A bi-AnnuAl neA publicAtion issue three: nov/dec 2012
E X P LO R I N G H U M A N I T Y ’S E N V I R O N M E N T NEw EcONOMIcS: REdEfINING OUR ENVIRONMENT? ConneCting environment and publiC health PRE-EMPTING PANdEMIcS the war on dengue cHRISTcHURcH IN cRISIS: LESSONS fROM THE NEw ZEALANd EARTHqUAkE a day on the front line of publiC health GLObAL PERSPEcTIVES ON AIR qUALITY hong Kong’s sCourge of smog PROMOTING SUSTAINAbLE LIfESTYLES THROUGH RESOURcE EffIcIENcY inCentivising behavioural Change PSYcHOLOGY fOR A bETTER wORLd engaging the publiC to maKe a differenCe cASE STUdY: THE cOMPANY MAkING SINGAPORE A GREENER PLAcE
SAFEGUARDING WELLBEING better understanding the environmental dimensions
PLUS combAting ecologicAl public heAlth threAts – whAt you need to know
NotE FRom thE EDItoRIAL tEAm U
rban quality of life is more than just a competitive aspect of the modern city. Thoughtful planning for the wellbeing of city dwellers marks the difference between an upwards trajectory to health and prosperity or devolution into urban slum. As urbanisation continues, it is a defining factor that affects the lives of ever increasing numbers around the world. For many rapidly-growing cities, there is the temptation to prioritise development at all costs; to quickly establish industry for economic growth and job creation. Inevitable pitfalls emerge: pollution, degradation of natural resources and landscape, reduced mobility, health problems. This potent mix can lock cycles of poverty and civil unrest into the fabric of a city, leaving residents worse off. In this issue of ENVISION, we examine the diverse approaches to wellbeing and notions of growth. Against the backdrop of global economic imperatives, what emphasis should the living environment receive in the context of urban development? Can a healthy environment serve as a positive economic catalyst? There is a direct correlation between environmental quality, and human health and overall quality of life, yet this relationship is often overlooked. Understanding these development trade-offs and integrating economic, environmental, and social objectives can enable better decision making. This difficult lesson was learnt early in Singapore. In an intimate look back with ENVISION, former Commissioner of Public Health Daniel Wang retraces the vital decisions that lead to the city-state’s success, as well as outlining the environmental challenges ahead. Around the world those challenges range from the relatively mundane, such as littering, to the major, like air quality. Yet each can have major implications for the liveability of cities, affecting both the quality of life and the economic output of its residents. From a variety of practitioner perspectives, ENVISION looks at what works for those creating and maintaining urban liveability. Of course the required change cannot come from government alone. The most effective way to improve any environment is to engage those people who call it home. So how can citizens become more involved in making their cities liveable? In this edition, we continue seeking expert insights on behavioural psychology and incentivising behavioural change from the latest research. Much of this research is globally applicable, but each region faces its own unique challenges. One particular environmental threat to human wellbeing in tropical areas is dengue fever. Attacking the disease that claims thousands of lives and sickens countless others each year is no small task. Its vector is difficult to stamp out: the mosquitos effectively reproduce in the same urban environs as their victims. We examine the pioneering technology and techniques to improve environmental public health outcomes. Clearly the challenges we face are diverse, but solutions can more easily be found when we examine aspects of wellbeing in-depth: to understand how environmental factors and economics collide, how things like public health and wellbeing can be affected by environment, how urban areas stand to benefit by promoting liveability, and what it takes to find equilibrium between these factors. Understanding this intricate landscape will enable us to become better prepared. Because ready or not, here comes the future.
issue 3
01
Publisher national environment agency (nea) 40 scotts road environment building #19-00 singapore 228231 cEO andrew tan Editorial committee chair ong eng Kian Editorial committee members ram bhaskar, dulcie Chan, Cheong hock lai, Chua yew peng, fong peng Keong, dr ng lee Ching, ong seng eng, tai Ji Choong Editorial lead Chris tobias Special thanks to: susan Chong, rebecca dell, fanny demassieux, dr niki harré, dr peter horby, dr alistair humphrey, Carrie macdougall, prof dirk pfeiffer, bhavani prakash, hamish sandison, dr gavin smith, will thomas, daniel wang, daniel williams NEA contributors and assistance Kwek Keng Chuan, thuraindan g, agnes hoe, toh wee Khiang, sasha lawrence, dr Christina liew, tsui Ka lok, deng lu, nelvin ng, lim yu rong, esther tan, Kt vishnu MEwR assistance leon lim Comments and opinions made by parties interviewed by ENVISION magazine do not necessarily reflect the views or policy of the national environment agency (nea) nor the singapore government. while every effort is made to verify all information, the nea bears no responsibility for the accuracy of content from external parties, unintentional errors or omissions all materials remain copyright of the nea and no reproduction is permitted without written authorisation. ENVISION magazine is printed on environmentally friendly paper stock. for feedback, comments and contributions, please email chris_tobias@nea.gov.sg issn 2251-3922 produced and designed by:
visit us on switch.sg.sg
02
25 GLObAL bRIEfING 05 New Economics: Redefining Our Environment? A global shift to redefine progress is underway, but is there a happy ending?
20 The war on dengue Technology and international teamwork to combat a disease affecting 50 million people each year
dEVELOPING A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT 10 connecting Environment and Public Health Former Commissioner of Public Health Daniel Wang looks back on Singapore’s structured approach to creating wellbeing
25 United Against the disease Dengue fever doesn’t respect borders, countries must collaborate to fight the illness and control outbreaks
MANAGING EcOLOGIcAL PUbLIc HEALTH RISkS 16 Pre-empting pandemics Many potentially lethal virsuses have environmental origins
dISASTERS ANd ENVIRONMENTAL PUbLIc HEALTH 28 christchurch in crisis: environmental public health lessons from the earthquake zone How did their actions avert further tragedies and influence planning for future emergencies?
Contents
38 20 05 28 A dAY IN THE LIfE 34 The front Lines Meet the people that safeguard the city-state’s urban environment UP IN THE AIR 38 20/20 Vision Suite of measures announced to achieve higher national standards by 2020 41 Global Perspective on Air quality Industry veteran Carrie MacDougall shares her international assessment of measures to boost air quality 45 Hong kong’s Scourge of Smog Professor Wong Tze Wai and the struggle to breathe easily ENAbLING LIVEAbILITY 46 Promoting Sustainable Lifestyles Through Resource Efficiency A UN report calls for urgent action to curb consumption and pollution
bEHAVIOURAL INSIGHTS 50 The Power of Unintended Incentives The power of persuasion? 52 Psychology for a better world Could community building be a route to solving environmental problems? 55 A different Route to change Groundbreaking research from the UK on sparking changes in behaviour INNOVATION IN AcTION 58 Thinking Outside the box The highly awarded CSR leader turns 10, doubles growth and moves to new green digs. In a candid and exclusive interview, Greenpac’s CEO showcases its new facilities and reveals what’s next
46 PARTING SHOT 62 food crisis or urban opportunity? Why solving food and waste problems are two sides of the same coin OPPORTUNITIES 64 Looking for a change? Job opportunities in environmental public health issue 3
03
read envision on your tablet nea launched ENVISION magazine because it believes informed discussions are crucial for achieving a cleaner, healthier and more beautiful world. it’s now easier than ever to read compelling articles on environmental management by accessing its tablet-friendly edition. simply visit www. nea.gov.sg or scan the Qr codes found below for the latest government and industry news and perspectives, or see http://tinyurl.com/ b85h8xs to download a pdf version.
issue one of envision focuses on waste management and resource recovery. half of the world’s population now lives in cities and, with many facing looming challenges, closing waste, energy and water loops could be a key defining challenge for municipal authorities and city planners.
issue two focuses on rio+20, which highlights many aspects of sustainable development. feature topics include integrated environmental master planning in tianjin eco-City, the foundations of good environmental policy and governance and research into waste management in singapore.
global briefing
NEW EcoNomIcS: REDEFINING oUR ENvIRoNmENt?
globally, a shift is underway to redefine notions of progress. Countries grappling with a number of complex and interrelated challenges are trying to restrike a balance between environmental, economic and social agendas. like never before, humanity’s sustainability has been called into question
E
conomically, growth is being reconsidered from a number of vantage points. For several billion people in poverty, economic development has not yet delivered what it promised. Environmentally, biodiversity and many ecosystems are in serious decline, threatening civilisation’s future as a result. Industry is into the red zone for a variety of raw materials necessary for supply chains. Financially, a number of systemic problems are shaking social stability and national security in many regions of the world. There are interlinks between these issues, and with that realisation comes a pause for reflection.
Given the situation, it is understandable why many are reconsidering models of perpetual growth and measures such as GDP. With ample international activity and debate underway, the frameworks and metrics needed to help guide a shift towards a new paradigm are coming into focus. But will these new tools really deliver progress on the global challenges facing humanity? Limits of growth, GdP Given humanity’s consumption and present growth rates, estimates vary that the decades ahead would require an additional two to three planets’ worth of natural resources to
keep pace. With this realisation – and with existing problems such as waste, pollution and air quality issues already causing serious problems for humans – many thought leaders are pushing for a shift to new frameworks for development, and better measures to help track progress along the way. Before exploring the frameworks and metrics, however, it makes sense to understand the drawbacks of GDP. Imagine that, out of the blue, disaster strikes: a tsunami caused by a major undersea earthquake inundates your city, causing much environmental destruction and chaos for its occupants. Economically, is this a good thing?
05
global briefing
Surprisingly, if one views it strictly through the lens of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), then possibly yes. While an initial disaster has serious economic impacts, in the medium to longer term, economic activity due to all the repair and restoration work could potentially increase GDP; in some ways, such a disaster could have the effect of an unintended economic stimulus package. But this uptick isn’t likely to tell the whole story: while the longer term economic bump might look positive, GDP takes nothing into account of the misery, suffering, diminished quality of life, cultural dislocation or environmental destruction caused by a disaster. Even under “normal” circumstances, serious sustainability issues could suffer from lack of attention or become masked as indicators such as GDP remain positive. Without qualitative factors, an imbalanced progress report can result. According to the creator of GDP, American Nobel Prize-winning economist Simon Kuznets, the measure was not intended to assess overall national wellbeing. Called on by US policymakers, Kuznets created GDP in order to better enable economic planning and to help battle the Great Depression. He felt GDP fell short in determining “between quantity and quality of growth, between costs and returns, and between the short and long run. Goals for more growth should specify more growth of what and for what.” Yet in the decades since the Great Depression, it has become in many ways the de facto standard of progress. Systemic problems in the years following the 2008 financial crisis are unlikely to be resolved in the short term, and in many places have resulted in citizen unrest. Some leaders, recognising the complexity of these global issues and the reality that there is no easy turnaround, have begun shifting the discussion from economic indicators and to quality of life measures – in some cases out of political expediency. Perhaps the most telling of shifting sentiments, as noted recently by Nanyang Technical University’s Adrian WJ Kuah, was this: on 6 August 2012, Ben Bernake, Chairman of the US Federal Reserve Board, in a speech to the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth, said that if the main goal of economics is to understand and promote wellbeing, then measurements must surely encompass indicators of wellbeing and its determinants. He also remarked that the failure of conventional economic indicators, including GDP, did not meaningfully convey the
06
South Korean President Lee Myung-Bak delivers a speech at an inaugural meeting and launch of the Global Green Growth Institute in 2012
trauma that the recent economic crisis has had on individuals families and societies. But even with increasing consensus, how can the notion of wellbeing be captured, both in terms of economic systems as well as their measures? How can environmental and social outcomes be better taken into account? The New Economics In many countries, interest is building in alternative and complementary measures to GDP. A number of so-called “New Economics” concepts have emerged in recent years to challenge traditional growth models. Among them are several proposed frameworks that could steer humanity’s future, including Green Economy, Green Growth, Sustainable Development, Blue Economy (see article in ENVISION Issue 2),
and De-Growth. Several sets of indicators that could aid in planning and measurement include Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI), Genuine Savings, Green GDP, Gross National Happiness (GNH), Happy Planet Index, and, most recently, the Inclusive Wealth Index (IWI) [see box for more details on each]. All of these concepts highlight complements to or refinements of GDP and, with the exception of De-Growth, most aren’t especially radical. Green growth: paradigm shift or mere buzzwords? According to the recent Life Beyond Growth report released by Japan’s Institute for Studies in Happiness, Economy, and Society earlier in 2012, a green growth economic model seems to be gaining significant traction. Green growth, coupled with happiness indicators tailored to the specific
framEworks dE-GROwTH
Blue Economy
mEtrics
Sustainable Development
Gross National Happiness
Green Economy
Happy Planet Index
Green Growth
Genuine Progress Indicators
GROwTH AS USUAL
Genuine Savings
Green GDP
Inclusive Wealth Index the spectrum of alternative economic frameworks and indicators, in conceptual terms, from radical (de-growth) to mainstream (growth as usual). in practice, the difference between these concepts and their definitions can often be quite blurry. adapted from 2012 life beyond growth report, ishes
GDP
circumstances of countries, the report indicates, is likely to emerge as the default standard in years ahead. The notion of green growth basically means decoupling economic activities from environmental and material consumption while shifting the focus of outputs to meeting human needs. Originally put forward by the consultancy McKinsey & Company and championed by the likes of World Business Council for Sustainable Development, among others, it has so far proven palatable to industry. As a top-down approach, it has garnished support of the UN and governments, serving as an acceptable common denominator for many alternative economic views. Green growth also highlights the opportunities to help alleviate the plight of the poor and factor them into policy planning and implementation. South Korea has become one national case study, wagering billions of dollars’ worth of economic policy and incentives towards furthering a green growth agenda. Critics say that, however green it might be in theory, ultimately it is still growth in an era where constraints are already being felt. While green growth may have the best of intentions, companies and countries that are geared for growth of any kind still run up against the finite boundaries of resources and ecosystems, however intelligently they might be used and justified. There is the pressing danger that a green growth paradigm may not deliver the global shift to effectively solve environmental challenges like climate change. It could become a sort of collective delusion rather than genuine solution at a time when it is most needed. Still, compared to business as usual with unchecked growth, it does offer some brighter prospects.
not be prudent in the long term, or that what makes one demographic happy might cause another to be utterly miserable. Where GDP – rightly or wrongly – has been a blanket measure increasingly applied across cultures and national contexts since the Bretton Woods Conference of 1944, measuring happiness requires significant custom tailoring to local circumstances. Accordingly, happiness is not something that is likely to be easily comparable between countries either.
“thE NotIoN oF GREEN GRoWth BASIcALLy mEANS DEcoUpLING EcoNomIc ActIvItIES FRom ENvIRoNmENtAL AND mAtERIAL coNSUmptIoN WhILE ShIFtING thE FocUS oF oUtpUtS to mEEtING hUmAN NEEDS”
The notion of GNH was originally surfaced by Bhutan’s former king Jigme Singye Wangchuck in 1972, and has been pursued and promoted in the country ever since. Leaders beyond the borders of the small Himalayan country also have keen interest. So what’s the fuss over happiness? The Short Guide to Gross National Happiness Index, put out by the Centre for Bhutan Studies in 2012, notes that the Bhutanese notion of happiness is different from that in the West in two ways. Firstly it broadens the focus of happiness to be multidimensional and not fixated only on subjective wellbeing and quality of life. Secondly, it takes into account concern for others. The first elected Prime Minister of Bhutan said in 2008: “We have now clearly distinguished the ‘happiness’ … in GNH from the fleeting, pleasurable ‘feel-good’ moods so often associated with that term. We know that true abiding happiness cannot exist while others suffer and comes only from serving others, living in harmony with nature, and realising our innate wisdom and the true and brilliant nature of our own minds.” Worth noting are both the emphasis on environment and a collective approach in this context. But how does this philosophy translate into practice? In a 42-page survey covering nine domains and 33 indicators, Bhutanese Bhutan’s former king Jigme Singye Wangchuck championed the idea of measuring happiness
How do you measure “happy”? Few could argue with the goal of being happy or having a high standard of wellbeing, and these notions have captured the imagination of some prominent politicians and academics worldwide. But, as with green growth’s conceptual difficulties, the notion of using happiness as a measurement is likewise tricky. As National University of Singapore’s Professor Lily Kong summarises, the Western notion of happiness is subjective, cultural, a disposition, a result of causative events and a group emotion that is complex and cannot be easily reductionistic. Some politicians feel it is too fluffy, “woolly,” or complicated to be a base for meaningful policy. It could also be argued that what makes people happy in the short run might issue 3
07
global briefing
citizens are queried on areas like pollution and environmental awareness, personal environmental responsibility, availability of green spaces and consequences of wildlife on farming. Social issues such as housing quality, healthy days, and language use are also explored to provide a balance to more expected economic measures such as GDP. From there, the results are weighted and determine the degrees each segment of society can be identified as happy, which in turn can be used by policymakers to zoom in on areas and issues that might need addressing. beyond bhutan Bhutan’s work seems to have inspired others, including Britain and France. In 2008, then French President Nicholas Sarkozy commissioned economic heavy-hitters Joseph Stiglitz, Amartya Sen and Jean-Paul Fitoussi to create athe Commission on the Measurement of Economic and Social Progress (CMEPSP) aimed at discovering the limits of GDP and to consider what additional information needed to more accurately reflect social progress. As the 292-page CMEPSP report notes: “What we measure affects what we do; and if our measurements are flawed, decisions may be distorted. Choices between promoting GDP and protecting the environment may be false choices, once environmental degradation is appropriately included in our measurement of economic performance. So, too, we often draw inferences about what are good policies by looking at what policies have promoted economic growth; but if our metrics of performance are flawed, so, too, may be the inferences that we draw.” With that logic in mind, the report goes on to make 12 recommendations and, much like Bhutan, finds that wellbeing is multidimensional in aspects such as material living standards, health, education, personal activities, political voice and governance, social connections, environment (both present and future conditions) and insecurity (both economic and physical). The CEMPSP report and its findings have helped propel France in its quest to better account for its population’s wellbeing. Britain has also been taking strides with its own initiatives. Following Prime Minister David Cameron’s 2010 championing of the issue, Britain’s first annual Subjective Wellbeing Annual Population Survey results were released in July 2012, capturing a national snapshot of responses to four subjective wellbeing questions. Compared to other more robust exploration by Bhutan and France, the British approach lacks depth, but
08
From left: Jean-Paul Fitoussi, Joseph Stiglitz and Amartya Sen
considering the nationwide effort involved inputs from some 165,000 adults across all segments of the population, it was still an important barometer and critical first step toward opening the national discussion. Other countries undertaking work on happiness and wellbeing include Austria, Germany, Norway, Australia, Italy, Spain, Slovenia and Japan. According to the OECD’s How’s Life – Measuring Well-being report issued in 2011, activities range from national consultation processes to statistical analysis. The UN Inclusive wealth Index Individual countries’ initiatives aside, one of the largest salvos for new economics came when the UN launched its Inclusive Wealth Index in June 2012 at Rio+20 Summit. The main aim of the Inclusive Wealth Report is to provide quantitative information and analysis that present a long-term perspective on human wellbeing and measures of sustainability. The framework measures natural and human resources in addition to the economic data tracked by GDP. At the launch, UNEP Executive Director Achim Steiner issued a statement saying, “Rio+20 is an opportunity to call time on Gross Domestic Product as a measure of prosperity in the 21st century... GDP fails to measure many of the social and environmental factors that are central to human wellbeing.” Issuance of an inaugural Inclusive Wealth Report 2012 illustrated that, due to substantial loss of natural resources in the 1990-2008 period of economic growth, significant risk
had come upon the world population’s future wellbeing. Included is detailed analysis of areas like the connection between wellbeing and wealth, natural wealth of nations, safeguarding the future wealth of nature, ecosystem services, and accounting for water. Noting cases and statistics from around the globe to back up its findings, the report recommended that countries use the IWI instead of GDP to reassess needs and goals, better account for natural capital and to improve planning for sustainable growth and better measures of progress. defining future progress Given international momentum towards alternative ways of creating and measuring growth, prosperity, happiness and wellbeing, our global future may be heading in an interesting new direction. Whether born out of environmental calamity, economic drudgery, social unrest or political necessity, redefining progress with New Economics is the topic of heated discourse. Alternatives to GDP will take time to develop. Research continues, but the logic is clear, whether from the UN perspective or the Stiglitz-Sen-Fitoussi Commission: measuring wellbeing requires a shift from conventional production indicators to metrics that incorporate non-economic market-based aspects of wellbeing, including sustainability. Globally, if we are to successfully meet the environmental and social challenges already upon us, the work done in these areas is of urgent importance.
