History and Interpretation of Innovation in Footwear: Emerging Themes and Insights

History and Interpretation of Innovation in Footwear : Emerging Themes and Insights Authors: Jordanna Coutinho, Kshanika Patel, Priyanka Sanghi DMGT 702: History and Interpretation of Innovation Professor Mauricio Manhaes August 21, 2018

This proposal aims to understand and analyze emerging themes contributing to the diffusion of footwear across the world by: 1.Tracing a timeline from the multiple origins of the shoe to identifying a confluence of factors that have moulded the shape and form of the shoe as it exists today, in order to better understand it's significance and adoption across various cultures.

2.Positioning footwear as a component of complex adaptive systems, evolutionary theory, design practices and a product of technological revolution 1(8000 BC to late 21st century).2 The latter half of the paper narrows down on three trends that have emerged from the data and attempts through a process of Blind Variation and Selective Retention to forecast what shoes will either emerge or outlive it's trend. 3 1.0 Where did shoes come from?

Shoes have come a long way over the last thousands years. The precise origins of footwear are unknown. There are no recorded dates as to when people began to wear shoes of any kind, nor do we know who were the first ones to wear it. Listed below are some of the earliest mentions of shoes in either religious texts, cave paintings or relics.

1. The Fort Rock sandals dated to be from 8000 BC were fiber footwear found in southwest Oregon and northern Nevada beneath a layer of volcanic ash, identified to have been coming from the eruption of Mount Mazama. These

1 Joeseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, (USA, Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003), 81-86 2 Sen Paul, The Secret Life of Chaos, Broadcast. Directed by Nic Stacey. London, BBC Four, 2011 3 D.T Campbell, Blind variation and selective retentions in creative thought as in other knowledge processes. Psychological Review,(USA, APA PsycNET,1960, 380-400)

Shoe | 1

flat soled sandals made of shredded sagebrush bark. 4 2. Buried along with the well preserved Tarim mummies, from the Loulan Civilization (former Han Dynasty, 220 BC - 8AD China) were boots made out of oxhide dating back 3800 years along with engravings of the shoe immortalized in brass casts.5 3. In a cave in Armenia a shoe made of cowhide stuffed with grass was uncovered. The style resembles that of the pampooties and dates back to 3500 BC during the copper age.6 4. One of the earliest examples that illustrates the use of the shoe was found in the form of cave paintings in the tombs of Ancient Egypt in 3500 BC.These paintings showed people across classes, from ruling king or queen, to the lowly worker wearing sandals usually woven from papyrus twine. 7 The earliest preserved sandal dates back to 1800 BC they were woven with straw; had a hole through which a strap could run between the first and the second toe attached at the sides of the flat-soled sandal. 8 5. Evidence of shoes were found in Otztal Alps near the Austrian - Italian border on a well preserved man, (Otzi, an Ice man) who was discovered in 3300 BC.9 He was wearing shoes made of rawhide bearskin woven together by plant fibers and stuffed with straw for insulation.

6. Paduka, the earliest surviving example in India dates back to 200 BC. Often worn by priests, it is India’s oldest form of footwear, an open design with sole raised above the sunbaked ground, made of wood, ivory, metal and sometimes camel leather.10 The Ramayana, a prominent ancient Indian epic in Hindu mythology (much like the Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita, the religious texts upon which the Hindu religion is based) written in the 10th century is based on the life of Lord Rama. The Ramayana illustrates the use 4 Luther S. Cressman, The Sandal and the Cave: The Indians of Oregon. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 2005 5 Barbara Demick, “ A Beauty that was Government’s Beast”, Published Nov. 19, 2010, Washingtonpost.com.http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2010/11/19/AR2010111907467.html 6 Kate Raviliou, “World’s Oldest Footwear Found”, National Geographic News, published June, 2010, https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/06/100609-worlds-oldest-leather-shoearmenia-science/ 7 Richard Balkwill, Clothes and Crafts in Ancient Egypt, (Milwaukee, WI: Gareth Stevens, 2000), 23 8 Shawcross, Shoes, 18 9 Ibid, 16 10 Ibid, 72

