perceived or interpreted without the presence of the other one. If one loses its values, then the overall picture will be completely absurd. This works merely like a figure and ground concept.
Fig 3.1.1: Ebbinghaus illusion
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Which black circle in the above illustration is larger, the left one or the right one? To be honest, neither of them. They both are of equal size. The above illustration is based on the concept of ‘Ebbinghaus Illusion’. The perceptual size of each black circle changes and is determined by the characteristics of the grey circles around them. Here, the black circles can be assumed as the foreground objects and grey circles can be interpreted as background or ‘context’. Perception is based on context. Similarly, a building / an architectural entity cannot be defined or perceived without its context. The context makes and gives that building / entity a whole new inner meaning for the users / people who perceive it. Also that building / an architectural entity has a part or adds as an another layer on the context which could change the entire perception towards it.
3.1 What is context comprise of? ‘Context’ is everything. Context comprises almost everything that surrounds or occurs at a particular place and time. As it is told earlier, everything would create an impact on every other thing. It would be a total chaos and would be flummoxed, if we try to interpret and perceive those networks in one go. It would be preferable and a better way to comprehend context as ‘layers’. First we need to understand and appreciate the vestige of many intertwined layers that are integral to the perception of the building and its urban context, whether coherent or fragmented. By considering and manipulating those layers meticulously, architecture could transform the urbanism, where the resultant change could be evident immediately or in the long term. It can be understood by looking at layers in micro scale and macro scale separately.
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3.3 Layers of the context Layers are hard to enumerate in one go. The ‘context’ comprises many intertwined layers which can be further classified into three categories for the better understanding. Like if we assume the context as a picture or a painting, even it would have three parts of classifications as fore ground, middle ground and back ground. It would be very convenient to comprehend layers based on this hierarchy of perceptions.
3.3.1 Background layers: Urban scale Background layers are the essential ones since they give the overall identity and sense of place to the context. As in the overall setting of the context in a macro scale (Urban scale). It includes a) Location b) Orientation c) Site conditions, etc. Site conditions include the climatic factors, topography, types & positions of vegetation, soil types and accessibility to the site etc.
3.3.2 Middle-ground layers: Neighbourhood scale Middle-ground layers concern th
e immediate surrounding fabric of the
context in a micro scale (Neighbourhood scale). These layers are very fundamental since they are going to play a major role in shaping the form of the building / any architectural entity. Since being an immediate setting, they have more influence on the building/ architectural entity. It includes a) Figure and ground of the neighbourhood. (To understand the relationship between form and void of the neighbourhood) b) Morphology (The study of the evolution of the form within the built environment) 30
c) Materials (The skin of the built structures) d) Types of building e) Structural systems of the built environment
3.3.3 Fore-ground layers: The protagonist Fore-ground layers include the fore-most users of the context. The people are the real protagonist of the context. Whatever it may be, they are the end users of all. Like the user group are classified as below. a) People who will inhabit the building, b) People who lives around it, c) People who looks at it (Passer-by)
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4
Architecture as a process
4.1 ‘Layers’ in architecture All through the years, architecture has been practiced with the careful analysis of various aspects related to the entity that is to be designed. The analysis includes several factors which involves the knowing and understanding of all the factors shaping the building, such as the basic requirements of the building (the functions that it needs to satisfy), the reason for which it is being designed and built, the set of users associated with the building (as well as the onlookers), the surroundings in which it is to be erected and several others along these lines of thoughts. These factors to be analysed can be considered as different ‘Layers'. Once this basic information is collected it has to be analysed and the design problem has to be answered for, at different levels. Hence, design involves the detailed understanding and analysis of the different ‘Layers’ that are listed out.
4.2 It is a ‘process’ Like the name suggests, the ‘Layers' lay one on top of the other (interact with one another) in a particular fashion in the design. These ‘Layers' are found to interact with one another to give a visible outcome. Like permutation and combination, these ‘layers’ are observed to interact differently when the ‘Layers' interacting differ. As a result carefully attention needs to be taken in making two aspects of the design to interact.