QUick gUidE to nEw Economics there are many new economics concepts out there, many of which overlap or have common themes. here is a brief run-down: concept
background
championed by
More information
Green Growth
top-down “greening” redefining of growth as usual to cut negative environmental effects, and promote positive “pro-poor” social dimensions.
mcKinsey & Co, united nations, south Korea, global green growth institute, nicholas stern, Jeffrey sachs, han seung-soo
UN Portal: greengrowth.org Global Green Growth Institute: gggi.org
Green Economy
similar to green growth, it promotes synergies of economic and environmentally sound development practices; champions the idea of “green stimulus packages” to the tune of 2% of world economic output to kick start significant public investment toward greener industries to cut greenhouse gasses and cut dependence on fossil fuels and other non-renewables.
unesCap, unep, achim steiner, also south Korea, think tanks and commercial players
UNEP Portal: unep.org/greeneconomy Green Economy Coalition: greeneconomycoalition.org
Sustainable Development introduced in 1987 by the bruntland Commission, it is often seen as the overarching concept for others like green growth and green economy – but has no economic philosophy or strategy; mainly focuses on the notion that growth should be oriented with the “ability of future generations to meet their own needs” in mind; critics say there is not a clear understanding of the word sustainable.
undsd, ngos
UN Division for Sustainable Development un.org/esa/dsd/
Inclusive Wealth Index
a proposed approach based on measuring natural, manufactured, human and social forms of capital, analysing each component of wealth, and analysing linkages between economic development and human wellbeing; also digs into policies that are based on social management of these assets.
un/ihdp
Inclusive Wealth Index and Report information: ihdp.unu.edu/article/iwr
Blue Economy
Created as a sort of economic model based on physics and chemistry, the concepts of biomimicry, Cradle-to-Cradle, resource effectiveness, and “resource cascading”, its proponents champion these areas as ways to add value, create jobs, and and bring about more stable society.
dr gunter pauli, business innovators, Zero emissions research institute (Zeri)
Blue Economy website: blueeconomy.eu
seen as an improvement to gdp, it subtracts social and environmental costs, and adds value of non-monetised economic activity (eg volunteer work); see also index of economic wellbeing (iewb) and gdp Quality index. helped better define gdp weakness and build consensus of its criticisms.
herman daly, John Cobb, edmonton (Canada), maryland (usa)
Genuine Progress Index
(see article in ENVISION magazine issue 2)
Maryland’s GPI: green.maryland.gov/mdgpi Economic Well-Being for the OECD nations: csls.ca/iwb/oecd.asp Overview of GPI in US/Canada: newdream.org/programs/ redefiningthedream/rethinkinggrowth
Genuine Savings
more traditional economic indicator modified to integrate natural and human capital values; national “genuine savings” rates calculated and published to demonstrate the extent traditional economic growth has lead to environmental degradation, resource depletion, and potential human impoverishment.
world bank
World Bank statistics on Genuine Savings for countries worldwide: bit.ly/genuinesaving
Green GDP
Conventional gross domestic product adjusted for environmental costs of economic activities that it measures; has proven highly contentious for many countries, and is difficult to monetise natural resources.
us bureau of economic analysis (pre-1995); China (2005-2007; since suppressed data); india (slated for 2015)
Wikipedia: wikipedia.org/wiki/green_gross_ domestic_product
Gross National Happiness
evolving since 1972, the original trendsetter in attempting to measure happiness and determine perceived citizen wellbeing. recent advances in brain sciences and statistics, the survey and approach has come a long way; indicators not just theoretical, but policy-relevant and reflective of community input.
bhutan, King Jigme singye wangchuck, Centre for bhutanese studies; adaptations underway in China, france, uK and other countries
Centre for Bhutan Studies: bhutanstudies.org.bt
Happy Planet Index
a new measure of progress that focuses on sustainable wellbeing for all. it measures how well nations are doing in terms of supporting their inhabitants to live good lives now, while ensuring that others can do the same in the future; its assessment is based on experienced wellbeing, life expectancy, and ecological footprint of a given country.
new economics foundation (nef)
NEF Website: neweconomics.org
De-Growth
somewhat radical notion that explores growth’s opposite: shrinkage. the concept aims towards smaller-scale economies to generate human wellbeing, while reducing pressure on natural resources and ecosystems. also argues that “decoupling” of economic growth and environmental damage is marginally possible at best.
tim Jackson, uK sustainable development Commission, peter victor, academic researchers and economic activists
De-Growth portal: degrowth.net UK Sustainable Development Comm (2009) sd-commission.org.uk/publications
adapted from 2012 life beyond growth report, ishes
issue 3
09
developing a healthy environment
coNNEctING ENvIRoNmENt AND pUBLIc hEALth
throughout his 25-year career in public service, singapore’s former Commissioner of public health, daniel wang, emphasised the link between sustainability and civic wellbeing. here, he reflects on the country’s achievements and offers insights into today’s environmental challenges
f
rom hUmblE bEginnings, Singapore has blosssomed into a world-class city in just a few decades. Its rise has not been without challenges, however, and Wang contributed to many successful initiatives that greatly improved its population’s quality of life. From his appointment in 1979 to his retirement in 2004, he has been an outspoken public health pioneer. He began work as an engineer in 1967, winning numerous awards through his involvement in groundbreaking projects such as the Singapore River clean-up and the construction of the country’s first incinerator. Wang attributes the country’s success to a strong political will, legislation, infrastructure and public education, all of which he says are needed to create a clean and green society. “The government recognised the importance of protecting our environment and understood the benefits of committing itself to the cause. When you have that strong political will, things will take shape,” he said. “We have Lee Kuan Yew to thank for his vision and early attention given to the environment. He launched Singapore’s first Keep Singapore Clean Campaign in 1967, set up a Tree Planting Day every first Sunday of November, starting in 1970, and created the Ministry of the Environment in 1972 – possibly the world’s first
010
government ministry dedicated to looking after the environment.” He adds that Singapore’s approach to public health is closely linked to environmental management. “Many people ask why public health is part of the Ministry of Environment instead of the Ministry of Health. The rationale is very interesting. The government felt that if you look after the environment well, that you make sure it is clean, that there are good standards of hygiene, no rats running around, no flies in hawker centres and so on, you will end up with high standards of public health. “So when the Ministry of the Environment was formed in 1972, Public Health Division was moved from Ministry of Health to the new Ministry of the Environment. This is unique to Singapore.” This close relationship helps the country to develop cohesive policies and legislation; enforcement is critical to their effectiveness. “We needed a set of laws to protect our environment. It is important to understand that when you make the laws, you must be prepared to enforce them,” said Wang. “When you have the laws but aren’t willing to enforce them, or enforce them half-heartedly, it would be better not to have them at all. “From my 24 years as Public Health Commissioner, I can state categorically that we were able to enforce laws very effectively because we were given the mandate to do so.” But enforceable legislation in part implies that physical systems
managing eCologiCal publiC health risKs
issue 3
011
developing a healthy environment
“It WASN’t jUSt A mAttER oF DREDGING Up thE BED AND FIxING thE EmBANkmENtS. WE hAD to cLEAN Up thE cAtchmENt AND Look FoR SoURcES oF poLLUtIoN thAt coULD END Up IN thE RIvER. thEN WE SyStEmAtIcALLy ELImINAtED thEm” Images of pollution in Singapore in the 1970s
Courtesy of Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources
are in place in order to be regulated. In order to curb pollution and have effective environmental management, infrastructure considerations loomed large for the fledgling nation. “Singapore spared no effort and money to build its extensive sewerage network and waste water treatment plants,” he said. “Today 100 per cent of our domestic premises, commercial buildings and all our factories are connected up to these systems. “We built our first waste-to-energy refuse incineration plant in 1979 at a cost of $100 million with a loan from the World Bank. It was a huge sum at that time, when Singapore was still a very poor country.” These and numerous other infrastructure investments have given Singapore’s
012
population a stable base on which to grow, while at the same time minimising environmental degradation. Of course, getting the public involved in environmental initiatives was crucial. He added: “In 1990, we launched the first annual Clean and Green Week campaign. “We need to continually educate the public and show them the importance of having a clean environment.” The small country conundrum Singapore faced many struggles in the years following its independence from Malaysia in 1965. Unemployment was high and, as a result, economic development was a pressing priority to ensure social stability of the fledgling nation. This, of
course, posed a significant risk, as many developing countries do so at an enormous environmental cost. “Singapore did the right thing from the very beginning,” Wang said. “We built up our economy without compromising our environment. It was easy to just focus on economy and ignore its environmental impacts but Singapore, under the leadership of Lee Kuan Yew at that time, did not choose that easy path. Instead, there was careful scrutiny of the industries we allowed in. The government decided to push for non-polluting industries; ones that use technology rather than just labour-intensive businesses were also preferred.” In 1970 the Anti-Pollution Unit (APU) was formed. Its primary function was to monitor air pollution and factory waste, triggering conflict with the Economic Development Board (EDB) over which industries should be allowed to operate in the state. While EDB wanted to attract overseas investment, the APU would have to ensure that foreign firms had preventive measures in place to curb pollution before they could enter the island. Support was granted to businesses with proper environmental safeguards in place, but many others were excluded, relocated or phased out completely. “Countries that built their economies with no attention to the environment paid a hefty cost later in order to clean up,” Wang recalls. “Timber mills with logs floating on the river and rubber processing plants were two of the early polluting industries I remember
being phased out, including the one near the area I grew up in Upper Bukit Timah. “That rubber processing plant always stank up the place. “When we cleaned up the Singapore River we phased out pig farms, duck farms, relocated boat repair yards and relocated street hawkers into hawker centres and vendors into markets, and so on.” Many of these industries and cottage businesses had been identified as polluters of tributaries and watersheds of the Singapore River and other freshwater sources. The Singapore River clean-up became one of the nation’s best-known case studies. Once an epicentre of pollution so foul international experts deemed its recovery impossible, the river was brought back to life with drive, ingenuity and numerous interagency solutions. “Prime Minister Lee wanted the river to be cleaned up and challenged officials to do it in 10 years,” said Wang. “It wasn’t just a matter of dredging up the bed and fixing the embankments. We had to clean up the catchment and look for sources of pollution that could end up in the river. Then we systematically eliminated them. I was very excited about the challenge.” By providing the proper infrastructure and improved site locations to industries that could clean up their act, the country was able to strike a balance between economic progress and environmental improvements. The Singapore River has since become a focal point of urban redevelopment amid a major commercial centre, a critical freshwater reserve and a shining example of what can be achieved if a country gets its development priorities straight. Wang added: “At that point in time we didn’t quite understand whether we really needed a decade, more time or less. But, quite incredibly, the 10-year timeframe was just what we needed. “Following the completion, getting the gold medal from then Prime Minister Lee was certainly one of my proudest achievements.” Hearts and minds Isolating sources of pollution from industry is one matter, but persuading the public to stop littering requires a very different approach. A recent NEA study found one in four Singaporeans knows it is an offence to dump rubbish in public but will do so out of convenience, while one in 100 will litter regardless of the consequences. No matter what has been done historically to educate people about their role in keeping the country clean, ongoing awareness
Pig farms were common in Singapore until the 1970s
campaigns are deemed necessary to reinforce the message. Wang believes that to reduce incidences of littering and other negative behaviour, the public must be inculcated with a deep-seated moral conviction – and this takes time. “Singapore can be litter-free when you have a socially responsible public,” he said. “In countries like Japan and Korea the
timElinE 1967 the first Keep singapore Clean Campaign is launched 1970 singapore’s annual tree planting day is implemented 1972 singapore’s ministry of environment (env) created 1977 a 10-year project to clean up the singapore river begins 1979 first waste-to-energy incineration plant built, funded by the world bank 2001 env’s role expanded to oversee entire water cycle, renamed ministry of environment and water resources 2002 new statutory board, the national environment agency, founded
streets are clean despite having few bins on them because people are more civically conscious and socially responsible. It is not because these countries have tough laws – I believe it has to do with the way their citizens and previous generations were raised.” Compared to many of its Asian neighbours, Singapore is a relatively young country. Wang added: “If you want that level of social responsibility it’s not going to happen overnight. Public education is a long process, not a quick fix. “We started our Keep Singapore Clean campaign 44 years ago. I think we need more time before we get anywhere.” Education plays a part but, to be effective, Wang believes it needs to happen from a very early age. “It is not easy to educate adults to be socially responsible. If you don’t have laws, they won’t comply – simple as that; however, you can educate a child easily, especially if the mother is the one imparting the value of social responsibility to her child. As they grow up they learn this value and carry it with them as an adult. “From that point on, you have to enforce and be serious about it – there is no choice.” A Corrective Order was created whereby people caught littering for the second time were forced to sweep the streets. issue 3
013
developing a healthy environment
“When I was asked what we hoped to accomplish with this law, I said that I want people to understand how difficult it was to sweep up other people’s litter from bushes and drains. Of course, the shame factor also helped as a deterrent. “Paying fines would not mean anything to some people. If you don’t want to wait centuries for change, you have to enforce. That’s my view.” Creating a gracious, conscious society is a challenge, and Wang has some provocative insights into what he feels needs to happen in the country. “Having maids in our homes, I think, is the greatest impediment,” he said. “When we have maids in the home, young children will watch how their parents treat them and eventually they will learn how to order the maid to do things for them. “Can you imagine a nine-year-old boy ordering a 25-year-old woman to do simple things for him, like fetch a glass of water? That’s something the child could easily have done himself.
014
“The youngster’s respect for older people and sense of self-reliance is gone because he can afford to have someone else do things for him. This kind of behaviour at home is wrong. It breeds arrogance in the child, unless the parents know where to draw the line.” Wang believes that, from an early age, citizens should care for themselves and their immediate environment, and this should carry on into adulthood. “People should clear their own tables in hawker centres after eating – and do it because they know it is the right thing to do,” he said. “It shouldn’t be just about having a rule to make people do it. We should see improved sense of self-reliance and not rely on others to perform tasks for us.” The challenge of promoting public health Over the years of his service, Wang noted increasing involvement with society when it came to public health. “I think they’re more engaged and handson,” he said. “The more they know and get the right
message, the more they will be doing the right thing. Correct education is important.” On the ground, inspection and enforcement has also improved over the years. The country’s health inspectors have benefited from increased levels of education in many ways. Wang observes: “Our inspectors are very well educated – they know their subject matter and what they’re doing. “I’ve seen them on the ground dealing with the public. They’re generally very polite and I’ve been very impressed with their attitude.” Having capable inspectors is key to tackling dengue fever, a serious public health challenge as it is a regionally endemic disease. As long as no effective vaccine is available and the organisms, or vectors, that transmit the disease are around, the disease will be present. He added: “The Aedes aegypti mosquito is not so easy to eradicate because it breeds in homes and anywhere else with clean water. Because you can’t easily get rid of the sources, you can’t get rid of the vector.
“Another interesting fact is that up to 85 per cent of people who are infected with dengue are asymptomatic. They are infected with the virus but they are not very sick and they don’t know they have dengue. “When an Aedes bites them it may pick up the virus, and when that same mosquito bites someone else later the virus may be given to that person.” It is a frightening scenario but the good news is that, historically, major progress has been made both on dengue and other infectious diseases. “As with all vector-borne diseases, if you can reduce the Aedes population, you can limit the intensity of a dengue outbreak, should one occur,” said Wang. “As in the case of malaria, we work to monitor and eradicate its vector, the Anopheles mosquito, which breeds in streams, stagnant and brackish water. It is much easier to eradicate than, say, the Aedes. “Our robust malaria surveillance and control programme in key areas helped us effectively stamp out the disease. In 1982 Singapore was declared malaria-free by World Health Organization (WHO). “That was something we were very proud of because Singapore was the only country in the region in which malaria was endemic to be given malaria-free status by the WHO.” The war on dengue In the mid-1990s, technological advances such as global positioning systems (GPS) and geographical information systems (GIS) were employed to detect outbreaks of disease earlier. “The key to controlling a dengue outbreak is to be able to identify hotspots and act swiftly,” Wang said. “Hotspots are not only where there are clusters of dengue cases but also where the population of Aedes are on the increase. “If we are able to know these hotspots and move in swiftly to reduce the vector population, we can avert an outbreak or limit its size.” He added: “I had read somewhere how people track elephants in Africa through tagging using this technology and I thought we could do the same to track the migration of the Aedes mosquitoes.” The technology was soon used to plot areas with increased Aedes mosquito populations. Field officers relayed real-time information to a central mapping station, where it was plotted alongside complaints of mosquitoes from the public and places dengue patients had visited a week before onset of the disease. Once this data could be seen on maps,
Duck farm in Singapore in the 1970s
“thE BIGGESt thREAt AhEAD oF US WoULD comE FRom NEW AND EmERGING DISEASES SUch AS zooNotIc vIRUSES – oNES thAt jUmp FRom ANImALS to hUmANS” hotspots could be quickly identified. “We set up a central mapping station next to my office and I named it the ‘Situation Room’,” Wang recalled. “Technology had a place in everything we did. It is a matter of how we can identify its potential. Some things may not be designed to suit the specific need but that should not stop us from seeing whether we can adapt and apply it. If we let our imagination go a bit wider there are many things that can be applied. It takes creativity.” An emerging threat While Singapore has made progress in tackling dengue fever, and stamped out malaria, Wang stressed the need for constant vigilance. “The biggest threat ahead of us would come from new and emerging diseases such as zoonotic viruses – ones that jump from animals to humans. “The viruses attacking animals are very
different from those affecting us. But when a pathogen jumps from animals to humans, their bodies have never encountered this before and consequently do not have an adequate response.” West Nile virus triggered similar worries. “Common, vector-borne diseases such as dengue, and food-borne diseases like typhoid, can be combated quite efficiently – we have plans for how to deal with them,” he said. “For new and emerging zoonotic diseases that’s a totally different ballgame.” Health agencies all over the world face a difficult challenge to remain ahead of the curve as new diseases emerge. “We need to have our antennae out,” he said. “You have to watch what is happening elsewhere and ask what we should do if the disease were to appear locally.” Wang’s experience highlights the breadth of challenges facing those working in the public health sector. While there will be many challenges emerging in the years ahead, Singapore has to its advantage the foundations of a robust system laid by pioneers in the environment agency when responding to public health crises. “I always say that fighting infectious diseases is like fighting terrorism – you can be caught unaware. Intelligence helps you anticipate what is going to happen. “We need to sense what is going on in the environment and whether there is anything unusual happening. We must be alert all the time.” issue 3
015
managing eCologiCal publiC health risKs
Ecological factors crucial in controlling EmErging disEasEs
pRE-EmptING pANDEmIcS potentially lethal viruses inflict misery on millions of people each year. here, public health professionals discuss the environmental and human forces shaping their control
f
rom wEst nilE fever in Texas, a new coronavirus in the Gulf and central Africa’s Ebola outbreak, headlines worldwide have been dominated by disease. There is strong reason for fear. In the 20th century, three recorded
016
influenza pandemics alone resulted in more than 50 million human deaths worldwide. While much progress in disease control has been made in recent decades, emergent illnesses are constantly evolving at the nexus of human and environmental interaction.
To prevent future health crises, constant vigilance is needed to ensure outbreaks never again reach such critical proportions. Many emergent diseases are zoonotic – that is, they readily mutate and spread between animals and humans, sometimes
managing eCologiCal publiC health risKs
land use changes, leading to ecosystem disturbance and biodiversity loss.” Prof Horby lists urbanisation and the intensification and commercialisation of livestock production as two areas in which humans have clearly altered disease risks. But he notes that many other aspects of human behaviour may be problematic. “The events leading to niche expansion or disruption can take many forms, such as altered patterns of domestic and wild animal contact, as is the case with Nipah virus, of human and animal contact, such as HIV and SARS, of species diversity, such as Lyme disease, and of drug pressure, as is the case with artemisinin-resistant malaria,” he said.
global cost of animal disEasE oUtbrEaks (1991–2008) $50bn
SARS Worldwide $40–50bn
Estimated Cost
$40bn
$30bn Foot & Mouth, UK $18–25bn $20bn
$10bn
BSE, UK $10–13bn
Foot & Mouth Taiwan, $5–8bn
Classical Swine Fever Netherlands, $2.3bn 1991 1992
1993
1994 1995
BSE, West Nile, US Canada $500m–1bn/year $4.9bn Nipah, Malaysia, HPA,BSE, Japan Avian $350–400m Italy, $1.5bn Flu, NL $500m $400m
1996 1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
BSE, US $3.2–4.7bn
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Figures are estimates and are presented as relative size
source: bio economic research associates paper on the economic impact of selected infectious diseases (2008) www.bio-era.net/reports/biosecurity/bsec_econ_impact.html
with the help of vectors such as mosquitoes, fleas and ticks. Health scares such as bird and swine flu have been extensively studied as these pathogens readily transmit to humans, and sometimes back again to animals. Such diseases can have massive impacts on biodiversity and species in the wild, as well as on livestock that millions depend on for food. There are also immense economic consequences of such outbreaks. Research and advisory firm Bio-Economic Research Associates estimated that a relatively ‘cheap’ outbreak such as the Nipah virus in Malaysia in the late 1990s could carry a $350-400 million price tag, while epic pandemics such as SARS can have a financial wallop of $4050 billion. Taking such considerations to heart, doctors, epidemiologists and veterinary surgeons carefully trace diseases and their environmental origins to prevent or minimise public health risks. In this context, there is growing recognition of the importance of ecological factors. diseases bound by environmental conditions Peter Horby, Adjunct Associate Professor at the Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, has said that ecological factors, rather than genetic or geographic constraints, seem to critically define pathogen niches and their development.