Shoe | 2

of the shoe as a pivotal moment in the journey of Lord Rama, highlighted in the excerpt below. From this we can infer that shoes have a long cultural and religious history in India. “Bharata took his brother's sandals and said, "I shall place these sandals on the throne as symbols of your authority. I shall rule only as regent in your place, and each day I shall put my offerings at the feet of my Lord.� 11 7. The Caligae, made from cow or ox hide, is a footwear with open toes and an upper with a lattice pattern were utilized by the roman legionary soldiers in 43 BC, the lace up pattern allowed the soldiers enough flexibility to place their bandaged, injured feet inside inside the protective outer covering of the shoe.12 1.1 Why wear shoes?

In some cultures, shoes were used as an indicator of style and civility by aristocracy and noblemen. While in others, shoes were viewed as a necessity to perform certain rites or rituals by priests and religious leaders. Were these compelling enough reason to adorn footwear?

In ancient India till date, feet have a strong social and religious significance, the ornamentation and decoration of the feet is still widely practised. As a woman, the ritual of colouring your feet with powders and spices is still sacred and auspicious. 13 With so much effort being put into drawing attention to the feet why cover them at all? So, the question remains, why use shoes? On closer inspection of the earliest preserved shoes, the design of the shoe when placed in the landscape within which the shoe was conceived. One can see, warm and dry conditions like that of Ancient Egypt leaned towards more open styles like the sandal. While cold and wet conditions like those found on Otzi the iceman often encased the whole foot. We know people travelled miles in search of food and lived nomadic lifestyles could it be safe to assume shoes were used to provide comfort and protection from the hazards of rough terrain, sparked by the most basic survival instinct, that of hunting and foraging? Could we then read into these two distinct design approaches to the shoe as evidence of footwear being made in order to protect the foot?

11 Jutta Jain, Feet and Footwear in Indian Culture, ( The Bata Shoe Museum, Toronto in association with map in publishing Pvt Ltd Ahmedabad, 2000), 82-83.

12 Lucy Pratt and Linda Woolley, Shoes (V&A Publications, 1999), 15.

13 Jutta Jain, Feet and Footwear in Indian Culture, 25.

Shoe | 3

Much like the Egyptian sandals, most of the earliest mentions of shoes indicate that they were constructed from locally sourced often perishable materials. The construction of the shoe from these materials meant the actual artifact did not survive, making it difficult to pinpoint the exact time period within which the shoe was conceived. Those artifacts that did survive seemed to stem from the period between 3800 BC to 3300 BC. What was happening during this period with regard to human evolution that suddenly prompted the use of the shoe?

1.2 The Birth of Civilization Looking at the time period between 3800 BC to 3300 BC we see the birth of the Mesopotamian Civilization (3500 BC), the Egyptian Civilization (3000 BC), the Indus Valley Civilization (2800 BC) and the Mayan Civilization (2000 BC) along with the advent of the copper age (4000 Bc - 2500 BC). Going by these dates as our main point of origin shoes were being utilized independently by different civilizations across the globe with close or overlapping time periods.When plotting the earliest mentions of the shoe, no one point of origin emerges as illustrated in the examples above. Although the domestication of plants and animals can be traced back to 9500 BC. It wasn’t until the advent of the bronze age (3000 BC) that agricultural practices intensified. In Japan, Yayoi period (200 BC), shoes were utilized as agricultural equipment more than a form of apparel, to elevate the feet, keeping them dry while working in the wet paddy fields. 14 Here we can see the beginnings of sedentism, the practise of living in one place for a long time. 15 If we look at the arguments put forward by Erik Trinkaus, an anthropologist and author of The Neandertals: Changing the Image of Mankind, he pinpoints the use of the shoe to 40,000 years ago where he attributes the change in bone structure of the foot due to the invention of shoes. The human foot had evolved from flat and broad feet with thick toes that could have endured more of the harsh terrain to thinner feet with “wimpy” toes. Trinkaus explains that the size of bone is not set in stone but is shaped by mechanical stress it endures. Trinkaus’s findings challenges our theory of shoes being invented to protect the feet from the harsh terrain. Rather we can now use his theory to hold the shoe responsible for shaping these “wimpy” 14 Riello and McNeil, Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers, (Oxford: Berg Oxford International Publishers Ltd.,2006)174 15 Oxford English Dictionary, n. 1.