This points out that a design is a result of carefully sequenced steps, taking place in a particular fashion, and observing the outcome as a result of varied
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interactions happening within the ‘Layers'. Thus suggests that design is a ‘Process', varied with its intrinsic, and is NOT a method, that which has a welldefined path to reach the desired outcome.
4.3 ‘Layers’ answered independently These ‘Layers’ differ with every design problem. As the defining functions change with the design problem, so do the intrinsic aspects or ‘Layers' associated with them. This change in the outcome (or design) is also observed when the ‘context’ in which the design is carried out changes. Hence no two designs have the same approach. It may have a set of few basic steps to follow, but the way in which each are dealt with is different. And as a result, the outcome is never the same. The soul reason for all this being the difference in the ‘Layers'.
Sometimes, it is also noted that the style of design inherent to one particular time period is not suited during another time frame. This could be explained with by taking the designs of Luis Barragan. Having his source from Mexico, Barragan is known for his vibrantly coloured buildings. Having a bright and healthy sun that compliments colour, it (colours) is also found to have become an intrinsic part of Mexico.
Coming to the structure, the houses that were designed by Barragan gave a view of being completely shut from the outside. It was seen to be uninviting. But this was the result of the ‘context or the urban background in which the building was placed in. The streets of Mexico, being very prone to robbery, all houses were opened to an internal back garden, but was ‘visually’ closed from the outside. Vice- versa, the building also communicates with its ‘context’. It extends its own form of friendliness to the ‘context’ in a subtle way (because only this form of friendliness is safe in those streets).
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With the ‘context’ in Mexico, the colour was highly appreciated element (as it was a part of their lives and culture) and the introverted design was suited for the Mexican lifestyle. But, if the same building was going to be placed in another Contextual ‘Fabric', like in the midst of the Classical ‘Fabric’ of London, the response would not have been a very positive one. It would have been a separate entity, altogether, amongst the formally organised Classical setup.
4.4 It is not a ‘Product’ Until now, Architecture was explained to be a ‘Process’. Now to answer the question: ‘Does architecture have a product?’ Here, we could define a product as something that is well defined with definite character, irrespective of the changes in its process. Hence, it could be said that Architecture is neither a well-defined product nor can be the expected outcome in a certain similar setup. To answer this aspect of the question, let us look into the ‘Dynamic' property of architecture.
4.5 Dynamism in architecture
Architecture as a physical entity is not stagnant. With the evolution of several other factors happening within and around the building, there is a final impact that is reflected on the building itself.
4.5.1 Changes due to itself Through the activities that it supports it undergoes constant changes. And these changes cannot be predicted. It depends from user to user and also to the extent 34
to which the building is used. More the association the people have with the building, more the degree of change that can be noticed.
4.5.2 Changes due to the context Now we have discussed about the changes in building due to its user. There is another very influential factor. It is the 'context ' in which it is present. The Context comprises of several elements. The climate, weather, surrounding buildings, the natural context, etc. All of these are never constant. Change is the very nature of these entities. Even after the knowing of the issue we still see architecture not to be responding to it. The reason behind this can be the following. 
We have limited understanding of the dynamics of the built environment because the traditional focus of architects is still on creating monuments.
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We do not have the proper tool-set to help us understand and manipulate time dynamics for building design.
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Buildings conceived as process is not a style. It cannot be copied as a few ornamental features which indicate time dynamics.
Sometimes the outcome of Architecture does not gain a final stand in the hands if the architect. Once after it gets into the hands of the user, there is, to a certain extent, the imprint of the user in that outcome. For example, slight changes in the design according to its use and hence adding it with the character of the user. This highlights the sense of belonging of the user in the building. This can be noticed through small changes, or additions in the original outcome. This points out to the fact that architecture as a process does not end in the hands if the architect, but does further continue when it is being used.