While the conditions or events that result in the emergence of new human pathogens are poorly understood, they are often brought about by changes to ecological or biological systems. “To a great extent, humans are the architects of both our external and internal ecologies,” he said. “There is a need to understand how human behaviour now and in the future may alter the landscape of infectious disease risks.” He added: “We’ve seen a steady stream of emerging infectious diseases since the 1940s. “This is largely due to anthropogenic changes to the environment, especially
10 most frEQUEntly citEd drivErs of EmErgEncE/rE-EmErgEncE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Changes in land use or agricultural practices Changes in human demographics and society poor population health hospitals and medical procedures pathogen evolution Contamination of food or water sources international travel failure of public health programmes international trade Climate change
woolhouse et al. phil. trans. r. soc. b (2011) 366, 2045-2054
Human and animal dimensions in the disease ecosystem Cultural factors also influence a disease’s progression. A prime example is meat production, which is on the rise in many countries to meet the demands of growing populations with shifting diet expectations. China, in particular, has experienced an unprecedented growth in meat production over the past 40 years, resulting in livestock densities covering about a third of its land area – far greater than anywhere else in the world. In a global economic context, where trade can easily distribute problems across countries, regions or internationally, this poses a significant hazard should a disease emerge along the supply chain. To understand how a virus spreads, it is necessary to recognise the integrated nature of zoonotic disease systems, especially as humans interact with wildlife through extensive livestock production systems, such as small farms, and intensive livestock production industries. Dirk Pfeiffer, Professor of Veterinary Epidemiology at the Royal Veterinary College, University of London, has been working on systems’ approaches to the risk management of zoonotic diseases including avian influenza, colloquially referred to as bird flu. “Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) subtype H5N1 is an example of a pathogen that thrives within complex ecosystems, with wild waterbirds and domestic poultry as key hosts,” he said. “Many southeast and east Asian countries have ecosystems suitable for maintaining HPAIV H5N1 infection as a result of smallscale commercial poultry production and relatively high domestic waterbird densities. “The virus can be maintained through contact with farmers, traders and live bird markets which facilitate transmission.” issue 3
017
managing eCologiCal publiC health risKs
macroEcologiEs Human living environment population growth and density technology and industry human mobility governance structures
Disease emergence re-emergence, persistence
Food and agriculture systems expanding agricultural production intensified agricultural production globalisation of production and supply peri-urban livestock production use of antibiotics in livestock
Natural ecosystems human encroachment and land use deforestation Climate change habitat fragmentation biodiversity loss hunting, poaching, bushmeat trade
source: professor peter horby
Prof Pfeiffer cites China, Vietnam and Indonesia as examples of countries grappling with recurrent outbreaks. Since the emergence of HPAIV H5N1 in 1996 in China, enormous financial, scientific and human resources have been invested globally into the risk management of the disease. Research in China has revealed that extensive trade networks are one of the major risk factors, with some poultry transported from as far away as Shandong Province in the north-east to Yunnan Province in the south-west of the country. Such transport provides ample opportunity for the disease to be spread far and wide. In addition, the density of poultry production in eastern China is one of the highest in the world, providing an ideal base for multiplication of infectious diseases as well as evolutionary change. Against this backdrop, it is unsurprising that research has also highlighted that globally the greatest variety of virus clades – groups of organisms believed to comprise all the evolutionary descendants of a common ancestor – exists in China. China and Vietnam are conducting largescale poultry HPAIV H5N1 vaccination campaigns, since for these types of production systems, comprising small- to large-scale producers and extensive trade networks, there is currently no alternative method for realistically reducing infection risk. At the same time, it is recognised that any virus that may not be eradicated by the vaccination
018
may indeed contribute to the drive of the evolutionary selection of vaccination-resistant viruses. In the case of Vietnam, in the Mekong and Red River delta regions, the outbreaks are facilitated by agricultural practices. Traditional farming methods utilise ducks for pest control in rice paddies. The controlled migration of these birds around various agricultural plots, as well as interaction with other animals, such as chickens or other wild waterfowl, made spreading the disease relatively easy. Beyond the field, handling of livestock both during transport to markets and within marketplaces provides ready opportunities for disease transmission. Like China, extensive transport networks and onward selling of livestock are also risk factors. While market rest days, improved poultry husbandry hygiene and vaccination campaigns are all likely to contribute to bringing HPAIV H5N1 in poultry under control, the virus is still present and causes outbreaks, although at a very low rate. A key to success is acceptance of the need for change in poultry husbandry and trade practices at the smallholder level. This is difficult to achieve, given that these communities have to deal with much more pressing issues affecting their daily livelihoods and, in Indonesia’s case, occasional natural disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis. With cash-strapped local governments
unable to make a concerted effort, and people focused on scraping out a livelihood by whatever means possible, a comprehensive approach to controlling the disease has proven unattainable. It does seem that unless HPAIV H5N1 becomes a mass killer, authorities may focus resources on other more pressing issues, particularly in the current climate of global economic recession. As these country case studies reveal, results are mixed when it comes to controlling the virus around Asia. Prof Pfeiffer said: “Effective risk management of the disease requires an understanding of the complex nature of the problem. “It has been recognised that adoption of an interdisciplinary systems approach is needed where the molecular, veterinary, medical and social sciences work in an integrated fashion.” These agricultural production systems have evolved over centuries and are embedded in local and regional culture, he added. They are also highly adaptable to changing economic drivers and can involve cross-boundary trade over large distances in response to changes in demand. According to Prof Pfeiffer, traditional disease control methods involving culling, movement control and vaccination are not effective in such systems. “The methods do not adequately consider the variation in risk perception and prioritisation among the different people affected and often even appear to threaten their livelihoods,” he said. Evolutionary dynamics and migration Beyond cultural and economic drivers, human and animal interactions can also lead to more insidious forms of infection by effectively scrambling the genetic makeup of viruses. Dr Gavin Smith, Associate Professor at Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, has explored ecology and evolution, seeking insight into zoonotic influenza viruses that become dangerous pandemics. During March and early April 2009, an H1N1 virus with a lineage previously undetected in humans emerged in Mexico and the United States. “This virus was sufficiently antigenically divergent from more typical, seasonal H1N1, and humans exposed to the disease were highly susceptible as a result,” he said. “Subsequently this virus spread rapidly via human-to-human transmission, developing into the first influenza pandemic in 40 years.” In situations such as this, pandemic viruses are generated through multiple so-
called ‘re-assortment’ events in which viral genomes are swapped within a host. Some typical host species involve chickens, ducks, pigs and humans, and there is usually interaction between one prevailing human virus strain and one non-human strain of the virus. “This activity and transmission between mammalian species like swine and humans means that viruses can continually reassert and evolve into new variations, forever raising new disease challenges to humans,” said Dr Smith. “Given the frequent interspecies transmission of influenza viruses between swine and humans, it is most likely that such reassortment events occurred in either host before the 2009 pandemic took place,” he said. The exact dynamics of avian-swine and swine-human adaptation are still not well understood. In order for humans to avoid being caught off-guard, adequate preparation involving long-term surveillance of gene migration between key host species and people in highrisk occupations, such as farm or abattoir workers, is needed. combating disease vectors In addition to influenza viruses, dengue fever has gained new territories globally, including Nepal, Ningbo in China, parts of France and as far south as Buenos Aires, Argentina. Luckily, responses, including surveillance and intervention, have become increasingly comprehensive in some countries. Associate Professor Ng Lee Ching, Director of the National Environment Agency’s Environmental Health Institute of Singapore, has outlined the challenging circumstances in which Singapore has fought dengue. “A heavily modified natural landscape and urbanisation brings the vector in close proximity to its targets – not only that, but increased human population density, lowered dengue immunity, evolution of the dengue virus and improved travel efficiency both inside Singapore as well as internationally present numerous threats.” There are now many approaches to suppressing dengue, she said. “The past decade has seen an increasing focus on dengue, resulting in more sophisticated programmes that exploit information and biotechnological advancements, particularly for surveillance,” she said. “Geographical information systems, polymerase chain reaction, rapid antigen test kits, sequencing, bioinformatics and remote
origins of thE 2009 flU pandEmic Avian PB2, PA
Swine H1N1
M
N1
H1,N1
NP, M, NS
Minimum of: H1, N1, PB1
Sporadic infections of humans with swine reassortant viruses
Fort Dix swine flu outbreak (1976) H3, N2, PB1
PB2, PB1, PA, H1, NP, NS
Human smith gJd et al nature 2009
sensing have allowed for human cases, virus, entomological and ecological monitoring improvements.” She added that cross-border surveillance had been initiated through the formation of UNITEDengue, a partnership between Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. In several countries, the vector’s environmental origins are being tackled with several innovative disease and vector control tools, including large-scale field trials of sterile Aedes and Aedes infected with Wolbachia, a naturally occurring bacteria – each particularly innovative ways of tackling mosquitoes. Genetically modified RIDL male mosquitoes can be released to mate with females in the wild, resulting in no viable offspring. Globally-initiated field trials have so far proven promising, but a number of hurdles remain, including cost, as well as garnering public acceptance for release of a genetically modified creature. On the other hand, releasing Wolbachiainfected mosquitoes delivers two benefits. “The Aedes infected with Wolbachia lead to shortened lifespan and resistance to dengue virus infection in the wild,” said Assoc. Prof Ng. “When naturally-occurring Wolbachia
spreads into the larger mosquito population, there is no need to have constant release, and this may prove more cost effective; however, there is the possibility that adaptation to Wolbachia could eventually occur, which would diminish effects in the longer term.” The future of pandemics While monumental efforts are being made to better understand the ecological conditions for pandemics and their human multipliers, there is no guarantee that these activities will stem a major outbreak in the near future. As long as humans continue to make environmental interventions, alter ecology, interact with animals and travel widely, the never-ending list of new diseases will continue. David Quammen, the award-winning author of Spillover: Animal Infections and the Next Human Pandemic, neatly summarises the reality of our situation. “These are not independent events. They are parts of a pattern,” he said. “They reflect things that we’re doing, not just things that are happening to us.” To truly find a solution to pandemics, perhaps the most salient lesson to remember is that we are still a part of our ecology. issue 3
019
managing eCologiCal publiC health risKs
mEEting EnvironmEntal thrEats:
thE WAR oN DENGUE
spotting breeding sites and early diagnosis are key to preventing outbreaks of one of the fastest-spreading diseases on earth
a
s citiEs grow, there is an increased risk of environmental public health threats. One that particularly affects many tropical and sub-tropical Asian and Latin American countries is dengue fever. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the mosquito-borne viral infection is one of the fastest-spreading diseases on Earth, with almost half of the world’s population at risk. It is found in more than 100 countries and surfaces in many new areas, with major, sudden outbreaks common. Flu-like symptoms of dengue include mild to extremely high fever with a severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and joint aches and rashes.
020
No vaccines exist to treat it and, in severe cases, the disease can cause haemorrhages and organ failure in adults and children. Early diagnosis and careful management by experienced health professionals is critical to patient survival, lowering fatality rates below one per cent. About 500,000 people, largely children, are hospitalised because of dengue each year and roughly 2.5 per cent of infected patients die. In areas where proper medical care is not available, mortality rates can be as high as 20 per cent. vectors and disease transmission Dengue is transmitted largely by the Aedes aegypti mosquito. The virus incubates in the female mosquito for four to 10 days, which can
then transmit the infection for the rest of its life. Once transmitted to humans, the problem grows as they are the main carriers and multipliers of the virus, capable of spreading it further to many more mosquitoes. Humans are most infectious in the period when they experience symptoms such as fever – as long as 12 days in some cases. The mosquitoes that transmit dengue generally live in towns and cities, and breed in stagnant freshwater sources commonly found in human homes. They feed mainly at dusk and dawn, and each female may bite numerous people in each feeding period, enabling the virus to readily spread and cause an outbreak affecting many members of a community. As a result, early identification of breeding
managing eCologiCal publiC health risKs
areas for Aedes mosquitoes as well as detection of infected patients are two important aspects of controlling dengue and ensuring isolated cases do not quickly snowball into epidemics. dengue: the familiar threat Dengue is an old menace to public health in Singapore. Decades of intensive vector control have successfully suppressed the population of the Aedes, its main vector. Singapore’s low House Index (HI), which measures the number of premises found with mosquito breeding per 100 inspected, coupled with low disease incidence, proposes that Singapore has one of the most effective dengue control programmes in the world. If only things remained that simple. The global resurgence of dengue, which started in the late 1980s, did not spare Singapore. In the subsequent two decades, dengue incidence across the country was characterised by a five to six-year cycle, with the rate increasing within each one. This culminated in an unprecedented epidemic in 2005 in which about 14,000 cases were reported, including 27 deaths. Paradoxically, the continued elevations were against the backdrop of a low HI. It was postulated that the resurgence was
“oNcE tRANSmIttED to hUmANS, thE pRoBLEm GRoWS AS thEy ARE thE mAIN cARRIERS AND mULtIpLIERS oF thE vIRUS, cApABLE oF SpREADING It FURthER to mANy moRE moSqUItoES” due to a combination of factors, including an increase in human population and density, low population immunity resulting from long periods of low disease transmission and improved local transport networks, which facilitated a faster spread of the virus to parts of the country that were previously ‘uncolonised’ by the virus. Increased travel meant a continuous
introduction of new virus strains from other parts of the world, and the possible geographical spread of the Aedes mosquito that has trailed urban development, particularly the development of highdensity residential areas (about 160km of expressways and 150km of Mass Rapid Transit lines criss-crossed the 720kmsquared island, which is likely to facilitate the propagation of the virus). These contribute to increased opportunity for the vector, human and virus to interact – the perfect brew for disease transmission. This necessitated changes to the underlying strategies for dengue surveillance. A thorough review of the programme was undertaken in the aftermath of the 2005 epidemic and a new approach for dengue virus surveillance, organised around four cornerstones, was introduced. Importance of early detection Traditionally, the likelihood of blood samples being taken from suspected dengue patients for laboratory diagnosis was invariably higher at hospitals than at primary health care, such as at a general practitioner (GP) clinic. The tests available could only diagnose dengue about five days from the onset of fever.
dEngUE transmission
Complete (absence) Good Moderate Poor Intermediate Poor Moderate Good Complete (presence) Data not available Not applicable
surveillance of dengue is often incomplete and inconsistent. the map combines information from different sources to show the degree of consensus as to whether dengue transmission occurs in each country. source: world health organization
issue 3
021
managing eCologiCal publiC health risKs
In 2006, the Environmental Health Institute (EHI) of the National Environment Agency (NEA) started advocating the use of early detection protocols. A programme was initiated to offer subsidised testing to primary healthcare patients. In the process, a network of GPs was built up to not only handle the referral of blood samples, but also act as sentinels for the disease situation on the ground. Since dengue cases are now detected much earlier, the risk of fatality is reduced, as patients can be clinically managed much more effectively. With the progressive adoption of early detection protocols, the average operational response time – the period of time taken from fever onset to initiation of vector control operation by NEA – has halved from seven days in 2004 to three-and-a-half days in 2010. Sensing imminent outbreaks An important spin-off from the subsidised dengue testing offered by EHI is the ability, with patients’ consent, to determine the serotype and genotype of the circulating virus using dengue-positive samples from the GP network. There are four dengue virus serotypes (DENV1, DENV2, DENV3 and DENV4) circulating at the same time, usually with one predominating. Switches in the predominant serotype or the emergence of an uncommon
022
“SINGApoRE’S ExpERIENcE ShoWS thAt moNItoRING thE vIRAL SERotypES AND GENotypES pRovIDES EARLy WARNING AND oFFERS Up to SIx moNthS’ LEAD tImE FoR SoURcE REDUctIoN mEASURES to BE tAkEN” serotype have been associated with outbreaks. Hence, continuous monitoring to detect switches has been used for early warnings of outbreaks. Similarly, genetic fingerprinting has contributed to our understanding of the diversity of dengue viruses present in Singapore. There is reasonable genetic diversity in the local dengue viruses, and virus strains are constantly introduced into the country. While most of them were not sustained due to the intensive vector control regime, a few among them gave rise to localised clusters. It is
postulated these selected strains were ‘fitter’. Hence, detecting the emergence of a new strain, or the replacement of a predominant viral strain with another ‘fitter’ strain, even in the absence of a switch in predominant serotype, could signal a possible increase in dengue transmission. Singapore’s experience shows that monitoring the viral serotypes and genotypes provides early warning and offers up to six months’ lead time for source reduction measures to be taken, including garnering community efforts to suppress the mosquito vector population. finding the mosquitoes House-to-house checks are undertaken by 750 NEA ground officers, but such efforts are sometimes hampered by the inability to access some homes and diversion of manpower during epidemic periods. In recent years, a new approach of systematic intensive source reduction and checks has been adopted. The dengue season, usually from May to September, is preluded by Aedes mosquito population control. This exercise detects and removes breeding places, creates community awareness and identifies potential breeding sites due to infrastructural defects. Apart from acting pre-emptively, a new indicator of mosquito activity was also explored by the EHI.
Although the House Index has been used to assess mosquito populations since the 1960s, it is subject to variations in the competence of the ground officers and does not take breeding outside homes into consideration. In recent years, a new index has been developed – the ‘Aedes breeding percentage’ (BP), which is the ratio between the number of Aedes aegypti breedings and total Aedes breeding (Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus). It allows for the ubiquity of Ae. albopictus in the garden city of Singapore. The BP has been found to be more sensitive than the HI in quantifying the risk posed by Aedes mosquitoes and has been used in risk assessment. Its use as a daily operational indicator is being evaluated.
Singapore environmental public health officials check rooftops for mosquito breeding with an industrial endoscope
Innovations from Singapore’s experience NEA ensures high standards of public health through comprehensive ground surveillance, research and appropriate preventive measures. In dengue surveillance, gravitraps and ovitraps are used to monitor the mosquito population in any given area. The data collected helps officers plan and implement control measures and operations. The effectiveness of ovitraps and gravitraps is determined by the numbers deployed. The more traps used, the better the coverage and sampling size. A minimum of six traps per 12-storey HDB block is required to give reliable data on ground conditions.
“thE DENGUE SEASoN, USUALLy FRom mAy to SEptEmBER, IS pRELUDED By AEDES moSqUIto popULAtIoN coNtRoL”
Identifying mosquito larvae In ovittrap/gravitrap monitoring, the length of time required for each deployment is usually four weeks and each deployment consists of up to 50 traps.
Virus surveillance gears operations toward more effective risk-based vector control
2007 DENV-2 Outbreak
200 Early warning of outbreak
150
DENV-1 Threat
DENV-1 DENV-2 DENV-3 DENV-4
Emergence of new DENV-2 lineages
DENV-3 Threat
Intensive vector control
100
DENV-1 Threat Intensive vector control
Intensive vector control
Predominant serotype switch
50
12 p
12
se
ay
11
12 m
Ja n
p
11
se
11
ay m
Ja n
10 p
10
se
ay
09
09
10 m
Ja n
p se
08
09
ay m
Ja n
p
08
se
07
07
08
ay m
Ja n
p se
ay
06
07 m
Ja n
p
06
se
ay
05
06 m
Ja n
p se
m
ay
05
05
0 Ja n
Number of cases
Use of iPhone Mobile Mozzie Microscope To save man-hours during the collection and identification of larval and adult mosquito samples, a recent innovation was created called the Mobile Mozzie Microscope. This apparatus is attached to an iPhone, which is used to photograph the samples, enabling them to be magnified to a size at which they can be identified. This results in both time and cost savings as sample bottles and transport time are no longer required. Using the simplified workflow, larval samples are collected and identified on site, and the results recorded on the VCS.
The time required to deploy 50 traps is about eight hours if done by two officers. Samples collected in the field are brought back to the office for identification and
2005 DENV-1 Outbreak
250
the results entered into the Vector Control System database.
issue 3
023
managing eCologiCal publiC health risKs
Stagnant water is checked for mosquito larvae
iphonE UsEd as mobilE microscopE The mosquito larvae identification process 1 Kill the selected larval sample using warm water 2 place the larval sample on the glass slide. the larval sample should be straight and the dorsal facing up. if the larva is still alive, kill it using a pin. if the larva is placed in a dorsal position, the officer will not be able to see its eyes and mouth. its end segment, the siphon, should be seen on top of the saddle 3 place the glass slide on top of a petri dish 4 place the petri dish on a matte white/ black background to give better lighting for the sample to be seen in microscope 5 attach mobile mozzie microscope (m3) to the smartphone 6 activate the phone’s camera mode 7 place the m3 on top of larval sample, adjusting the focus accordingly, so photographs can be taken 8 two photos are required for each larval sample. the first should focus on the head, antenna and thorax; the second, of the end segment, should show closeups of the siphon, saddle and comb scales
The environmental dimension Environmental parameters including the age of buildings in a locality, population density and vegetation index are taken into account in the risk assessment for dengue. The output is a map layer showing the relative disease transmission risks in different parts of the country which is used to plan control operations. Efforts are underway to develop computational models that would enable close to real-life generation of risk map layers. In totality, the new multifactorial risk assessment framework has enabled preventive vector control measures to be targeted way ahead of the onset of any outbreak, rather than merely reacting to outbreaks as they occur. Through coordination between operational vector control and laboratory case and virus surveillance, the ground effort is guided by robust scientific evidence. The future As the dengue virus continues to evolve and the mosquito vectors adapt to vector control regimes, research, understanding and innovation to combat the virus and vectors must continue. So far, the application of knowledge about the virus and mosquito vectors to pre-empt outbreaks has largely been successful. Research efforts and innovations have been possible with the support of the medical community, like-minded researchers, suppliers and the creative
024
input of staff. Since the disease knows no boundaries it is necessary to sustain this joint effort in the fight against dengue to ensure the situation remains under control.
thE painlEss way to diagnosE dEngUE imagine a world where dengue diagnosis is cost-effective, quick and painless. no needles, no blood-taking – with just a mouth swab a patient can be efficiently diagnosed for the disease. researchers at the ehi made this a reality in 2011 with the invention of a saliva-based test kit. the use of saliva as a diagnostic medium has been steadily attracting interest. the non-invasive nature of taking saliva is better accepted by patients, especially the young and the elderly. additionally, saliva samples take less effort to process than blood samples. saliva contains the same biomarkers as blood, namely the anti-dengue antibody (iga). this marker shows up early in a dengue infection and the prototype assay developed by ehi can achieve 70 per cent accuracy within the first three days of the onset of fever. if the patient is suffering from a second dengue infection, the detection rate is 100 per cent on the first day of fever onset.