Shoe | 4

toes and making them vulnerable to physical stress. The beginning of sedentarism, agricultural advancement and progress in animal rearing makes hunting and gathering an obsolete practice further disproving the need to protect the already well structured foot.16 Susan Cachel, anthropologist and author of Primate and Human Evolution states that with the birth of civilization, the smaller foot bones resulted from the lack of physical activity. Human beings were walking less as they no longer needed to rely on hunting to survive.17 Here the correlation between the birth of civilization and the invention of the shoe seems to outrank the other theories in being the most likely explanation for the widespread use of the shoe. Or is this just another example of the which came first, the chicken or the egg, civilization or the shoe?

1.3 How were shoes made?

As established in the prior section shoes were made using the resources readily available within the locality, usually by shoemakers. The profession of a shoemaker, their relevance and position within society differed across cultures. In Europe, shoemakers were viewed as respected members of society. They were a recurring character in most stories depicting both urban - rural life. However, in eastern civilizations like Japan and India although most people wore shoes and needed a shoemaker, the profession was associated with uncleanliness, as a concept of purity existed that related those in close contact with the dirt on the ground and working with animal leather to be unclean. 18 2.0 Emergence of broad themes: When tracing the history of innovation of footwear a set number of recurring themes emerged cross – culturally that fed into the form, function and utility of the shoe across the globe. When clustering similar uses, perception and technology advancements of the shoe, three broad sets/ categories took form. Each of these categories listed below can be viewed as a lens within which to study the shoe.

16 Koerth Baker. "First Shoes Worn 40,000 Years Ago", Published June 5 , 2008, Livescience.com.https://www.livescience.com/4964-shoes-worn-40-000-years.html 17 Ibid.

18 Giorgio Riello and Peter McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers, (Oxford: Berg Oxford International Publishers Ltd.,2006), 172-175.

Shoe | 5

2.1 CULTURE -

Gender

-

Religion and Morality

-

Superstition The Oxford dictionary defines culture as the customary beliefs, social forms

and material traits of a racial, religious or social group; also the characteristic features of everyday existence (such as diversions or a way of life) shared by people in a place or time. When looking at how footwear was adopted across cultures it becomes evident that those styles widely adopted by a certain set of people, integrated well with their norms and practices. In Japan, shoes were introduced through Chinese and Korean people, yet only the slip – on form of footwear was adopted by the japanese aristocrats as the practice of removing the shoe when entering a household or establishment was integral and incorporated into architecture and activities.19 Outdoor footwear could never be worn indoors as it would disturb the purity of house, bringing in the pollution from outside. Here a prevalent concept of purity revolved around the idea of being lifted off the ground.

Not coming into contact with the source of uncleanliness was a necessary condition for civilized living and those objects that did had no place in a Japanese home characterised by uncommon neatness.20 Gender Gender role within society contributed heavily to the form of shoes embraced by both sexes. Males were given a higher and more powerful status in society across various cultures while women were controlled quite literally through the heels of their shoes often having to embrace impractical higher heels to limit their mobility, tying them to the house.21 Women were portrayed as objects of sexual pleasure; a certain height of the heel in European countries indicated a sex related profession.22 The restriction of the use the shoe with Japanese prostitutes was used 19 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers, (Oxford: Berg Oxford International Publishers Ltd.,2006)161.

20 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers, (Oxford: Berg Oxford International Publishers Ltd.,2006) 163.

21 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers, (Oxford: Berg Oxford International Publishers Ltd.,2006)115.