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This is because of the basic human psychology, ownership. Humans tend to associate with the things they use and try to bring about ‘Changes’ according to their own convenience. This marks the sense of ownership, which is an inborn trait of all living things. Thus could be well explained with the example of Lucien Krolls design for the hostel accommodation for the students of the university. The idea and process involved behind this design was to figure out the basic structure of the hostel building and hand it over to the university. Thereon it was the responsibility of the students (users) to design the interiors and control the openings of the building. To facilitate this, the students were given modular units of partitions, Windows, staircase units, etc. It was at the disposal of the students to make permutations and combinations and bring about an outcome that best suits the end user. This active involvement did prove to a success. This was the first of its kind where the end users belonged to the process of the design. This can be seen as an example wherein the user is the final stage designer of an architectural entity. To tell ‘context’ as a whole, this building seemed to stand as an interesting element. With the addition of a new batch every year, shift of students, the building’s facade changed accordingly. Hence amongst the ‘Context’ containing frozen models of Architecture, stood this hostel building with a dynamic facade, through the years.
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5
Conclusion
Now looking back at the question that was framed in the beginning of this argument. How well are we (as an architect) aware of those direct and indirect impacts? Or have those many layers been overlooked? The real problem is that we are understanding the architecture and context often through one dimension. Many have been griping about the lack of attention and sensitivity to context, but their only choice of being sensitive to context is by mirroring the surrounding built structures. Mirroring the same built structures does not mean being sensitive to context. In reality, an interrogation of architecture and urban context is a matter that must go much further deeper than the skin, in order to exhibit any significance and values. When it comes to architecture, the term ‘context’ becomes much more complex. There are two perspectives on architecture, one from within the profession and other from others’ perception of it. One of the fundamental questions in defining architecture is in determining whether we see architecture as a service profession or an artistic one. Or both. And if both, where do we draw the line? There must be a balance that lies somewhere between the two extremes: an autonomous architect building a giant piece of sculpture, and an entirely yielding architect only replicating what already exists. Instead, an architect should be a collaboration of both. The collaborative architect who will create a building that both take into account of an artistic interpretation of architectural form derived from contextual understanding and a building that truly caters those who will indwell it, those who will pass and look at it, and those whose lives around will be affected by it in multi-dimensional ways. It would be impossible to ask for every building to achieve those aspects. But we should not forget that our cities are nothing more than the abrupt reflection of
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how we project and inflict our desires, whether as buildings, roads, landscapes, parks, or ourselves. We must accept that context is not simply a matter of architectural form. The walls, floors, roofs and the choice of materials, or even the size of a building alone don’t make the entire picture of it. A work of architecture is not an artistic piece of sculpture. It’s more than that. Art is often self-expression and has no responsibility to anyone or anything but still it expects to inspire people in some ways. However architecture can be an expression of art, but with responsibility towards the people and its context. Architecture inherently has socio-cultural effects that go far beyond our consideration. Designers, by the nature of their work, have power in shaping and transforming our existence in this world. We need to look beyond the skin of the building to get a picture of all real issues related to how the building design addresses its surroundings—from its relationship with the street to its relationship with the buildings immediately adjacent to it, as well as its relationship within the general context of the city and neighbourhood. We should address the issues of architecture and urbanism on a holistic level. If an architect does not accept the fact that his or her work has lasting social implications, he or she is not practicing architecture. The work becomes nothing more than sculpture. Architect and writer, Simon Unwin, places a statement in his book Analysing Architecture, “Creating places and spaces that enrich the lives of the people who use them is the foundation of architects’ work. Every building can and should engage in a dialog with the history, beliefs, and needs of a particular place and time.” It is with that sentiment I believe context must be heavily considered. A building does not stand alone—particularly in an urban context. Buildings are but one part of a whole; and are crucial element to establishing socio-cultural impacts. Issues such as economic, cultural and even racial, stratification can easily be affected, 38
manipulated, and changed by architecture. We should not evaluate architecture only through one dimension based on the form, function, and aesthetics, but we should embrace the fact that architecture is a deeply complex field with deeply complex consequences.
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Bibliography Books
Life between buildings, Jan Gehl. Critical regionalism, Kenneth Frampton.
Websites
Architectural context | Defy rules http://www.noerdlingen.de/Noerdlingen-entdecken http://www.inforplease.com/encyclopedia/world/city-planningcontemporary-planning. http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ab27 http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/building/townplanning.htm Htttp://www.spur.org/events/2010-10-13/ancient-roman-city-planning
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