A Thai boy is treated for severe dengue
managing eCologiCal publiC health risKs
UNItED AGAINSt thE DISEASE
dengue fever doesn’t respect national borders, meaning afflicted countries must pool their expertise and resources. at the third asiapacific dengue workshop, disease specialists from all over the world met to join forces and share their strategies for outbreak control
a
rEcord nUmbEr of delegates flocked to the third Asia-Pacific Dengue Workshop held in Singapore from 28 August to 6 September 2012. The event was jointly organised by the National Environment Agency (NEA), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) under the Singapore Cooperation Programme. It was attended by 68 participants from 24 countries represented by WHO Regional Offices, including nations in the WesternPacific, south-east Asia, the Mediterranean and, for the first time, Africa. Since its inauguration in 2009, the AsiaPacific Dengue Workshop series has been a key WHO-endorsed capacity-building programme supporting the Dengue Strategic Plan for the Asia-Pacific Region (2008-
2015), as well as the Asia-Pacific Strategy for Emerging Diseases (APSED 2005 and 2010). This year, lectures and practical sessions were designed to give a holistic view of dengue surveillance and control. They were organised into three dedicated parts to meet the specific training needs of the three participant groups: laboratory diagnosis of dengue, clinical management and field surveillance and control. Topical plenary sessions focusing on sharing of experience were also lined up to complement classes, the key themes of which were understanding how virus surveillance can provide early warning signs of outbreaks, leveraging intersectoral linkages in the fight against dengue and extending the linkages in dengue control beyond borders. A new cross-border partnership was also launched to better manage the disease internationally.
cross-border partnership to tackle dengue At the event, efforts to tackle dengue in south-east Asia received a massive boost. Formally launched on 28 August 2012 by NEA CEO Andrew Tan, Datuk Dr Lokman Hakim Suleiman, on behalf of the Director-General of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia and Dr Werry Darta Taifur, President and Rector of Andalas University, Padang, West Sumatra, the UNITEDengue (UNited in Tackling Epidemic Dengue) network was created to facilitate cross-border sharing of information related to dengue surveillance and control – the first database of its kind in the region. The sharing of such a database marks a move beyond the usual research and ad hoc information-sharing. It is anticipated that the network will improve timely sensing of the dengue situation, regional capacity-building issue 3
025
managing eCologiCal publiC health risKs
Participants also had the opportunity to work with counterparts from the same countries and others working in different areas of dengue control. They were equipped with the necessary communication skills to support their intersectoral engagements during the workshop and introduced to the communication for behavioural impact (COMBI) approach by Dr Linda Lloyd, a COMBI consultant with the WHO and the Pan-American Health Office (PAHO).
Senior officials from Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia launching UNITEDengue
for surveillance and regional capacitybuilding for dengue control. UNITEDengue’s current members are NEA, MOH Malaysia and Andalas University, Indonesia. It was one of the prominent results of the highly successful series of Asia-Pacific Dengue Workshops. Under UNITEDengue, member institutions will: l share dengue incidence and virus data to improve situational awareness and provide early warning of potential outbreaks via a web portal; l build capability and exchange technology to enhance laboratory capacity for diagnostics and virus surveillance; l share knowledge through workshops and regular communication, particularly on new vector control technologies such as Aedes mosquitoes, developed to suppress the natural population and those developed to resist dengue infection.
“WoRkShop SESSIoNS FocUSED oN thE ADoptIoN oF RApID DENGUE DIAGNoSIS FoR EARLy cASE DEtEctIoN to StRENGthEN oUtBREAk RESpoNSE” To better appreciate the need for intersectoral linkages, workshop participants were organised into groups with others from similar countries. They were presented with changing case scenarios and asked to identify the types of linkages needed to respond to the alerted circumstances. More importantly, they were also asked how to develop them if they did not already exist.
Pre-emptive measures Often, dengue control efforts involve chasing the virus after it has hit a certain area. To rectify this, Singapore identifies geographic focus areas as an important tactic for fighting against the disease. This approach hones in on the potential for higher risk of the virus spreading, using factors such as the age of the building and population density. To help the workshop participants understand the importance of these geographic focus areas, lectures on dengue control and general theories of mosquito surveillance were held. Participants also gained hands-on experience with the Geographic Information System, Global Positioning System and Ecological Surveillance – all aimed at bringing relevant technology into vector control. Workshop sessions focused on the adoption of rapid dengue diagnosis for early case detection to strengthen outbreak response and leveraging existing laboratory capability to establish a virus surveillance programme to provide early warning signs of outbreaks. This essentially involves sequencing and comparing genomes of circulating virus strains and watching out for the emergence and establishment of uncommon virus types, to which the local human population may have little herd
To mark the milestone, parties signed a UNITEDengue poster signifying commitment toward setting up a local surveillance system, contributing data and facilitating and developing a mutually beneficial cooperation for dengue control. Leveraging intersectoral linkages in the fight against dengue Beyond UNITEDengue, it is increasingly recognised globally that dengue control is no longer the sole responsibility of the health sector. In fact, more than ever, it involves the collaboration of a myriad of stakeholders, both public and private.
026
Workshop participants heard from a variety of experts and took part in many hands-on activities
immunity. Such information can then be used to guide timely vector control intervention. The participants were given a glimpse of the power of bioinformatics and phylogenetic analysis, the key capabilities underpinning the virus surveillance programme. Singapore’s virus surveillance involves monitoring of viral serotypes and genotypes to provide early warning, allowing up to six months’ lead time to implement the two cornerstones of effective dengue control: source reduction measures and garnering community effort. Effective approaches to manage outbreaks Another important thrust of the workshop was handling outbreak situations, which involves reactive vector control to tackle increasing case numbers. One effective approach is to group dengue cases into clusters, enabling resources to be deployed more effectively. Another focus was on close monitoring to gain a real-time understanding of the dengue and mosquito situations on the ground. This included sessions on diagnostics in which participants became familiar with diagnostic kits. This was of particular interest to those who had never been in a laboratory setting before. The workshop session on vector colonisation increased understanding of
Ng Lee Ching, Director of NEA’s Environmental Health Institute, urges more collaboration to enhance disease prevention
two important areas – mosquito control and legislation affecting the administration of dengue programmes, particularly during an outbreak. There was also a talk on pesticide formulation and application. Approaches to mosquito control and pesticide use vary by country. On an international basis, though, there is constant communication and interaction with external bodies. For example, the WHO assists in setting guidelines and procedures in its role as a governing body. WHO Collaborating
Centres provide technical and specialist information on a more local basis. A useful exercise Participants expressed greater satisfaction with the third workshop than with those of previous years’. Beyond spreading technical knowledge, many partnerships were forged during the workshops. Participants’ appreciation of the comprehensive training was evident from discussions and the positive feedback generated from the event.
thE combi approach many public health interventions require an individual change of behaviour in order to achieve the desired outcomes. unfortunately, it is a common pitfall for public health practitioners to attach greater importance to raising awareness than to effecting behavioural change. it is with this in mind that the world health organization has advocated Combi, the acronym for Commmunication for behavioural impact, as a possible tool to facilitate behavioural change. Combi is a broad integration of social mobilisation, communication, strategic planning and behavioural evaluation. getting every house occupant to prevent dengue by removing stagnant water is an action that is particularly attuned to the Combi
1) identify clearly the specific behavioural objectives. the message “throw away the water in your vase” is not useful as it neither specifies the frequency nor the method of cleaning the vase as two important considerations.
approach, which is why the nea invited dr linda lloyd, a Combi consultant with the pan-american health office and the world health organization, to give her take on Combi to participants. she gave three examples of communicating the Combi way:
2) situational analysis is necessary to define the behavioural and communication objectives. this takes into account why the target audience does or does not exhibit the desired behaviour, and the value the target audience attaches to the proposed behaviour. a good understanding of the cultural and social norms of the country is necessary to ensure the deployment of the appropriate communication strategies to
ensure that the behavioural change would be sustainable. 3) develop a comprehensive communications plan to allow the effectiveness of the intervention to be monitored and evaluated, for example through the number and/or size of dengue outbreaks. in closing, dr lloyd reminded the participants that Combi is a planning tool that blends theory and practice to facilitate behavioural change and therefore must be used correctly. if it does not work it may be necessary to modify the steps, but more importantly it requires proper resources in terms of staff and funding, and support from government and other agencies.
issue 3
027
disasters and environmental publiC health
chRIStchURch IN cRISIS when a devastating earthquake struck new Zealand’s south island, community and public health services responded swiftly to minimise the spread of disease. how did their actions avert further tragedies and influence planning for future emergencies?
Contributors Hamish Sandison emergency preparedness protection team community and public health
028
dr Rebecca dell public health medicine registrar
dr Alistair Humphrey medical officer of health for canterbury
dr daniel williams medical officer of health for sc/Ashburton, incident controller
o
n 22 fEbrUary 2011, at 12:51pm, a 6.3-magnitude earthquake struck New Zealand’s Canterbury region, killing 185 people and causing widespread damage to Christchurch, the country’s second-largest city. Although the quake was of a smaller magnitude than the one that hit the area six months previously, the human and environmental toll was far higher. This was due to a combination of factors, including location, depth, time of day, damage from the previous earthquake and the very high peak ground acceleration (PGA), a measure of how hard the earth shakes in a given geographical area. Extensive liquefaction occurred, as well as landslips and rock falls in the Port Hills. Emergency responses were quickly established at the Regional Emergency Coordination Centre (ECC), Christchurch City Council (CCC) and Waimakariri and Selwyn district councils. Civil defence emergencies were declared in each district, and a national state of emergency was declared on 23 February. From 25 February, when it was apparent that the earthquake had primarily affected the Christchurch city area, the Regional Emergency Coordination Centre was moved to Christchurch Art Gallery with CCC Emergency Operations Centre (EOC), with John Hamilton as the national controller and the other EOCs downgraded. Urban search and rescue teams, defence force personnel, including those who were in Lyttelton Harbour at the time of the quake, and Australian police quickly arrived in the city. Community and Public Health is the division of Canterbury District Health Board
Public health officials coordinating responses to the earthquake
responsible for public health emergency responses in Canterbury, South Canterbury and the West Coast. Its building at 76 Chester Street East sustained damage in the quake and was immediately evacuated. The Community and Public Health EOC was established in Christchurch Women’s Hospital with liaison staff initially deployed to both
citiEs affEctEd by major EarthQUakEs Date Local time (h) Magnitude PGA (g) Urban population affected ‡ Urban area affected (km2) ‡ Population density affected (n/km2) ‡ Numbers injured Numbers killed
Bam (Iran)10-13 dec 26, 2003 05.26 6.6-6.7 0.87-0.98
Christchurch (New Zealand) feb, 22, 2011 12.51 6.3 1.8-2.2
Kobe (Japan)14 Jan 17, 1995 05.46 7.2 0.82
Los Angeles (USA)6-9 Jan 17, 1994 04.30 6.7 1.0-1.78
Port-au-Prince (Haiti)4-5 Jan 12, 2010 16.53 7.0 <0.1-1.24
97,000
450,000
1,500,000
14,500,000
3,000,000
19.5
864
1,800
1,200
38
5,000 30,000 26,000
520 66,595 1,825
2,500 >36,000 5,488
12,000 5,000 72
79,000 300,000 230,000
pga=peak ground accelerations, ranges are for horizontal and vertical accelarations, 1g=9.81m/s2. *northridge earthquake. †population affected by the Christchurch earthquake includes several satellite towns. ‡approximate values. snumbers for the first 24h. source: the lancet
Group Emergency Coordination Centres at Environment Canterbury and Christchurch City Council EOC, and the combined Civil Defence Emergency Management ECC. CPH telephone and fax lines were diverted to Public Health South, Dunedin, which triaged and coordinated responses. Police cordoned off Christchurch’s severely damaged central business district. Some parts of the cordon were lifted progressively from 6 March 2011, but the line around the central zone remains in place. Large parts of Christchurch lost power, water and sewerage and, although system failures have lessened recently, with power restored to almost all properties outside the district, large numbers of residents have been without essential utilities for prolonged periods. key earthquake-related threats Canterbury Civil Defence Emergency Management (CDEM) Group Plan 20052010 had predicted a 99 per cent likelihood of a 6.0 magnitude anywhere in the Canterbury region within 75 years. Despite this, the public seemed to be much more aware of the Alpine Fault, which is further west. It came as quite a shock to the vast majority of people in Christchurch when the September 2010 and February 2011 earthquakes struck. issue 3
029
disasters and environmental publiC health
Liquefaction silt on city roads following the earthquake
Research into the risks posed by tsunamis to the Christchurch coastline indicates that the most serious threat would be from a distant-source tsunami, probably one originating off the west coast of Chile. This means authorities and communities would have about 12 hours to prepare for its arrival; adequate time to evacuate areas likely to be affected. Since the September 2010 earthquake, a number of fault lines have been identified off the shore of Christchurch. Some currently produce frequent smaller-scale aftershocks from the February 22, 2011 earthquake which can be as big as 4.5 magnitude. It is thought unlikely that any of these local underwater faults could generate a tsunami that would inundate the coastal communities; nevertheless, Christchurch City Council has recently installed sirens along an extensive stretch of coastline spanning north and south of the city. Modelling has identified areas of likely inundation should a sizeable tsunami
030
occur and a Regional Tsunami Plan is nearing completion. Community and Public Health will also formulate a tsunami plan. Earthquakes and public health standard operating procedures and structures Community and Public Health (C&PH), a Division of Canterbury District Health Board, is required by the Civil Defence Emergency Management Act (2002) to create emergency preparedness and response plans. It is also a partner agency within the Canterbury CDEM Group. By implication, C&PH is also required to have emergency preparedness and response plans at the ready. The Medical Officers of Health and Health Protection Officers working at C&PH also have considerable legislative powers and obligations under the Health Act 1956 and the Epidemic Preparedness Act 2006. Accordingly, C&PH had a generic emergency response plan in place with
respect to the four Rs â&#x20AC;&#x201C; risk reduction, readiness, response and recovery. Various specific communicable disease plans and protocols sit beneath this. The generic emergency plan states that C&PH will adopt the national standard Coordinated Incident Management System during responses to emergency situations. This structure basically involves a medical officer of health taking on the role of public health incident controller, overseeing six cells comprising operations, planning and intelligence, logistics, welfare, public information management and liaison with CDHB and CDEM partner agencies. The operations cell comprised a team leader who organised and coordinated the activities of the health protection officers. They acted either as liaison personnel in the Civil Christchurch City Council and District Council EOCs or as operators in the field, carrying out water sampling, dealing with public health problems arising from
liquefaction and effecting public health duties at welfare centres, among other tasks. The planning and intelligence team comprised a public health physician and medical officer who were experts in epidemiology, public health analysts and an information technology analyst. The public health planning and intelligence team had gained experience during the influenza pandemic of 2009 and was so well attuned to the task in hand that it produced useful intelligence not just for C&PH but also for Christchurch City Council. Planning post-disaster public health The emergency response plan includes procedures for handling communicable diseases; potability of water supplies; food hygiene; sewage disposal; waste disposal; sanitary burial of the dead; residential and emergency accommodation, home inspection and flooding; hazardous substances control and disposal; ionising radiation; disposal of dead animals, including pets; and pest control. All procedures are derived either from the Ministry of Health’s Emergency Management Response and Planning Guide, its Environmental Health Protection Manual, its Radiation Health Handbook or the WHO publication Environmental Health in Emergencies and Disasters (2002). Safeguarding public health in the earthquake’s aftermath A number of environmental public health problems resulted from the earthquake, some more serious than others. In terms of potable water, the area’s reticulated water system was damaged and supplies to many areas of the city cut off. After they were restored, pressure drops indicated leaks that corresponded, in many areas, with known sewer damage, so water tankers were provided. Many came from the dairy industry, requiring standard water tanker licensing procedures to be waived; a communication plan was developed around this. A notice to boil water was issued for both reticulated and tanker supplies, and public health staff were assisted in water testing, predominantly by NZ Defence. The city council started to chlorinate water supplies, although it took eight weeks to reach acceptable levels. With sewers broken, a communication plan was developed to advise people how to dispose of waste. Many households dug open latrines. Some people disposed of sewage using plastic ‘wheelie bins,’ normally used for refuse – a
measure accepted by the City Council as the landfill is appropriately sealed and can take sewage. The logistics of using portable and chemical toilets was accessed. No major concerns were raised about general waste disposal. An enhanced surveillance system for enteric diseases was established, coordinated and run by the public health services to limit transmission. No increase in enteric disease was detected; this was attributed to diligent water boiling and hand washing by the Christchurch community. Food hygiene is generally handled by NZ Food Safety Authority but in the areas affected by the disaster guidance was also provided by C&PH staff. Advice on handling minor chemical spills and hazardous
“It cAmE AS qUItE A Shock to thE vASt mAjoRIty oF pEopLE IN chRIStchURch WhEN thE SEptEmBER 2010 AND FEBRUARy 2011 EARthqUAkES StRUck”
substances associated with the earthquake was dealt with by the fire service in the usual manner. A mortuary was established at Burnham Army Camp in conjunction with local pathologists; the input of public health officials was minor. Home inspection was coordinated and carried out by the National Incident Controller. Public health staff had no input here, but did advise on the suitability of emergency accommodation for people whose homes were affected by the disaster. The Medical Officer of Health used emergency powers to close one emergency accommodation centre as it did not have a potable water supply. One unexpected challenge was liquefaction silt – the sheer loss of strength in ground material saturated by moisture and destabilised by stresses such as earthquake shocks. There was no public health planning or preparation for it but approximately 400,000 tons of silt were removed from Christchurch after the 22 February earthquake and large aftershocks. Information on handling it was prepared and distributed, and a number of studies by Environmental Science and Research (ESR) was commissioned to establish any risks. A ‘student army’ drawn from nearby universities helped to remove silt with assistance from heavy machinery provided by farmers from out of town.
An example of internal disorder caused by tremors and aftershocks
issue 3
031
disasters and environmental publiC health
Preparation, practice and experience Both the community and responding agencies were generally well prepared for the February earthquake. This is attributable to a number of factors: l There was full participation in influenza pandemic Exercise Cruickshank in 2007 and lessons learned from the emergency response to the 2009 influenza pandemic were implemented. l Staff were also well practised in their roles as a result of their involvement in the September 2010 earthquake – most had attended EOC training provided by Civil Defence. l Close collaboration between health and Civil Defence emergency management around pandemic preparation meant responders at a regional level knew each other on a first-name basis. l Excellent communication plans on pandemic and other emergency preparedness were delivered to the Canterbury community – a result of regular preparation exercises. l The emergency powers of the medical officer of health and health protection officers were understood and recognised by regional agencies, and acted on efficiently and promptly. l Staff were highly professional in the execution of their duties. l Medical officers of health and health protection officers had undertaken professional development activities, regularly attending Ministry of Health training courses and relevant conferences. l Good networking by medical officers of health, health protection officers and emergency planners resulted in excellent relationships with CDEM partner agencies. l At an early stage, arrangements were made for Public Health South to adopt a ‘business as usual’ approach, enabling health protection officers to concentrate on emergency response work.
Public health officials in one of their daily briefings
Tough lessons learned from the crisis As in any emergency, some aspects of the response were poorly anticipated. The importance of health representation at a national level was not initially recognised, but intervention by the Minister of Health addressed this. It is critical that health is strongly represented at every level of emergency planning, response and recovery. Where sewerage was damaged, especially in an urban environment, rapid access and equitable distribution of an alternative system must be established. Portaloos were acquired
Cumulative invasive pneumococcal desease notification in Christchurch City TLA 2009-10, average, 2011 and 2012: January – 30 August (week 34)
Rates per 100,000 population
Notifications
40 Average 2009-10 30 20 10 0 4
7
10
13
16
19
22
25
Surveillance week
032
28
31
Environmental public health outcomes Of potential public health threats, only invasive pneumococcal disease increased
Age rates of Christchurch City TLA invasive pneumococcal disease notifications 2009–2010 average, 2011 and 2012: January – 30 August
50
1
from all over the Pacific but distribution in the city was occasionally uneven. Recovery is a very difficult exercise to practice; however, it has been the Canterbury community’s biggest challenge. Public health is unique in its involvement in every recovery environment – social, economic, cultural, natural and built. As such, it has a key role to play to prevent a fragmented recovery.
34
60 50
2 cases
40
Average 2009-10
30
2011 20
2012
10 0 <1
1-4
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-29
30-39
Age (years)
40-49
50-59
60-69
70+
significantly in the Christchurch City Local Authority after the 22 February earthquake. But, although the increase to the end of the year was 52 per cent higher than the 2009-10 average, this represented only 19 cases. The 2011 rates were not particularly elevated compared with other district health boards around the country, being the seventh highest in New Zealand that year. The increase was not sustained in 2012 with cumulative notifications to 30 August below even the 2009-10 average. Enteric notifications were monitored closely because of the fragile water and sewerage reticulation system. An initial spike in reported cases of unconfirmed non-specific gastroenteritis in the weeks following the earthquake was due to the logistical difficulties of obtaining specimens, a heightened awareness of the risks and disruption to laboratory services. 22 Feb to 21 March
2011
Average 2008-2010
total enteric notifications
141
124
notifications confirmed
54%
94%
43%
8%
% of notifications due to non-specific gastroenteritis4
Canterbury enteric notifications, 22 February to 21 March: 2008–2010 average and 2011
2008-2010 average 2011
Notifications
20 15 10 5
24 mar
22 mar
20 mar
18 mar
16 mar
14 mar
12 mar
8 mar
10 mar
6 mar
4 mar
2 mar
26 Feb
24 Feb
22 Feb
0
Cumulative Canterbury enteric notifications, 22 February to 21 March 2011 compared to the average for the same time 2008–2011
140 2008-2010 average 2011
Notifications
120 100 80 60 40 20
20 mar
18 mar
16 mar
14 mar
12 mar
8 mar
10 mar
6 mar
4 mar
2 mar
28 Feb
26 Feb
24 Feb
22 Feb
0
After the quake Three key debriefs were carried out with C&PH management and medical officers of health, health protection officers in C&PH EOC and at Christchurch City Council EOC, and at District Council EOCs, and health protection officers and health promotion staff in the field.