22 Ibid, 76-79

Shoe | 6

to indicate sexual readiness as bare feet were considered the highest form of intimacy.23 The Chinese practice of foot binding, a painful cultural practice where the toes of women were crushed to fit into shoes to the span of three inches, that chinese society considered beautiful and ladylike.24 The repeated use of Monosandalism in Ancient Greece, was the repeated use a woman with only one shoe on, to indicate her sexual readiness as immortalised by the statue of Goddess Nike adjusting her sandal, drawing attention to shape her body took underneath her clothing as shown below (Fig.1.1 pg.18).25 Although history shows us there were no separate shoes designed for women until 13th century, where with the advent of paving and the increased visibility of footwear. There was a large influence of the male gaze that shaped female footwear thereafter. 26 Shoes were used to protect the virtue of women and the household they represented. Higher heels, a symbol of power and status made it difficult for women to walk longer distances, tying them to their homes. While men began to represent households in the public sphere.

Manhood began to be characterised by strength, emoted through more somber, functional and conservative design. These thoughts were enforced then by the catholic church and led to the “great renunciation of flamboyance” in the late 18th century where frills and fancies were reserved for women and considered to be of feminine nature27. Men that did embrace these styles were ostracized and thought to be feminine, popularly referred to as fops or the English macaroni. 28 The french King Louis XIV challenged this perception with the ‘notoriously undemocratic red heel’ fancifully embroidered with ostentatious buckle (Fig.1.2 pg.18). Footwear, posture and gait became the points of distinction between the two genders.

Throughout history until present day we see this continuous pressure of the male gaze, shaping the form of footwear for women and with the routinization of this impractical form of footwear by society we continue to reinforce this form as essential to ladylike appearance. Here footwear symbolizes over and above all else, power and control of men over women.

23 Ibid, 176 24 Ibid, 198 25 Ibid, 46 26 Lucy Pratt and Linda Woolley, Shoes (V&A Publications, 1999), 1-44.

27 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers, (Oxford: Berg Oxford International Publishers Ltd.,2006) 101 28 Ibid, 103

Shoe | 7

Morality and Religion Legislation and religious dogma greatly affected the shoes embraced by different cultures. Those countries largely influenced by religious leaders had to adopt styles of footwear that were recognized as virtuous and in keeping with their faith. In England, when participating in public life certain shoe styles was deemed blasphemous and those embracing them were condemned or reprimanded by the catholic church.29 A certain kind of shoe or height of heel on a women was a direct representation of her virtue and upbringing. A heel that stretched past a certain height was used to differentiate between a lady and a courtesan. Also “constrained mobility” was put into practice to prevent women from interacting with the outside world. Shoes also indicated the degree to which the government and legislators had influence over their people. In 15th century Venice, the Venetian Major council passed laws regulating the height of the Zuccoli, a variation of the chopine popularly adorned by women citing the large number of abortions resulting in from the falls of pregnant women. The Serenissima or most serene republic of Venice was considered to be a perfectly balanced government functioning independently of external influences like the catholic church, which could be one reason why it took longer to regulate the height of the chopine than its neighbouring Italy. 30 Superstition Recognition of shoes as an ancient artifact allow it to be considered in more ways than one, often beyond its intended function or reasoning. So far, we have demonstrated how shoes were used as a representation of gender, morality and religion and as we move forward we illustrate the use of the shoe to indicate social status, class, gender and trade but shoes also signify a power quite independent of any wearer. This power can play an important part in many people’s lives integrated as into belief systems in the form of superstitions surrounding the shoe. In Morocco, it is believed that if a man finds a slipper on the road he’ll marry soon. In Ireland, it is tempting fate to wear new shoes at a funeral. He is warned the next time he wears them, it will be his own funeral. In ancient Egypt, the cure for headache was to inhale the smoke of burning sandals. In China, boys would often wear shoes with 29 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers,(Oxford: Berg Oxford International Publishers Ltd.,2006)58 30 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers,(Oxford: Berg Oxford International Publishers Ltd.,2006, 82

Shoe | 8

tiger faces on them to ward off evil spirits and keep the wearer safe. In Latin America, there is a tradition called Quinceanera, a celebration of girls fifteenth birthday where the father removes her flat shoes in exchange for high heels representing the transition to adulthood.31 2.2 ECONOMY -

Socio - Economic Class

-

Trade

Socio - Economic Class The social standing or class of an individual or group was exemplified through the use of the shoe or lack of it. In Japan, members of the lower caste often outcasts were only allowed to wear sandals made of straw, the Seta. Up until 1960’s Settas were still used to identify the member of the lower class. 32 The Japanese performed certain practices regarding footwear. When a person from a lowly caste crossed paths with a person from the upper class, the former takes off his shoes and stands with his feet planted firmly on the ground till the latter passes.