The centre of Christchurch and many historic buildings were heavily affected
Operational highlights l Staff demonstrated adaptability and flexibility by working in a variety of locations and roles. l Relocation of EOC to Christchurch Women’s Hospital because of earthquake damage to the C&PH building took place with minimal disruption to the operational response and fostered improved working relationships with Christchurch Hospital EOC because of its close proximity, resulting in a very workable EOC configuration which should be replicated in the new building in the event of future emergencies. l Liaison officers appointed to Christchurch Council and District EOCs were well chosen in respect of their professional status, qualifications and experience. In addition, all had attended CDEM EOC training courses. l Existing relationships with CDEM partner agencies facilitated good interagency cooperation, strengthening the response. l The CIMS structure functioned effectively. Staff were well practised as a result of having attended CDEM EOC training courses and gained experience during the H1N1 influenza response. l Staff duty rosters, time off duty, meal provisions and welfare were well managed. l Excellent briefings by the alternating incident controllers enabled the support personnel from throughout the region to easily adapt to the situation.
l Pertinent
and timely media releases, coupled with effective online health advice and the willingness of medical officers of health to be interviewed for radio and television contributed significantly to the fact that no outbreaks of communicable disease occurred.
Areas for improvement l Insufficient use was made of the WebEOC IT application. Instead, IT systems were inundated by e-mails, creating the potential for inefficiency or ineffectiveness. The new EMIS Esponder IT application should resolve this. l No role description forms were provided for C&PH liaison officers. l Under-utilisation of C&PH staff. The majority of non-medical workers, and no health protection officer personnel, were utilised during the response, although some had qualifications or training that would have been useful. Others could have acted as drivers or held other supporting roles. Recommended corrective actions l Laminated copies of role descriptions for C&PH liaison officers and other roles will be issued to relevant personnel at outset of future emergencies, as per the revised Emergency Response Plan. l They should be inserted promptly into the operations and logistics manager role specifications. issue 3
033
a day in the life
thE FRoNt LINES
from maintaining food hygiene to tackling the spread of vectorborne illness, singapore’s public health officers confront numerous risks to residents’ health. ENVISION meets the people who safeguard the city-state’s urban environment THE OPERATIONS MANAGER The sky is a dull grey as senior manager Thurainadan Govindarajoo arrives at work. It’s just 6am but Nadan, as his crew call him, has come in early to tackle a daunting list of emails at the NEA South East Regional Office. In 18 years of service Nadan has witnessed a wide variety of sanitation and vector control challenges. From dengue clusters to SARS scares, nuisance cats to high-rise littering complaints, no two days are the same. “We work in an incredibly dynamic environment, especially when it comes to vector control,” he said. “Citizens are increasingly vocal and involved with the nature of our work. We are receiving an increasingly wide range of public feedback made possible by smartphone apps and referrals from the call centre.” After a briefing about a high-rise littering complaint, Nadan is off to supervise a dengue preventative surveillance operation in the conservation zone of Joo Chiat. The team recently busted a dengue cluster which had affected hundreds of people. But mosquitoes are a recalcitrant threat, making ongoing preventative efforts vital. “The population needs to understand that dengue prevention is a shared responsibility,” he said. “We can handle areas outside but, behind closed doors, people need to manage residential risks that can affect everyone. “Mosquitoes breeding at a single household can spread the disease to an entire neighbourhood. As a result, a lot of our time is spent educating people on the important role they play in stopping dengue.” Public health officers must implement deterrents that last. “Gutters need to be sloped so water doesn’t stagnate and provide a breeding ground for mosquitoes,” he said.
034
Thurainadan Govindarajoo
“If these permanent changes aren’t enacted, preventative actions are only temporary and clusters can re-emerge.” As Nadan arrives, staff are already setting up equipment. Sprayers kill larvae in gutters and drains, while fogging machines are used around vegetation and can eliminate adult swarms to a height of about three metres. The team moves from door to door, checking external fixtures such as storm drains and flowerpots and, where permitted, surveying homes. “We sometimes encounter situations where homeowners hesitate to let us inspect the property. Once again, educating people persuasively about the risks of dengue is crucial,” he said. “Residents are often surprised when we find breeding sites in places such as fountains, ponds and even children’s play equipment.” Backyards and balconies often provide ideal conditions for mosquito breeding; debris, flowerpots and poorly maintained yards can substantially increase the risks.
Even the most house-proud people can overlook hazards. “We once had a case in which eggs and larvae survived in a vase of bamboo, despite the owner having changed the water,” Nadan said. “We had to show them how to wash the stems to ensure the vector was eliminated. “They were a bit surprised to learn how resilient mosquitoes are. It takes discipline to do things properly but, thankfully, not too long once it becomes part of a routine.” A special calling By midday the humidity is peaking but the team is still hard at work. It has many buildings to survey and must utilise industrial endoscopes to survey inaccessible structures. Sometimes, they can spend a week or more tackling breeding sites in a single district. Public health officers are equipped with cameras and tablet computers, enabling them to send their findings to a central database while on the move.
managing eCologiCal publiC health risKs
Singapore environmental public health officers check storm drains for signs of mosquito breeding
issue 3
035
a day in the life
He added: “Technology has made our investigations easier but it is still time consuming to get the job done.” “With handheld devices and camera equipment, we can enter much of the information while in the field, and this is a great time saver.” Nadan said he was first exposed to environmental public health work as a child, as his uncle worked in a similar role. “He would tell me stories when I was growing up about the work he did, and it really interested me. “When inspectors would come to our housing estate when I was a boy, I’d follow them around watching their investigations. I was intrigued.” After trying various lines of work, his youthful curiosity evolved into a career. “Working closely with residents is really meaningful,” he said. “Once, we encountered a woman whose daughter had come down with dengue and had to be hospitalised shortly before she was due to take the PSLE exam at school. “The mother was absolutely distraught at the situation, worried for her child’s survival and future at such a critical time. Having children of my own, I could totally empathise with her.” For Nadan, the challenges of the job are what keeps him engaged. “We have to work closely as one community to stop diseases like dengue,” he said. “I like serving people and there is nothing more satisfying than knowing I’ve stopped a disease from spreading.”
036
KT Vishnu
THE fIELd INSPEcTOR Lapses in food hygiene are an ever-present danger. Whether the risk comes from an illegal caterer or a street-vendor curry left outside for too long, keeping tabs on what people eat is vital to safeguarding public wellbeing. It’s just passed noon and, on the other side of the island, environmental health executive KT Vishnu is returning to the NEA SouthWest Regional Office after a morning touring food outlets. “Keeping food licensees at an acceptable benchmark of performance is an ongoing education process,” Vishnu said. “Awareness of expectations with food handling can be an issue. Most people are adaptable, but sometimes a lack of supervision at the outlets can cause problems. “If the education approach doesn’t work, we have to move on to enforcement.” Vishnu’s hygiene portfolio covers routine inspections, handling smoking complaints, checking swimming pools and following up public feedback on incidents of food poisoning. He is also responsible for grading about 350 establishments. As inspections are not conducted at lunchtime, Vishnu uses this period to catch up on casework. The afternoon will involve several more inspections. Food licensees who breach public health rules are penalised using a system of points similar to ones issued to errant drivers. Breaches range from failing to display licences to serious pest infestations or touching food with bare hands. While
licensed caterers must follow guidelines, are inspected regularly and have their products time-stamped, their illegal counterparts often ignore such formalities. “Food poisoning outbreaks have happened when these illegal operators target migrant worker dormitories,” Vishnu added. “They cut all kinds of corners that result in people getting very sick. These operators sometimes use expired ingredients and illegal, untrained workers.” Unlicensed premises are often raided, frequently with the help of other government entities including the Ministry of Health, the Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore and the Ministry of Manpower.
“tAkING thE tImE to GIvE ADvIcE AND ASSIStANcE cAN hELp AN opERAtoR ImpRovE AND mAINtAIN thEIR StAtUS ovER tImE. WE FIND thAt BEING FRIENDLy AND tRyING to commUNIcAtE WIth pEopLE USING EvERyDAy LANGUAGE GoES A LoNG WAy”
stratEgiEs for sUccEss
A busy schedule By mid-afternoon, Vishnu is back on the beat, conducting a spot check of a restaurant in the Clementi Mall. After identifying themselves to managers, he and his public health officer survey the premises, from the food licence at the front counter to food preparation areas, the kitchen and dining rooms. Once Vishnu is satisfied, he shares his recommendations with the head chef and the restaurant manager, who states that the company is seeking HACCP Certification for food safety. “This particular restaurant is one of the better ones we see. In fact, they’ve made good
hygiene one of their key selling points,” he said. “Taking the time to give advice and assistance can help an operator improve and maintain their status over time. We find that being friendly and trying to communicate with people using everyday language goes a long way.” Vishnu saves the details of the review into his handheld computer, which synchronises it with the database. Then the phone rings. “We’ve got to go check out a potential food poisoning case at a restaurant,” he says, as he and his officer pack up. It is now late afternoon and the investigation will probably last well beyond the official end of his working day.
Visual presentation: reassure the public by being professionally dressed and in uniform confidence and professionalism: be steadfast in dealing with public feedback and explaining the situation; express confidence in body language, appear focused and speak convincingly. body language: use gestures to make the conversation more effective. for example, when a handshake greeting is done the officer should do it in a warm manner and not perfunctorily. knowledge: familiarise oneself with brief information of the situation including previous complaints, follow-up actions and other contextual details where possible before meeting a member of the public. provide people a courteous recap of the facts rather than displaying authority. Verbal communication: show empathy and respect for the people, and in a way that’s appropriate for the situation, e.g. it may need to be done firmly in the case of enforcement or contientously in a house-to-house investigation; observe proper decorum and etiquette at all times. display attentiveness and patience, and listen to issues. conciseness and clarity: make clear introduction of oneself and the agency, explain with simple, plain english the purpose of a visit, slow down and present their points one-by-one so they can be understood, take time to clarify any details or language where needed and avoid the use of jargon. ensure questions are answered without rushing and that any doubts are clarified. Providing guidance: in the first instance, inform any resident or occupier of a house the positive aspects seen in their case (e.g. the flower-vase is kept clean without any breeding); only near the end of his conversation tell the resident/occupier the unpleasant or negative aspects (e.g. overgrown vegetation at the backyard that could cause harbourage of adult mosquitoes) and potential repercussions (e.g. fines for repeat offenders). Objectivity: when dealing with representatives of organisations or premises like factories, community centres, schools, etc., be objective in approaches and discussions, and where possible, demonstrate the intention of inspection is not to find fault or to penalise, but rather educate. follow-up: after providing education while on site, follow up with written reminder and additional info if needed.
issue 3
037
up in the air
20/20 vISIoN
singapore has adopted tough new air quality targets it must achieve within the next eight years. how will it meet this considerable challenge?
038
a
sUitE of mEasUrEs intended to achieve higher national air quality standards will be implemented by 2020, the Singapore Government has announced. The Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources will adopt the World Health Organization Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) for particulate matter 10 (PM10), nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and ozone – and the AQG’s Interim Targets for PM2.5 and sulphur dioxide – as Singapore’s air quality targets for 2020. The move follows the government’s acceptance of recommendations made by the Advisory Committee on Ambient Air Quality.
It is hoped the targets, enforced by the National Environment Agency (NEA), will enable Singapore to achieve a higher standard of public health and economic competitiveness. NEA will increase the reporting frequency of five key pollutants in the ambient air. Levels of PM10, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide will be recorded three times daily, as opposed to once per day, using the Pollutant Standards Index (PSI). The presence of PM2.5 will also be assessed. Air quality roadmap Singapore enjoys better-quality air than
many cities in Asia, on a par with that in US and European cities. It has also fared well with the PSI, falling into the ‘good’ range during 96 per cent of 2011. Like many urban areas, air emissions from industry and motor vehicles are the two key sources of domestic air pollution. Transboundary haze from land and forest fires elsewhere in the region also affects air quality intermittently, during the south-west monsoon period from August to October. Integrated urban and industrial planning, as well as development control, enabled the government to implement preventive air pollution control measures during the
issue 3
039
up in the air
“LEGISLAtIoN, StRIct ENFoRcEmENt AND AIR qUALIty moNItoRING hAvE hELpED to ENSURE thAt AIR qUALIty REmAINS GooD DESpItE oUR DENSE URBAN DEvELopmENt AND LARGE INDUStRIAL BASE” planning stage. In addition, legislation, strict enforcement and air quality monitoring have helped to ensure that air quality remains good despite our dense urban development and large industrial base. To work toward attaining even higher air quality targets by 2020, NEA has put together a roadmap with a set of abatement measures to achieve sustainable growth and development while maintaining public health and economic competitiveness. This is aligned with the Sustainable Singapore Blueprint (SSB) launched in 2009, with the target to achieve an annual mean of 15µg/m3 of sulphur dioxide and 12µg/m3 of PM2.5 by 2020. The new air quality targets, which are pegged to WHO AQGs, will be aligned with these SSB targets. The final WHO AQGs for PM2.5 and sulphur dioxide will be Singapore’s longterm targets. Enhanced air quality reporting NEA also recognises the need to update the public on air quality more frequently to help them plan their daily activities. Since 24 August 2012, the PSI has been reported at three times daily, at 8am, noon and 4pm. In addition, NEA makes PM2.5 levels available alongside the PSI readings at these timings. The PSI readings and PM2.5 levels are reported according to the five regions of Singapore – North, South, East, West and Central. Health advice for the public is also issued by region. During periods of transboundary haze, NEA will continue to provide hourly updates on air quality.
040
singaporE ambiEnt air QUality targEts Pollutant sulphur dioxide
Singapore targets by 2020 24-hour mean: 50µg/m3 (who interim target)
Long-term targets 24-hour mean: 20µg/m3 (who final)
annual mean: 15µg/m3 (sustainable singapore blueprint target) particulate matter (2.5)
annual mean: 12µg/m3 (sustainable singapore blueprint target)
annual mean: 10µg/m3
24-hour mean: 37.5µg/m3 (who interim target)
24-hour mean: 25µg/m3 (who final)
particulate matter (10)
annual mean: 20µg/m3 24-hour mean: 50µg/m3 (who final)
ozone
eight-hour mean: 100µg/m3 (who final)
nitrogen dioxide
annual mean: 40µg/m3 one-hour mean: 200µg/m3 (who final)
carbon monoxide
eight-hour mean: 10mg/m3 one-hour mean: 30mg/m3 (who final)
sUmmary of abatEmEnt mEasUrEs Pollutant sulphur dioxide
Measures from July 2013, nea will mandate the supply of near sulphur-free diesel (nsfd) with a sulphur content of 0.001 per cent to pave the way for euro v emission standards for diesel vehicles and further reduce so2 emissions from diesel vehicles and industries. by 1 october 2013, nea will mandate cleaner petrol for motor vehicles with sulphur content lower than 0.005 per cent to pave the way for the euro iv emission standards. this will also reduce hC and nox1 , which give rise to ozone. nea, together with edb, will work with refineries to improve their processes and decrease their so2 emissions. power stations are also working towards using cleaner fuels for their energy needs in order to lower their so2 emissions. as power stations and other industrial areas switch to the use of cleaner fuels to reduce so2, there will be a simultaneous reduction in other pollutants including pm2.5.
particulate matter (2.5 + 10)
from July 2013, nsfd with sulphur content of less than 0.001 per cent will be mandatory for motor vehicles and industries. by 1 January 2014, the euro iv emissions standards will give way to the stricter euro v emission standards for all new diesel vehicles registered. the particulate emissions of euro v diesel passenger cars are significantly lower than those of euro iv diesel cars.
ozone
from 1 april 2014, new petrol vehicles must comply with euro iv emission standards.
3. ozone is not directly emitted but is formed through complex chemical reactions involving hydrocarbons (hC) and nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (nox) in the presence of sunlight. hC and nox emitted from cars, industries, power stations and refineries are precursors for ozone formation.
up in the air
GLoBAL pERSpEctIvES oN AIR qUALIty
Air pollution over Mexico City
Carrie macdougall is a Colorado-based air quality professional with over 25 years’ experience. ENVISION magazine taps her expertise on the global state of the atmosphere To what extent has the US won industry support for its air quality policy? The level of success depends on the policy and on the industries. The government recently had some setbacks on carbon monoxide limits for industrial boilers it was trying to impose. The targets were so low that industry didn’t believe it could meet them, resulting in quite a fight. Different industry groups worked together with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to argue that they couldn’t meet the targets and the EPA took that on board.
Industry compliance varies from facility to facility but, most of the time, if the EPA and facilities can come to a cost-effective technological solution the changes can be implemented fairly quickly. Usually, the more flexibility industry has when meeting standards, the harder it will try to meet them. A matter of not being too prescriptive? Exactly, and money is obviously an issue. If measures are cost-effective in terms of dollars per tonne of emissions reduced, industry is likely to invest in them.
what’s the US state of play on regulating greenhouse gas emissions? Many questions linger about how to deal with greenhouse gases. In the US in particular, there tends to be a sense of denial that climate change is taking place, perhaps more so than in other areas of the world. There’s the expectation that we need to take on a very expensive programme to tackle greenhouse gases and many companies are not as supportive of targets as their counterparts in other parts of the world. issue 3
041
up in the air
Busan, South Korea
from the US perspective, what are the most pressing air quality issues? Ground-level ozone tends to have the greatest impact in the largest areas. Particulate numbers are down and are doing well throughout the US. Sulphur oxides and nitrous oxide levels are falling and carbon monoxide levels have been very low since the introduction of catalytic converters to automobiles. The cleaner the car, the lower the carbon monoxide levels. do catalytic converters still make vehicles less fuel efficient? It has improved over time. There is a slight drop in fuel efficiency but the benefit of the reduction in carbon monoxide outweighs the environmental impact of greater fuel use. Cap and trade legislation was proposed to set annual limits on emissions and firms
042
were expected to trade emissions under that limit. The cost was estimated to be extremely high and there was still a large debate about the quantity of greenhouse gases emitted by different sectors, so that fell by the wayside. The other issue related to the permitted levels and types of emissions. Typically, 250 or 100 tonnes of other-criteria air pollutants are allowed, depending on the nature of the facility. When talking about greenhouse gas emissions, almost every facility falls into the ‘major’ category. The EPA intervened and raised the caps on greenhouse gas emissions to 100,000 tonnes, or 50,000 tonnes for a minor-category pollutant. It has recently backed down on that for certain industry sectors because it realised it just doesn’t have the data in place to move forward and specify the best available control technology for greenhouse gases. There are pros and cons to carbon
sequestration, reforestation and agricultural projects that result in carbon sinks – there’s a limit to what facilities can do. Fuel switching is not always economically viable. Coal power is about one-seventh of the cost of power from either oil or natural gas combustion, so switching fuels can be extremely expensive. With the economy struggling right now, placing an extra financial burden on the American people to pay for power is a controversial concept. but wouldn’t there be other costs and considerations such as particulate matter, acid rain and the effects of pollution on people’s health? These are considerations but we’ve come a long way in terms of being able to control emissions from coal fired power plants. With coal gasification especially, the
rate of emissions has fallen substantially. With particulate matter, high-heat bag houses control those pollutants very effectively – there are all kinds of scrubbers for sulphates which can take them out, and controls for nitrogen oxides. The per kilowatt-hour emissions profile of a very efficient coal plant is not much greater than that of a natural gas turbine if it is operated correctly and under the best controls. There have been some significant improvements. do any sectors regularly fall into areas of questionable compliance? Are some industries trying to stall the process of cleaning up? I don’t think so. The regulatory climate in the US is so developed that very few industries are not highly regulated. Even the smallest sources of emissions, such as dry cleaners and even petrol-powered lawnmowers, are now regulated in some areas. The US has come a long way in terms of how it manages environmental performance. Regulation is one thing, but how strong is enforcement at ground level? Oh, definitely very strong. why has there been a shift from a single pollutant-by-pollutant approach to a more holistic, multi-pollutant strategy that addresses future air-quality needs? The need for this holistic approach started to emerge about 15 years ago when the EPA recognised we needed to look into this. It was around the time of nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide switch-off in fuel combustion. Typically, methods to lower nitrogen oxide raised carbon monoxide and viceversa, so it got attention for many years. The new driver is the conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. We have seen such a significant improvement in carbon monoxide levels in the US that we don’t know whether we need to convert so much carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide to meet the carbon monoxide levels and standards. Maybe we should start looking at the tradeoff of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. There’s now the need to look at precursors, sulphur dioxide in particular. Sulphur dioxide from coal combustion is seven times more likely to lead to the formation of PM2.5 – fine particulates linked to respiratory and cardiovascular illness – than nitrogen oxide emissions from coal combustion. The EPA sees there is a need to look at all the pollutants together. One of my next big projects will be devising a multi-pollutant strategy for the EPA.
Another issue you raised was the energy usage for antipollution technology such as scrubbers. which do you think is shaping up in terms of the larger strategy to manage plants holistically? Is there a better way to apply such technology? I think there is a better way to apply the technology and that’s the next step. We start to look at the overall emissions profile for facilities for all pollutants, not just one at a time. The next step is to look at their impact and that will require a regulatory shift in the US, which will take time. I don’t think that will be as easy as a multi-pollutant strategy would be.
“I thINk SINGApoRE hAS A WoNDERFUL oppoRtUNIty BEcAUSE It IS SmALLER, hAS A moRE cohESIvE commUNIty AND thERE IS moRE coopERAtIoN BEtWEEN INDUStRy AND thE GovERNmENt” what would the main opposition to that be? It’s going to be seen as an uneven playing field for industry. For example, if you are in an area where power costs very little you may be required to implement controls that someone in an area where power is very expensive would not be subjected to. There could be seen as giving some facilities an unfair advantage based on location, which would be problematic. while your work emphasises having a systemic approach to air pollution control, would it make sense to also focus on redesigning the industrial processes so they do not produce harmful by-products in the first place? Has industry reached the stage of making systemic changes? I think we’ve seen that. The coal gasification process is a good example of such large systemic changes. The way these large changes work is largely economic, so if pollution becomes expensive enough you’ll definitely see process changes. As we start to require more and more controls, we add cost to a product, and that cost will add up throughout the process. For example, facilities will start looking at issues
such as solvent use because they don’t want to pay for solvent clean-up at the back end. That’s one change that’s already occurred in the US. This process could start driving industry towards larger system changes. In what ways do you think Singapore could improve its monitoring standards and industry cooperation? I think Singapore has a wonderful opportunity because it is smaller, has a more cohesive community and there is more cooperation between industry and the government. In the US, conditions can be quite adversarial by comparison. Also, because of its size, there are opportunities to get to know facilities better, which makes the process of writing a more holistic permit and looking at the bigger picture easier. Resource management is definitely a part of agency decisions here in Singapore so when we talk about things like the waste pathway for a particular air quality-control device, there are more opportunities for that to happen quickly because there’s so much cohesion. In September 2011, the wHO released PM10 and PM2.5 for 1,100 cities. Many in the US met stringent wHO guidelines for PM2.5 and PM10 while many Asian cities showed the need for improvement. what could cities such as Singapore learn about improving its air quality in these areas? In the US, most of the country can control its own destiny. States are not located near any outside influencing sources. We have some influences from Russia into Alaska and Hawaii can largely control its own emissions, although there is some crossover in northern states from Canada, and from Mexico in the south. Other than that, the vast majority of states can largely control their own destiny and set regulations for themselves. They can look at each source of particulates and make decisions about how to control each of them. Singapore climatology is very different from that of the US, and it leads to more secondary particulate formation because you have humid situations with low wind speeds. There’s a lot of time for pollutants to mix and create agglomeration, which creates particulate matter – it’s a natural process. Singapore has the influence of other countries with no political or regulatory emissions policies or any control over what it receives from another country. In this case, in order to have a large influence on reducing particulate levels, Singapore and its neighbours have to work together and be cooperative. issue 3
043
up in the air
Singapore already does this by volunteering services to its neighbours to, say, help fight fires, but there are limits to what can be done because it cannot control all the sources of its particulate matter. How can larger Asian countries such as Indonesia and china effectively control pollutants such as particulate matter? It’s going to take money. In the past I worked on a project in the Philippines, for example, where buses ran on diesel and the cost of using different fuels or removing the sulphur was quite high. At the time, the Philippines didn’t have much money. It now has more resources and the air quality has improved as diesel buses have been phased out. It takes time and it takes resources, so that’s why I’d suggest that these countries can work together to lower emissions. based on your experience and some work that you have done in Singapore previously, do you think that transboundary sources contribute significantly to Singapore’s PM10/PM2.5 levels? I think it varies from year to year – it’s not a stagnant situation. It depends on where the winds are blowing, where the fires are and how big they are. I have suggested to the Singapore government that it should carry out a speciation of particulates found on filters to backtrack to the actual source. This would help it to determine which sources are contributing to particulate levels and their impact. besides haze, what other regional sources for PM are of importance to Singapore? Proximity plays a part, so we would have to look at filters to get a better understanding and study the data. do you think the Asian brown cloud could affect Singapore’s PM10 and PM2.5 levels at certain times of the year, or is it far enough removed from the airflows carrying these pollutants? I do think it’s accurate. I have studied the Asian Brown Cloud in transport by watching the satellite imagery showing where it goes. We are affected by it in the US as well and, watching the trajectory and where it typically goes, it doesn’t come this far south. what have governments done in recent years to protect public health in the face of declining air quality? With satellites, we can now track these plumes as they come across the Earth. We have large public outreach campaigns
044
Air quality in the Philippines has gradually improved but many urban areas still struggle
“ADvERtISING cAmpAIGNS By GovERNmENtS AND othER oRGANISAtIoNS ShoULD ALSo INcLUDE tANGIBLE ADvIcE cItIzENS cAN USE to SAFEGUARD thEIR hEALth” in the US at certain times of the year issuing warnings about ground-level ozone and dust. Advertising campaigns by governments and other organisations should also include tangible advice citizens can use to safeguard their health. When this isn’t done, people feel helpless, leading to fear and frustration. can china use technology to bypass the decades of heavy pollution experienced by other developing nations? My experience in China is that it comes down to cost. It burns an incredible amount of coal compared to other countries as it is so cost-effective to do so. It does have regulations, but the extent to which they’re enforced is hit and miss, so it has a long way to go to control its emissions.
do you think these policies, controls and technology will be deployed and extended or is there a lack of vision or impetus? There has been talk but regulations have been implemented slowly. Coal isn’t just being burned in power plants but in homes, steel mills and other types of refineries. Coal burning is the biggest source of combustion in China. It’s a big issue and there is a great need for multiple control devices. when will china catch up with the US? It will take several years, even if every new coal plant was built as a coal gasification system, for instance. While there has been a push away from coal in the US, the push to grow in China is still strong due to needs for power and heat. How can Singapore export its air quality policy and technology around Asia? Several things are exportable. The refineries here, for example, have state-of-the-art controls that could easily be adapted to suit their Chinese equivalents. A facility being pilot-tested in Singapore has a seawater scrubber that removes sulphur monoxide, nitrogen oxide and carbon dioxide, so it has a greenhouse gas net benefit. It could be easily transported to China, which is already using seawater scrubbers in some areas. This technology would give it even greater controls.
hoNG koNG’S ScoURGE oF SmoG professor wong tze-wai is an environmental epidemiologist and occupational physician at the Chinese university of hong Kong. here he shares his insights on how the city’s air quality could be improved where does Hong kong’s smog come from? There are two major local sources – traffic and power plants – and regional ones from the Pearl River Delta. It is hard to determine whether local or regional contributors are more significant. Hong Kong contributes a small percentage of those in the river, but about half of the air pollutants people are exposed to come from local sources. what kinds of pollutants are found? The major ones are particulates, ozone and oxides of nitrogen and sulphur. In addition, there are the so-called toxic air pollutants (TAPs) which comprise several hundred organic chemicals from various sources. Traffic is the most significant contributor, but they also come from industry and the home. Have general negative health trends resulting from air pollution been observed? Yes. We have conducted many studies that show air pollution increases the risk of death and illness. In general, the major air pollutants affect the heart and lungs, leading to an increased risk of diseases requiring outpatient or hospital treatment and shortening lifespan. Specifically, conditions such as asthma and chronic obstructive lung diseases are associated with air pollution. Particulates are associated with lung cancer deaths – diesel fumes also cause lung cancer. In addition, children’s lung function is adversely affected by air pollutants. Many TAPs are cancer-causing substances, but they occur in far lower concentrations.
How are the government and industry working to tackle pollution? In the early 1990s, the Hong Kong government made the use of low-sulphur diesel fuel compulsory. This substantially reduced the concentration of sulphur dioxide in the air, leading to a demonstrable improvement in public health. Incentives to encourage transport operators to switch to ‘cleaner’ engines had little success. No attempts have been made to cancel redundant bus routes, prevent tall buildings from blocking the dispersion of air pollutants or reduce the number of cars. Concentrations of air pollutants in the city are still unsatisfactorily – and sometimes dangerously – high. what else could be done? The air quality objectives need to be updated and the API overhauled. More importantly, efforts must be made to reduce air pollution generated by traffic and power plants. This could be achieved by replacing coal with natural gas in power generation, retiring aged diesel engines, expanding the electric train and underground network, reducing traffic congestion and controlling marine emissions by using low-sulphur diesel instead of the present highly polluting ‘bunker fuel’.
How are health warnings issued? Since 1987, the Environmental Protection Department has been using an air pollution index (API) system derived from the US Environmental Protection Agency. It issues health warnings when the API rises above 100, and the elderly, children and people with heart or lung disease are advised to stay away from heavy traffic, consult their doctors if required and refrain from physical exercise. The API is considered to be too lenient, however, as the air quality objectives (AQOs) used to calculate it have not been revised since they were set in 1987. Has the smog affected Hong kong’s ability to compete economically? It affects people’s health and shortens lifespan, reducing productivity. It also damages tourism – nobody likes grey and murky sky. Talented people from other countries who could contribute to the community are deterred from working here. what are the likely ramifications if the situation does not change? The smog will get worse as Hong Kong takes in more immigrants, housing supplies are stretched and the pressure to build more properties exceeds the city’s capacity for ventilation. professor wong tze-wai is co-director of the Centre for occupational and environmental health studies at the Jockey Club school of public health and primary Care. experienced in public health practice, his varied research topics have included infectious disease and environmental and occupational health
issue 3
045
Contributor fanny demassieux coordinator â&#x20AC;&#x201C; unep resource efficiency subprogramme head, responsible consumption unit â&#x20AC;&#x201C; sustainable consumption and production branch
046
enabling liveability
pRomotING SUStAINABLE LIFEStyLES thRoUGh RESoURcE EFFIcIENcy as a un report calls for urgent action to curb consumption and pollution, ENVISION explores the relationship between sustainability and human satisfaction
t
hE world is spEEding down an unsustainable path, a UN report has found. The fifth edition of Global Environmental Outlook, published by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), says rapid collective action is needed to curb resource depletion and pollution resulting from economic growth. If this fails to happen, it is argued, there is a real risk that human activity may destroy the resources that contributed to the economy in the first place.1 The Earth’s resources are being used up faster than they can be replenished and finding ways to survive that do not erode the very foundation of our livelihoods is critical. Our lifestyles define how we live – what we do, and where, how and with whom we do it. We need to find more efficient ways to meet our needs, adopting more sustainable lifestyles that are in harmony with our communities and nature, and considering the impact of day-to-day actions from transport and communication to food consumption and waste.
This is not only a responsibility but also an opportunity for future generations. Unsustainable consumption Adopting sustainable lifestyles allows us to address the increasing problems and impacts of unsustainable patterns of consumption. While consumption is traditionally seen as the engine of growth and development around the world, one that is at the heart of our economies, the countless global environmental, economic and social challenges we face are a result of unsustainable consumption and production patterns. The global consumer class comprises about 1.7 billion of the world’s population, almost half of which lives in the developing world.2 The lifestyle and culture once common in Europe, North America, Japan and a few other parts of the world is going global this century. At the same time, consumption is unevenly distributed: millions in the world still cannot consume enough to meet their basic needs. There are 925 million hungry
people in the world and 98 per cent of them live in developing countries. These challenges are further exacerbated by the rise in urbanisation. More than half of the world population now lives in towns and cities. From a consumption perspective, it accounts for 75 per cent of global energy consumption and 80 per cent of global carbon emissions.3 Fifteen of the world’s 21 megacities are found in developing countries, where the associated environmental impacts of urban life are magnified.4 With millions of people living in close quarters, sanitation, waste management, air quality, pollution and other concerns are generally inadequately addressed. Meeting planetary constraints Continued consumption in its current form will lead humanity to a damaging future. We must be aware of the impact of consumption, which stems from every stage of a product’s lifecycle, from the sourcing of raw materials and the energy required during use to the waste produced by its disposal. issue 3
047
enabling liveability
“A RELEvANt FActoR cRUcIAL to ImpRovING ENvIRoNmENtAL pUBLIc hEALth IS thE AvAILABILIty oF AFFoRDABLE, SAFE AND cLEAN pUBLIc tRANSpoRt”
This kind of ‘cradle-to-grave’ thinking is instrumental in changing our understanding of consumption and how we should alter our behaviour. From adopting the three Rs of reduce, reuse and recycle to being responsible in our consumption, we can address environmental challenges through our lifestyle choices. Sustainable lifestyles are developed and shaped by a variety of factors, including culture, politics, economics and social norms. They must be fully supported by the social and technical systems and institutions surrounding us and must involve all key players. For example, in the development and planning of resource-efficient cities, relevant infrastructures such as efficient public transport systems and recycling programmes must be put in place.
048
The business sector can also play a key role in the creation of innovative sustainable lifestyle solutions. All of these efforts, including information and education, as well as individual actions, are vital in the movement towards sustainable lifestyles. Improving environmental public health: urban lifestyle factors One aspect of a sustainable lifestyle, of course, is health. The concern over public health impacts attributed to environmental pollution has been gaining global attention in recent decades. Daily exposure through urban living can culminate in numerous health problems. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a quarter of the diseases facing humans today result from
prolonged exposure to environmental pollution.5 Understanding the interplay between pollution, health and lifestyles allows for development of systemic responses to meet seemingly disparate challenges. For example, inadequate solid waste management is one of the main causes of environmental pollution and degradation in many cities, especially those in developing countries that lack the necessary solid waste regulations and proper disposal facilities. Environmental public health relies heavily on proper waste management. Depending on the sophistication of its system, a city’s waste may be dumped in an uncontrolled manner, segregated for recycling purposes, burnt or even disposed in oceans or rivers, with significant health consequences. Addressing upstream consumption patterns, waste generation and its management, and related public health risks provides opportunity to improve people’s lifestyles and wellbeing. Another relevant factor crucial to improving environmental public health is the availability of affordable, safe and clean public transport. Such systems help to reduce the number of vehicles on the streets, thereby curbing air pollution and improving energy efficiency simultaneously. Additionally, numerous cities around the world are now implementing effective public cleansing initiatives to keep cities clean and prevent environment-related diseases. While such initiatives mainly involve public areas, this sustainable behaviour can often permeate private and professional lives. Human wellbeing and happiness In 2010, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) completed the Global Survey on Sustainable Lifestyles (GSSL), one of the first studies of its kind.
The results provide intriguing insights into the beliefs and aspirations of adults from 20 countries aged 18 to 35, including the extent to which they view themselves as agents of change. A key finding of this survey is the relationship between wellbeing and sustainable lifestyles. Young adults appeared to be very satisfied with their lives, describing themselves as fulfilled with their activities and human relationships; however, they seek more financial, social, personal and environmental security. This is one of the main outcomes of living in a complex and unsustainable world, one facing multidimensional challenges in need of examination if sustainable lifestyle policies are to be developed. Creating a healthy atmosphere in which social wellbeing can prosper has been identified as a key component for the success of sustainable lifestyle solutions based on social and local interaction. This is particularly important because the survey revealed low levels of social trust among interviewees for reasons including security, social isolation and urbanisation. Rising consumption has often been seen as the foremost source of happiness and wellbeing; however, research has shown that, despite rising incomes in industrialised countries, beyond a certain level people are no happier and do not live any longer. In fact, some of the participants of the GSSL, particularly in developed countries, looked at ‘over-consumption’ critically and questioned consumption as a motive in the search for happiness, sometimes defending ‘self-sufficiency’ as a means for a better quality of life at the individual level. Additionally, over-consumption can create anxiety. When material comfort is believed the ultimate source of happiness it causes stress if its availability is threatened. defining desirable scenarios The GSSL collected feedback on mobility, food and housekeeping scenarios inspired by best practice in grassroots social innovations for sustainable urban living. They were positively received, indicating that the demand for sustainability and a positive vision can be created through concrete solutions. Overall, respondents preferred qualityoriented systems that enabled them to learn and evolve towards qualitative results. These included initiatives such as bicycle centres where bikes parked in the city are made accessible to the public or subscribers on demand. Making unused urban land available as
environments, possibly achieved through integrated urban planning and effective management systems championed with the help of public authorities and the business sector. Overall, sustainability needs to be communicated as a factor of improvement in everyday life, building on people’s values and aspirations. This includes communicating local success stories and maintaining information flow using social marketing and new technology. The scenarios can act as an inspiration for cities to develop similar initiatives as a means of promoting resource efficiency and encouraging sustainable lifestyles. In response, UNEP, with many other partners, has launched the Global Initiative for Resource Efficient Cities at Rio+20.
allotments, promoting self-production of food, was also seen as desirable. Advanced services came second. This category included initiatives such as car sharing, energy management training for households and delivery schemes offering boxes of locally grown produce. Collaborative networks of people offering each other mutual help, such as a community-organised carpooling system, were least popular. Feedback on these sustainability scenarios has led to the development of key recommendations for developing and implementing successful solutions. These include developing infrastructure and policies adapted to specific needs and local
“ovERALL, SUStAINABILIty NEEDS to BE commUNIcAtED AS A FActoR oF ImpRovEmENt IN EvERyDAy LIFE, BUILDING oN pEopLE’S vALUES AND ASpIRAtIoNS”
Ongoing research on sustainable lifestyles Advancing sustainable lifestyles by strengthening resource efficiency and efficient waste management can be accomplished through a better understanding of people’s perceptions of sustainable lifestyles. Not only does this allow us to envision the future trends in consumers’ aspirations, practice and behaviour, it also enables us to identify some of the key drivers and obstacles facing urban sustainable lifestyle solutions. These areas are explored in a new research project by UNEP and the Sustainable Lifestyles Research Group in collaboration with the Children and Youth in Cities Lifestyle Evaluation Survey (CYCLES) for Sustainability as a continuation of the GSSL. The CYCLES project focuses on young people below the age of 25, almost half of the world’s population, in an effort to better understand their perceptions of sustainable lifestyles by focusing on four key areas with great social and environmental impacts in their lives – home, food, mobility and leisure. Such qualitative research is essential when exploring the conditions and potential for change and also to measure the impact of current sustainable lifestyles policies, initiatives and interventions. It will shed light on future policy development and implementation by providing comparative national and regional insights into governments, non-governmental organisations and business-sector planning. 1) Keeping track of our environment (unep, 2012), p. ii. 2) the state of Consumption today, www.worldwatch.org/node/810 3) Keeping track of our environment (unep, 2012), p. 4. 4) Keeping track of our environment (unep, 2012), p. 5. 5) environmental pollution and impacts on public health (unep), p. 3. www.unep.org/urban_environment/pdfs/dandorawastedumpreportsummary.pdf
issue 3
049
behavioural insights
thE poWER oF UNINtENDED INcENtIvES
why should people support environmental campaigns if they don’t stand to benefit personally? dr will thomas and dr penny Cavenagh, of the uK’s university Campus suffolk, explore ways to incentivise lasting behavioural change
w
Participating women qualified for financial rewards in the form of gift vouchers or cash deposits into saving schemes as they met attendance targets and could provide evidence that they had quit smoking.
The road to quitting The dangers of smoking have been well documented. With pregnant mothers, the implications for their unborn children are especially acute, yet some women continue the habit throughout their pregnancies. A UK programme was designed to help a group of 30 women stop smoking. The scheme included a number of components, including incentives, peer-support activities, and health and pregnancy education. The project specifically targeted residents of two small UK towns. Having involved pregnant women in the project’s design, the scheme offered access to smoking cessation support as well as regular workshops and education sessions.
The role of incentives From the start, it was acknowledged that offering incentives to persuade people to modify their behaviour can be contentious. In this case, offers of incentives for pregnant women to quit smoking were criticised by politicians and the local press. Public concerns were expressed that caring for an unborn child should be sufficient incentive for a them to give up. In addition to the social stigma attached to being a pregnant smoker, most of the participants in the project faced challenges that would make participation more difficult, and so made them less likely to join and continue active participation. As a result, the decision to use incentives was a pragmatic one. The incentives proved enticing to recruitment, with several women commenting that they had encouraged participation. For some, the process of gaining rewards was important, while for others the fact that they were able to ‘save’ rewards and use them to buy nursery furniture was significant. The evidence here suggests that a careful selection of rewards valued by participants, plus a programme structure that uses reward achievement to prompt participation, can make best use of the incentivising effect of small gifts. When properly constructed, therefore, incentives can support participation and behavioural change.
hEn a campaign focuses on benefits for the individual it is often hoped that persuasive messages alone will stimulate changes in behaviour. The health gains of giving up smoking or the improved living environment as a result of tackling litter, for example, are strong incentives to act – even when those doing the persuading may have quite different motives. If difficulties arise when engaging a particular group, or if behaviour change proves hard to achieve or sustain, the use of incentives – usually financial – can encourage participation. The findings of a study on ways to help pregnant women quit smoking may provide some useful insights into behavioural psychology and the way unintended incentives can affect behavioural outcomes.
050
Unintended incentives Strikingly, while the financial incentives participants were offered were valued, none of the women interviewed as part of the evaluation described them as the primary benefit. Instead, participants described other aspects of the programme as incentives to their participation and to support them in efforts to quit smoking. Several described a feeling of being criticised for smoking while pregnant. They were aware that most people feel that pregnant women should be able to quit the habit easily.
“FINANcIAL INcENtIvES WERE ShoWN to BE mUch LESS SIGNIFIcANt thAN othER UNINtENDED BENEFItS IN pRomotING BEhAvIoURAL chANGE”
An important benefit of the scheme was that participants were able to access support to stop smoking from people who understood the challenges of doing so. Another crucial benefit was the nature of the group sessions themselves. Participants shared similar backgrounds and were therefore well placed to act as a peer-support network. This was directly evidenced by the desire of some of the women who had given birth to stay connected to the group and to continue to join the sessions.
Outcomes and implications The evaluation found the project successful in supporting 23 of 30 participants to quit or reduce the amount they smoked. The pilot’s small scale made it difficult to make clear judgements about its effectiveness, but there was evidence to suggest that incentives played some role in encouraging women to attend sessions and give up the habit. Financial incentives, though, were shown to be far less significant than other unintended benefits in promoting behavioural change.