When visits were made to the emperor in his palace, visitors were accompanied by a servant and a shoe carrier, consider to be of lower status. 33 Just like the settas, different cultures used shoes as a symbol of socioeconomic status and restrictions were placed on the kinds of shoes worn by different classes. In Yorubaland, present day Nigeria, shoes were not worn by common people and only by important men.

When the Oba, religious leader of the tribe wore clogs he was perceived to be symbolically walking on a dais.34 In 15th century Italy, the length of shoe-toes were used to distinguish the rich from the poor. Laws were enforced that only allowed the upper class to use the long toe shoes.

This led to a wide variety of innovations within classes across cultures. While wealth and status fuelled those of the higher class, durability and limited access to resources fuelled innovation within the lower socio – economic classes. An increase in trade in England led to growth in middle class prosperity led them to spend more 31 Shawcross, Shoes, 80 32 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers, (Oxford: Berg Oxford International Publishers Ltd.,2006)173 33 Ibid, 171 34 Ibid, 191

Shoe | 9

on clothing and shoes. They developed different motions of walking, dancing and sitting down at events to reveal their fine shoes underneath thus empowering their socioeconomic status.35 Trade As the opportunity to travel greater distance increased, the global influence was highly visible on shoe styles. There was a complete change in styles as France took over the entire footwear market with their designs. The export and import increased rapidly and a large number people started investing in trading activities. It gave rise to factories and warehouses where many shoemakers came together in order to sell their styles across the world. Trade cards were circulated and shoe labels were invented for global recognition and gave rise to designer labels. After a foreign shoe was introduced into a new society, it was localized and adapted to the local culture and environment.36 2.3 TECHNOLOGY -

Mobility

-

Materials

Mobility Access to transport usually available to the upper class allowed them the luxury of incorporating finer materials in their shoes. During the first half of the 18th century, England was plagued with a terrible roads lined with filth, muck and mud.

The dismal conditions of the streets made walking difficult and the act of walking for pleasure was unheard of. Walking was reserved for the lower classes. The practice of paving roads greatly transformed the act of walking and allowed people to walk longer distances with ease at leisure. This changed public life, with more people out on the streets, the wealthy and lowly crossed paths and the distinction between their shoes was now made more pronounced. The priority originally emphasized on keeping the feet off the dirt on the ground was now directed at the more functional and physical act of walking. In the army, shoes had to be developed around the act

35 Pratt and Woolley, Shoes, 34 36 Shawcross, Shoes, 78

Shoe | 10

of marching where emphasis was placed on rhythm and motion. 37 Material / Resources Resources and materials are key elements of shoe innovation. In Yorubaland, “foreign” clogs indigenized to reflect the needs of the local climate and rainforest terrain. The patako, about six inches high were made from hard barks, mahogany, cedar from surrounding rainforests.38 Leather, silk, velvet, gold-silver threads were popular choices for royals of England who had the luxury to travel by horse drawn carriages. The type of leather used for shoe can also help one distinguish the class of a person. In England with horsehide reserved for the rich and oxhide or cowhide were reserved for the poor. 39 2.4 CONFLICT -

War

-

Revolution

Wars During the British Civil war, there was an urgent demand for a large quantity of shoes to protect the soldier’s feet from injury, rugged terrain and diseases.

Importance was placed on the mobility of these large masses of people as the success of the war depended on it. The marching style adopted by soldiers to enable military leaders to calculate the time, pace and distance covered was characteristically different from that of the civilians.40 Rhythm and weight was now placed on the heel and this challenged the conventional method of shoe making.

The American Civil war Wars catalysed major innovation in the shoe manufacturing industry where thousands of boots were produced on a limited timeline, efforts were now redirected towards creating efficiency within the manufacturing process, moving from a hand driven cottage industry to that of a mechanized central unit.