The participants joined the project because it addressed the barriers that might prevent them from quitting smoking. In this case, the central issue was one of support. Despite primarily living in urban locations, many of the women reported feeling isolated, especially in the light of being pregnant smokers. In many cases, their families were not initially supportive and only changed their attitude once they saw they were serious and was trying to give up smoking. In several cases, the families then made extreme changes to their behaviour in order to support their attempts to quit. By introducing participants to other women in a similar position the project helped to overcome any feeling of isolation and to create a support structure that all participants felt was useful. The main drivers for success with this programme were identified as: l Providing the right incentives to attract the targeted participants l Understanding and responding to the barriers preventing the desired behaviour change l Offering a well-designed programme and educational components l Facilitating peer support for those facing a common challenge l Helping to alleviate feelings of social isolation that reinforced undesired behaviour This learning has since been used to influence other public health-related work in the region. Key lessons are the value of understanding barriers preventing the desired change and responding to them in a way that promotes sustained behaviour change. Incentives have a very clear role to play – they excite participants enough to ensure they take part in the project. It is not sufficient to hope that the simple act of providing an incentive for improved behaviour will result in sustained changes of the sort hoped for in typical public or environmental health campaigns. In evaluating a small smoking cessation study the authors were able to see the extent to which behaviour had been modified and also how this change had been supported. It became clear that the real benefit of the project was not the incentives offered but the opportunity for participants to get support from others in a similar situation to themselves. the research leading to this article was conducted by the Centre for applied research at university Campus suffolk and was funded by suffolk primary Care trust in the uK. issue 3
051
behavioural insights
How fostering a sense of community can result in real benefits to the environment
pSychoLoGy FoR A BEttER WoRLD i
ndUstrialisEd societies face a quandary. The past century has seen creation of unprecedented material wealth. Economic growth is espoused, people are exposed to advertisements for new products and regular news bulletins detail housing and stock market fluctuations. Lucrative financial investments and more sophisticated products are touted as keys to human achievement. But recent times have revealed a flaw: producing such wealth has disrupted local and global ecosystems, with troubling consequences. Our global quandary is this: if material wealth is the key to happiness, how do we continue to create it while preventing further damage to the planet on which we depend? There are two ways out of this problem. One is to hope that engineers can develop alternative materials and products that save
052
the day. This is essentially business as usual. The other is to re-examine the nature of wellbeing and to imagine how humans and the environment can thrive rather than being at odds with one and another. Are we simply users of the natural world, restrained only by the physical limits it imposes? Or are we part of the natural world in which we thrive in tandem with other life on our planet? How we answer these questions will determine both human and environmental wellbeing in the decades ahead. Psychological aspects to human flourishing So what promotes human flourishing? Clearly we all need food, water and shelter. But beyond these physical needs are psychological needs. When psychological needs are met, we feel safe, develop our potential and feel good about ourselves.
Perhaps the first and most important need is for warm and dependable relationships with others. Research shows that children need physical contact with one or more adults in order to bond with them and develop normally, and this need for closeness does not disappear with age. There are two aspects to this: one is that we are nourished when people respond positively to us. When you smile at a colleague it is pleasant to get a smile back, and very disconcerting to get a frown. Even if you ask a stranger for directions, it is affirming to have the person listen carefully and offer help. All these are signals that you are a person of worth. The other aspect to belonging is to have people we feel we can rely on, especially when we are young, ill or old. In most societies it is families that provide that security, though governments can also help.
behavioural insights
good. If not, they will feel shame or guilt at their behaviour and resentment toward the people or systems that lead them astray. When people experience these conditions for flourishing, they are much more likely to be satisfied with their lives, feel happy and contribute to their communities. The role of material wealth Notice that there is nothing in this description about high levels of material wealth. Yes, money for basic physical needs is essential to wellbeing, and people without enough of it are less likely to be happy and feel positively about their lives; however, once basic needs are met the picture becomes more complicated. Studies have
“WE WANt mEANING AND pURpoSE IN oUR LIvES AND to BE coNNEctED to SomEthING BIGGER thAN oURSELvES”
Intriguingly, being able to help others is also important; in fact some research suggests that it is of greater psychological benefit to give help than to receive it. Secondly, it is important that we feel effective in what we do. We need to feel the world is predictable and that our actions will have the consequences we intend. More than this, however, we want to grow in efficacy. We enjoy taking on challenges, developing our talents and improving our skills. The third key aspect to wellbeing is being able to live consistently with our values. We want meaning and purpose in our lives, and to be connected to something bigger than ourselves. Psychological research has also shown that children develop a strong sense of right and wrong, which they carry through to adulthood. If people are given the opportunity they will be, and as a result feel,
shown that populations do not become appreciably happier as they gain additional wealth. What all this means is that ever more energy, material goods, comfort and convenience is not likely to help humans to flourish in industrialised nations, although better distribution of what is currently available will help. If we are serious about humans flourishing, then we need to look at what really encourages people to give of, and be, their best. Fortunately, we need look no further than each person’s immediate surroundings. By caring for local places, people can develop rich relationships with those around them, use their talents and skills, and feel engaged in value-based action – all key aspects of human flourishing. Importantly, too, such projects can enhance local ecosystems and potentially help mitigate big environmental problems such as water and climate change. This is a classic win-win situation. Humans are a territorial species. We identify with the physical spaces that we occupy. Almost everyone can lay claim to a sleeping space, shelter or house that feels like theirs, often shared with the people they are closest to. This feeling of belonging to a particular place has been called “place identity.” It seems to develop in middle childhood, as children start to take note of the wider environment around them. If they
are lucky enough to have access to natural spaces, they climb the trees, wade through the streams, pick the flowers and sometimes just gaze at the sky. Even when living in highly built up environments, children still look for signs of life. If you walk along a footpath with a six year old, you will see how easily the child is distracted by small features. A cat in the window, the smell of flowers, an older person walking with a cane, a small piece of grass in a crack on the footpath or a newly formed puddle – each is worthy of close examination. From this attention to detail and desire to explore the features around them, children become attached to their neighbourhood. While the physical environment is a key part of place identity, the other people who occupy that environment are important too. This can be seen very powerfully in indigenous cultures in which the land is key to the identity of different groups. Environmental implications of place While place identity may be a particularly strong feature of childhood, it is important for adults too. What is particularly notable is that when adults feel they belong, they are more willing to put themselves out for collective benefit. In a simple piece of research, Mark van Vugt measured the degree to which people living in Chandler’s Ford, a town in Hampshire in the south of England, identified with their community. He then divided them into ‘high’, ‘medium’ and ‘low’ identifiers. Everyone in the community was on a fixed tariff for water – charged the same no matter how much they used. In the summer, water was limited and residents were encouraged to conserve it. Van Vugt found that identification was a key factor in whether people were responsive to the call for conservation – high identifiers used 33 per cent less than low ones. What the research on place identity suggests is that people can, and do, become attached to the places in which they live and other people associated with that place. There is variation in how attached they become, and it may be that we bond more readily with an environment if we grow up there; however, it is possible this is simply because as children we pay close attention to our surroundings and engage all our senses in getting to know our territory. It may therefore become part of us more readily than if we encounter a place as adults, intent on other tasks than becoming intimate with our surroundings. Personal benefits of pro-social behaviour The study by Mark van Vugt shows that identifying with a place and its people leads issue 3
053
behavioural insights
to pro-social behaviour. It is easy to see how this identification is good for enhancing local environments and for uniting communities to protect scare resources. But how does it benefit the individuals involved? Firstly, feeling part of a community is likely to be associated with the warm and dependable relationships that are a key aspect of human flourishing, enhancing our wellbeing. Furthermore, if we put ourselves out a little for those around us we gain the psychological boost that comes from looking after others. One heart-warming study showed just how much volunteering in a local setting can boost people’s sense of belonging and self-worth. It was a study of volunteers at New York City Zoo and Bronx Zoo by John Fraser and his colleagues. Most of the participants were over 60 and were motivated to volunteer because of their love of animals. Indeed, it was clear that many developed strong attachments to the creatures and that caring for them was deeply, personally enriching; however, over time they also developed strong bonds with the other volunteers. One said, “It’s like a family, you know, an extended family.” In part, this bonding seemed to be because of the shared connection to the animals. Note how this participant uses ‘we’ to indicate that the volunteers were bound together by the animals: “You know if there’s something upsetting, like I said, the death of the animals... and we loved the sea lions. When Bandit died we were so, so upset but other people wouldn’t understand that.” Furthermore, it was very clear that the participants were proud of their identities as zoo volunteers. They believed that their activities made the world a better place, especially in relation to animal conservation and for future generations, and that they enjoyed higher status as a result. Finally, the study measured the volunteers’ ‘collective self-esteem’ – that is, whether they perceived being a zoo volunteer as a personally valued role as well as considered important by others. The scores were extremely high with most people choosing either the most positive point on the scale or the next one down for each item. Most importantly, volunteering allowed older community members to bond with other volunteers and enhanced their relationships with outsiders. They felt as if they were doing something important that was noticed and appreciated by the people that mattered to them. When we see our actions in service of a greater good, we have the sense of meaning
054
Name the things people really need. Do not feel obliged to keep up the pretence that more products, convenience and comfort will make us happier once we are reasonably well off. People will get behind a vision that names what it is they truly value, and people everywhere value belonging, the ability to be effective and natural settings in which their children can grow and develop. l Make projects as visible as possible. People are natural imitators and will be drawn to copy and join in with activities that can be seen. Increase visibility by putting resources into supporting and advertising these initiatives so they are not perceived to exist on the fringe, but instead are seen as the core of community life. l Nurture people who show interest in projects. People want to be welcomed, to be fed and to have something to do. Until projects gather momentum it is important to pay attention to the small details that ensure a positive atmosphere. These details also promote wellbeing on their own. l Make projects as inclusive as possible. Research cited here shows that children love to explore their natural environments and how older people benefit from voluntary projects that connect them to others. People from diverse cultures can also be successfully brought together. Community projects should ideally offer a role for all citizens. l Harness the special benefits of projects in natural settings. Increasing the proportion of natural features in our cities can make an important contribution to many environmental issues. Also, there is something special about working with nature and animals for enhancing people’s wellbeing. It is these projects that join human and ecological progress that are essential if we are to live well on this planet. l
“oNE hEARt-WARmING StUDy ShoWED voLUNtEERING IN A LocAL SEttING cAN BooSt pEopLE’S SENSE oF BELoNGING AND SELF WoRth” and living consistently with our values, that is also essential in order for humans to flourish. In large multicultural cities, it can be easy to feel that everyone’s values are different and that meaning is created for individuals by gathering in religious and cultural communities. connecting values and communities But if everyone has to leave home to find belonging and meaning, it can mean residential communities feel disjointed. People who are less mobile or live away from their families may also be isolated. The very fact that people share a place can be the starting point for exploring the values neighbours have in common. So how can urban planners, health promotion agencies, and organisations promote community projects? Here are five suggestions for traction:
niki harré is an associate professor at the university of auckland where she has taught social and community psychology for 13 years. her research is on sustainable communities and schools, youth development and political engagement. Psychology for a Better World, her latest book, details techniques for drawing people into the collective effort to create a world where humans and ecosystems can flourish more fully. for more information and free downloads, visit psych.auckland.ac.nz/ psychologyforabetterworld.
behavioural insights
A DIFFERENt RoUtE to chANGE as a change strategist at world wide fund for nature uK, dr tom Crompton has conducted cutting-edge research into environmental and governmental communications. his work stresses the importance of engaging people’s intrinsic, or non-materialistic, values to achieve lasting and positive alterations to behaviour
How did your interest in human psychology and environmentalism evolve? I have worked at WWF-UK for 10 years. For the first five years I worked on international trade and investment policy such as World Trade Organization (WTO) law. I was convinced then, and am still convinced now, that the international trade regime is crucially important from a sustainability perspective to ensure that we are producing and trading more sustainable products with lower carbon footprints. Several senior negotiators were themselves deeply convinced of the need for more fundamental change to the trade regime on a sustainability basis but they’d say: “Look, our hands are tied, we don’t enjoy the political space, we don’t experience public political pressure for more proportional change” and, as a result, the change that we saw was small.
Contributor bhavani Prakash This article originally appeared on EcoWalktheTalk.com I think that forced us to reflect on what it is that creates political space and pressure for more proportional change and what motivates people to engage with the political process, whether it is by lobbying Members of Parliament or demonstrating on the streets, or however else they may express their political frustration. Some social psychologists came back to us and said one of the things they find missing from environmental campaigning or, indeed, third sector campaigning generally, at the moment is an understanding of values and their importance in underpinning people’s commitment to engage in a political process.
what is the common cause Project? We’re working to open debate with a large number of third sector organisations about the cultural values that seem to consistently underpin expression of concern about a wide range of social and environmental issues. We don’t just want to speak to environmental groups but also development and disability ones, and children’s and animal welfare charities. One implication of this work is that we should design or shape our campaigns and communications or, indeed, our entire external engagement, to engage and strengthen those values. These are values that almost everybody seems to hold already. It’s a question of bringing them to the fore because they underpin not just our concerns about the environment but also those about a wide range of other social issues. issue 3
055
behavioural insights
It seems that when we activate what psychologists call extrinsic values – concerns about matters such as wealth, social status or image – they tend to suppress the importance people attach to intrinsic values, those associated with social and environmental concerns. There is an antagonistic relationship between these two sets of values. From that we suggest it is important for NGOs to think carefully about the occasions in which they may be drawn to appeal to extrinsic values in the course of pursuing a particular campaign outcome. For example, this may mean drawing attention to the money that might be saved through increased energy conservation measures such as turning down the central heating thermostat or to the social image or status they might achieve by buying a luxury hybrid car. These messages may be effective in encouraging uptake of that particular behaviour but are likely to cause collateral damage. This work also points to the possibility of beginning to work across a large number of organisations with groups that hitherto have not really collaborated. Many NGOs can find common causes to engage those more intrinsic values and begin to tackle and remove those aspects that tend to engage and strengthen extrinsic values. We might find common cause in tackling an influence that currently serves to strengthen unhelpful extrinsic values at a cultural level, namely, the impact of advertising. We have begun to build a coalition of NGOs, working again on a very wide set of issues, to ask what the role of advertising might be in potentially frustrating the emergence of greater public engagements and stronger expressions of public concern about all of our issues. But we might also work to help strengthen intrinsic values. For example, we could encourage those who develop school curriculums to introduce exercises aimed at helping children reflect on the importance of kindness in their lives. Society is now more materialistic than ever. does ignoring the ‘what’s in it for me?’ message make it harder to find common ground with those whose behaviour we wish to influence? There are several dimensions to that very critical question. You wouldn’t embark on what we are suggesting unless you are convinced that the problems we confront are immense and will require fundamental changes in terms of the level of ambition needed to respond to those problems. If you really believed that a few behavioural
056
“IN thE Uk, IF yoU ASk pEopLE WhAt’S ImpoRtANt to thEm thEy FIRSt AND FoREmoSt mENtIoN thEIR INtRINSIc vALUES” changes in the private sphere in terms of domestic energy efficiency savings or a bit of green consumption were going to be sufficient to tackle a problem like climate change, or that increasing people’s willingness to donate to development charities was really going to alleviate global poverty, you would probably look at what we are proposing and suggest that it is too ambitious. The first thing to say is that the scale of the challenge we are confronting at the moment would require an ambitious response and at the moment we are not seeing that. The second thing is that, while it’s true that, on some indicators, it seems that some cultures are becoming more materialistic and are holding those extrinsic values to be more important, in most nations people still put intrinsic values first. In the UK, if you ask people what’s important to them they first and foremost mention those intrinsic values. They voice the importance of the connection to friends
and family, they talk about self-direction, the importance of self-determination and creativity, they talk about sense of social justice and the sense of environmental concern. Extrinsic values such as wealth or power are rated less important. The evidence also seems very clear that these intrinsic values are there in everybody to be engaged. We recently conducted a study with psychologists from University of Cardiff, in Wales, in which we took 750 ordinary citizens from the city and asked them what values were important to them. We picked the top 10 per cent for whom the extrinsic or materialistic values were most important, then asked half of them to reflect for a few minutes on the importance of affiliation to friends and family, and of broad-mindedness. We made no mention of the environment. We asked the other half to reflect on the importance of wealth or popularity. Then we interviewed each participant about climate change, amongst other things. We transcribed the interviews and sent them to a linguist who analysed the interviews without knowing whether a participant had been asked to think about intrinsic or extrinsic values. We found that even though these people were by disposition more inclined towards extrinsic values, simply asking them to pause for a few minutes to reflect on the importance of affiliation towards friends and family or broadmindedness led to a statistically significant increase in the extent to which they saw climate change as being something that they felt they had some personal responsibility to address because of its importance for a wider society, not just for their own self-interest. What we take from an experiment like that – and it corroborates several other lines of evidence – is that those intrinsic values matter for a lot for people and that it’s possible to engage them even in the short term. We are not necessarily talking here about changing intrinsic values. It’s more about thinking carefully about which values people already hold, and which of these underpin a greater commitment to express social or environmental concern, and engaging with these in the course of our campaigns or communications. companies often say their actions are bound by short-term results such as sales targets and tend to implement sustainability initiatives only if it makes financial sense. How do you convince them to change their behaviour because it’s the right thing to do? It is certainly a challenge. What we are
suggesting goes beyond the business case for sustainability. It goes beyond simply pointing to those things that are in a business’s shortterm economic interests to do, for example increasing energy efficiency or supply chain efficiency in a way that will simultaneously save money. We need to move to a situation in which firms’ responsibility towards the societies in which they operate is seen to extend beyond simply making money. Many companies are already demonstrating willingness to go beyond the business case for sustainable development and are taking unilateral action. It is, of course, easier for family owned companies or cooperatives to do than it is for publicly owned companies, but there are exceptions. In the UK, The Prince of Wales’ Corporate Leaders Group on Climate Change calls for government to enact new and longer-term policies to tackle global warming. Members of this group recognise that some of these steps incur economic costs. But if, by acting together, they can level the playing field, these costs could be equally shared across the competitors. The other thing is to widen our concept of what corporate social responsibility means, to recognise that companies have a responsibility not just with immediate material footprints of their activities – how much carbon they produce, how much tropical rainforest is cut down in the course of sourcing raw materials – but also with what you might call ‘mindprint’. Mindprint includes impacts on cultural values, and that’s affected in a whole range of ways – how a company advertises, the values activated in the course of using the products it manufactures, or how a company manages decision making processes. These include its HR practices and internally recognising that many people work for business and that it is an important part of their lives. When you spend 40 hours a week in a business, its culture is likely to influence your personal values. We argue that businesses have a responsibility to look at their mindprint, which may be even greater than their direct environmental impacts, their footprint. can businesses exploit intrinsic values in their advertising? can this cause harm? Many businesses are well aware of the importance of intrinsic values in building a loyal customer base. They are often reflected in a company’s branding or advertising. A lot of advertising appeals to intrinsic values such as family relationships or connections to nature. The report we produced last year called Think of Me as Evil
intrinsic vs Extrinsic valUEs INTRINSIC values that are inherently rewarding to pursue
exAmples affiliation to friends and family Connection with nature Concern for others self-acceptance social justice Creativity
EXTRINSIC values that are centred on external approval or rewards exAmples wealth material success Concern about image social status prestige social power authority
was an attempt to open some of these ethical debates as they relate to advertising. Nobody knows for sure which cultural and social aspects of advertising appeal to intrinsic values, but some of the social psychologists we have worked with have argued persuasively that such ads may be unhelpful.
“WhEN yoU SpEND 40 hoURS A WEEk IN A BUSINESS, ItS cULtURE IS LIkELy to INFLUENcE yoUR pERSoNAL vALUES. WE ARGUE thAt BUSINESSES hAvE A RESpoNSIBILIty to Look At thEIR mINDpRINt”
What they may actually do is to increase people’s cynicism about intrinsic values or create the impression that those values, when they come from elsewhere, are being deployed manipulatively in order to get them to do something, whether that’s to buy a product or to show some act of kindness. It seems that deploying intrinsic values in pursuit of commercial interests can be dangerous. How do you intend to take your studies forward? what’s the broader vision for the kind of work you do? Our aim is to engage in the first instance a wider swathe of NGOs in this debate. In the UK, at least, there is a huge appetite for this at the moment. We have already run more than 60 workshops for different NGOs in the UK from a very wide range of different issue groups and interest groups. That work will continue in terms of engaging third sector organisations in this conversation. It’s increasingly becoming an international conversation. We recently ran a series of workshops in a number of Scandinavian countries as there is an appetite there to begin to put together hubs of NGOs who are working on these issues and building a conversation in those countries. We are going to be running workshops soon in Australia; we have got workshops in Brussels, possibly in Canada, so there is an increasing international interest which we haven’t really gone out to court; this interest has come to us, really. Part of what we are doing is deepening our already extensive relationship with academics on the evidence. Hitherto that evidence base has been drawn largely from social psychology but we are aware that social psychology represents only one route into this discussion. So we want to increasingly work with people from other disciplines – political science, psychotherapy, anthropology and neurosciences – and we are beginning that process. We are doing more research ourselves in terms of taking real NGO communications and asking what the impacts of those are. For example, we have put together a consortium of all the main UK conservation groups and we will be working with a psychologist and a linguist to analyse our entire external communication over a six-month period to ask “what are the values that we are activating at the moment in the course of those communications?” visit valuesandframes.org to learn more about dr tom Crompton’s work issue 3
057
innovation in aCtion
058
innovation in aCtion
thINkING oUtSIDE thE Box
marking greenpac’s 10th anniversary and the imminent launch of its new headquarters, founder and Ceo susan Chong provides thought leadership on the company’s drive to innovate the environmental packaging solutions market and make singapore a nicer city to live in
c
losing oUt a decade as an innovative eco-packaging firm, Greenpac has moved from strength to strength – and increasingly into new industries. The company initially targeted electronics firms, then, with shifting financial times, moved into the medical and defence sectors. By diversifying, this environmental leader has been able to better navigate economic storms and stay in the black, with 20 per cent growth on average each year. But what is the secret of its ongoing success? Founder and CEO Susan Chong says successfully coupling environmental and cost savings is crucial. “In part, being able to spot the waves, evolve and innovate quickly to stay afloat has proven useful, especially in times of economic crisis,” she said. “Right now, corporate decision-making is fundamentally still about economic sense – it is very much cost driven.” The sustainable aspects of the company’s offerings are still considered by many as ‘nice to have’ – until the day green packaging has a policy push. “A lot of what we see are guidelines, rather than policies or standards, and these will probably help shape future policy, but right now this is the situation. This may be so because governments may think that the industry is not quite ready yet,” Chong said. Greenpac has found it is possible to be both economically savvy and environmentally friendly. The tactic involves re-engineering packaging design for companies as part of a green offering, resulting in bottom-line cost savings across the supply chain, liability reduction and the elimination of excess waste. This has boosted
the number of enquiries it receives from companies interested in its products. “The fact that we have good corporate social responsibility (CSR) policies, customised green packaging solutions and that we can ‘walk the talk’ helps business,” Chong said. “We receive many sales leads because we offer a green solution. Everyone is looking for ways to do things in a greener and cheaper way, so we get more enquiries and the success rate is higher.” Getting the buy-in from clients has involved a lot of trust-building for Greenpac. “People want to see the value on the table,” Chong said. “Often, we have to demonstrate our capabilities to our clients by coming up with a prototype and providing data to back up the packaging’s effectiveness.” The only way to convince the customer is to demonstrate to them that the solution works, that the capability is there and that environmental and bottom-line cost savings can be achieved. Product innovation is the key to that process, with an emphasis on knowledge of innovative materials and their applications. “The winning combination is to optimise the use of sustainable materials so less waste is generated,” Chong said. “We are always innovating and sourcing for new materials, and we can often find different and unconventional uses for existing materials.” walking the talk The move towards CSR is one of the leading global shifts, especially in North American and European countries. Companies are increasingly under pressure to examine their supply chains and practices, and to become more environmentally and socially responsible.