The Goodyear method, Mckay sole sewing machine revolutionized the shoe 37 Ibid, 80 38 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers,(Oxford: Berg Oxford International Publishers Ltd.,2006) 187 39 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers,(Oxford: Berg Oxford International Publishers Ltd.,2006), 187 40 Ibid 117

Shoe | 11

production method. As the war came close, shoemakers realised the difference between the left and right foot but due to pressure of demand mass-production of both shoes were made using the the same pattern for both feet, it wasn’t until 1850 that there was a separate shoe designed for the left and right foot. 41 Wars also influenced the styles of footwear adopted by the majority of the population. In the beginning of 17th century England, velvet was a popular material for shoes, but styles began to change during mid-century, when leather started gaining popularity. The European dressing style became less extravagant and started moving towards a more minimalistic style with greater refinement. It was no coincidence that this move came when men’s footwear was dominated by military influences during Civil War of 1642. Boots originally designed for military superiors were now very popular and widely adopted.42 Revolution French Revolution of 1789 criticised all types of impractical styles to offer a simplistic and naturalistic lifestyle. It brought a swift change in women’s clothing and shoes with more flat-soled styles and very few details. The Artois buckle trend which was considered elegant and stylish during 1770s was rejected immediately and opened doors for many new designs. Women started embracing boots which were similar to men’s in order to portray equality. 43 By the mid 18th century, the world was moving towards an industrial age and the rate of change accelerated with many technical developments. Upper class and middle class started investing in emerging industries and opened a market for luxury goods. More people started traveling and footwear had global influence. Industrial revolution began the biggest change agent in the footwear industry not only bought a lot machinery to the Britain, but also had an impact on the development of better roads and railway networks which made it easier for distribution of footwear across the country. 44 3.0 Types of Diffusion of Innovation As established in the previous section it is evident that this broad confluence of factors affected the rate of adoption of footwear across societies and cultures 41 Shawcross, Shoes, 92 42 Shawcross, Shoes, 54 43 Ibid, 76 44 Ibid, 95

Shoe | 12

around the world. Therefore these insights were analyzed within six types of diffusion (Rogers,1995) to synthesize emerging trends. 45 The four broad themes fit into the six categories of diffusion of an innovation (Rogers, 1995) creating a hierarchy of the most the influential contenders.

3.1 Rate of Adoption Religion, Culture, Gender, Identity, Socio-Economic Class, Wars, Revolution, Superstitions were all factors that affected the rate of adoption of a particular shoe within a particular society. The largest correlation existed between the compatibility of the shoe and the cultural fabric of that society. Although Japan was introduced to the concept of the shoe in the 4th century, it only adopted the slip – on style that allowed them to remove their shoes easily. In Africa, The Yoruba were exposed to shoes through European and North African trade but had strong tradition of going barefoot. In wasn’t until the Oba, the head of the tribe, adopted the shoe that the rest of the tribe did. Even then, the shoe was indigenized to the local environment, made with material from the local forest and decorated with beads, the embellishment signifying respect and importance.

3.2 Opinion Leaders The success and failure of the diffusion of an innovation is dependent on the opinion leader and his/ her relationship with innovation and change agent. The opinion leaders are characterized as having a higher level of literacy, commitment to innovativeness and usually belong to a higher class. During the 15th century, the rich and royals had authority and access to luxurious textiles and other expensive resources to experiment with style. The biggest and widely known example of an opinion leader is King Louis XIV as previously mentioned The red heel was widely accepted and became so popular that even today it is referred as ‘The Louis Heel’46 The red morocco leather panel attached on the heel signify power, sophistication, and put the royals on a pedestal above the It rapidly spread across England and still echoes today as many designers try to replicate this style. Opinion leaders today exists as celebrities from different spheres of work, each making their own 45 E.M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovation (The Free Press, New York, 1995) 46 Shawcross, Shoes, 60

Shoe | 13

trends visible. In 19th century America, women embraced the french slipper style footwear as they considered the french fashion palate more refined and viewed them as opinion leaders in footwear design. These thin slippers mainly made from silk or wool provided little or no protection from the cold and harsh ground making walking excruciatingly painful.47 3.3 Innovativeness Having a great idea is simply not enough. It is how ideas are implemented that counts in the long run. A great idea requires adequate resources and commitment but most of all a compelling force to implement them. Many innovations have shaped the shoes we wear today. A prominent innovation came from the mid 1800s, when Charles Goodyear invented Indian rubber. In 1875 he invented a sewing machine to produce welt and turn shoe, an invention that revolutionized the whole footwear industry by enabling shoes to be created specifically for the left and right feet. As textile was an expensive commodity, footwear was not accessible to everyone. With an aim to produce fashionable footwear for masses, 1700s England saw the practise of selling soles and uppers of a shoe separately.48 As strange it may sound, the innovative idea still holds relevant.

This enabled people to spend within budget constraints while keeping updated with latest fashion trends. As an unpredictable outcome, this led to saving shoe waste and made shoe available to all members of the society, moving towards equality.

Innovativeness has strong connections with technological advancements and material resources, both being prominent factors in shaping the next innovation within this industry.

3.4 Consequences of Innovation In 1860 America, the move from cottage industries to centralized units mean’t mass production of shoes at a cheaper rate. The low price of the shoe wasn’t enough to make consumers buy more. In all fairness, why would they buy the same thing twice? Manufacturers of shoes began to think up ways to sell their products and soon developed a variety of styles for a variety of occasions to

47 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers, 142 48 Pratt and Woolley, Shoes, 48

Shoe | 14

increase the consumption of shoes.49 Consumers mostly women were made to believe each shoe from the boot to the slipper served a nuanced function and that they had to possess not one but both. Shoe were soon made to suit each individual activity. The network of influence of the manufacturer extended beyond retailers they supplied to fashion magazine editors as well. Godey’s a popular magazine began to promote these different styles ( Fig.3.pg.18) It soon became a widely accepted belief that you can never have own too many shoes, a belief that still exists today.

3.5 Who interacts with Whom Often the rate of adoption of an innovation is influenced by the bearer of the knowledge of information related to the innovation. A change agent’s ability to successfully integrate the new is dependant on members of society he shared this information with and their ties within the community. With the instruction of paved roads and increased mobility a new dynamic of “public life” was now made visible. A barrier no longer existed between the elite who remained indoors and the members of the public who remained outdoors and these greatly affected the shoe they showcased to members of the public.50 A new sense of normal, civil society was created where representation of the name of the household was crucial and those adopting more extravagant styles outside the norm were criticized.

4.0 Models for the future 4.1 Adaptive reuse One of the emergent trends established in the prior section, places importance on the access to materials and resources to enable further innovation within the shoe industry. With our resources hitting a point of depletion, is there going to be a radical change in the way we design our shoes and/ or what we design them with? Have we as a civilization reached a tipping point, where we must rethink our exhaustive production methods and it’s strain on the environment. What would be the nature of the resources available to us in the future. Can shoes compost? What is the role of adaptive reuse within these production methods.

Could we learn from 1700’s England where the practise of selling soles and uppers 49 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers, 152 50 Riello and McNeil , Shoes : A History from Sandals to Sneakers, 98

Shoe | 15

of a shoe separately, allowed one to customize their footwear and conveniently repair damages, reducing the overall waste produced by discarding damaged and worn out shoes? Are we now reaching a point where we must question global cultural amalgamation and its effect on routinization of adopted materials and styles. Specifically with a transition from measurements to sizes and cottage industries to centralized factories. Are we now in hindsight, understanding the importance of staying local?

By utilising the organic waste produced we can eliminate a huge part of trash produced each day while at the same time making biodegradable footwear. Organic waste consists of fruit peels, dried leaves, shells, algae, fish skin and countless more resources. Processing these, separate shoe sole and top can be designed and manufactured. This would further do two things: Firstly, making customization affordable for all allowing people to keep up with new trends, also making shoe repair cost effective and secondly, ease of transportation in delivery process, while travelling and also in day to day life.

4.2 Transportation and Mobility The approach to shoe making transformed with the advent of paving roads.

The act of walking was now made easier and could be approached as leisure.

Emphasis was now placed on the functionality which informed the form of the shoe.

How does further advancement in transportation affect the innovation in footwear?

What role would shoes play in a hyperloop systems, or commercial space travel?

More so, what would the future of the act of walking in itself look like? Would we still place emphasis on our feet?

4.3 Equality and inclusivity within shoe design Our brief immersion in the history of the appropriation of footwear, has shown us the various ways in which footwear is used as an identifying marker both as a literal representation of gender and also as a tool to engage in expressing satisfaction or dissatisfaction with regard to gender politics. Footwear also ties strongly to class and society with norms surrounding civility and culture. We are now facing radical revolutions of thought that challenge the shape and function of the shoe being dominated by the male gaze. With a large uprising of the feminist

Shoe | 16

movement ( Me too, Time’s up)51, a battle for legalization of LGBTQ rights, and an acknowledgment of our capitalist society ( white sneaker culture), to what extent will shoes be as a form of protest/ pacification in our evolving society?

5.0 Overadoption “Overadoption is the adoption of an innovation by an individual when experts feel that he or she should reject. Overadoption occurs because of insufficient knowledge about the new idea on the part of the adopter, an inability to predict the innovation's consequences and/or the status conferring aspect of a new idea.

Certain individuals have such a penchant for anything new that they occasionally appear to be suckers for change. They adopt when they shouldn't.” 52 1. Human Evolution: If we did decide to abandon our shoes and return to roaming barefoot, would our feet readapt to the terrain? Could our feet sustain the mechanical stress from the ground allowing our bones to be retake it’s previous form?

2. Consumer mentality:We now have different shoes to perform different functions and sport different shoes for different occasions. Shoes are worn less for their protective use and more as symbol of status. The research from this paper ( see section 3.4) highlights the impact of mass production on prices and affordability along the manipulation of media on consumers buying choices. Would a new outlook on adaptive reuse contribute to narrowing our consumption?

3. When questioning equality and inclusivity within shoe design. Not much has changed regarding gender norms. In corporate America, distinct gender distinctions are made between men and womens shoes. Universally, those men who embrace more feminine styles and women that embrace more somber styles reserved for men are still fighting the larger social norms, continuing to be frowned upon, often these individuals to the fringes of society.

So, the question still remains. With all the information considered. Do we really 51 Lockett, Dee. "Time's Up Has Already Raised $20 Million, Helped Over 1,000 People". Vulture.

Retrieved 2018-02-12.

52 Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. (The Free Press, New York,1995)

Shoe | 17

need shoes?

Fig.3. Godey’s lady’s book 1864 (Jan-Jun)

Fig.1 The winged Goddess Nike, decoration on parapet surrounding the Temple of Athena, 410 BC

Fig.2 Portrait of King Louis XIV, 1701

Bibliography

Hardy, Tom, Innovation and Chaos, Vol.5 No.3 (Design Management Journal: 1994)

Shoe | 18

Jain, Jutta. Feet and Footwear in Indian Culture, ( The Bata Shoe Museum, Toronto in association with mapin publishing Pvt Ltd Ahmedabad, 2000) Knight, Philip, Shoe Dog: A memoir by the creator of Nike, (SCRIBNER: New York, 2016) Pratt, Lucy and Woolley, Linda, Shoes, (V&A Publications, 1999) Riello, Giorgio and Mcneil Peter, Shoes: A history from sandals to sneakers, (Berg: Oxford London Press, 2010) Rogers, E.M. Diffusion of Innovation (The Free Press, New York, 1995), 1-311 Schumpeter, Joseph A., Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, (Routledge: London and New York, 2003), 81-109.

Schumpeter, Joseph A., The Explanation of Business Cycle, No.21, (Economica: Dec. 1927), 286-311 Shawcross, Rebecca, Shoes-An Illustrated History, (Bloomsbury, 2014) Whyte, Jennifer, Evolutionary Theories and Design Practices, Vol.23, No.2 (MIT, 2007), 46-54 Wilson, Eunice, A History of Shoe Fashion, (Pitman Publishing: London, 1969)