Chong believes that most companies recognise the importance of being green to achieve triple bottom lines. The reality, as she sees it – cost aside – is that a lot of US and European companies actively select suppliers based on their social and environmental policies, products and services to complement their own. “It helps boost their own CSR. If you are competing against businesses in a globalised marketplace, assuming the economic considerations can be met the positive CSR alignment factor can make all the difference. That is the way to position your business,” she said. The fact that Greenpac has taken an active stance on environmental and social issues creates a strong synergy with corporate leaders – and many potential clients are trying to do the same. The company has increasingly been rewarded for its performance, garnering a slew of prizes from the likes of the World Packaging Organisation, Singapore Business Federation and the Singapore Environment Council. “The awards validate our hard work and serve as an indication that we are moving in the right path,” Chong said. “It is an endorsement that many years of our effort have paid off and that people recognise we’re on the right track. We have received awards for packaging design, environmentally friendly practices and responsible entrepreneurship. For me, a great company is well rounded and we strive to excel in all aspects of our business.” Healthy competition? Chong recognises that competition will always be present, posing both a stimulus and challenge. “In our industry, many issue 3
059
innovation in aCtion
products can be more expensive, harder to sell and take a lot of effort. The cost doesn’t always make economic sense and so customers are not likely to buy at the high rate.You always have to find ways to be cost-competitive.” weathering the storm Much of Greenpac’s growth has been organic and, in spite of Chong’s practical business acumen, in many respects the company’s commercial success came earlier than expected. “We didn’t expect to be this far along so quickly,” she says. “Where we are now is about 10 times what we anticipated when we started out.” Chong said there were many opportunities to develop the business even more quickly, but financial prudence took precedence in challenging economic times. “We would have grown more aggressively with high-risk investments. At that point, there were one or two moments of regret; however, in hindsight, it was a good business decision to tread more cautiously.” The good news is that opportunities continue to grow, and Greenpac is exploring new business opportunities and expanding regionally through international partnerships. Being based in Singapore is part of the company’s success as it positions itself as a low-volume and high-mix niche solutions provider. “Our target markets are high-value industries like medical and wafer fabrication, many of which are in Singapore. Our position in Singapore allows us to be seen and have access to our key industries,” Chong said.
are trying to get on the bandwagon. Two competitors have changed their names to something similar to ours – another has been out of business,” said Chong. “It is a compliment to have people copy us and, in a way, it’s a sign that our reputation is worth imitating. Many companies are coming up with similar business models, but we are confident that we can continue to meet clients’ needs and present them with sophisticated packaging designs.” In spite of the momentum, Chong is aware that some companies are still on the sidelines. “They are aware of the increasing importance of CSR and that green products and services are both possible and desirable – they just haven’t found a way to do it yet that makes economic sense,” she said. With new green start-ups, she believes the first question to answer is: “Why would anyone buy from you? Cost, reliability, knowledge and green facets are all relevant.
060
“thE FAct thAt WE hAvE GooD coRpoRAtE SocIAL RESpoNSIBILIty poLIcIES, cUStomISED GREEN pAckAGING SoLUtIoNS, AND thAt WE cAN ‘WALk thE tALk’ hELpS BUSINESS” “People are measured by key performance indicators (KPIs), so it is no longer merely just having relationships – there must be demonstrable value,” she said. “Green
Understanding and rewarding staff As a design driven and knowledge focused company, Greenpac’s workforce plays a pivotal role in the business’ continued success. Chong says: “In nurturing staff, it is important for management to recognise individuals’ strengths and provide them with opportunities to grow so that each staff achieves their potential.” “All of our staff is well trained and well exposed. It is the nature of the business we run, and we hire and keep people based on trust. A company can’t be run by micromanaging and mistrusting people.” Nurturing staff understanding and involvement in the company’s green ethos also come into play. “Some people join us because they’re environmentally aware, but others need some educating. Green is our rice bowl so it’s vital for them to understand what we do and why we do it.” Greenpac employs a number of initiatives to improve staff retention. “We actively
groom staff at all levels by taking them to meet suppliers, introducing them to customers, sending them for courses and helping them have a good understanding of the business. People have more hunger for knowledge and growth opportunities than ever now – especially the younger ones – so we try to offer them challenges.” But in some respects, carefully managing employees is also a curatorial process. “We are very active when it comes to finding the right staff and using a probationary period,” Chong says. “If people can’t find their feet in six months, if they don’t fit the culture or have a negative attitude, they are asked to leave.” While she carries the best of intentions, Chong is not afraid to toe a hard line to ensure a positive company culture. “Attitude is key and counts more than aptitude. I believe your attitude determines to a great degree what you can or cannot accomplish. There is little patience for smart people with negative attitudes, or for people who boss others around.” Chong also takes a widely inclusive approach towards sourcing workers. Greenpac has participated in the Yellow Ribbon Programme, which facilitates new opportunities for ex-convicts. “I think it’s a good thing to do because everyone deserves a second chance,” Chong says. “And it’s not just Yellow Ribbon. We also hire people with disabilities. We find these people often work a lot harder and are grateful for the opportunity. We have one colleague who is deaf and mute, but her productivity is the best. She is extremely attentive, very hardworking and everyone is fond of her.” Chong notes that other workers in the warehouse have picked up sign language and, as a result, it has helped a culture of diversity and empathy to develop. “People work better in that kind of environment as it helps everyone to feel at home and confident,” she said.
“EvERyoNE IS LookING FoR WAyS to Do thINGS IN A GREENER AND chEApER WAy, So WE GEt moRE ENqUIRIES AND thE SUccESS RAtE IS hIGhER”
keeping it green To coincide with Greenpac’s 10-year anniversary, the company is moving to its new facility, Greenhub. The vision of the 18,000-square-metre site started back in 2007. After long-term planning and careful negotiations, it has become a reality. As a Green Mark Gold-rated building, Greenhub will have a number of innovative features. “We believe in having a green factory – not just the building itself, but also in the business and the people’s mindset,” says Chong. The building will boast two roof gardens featuring a hydroponics garden, edible herb and spice garden and landscape feature,
solar panels, rainwater harvesting and selftinting glass which helps shade out excess sunlight for the office. The office is an ergonomic office with FSC certified furniture imported directly from Denmark. The building itself is constructed with recycled concrete aggregate – a green cement – and equipment used is energy efficient. “We are working with different partners to perfect the performance of the building materials as well as the structure and the operations,” she said. Beyond having the building being Green Mark Gold rated, Greenpac has also collaborated with Singapore Institute of
Manufacturing Technology (SIMTech) A*STAR to conduct a carbon footprint assessment for Greenhub building. Greenpac is the first SME in Singapore to quantify its carbon footprint for its building during the construction and operation phases. The quantification of the carbon footprint helps Greenpac to monitor its carbon emissions and to develop appropriate carbon reduction strategies and programmes minimising emissions for its daily consumption of energy and production materials. The motivations for the new space went beyond merely needing more room for expansion. Chong said: “We are a knowledge-based company and we want to showcase innovation. It’s important to walk the talk and demonstrate leadership. In this aspect, Greenhub will be used as an educational hub to share about green packaging to industries and students.” Taking such a comprehensive approach to green the business operations – from product offerings to staff knowledge to building design – has ensured Greenpac has won not only awards, but the respect of its clientele and a solid business pipeline for the future. As an industry innovator, it demonstrates that balancing social, environmental and economic criteria can lead to better overall business outcomes. issue 3
061
parting shot From New York (depicted) to Havana to Curitiba – a wide range of cities globally are experimenting with recycling food and green waste for urban agricultural projects
FooD cRISIS oR URBAN oppoRtUNIty? modern agriculture is facing a perfect storm of problems. Climate change has made extreme weather the new norm. food waste is piled high in many cities. toh wee Khiang, director of nea’s environment technology office, sees opportunities
f
or yEars, Earth Policy Institute President Lester R Brown has warned of a global food crisis. Suddenly, his 2009 article Can food shortages bring down civilisation?, published in Scientific American, no longer seems alarmist but eerily prophetic. But it doesn’t have to be. Earth Policy Institute has said the 2010 Russian heatwave led to a 40 per cent fall in the grain harvest – a loss of 40 million tonnes. If the same heatwave had been centred on Chicago instead of Moscow, the equivalent loss to the US grain harvest would have been 160 million tonnes. Global food reserves at near-historical
062
lows are woefully inadequate compensation for a loss of this magnitude. In 2012, corn and soybean prices spiked to record levels in July as a result of the American heatwave. The US Department of Agriculture’s August report predicted the lowest average corn yield since 1995 – a drop of 16 per cent from 2011. The effect would have been even worse had American farmers not planted a record acreage of corn. Global warming is also predicted to reduce crop yields. Plant scientists have a rule of thumb: for each degree Celsius rise in temperature above the optimum during the growing season, yields decrease by 10 per
cent. As the weather becomes more erratic, the scale of risk increases. In May 2011 a study commissioned by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) found that one-third of the food produced for human consumption every year worldwide – approximately 1.3 billion tonnes – is wasted or lost. No longer are the Green Revolution’s radical improvements in crop yields seen. Overuse of chemical fertilisers, for so long the source of the increase, has exhausted the soil of its fertility. As more people worldwide graduate to a middle-class lifestyle, the demand for grains
will skyrocket as meat consumption rises. About 38 per cent of global grain production today goes not to feed human beings directly but animals. China represents the proverbial elephant in the room. It is the world’s largest producer of wheat and the second-largest producer of corn. As it is largely self-sufficient in its grain production, its effect on grain prices has so far been muted. Robert S Zeigler, Director General of the Philippines’ International Rice Research Institute, warns: “China’s grain situation is critical to the rest of the world – if it is forced to go out on the market to procure adequate supplies for its population, it could send huge shock waves through the world’s grain markets.” What will happen when China experiences a prolonged drought? The global design flaw This dire situation is compounded by a basic design flaw in the world’s food system. Water and nutrients are removed from agricultural regions and shipped as food to cities all over the world, where it becomes organic and human waste. In most cases, organic waste is not returned to the soil, but simply landfilled, incinerated or, worse, dumped untreated into rivers and seas. In essence, globally, humanity is exporting water and nutrients from one part of the world, only to replenish it at great cost, to another part, where it is treated as “waste” at equal expense. How can this make sense? Organic waste and food production are two sides of the same coin. Energy can be extracted from organic waste via anaerobic digesters and pyrolysis plants before the remainder is turned into compost, organic fertilisers and biochar, a form of carbon sequestration used by pre-Columbian Native Americans to increase the fertility of Amazonian soils. These can then be used to grow food via urban agricultural systems such as vertical farms, which can be many times more productive and efficient than traditional ground-based farms. An example of a Singapore-designed vertical farm is Skygreens, a project supported by AVA. How much waste do we have? Singapore generates close to 1,700 tonnes per day (tpd) of food waste, of which only 10 per cent is recycled. Its chicken farms produce 150 tpd of chicken dung and the Public Utilities Board (PUB) generates 460 tpd of dried and
dewatered sewage sludge. Most is currently incinerated. Singapore has all the waste it needs to be self-sufficient in fertilisers. Struvite is a fertiliser that contains high amounts of phosphorous, an element essential for plant growth and another depleting resource for which there is no known replacement. While there are valid concerns about heavy metals and pathogens in sewage sludge, it would be straightforward to produce struvite from urine.
“hUmANIty IS ExpoRtING WAtER AND NUtRIENtS FRom oNE pARt oF thE WoRLD oNLy to REpLENISh It At GREAt coSt, to ANothER pARt, WhERE It IS tREAtED AS ‘WAStE’ At EqUAL ExpENSE” Dr James Barnard, the Lee Kuan Yew Water Prize winner in 2011, has gone on record to say that “urine is liquid gold”. Advancing technology and applications in this field could be a key growth area into the future, presenting a unique business opportunity. Urine is virtually sterile and contains 80 per cent of the recoverable nutrients in human waste. The challenge is separating human waste into solid and liquid portions. All over the world, centralised water-
based sanitation systems are regarded as the epitome of civilisation. They use potable water to mix urine and solid human waste before flushing the slurry to sewage treatment plants. Once there, vast amounts of energy are needed to essentially reverse the process. The global standard that exists today is a system designed 150 years ago when the sole objective was public health. Moving into the future, how could we even think to waste such increasingly precious resources? Solving interlinked challenges One potential way to meet the food, resource depletion and waste management woes would be for NEA, PUB and AVA to jointly redesign the entire organic waste treatment and food production systems into an integrated loop. The Ministry of National Development recently set up an inter-agency taskforce to look at the whole area of food security. This can be the platform on which to discuss a government approach to redesigning the whole system, starting with test beds in new town centres. Existing achievements by NEA, AVA, PUB and the Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre at NTU in their respective areas can be built on. If, for example, Singapore could source more food locally and reduce wastage along the food distribution chain, it will reduce food miles, increase its food security and reduce the amount of waste to be disposed of in the first place. As farming becomes more efficient there will be less water use and reduced fertiliser run-off. Singapore has done very well in basic quality of life indicators. Now is the time to move to the next stage of ‘green growth’ – where economic development reduces its ecological footprint even as it raises the quality of life. The solution is simple but the implementation is complex. Yet, as with other challenges such as water security, we must dare to do great things not because they are easy, but because they are difficult. Imagine a future where the more we develop, the cleaner our air and water, and the more bountiful our soils become. As a nation, we harnessed our collective will and imagination to move from the Third World to the First World in one generation. There is no reason why Singapore cannot be a leader in organic waste management and urban food production. This is a virtuous cycle and, noting the imminent threats, one on which to get started as soon as possible. issue 3
063
opportunities
cAREER oppoRtUNItIES the national environment agency (nea) is the leading government body responsible for sustainability and cleanliness in singapore. Committed to encouraging individuals to reduce the ecological impact of their actions, it develops and spearheads numerous initiatives through
METEOROLOGIcAL OffIcER (bUSINESS & cORPORATE AffAIRS) Responsibilities The successful candidate will provide advisories, early warnings and alerts of meteorological, environmental and geological hazards to the public and key customers, such as the civil aviation sector. Training in meteorology will be provided. After a stint in operational forecasting, the successful candidate will also undertake outreach and educational activities to promote public awareness and interest in weather and climate. Requirements Applicants must have at least an upper second-class (2:1) degree in physics, mathematics, meteorology or engineering (with maths or physics modules) and be able to perform shift work, including on weekends and public holidays. METEOROLOGIcAL OffIcER (SYSTEMS & cOMMUNIcATION) Responsibilities Responsibilities include implementing and maintaining specialised meteorological systems such as Doppler weather radar system, seismograph network, automated rainfall network and lighting detection and monitoring network. The role also involves implementing and maintaining information communications technology (ICT) systems and applications related to the generation and dissemination of meteorological products and services; conducting technical studies and evaluating proposed systems and preparing technical specifications for tenders; and providing technical support to operation and business units of Meteorological Services Division. They will also manage contracts and vendors.
064
partnerships with the people, public and private sectors. if you share our passion for the environment and making a difference, a career with nea might just be for you. interested candidates are invited to apply online at nea.gov.sg/careers or the singapore public service Job portal, at careers.gov.sg
Requirements Applicants must have at least a upper second-class (2:1) degree in maths, physics, engineering or meteorology. Good knowledge of ICT would be an advantage. MANAGER (PROdUcTIVITY) Responsibilities Conducting a benchmarking study to review work processes in the sector to identify gaps and areas for productivity improvements through technology adoption and redesign of work process. The successful candidate will also develop productivity standards; set up and administer funding schemes to encourage companies to mechanise and undertake innovative projects to improve productivity; work with stakeholders to raise manpower and land productivity of the sector; and be involved in Secretariat for Industry workgroups. Requirements Applicants must have a good degree in any discipline. Candidates with at least five years’ experience of working with productivity, standards, or training knowledge and a good understanding of the waste or a similar sector, are preferred. More experienced candidates may be considered for the senior manager position. MANAGER/SENIOR MANAGER (STANdARdS dEVELOPMENT) Responsibilities Oversee the development of standards for the waste management sector. Liaise with other government agencies and industry to review safety standards for waste collection and disposal in Singapore and develop relevant guidelines to improve safety. Develop standards for vehicles and equipment including mandatory
maintenance and inspection regimes Implement and manage IT systems to register, identify and track refuse trucks, equipment and containers. Review and enhance workplace safety as part of the WSQ framework. Secretariat for the Interagency workgroups. Requirements Candidates must have a good degree in any discipline and at least five years’ professional experience with productivity, standards or training knowledge and a good understanding of the waste or similar sector is preferred. More experienced candidates may be considered for the senior manager position. MANAGER/SENIOR MANAGER (cAPAbILITY dEVELOPMENT) Responsibilities Develop overall industry Productivity Road Map, new programmes such as apprenticeships to attract young entrants to the sector and accreditation/licensing schemes for the sector to improve its professionalism. Work with WDA, other agencies and industry to review training framework, develop programmes for the waste management sector and to develop and implement the productivity manager scheme. Secretariat for the Interagency workgroups. Requirements Candidates with a good degree in any discipline and at least five years’ professional experience with productivity, standards or training knowledge and a good understanding of the waste or similar sector are preferred. More experienced candidates may be considered for the senior manager position.
EXEcUTIVE ENGINEER/ENGINEER (ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING ANd cONTROL) Responsibilities Evaluate and comment on Pollution Control Study reports to ensure that environmental considerations have been factored into proposed land use and preventive and mitigating environmental control measures recommended for incorporation into the design and construction of industrial plants and equipment to meet the environmental standards. Evaluate and comment on Quantitative Risk Assessment reports for hazardous chemical plants to ensure that all potential chemical risks are identified and preventive and mitigation measures recommended for implementation to keep the chemical safety hazards and risks to acceptable safe levels. Evaluate and approve applications for allocation of industrial premises, ensuring that the proposed industrial activities are properly sited in designated industrial estates and are compatible with surrounding land use. Review of environmental planning norms and requirements to keep up with developments in Singapore, leveraging on advancement in technology to adopt modern, state-of-the-art environmental control measures. Manage consultancy studies relating to environmental planning and control. Requirements Candidates must have a good degree in chemical engineering, plus sound chemical and basic environmental knowledge. Those with a few years of related professional experience may also apply and may be considered for placement as an executive engineer. EXEcUTIVE (ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH) Responsibilities Implement and enforce key environmental public health programmes and policies in various areas such as pest control (eg mosquitoes and rats), food hygiene and environmental cleanliness to upkeep Singaporeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reputation as a clean and hygienic city. Work closely with the people, private and public sectors to develop and execute community outreach programmes in areas such as dengue prevention, food hygiene and public cleanliness. Requirements Applicants must have a degree, preferably with Honours, in science or engineering. Graduates in arts and social sciences
who studied one or more elective modules in economics or geography touching on environmental related topics will be considered. They must have a keen interest in environmental public health and a passion for working with the community. Candidates must be resourceful and willing to work outside office hours. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH OffIcER Responsibilities Assist in the implementation of various environmental public health programmes in areas such as vector control, food hygiene and investigations into infectious disease outbreaks to meet the environmental public health needs of Singapore. As you will be in close contact with the public, you can expect to face new challenges each day. Requirements Candidates must be analytical, with a keen sense of observation, and have a diploma in one of the following subjects: civil and environmental; environmental engineering; public health engineering; biotechnology; applied food science & nutrition; chemical process technology (food technology) or process engineering. Due to the nature of the role, candidates must enjoy meeting people and possess strong personalities. TEcHNIcAL OffIcER (POLLUTION cONTROL) Responsibilities Formulate action plans and carry out compliance checks on industrial premises to ensure that companies operate and maintain their pollution control systems effectively and efficiently and that air emissions and effluent discharges from their industrial premises meet the permissible emission/ discharge limits; work with industries to identify causes of non-compliance and advise on measures to resolve the problem; vet and evaluate proposals submitted by industries on provision of pollution control equipment; investigate feedback of pollution and take follow-up action to address the pollution; formulate action plans and carry out audits and compliance checks on industrial premises storing and using and/ or treating hazardous substances and toxic industrial wastes
to ensure the hazardous substances or toxic industrial waste is handled in a safe and environmentally sound manner; attend to emergency situations involving hazardous substances and toxic industrial waste; evaluate applications of licences and permits for purchase, sale, storage, transportation and use or treatment of hazardous substances and toxic industrial waste; formulate action plans and carry out compliance checks on construction sites to ensure that contractors manage their construction sites in compliance with the regulations to control noise; manage the real-time noise monitoring system at the control centre to monitor and alert cases of non-compliance of permissible noise limits; work with contractors to manage and reduce the levels of noise from construction sites, including looking into the use of quieter construction methods and equipment; formulate action plans and carry out compliance checks on vehicles to reduce the number of smoky vehicles on roads; and evaluate applications of licences and permits for off-road diesel vehicles. Requirements Applicants must have a diploma in civil, mechanical or chemical engineering; chemical process technology, environmental science, an automotive discipline or manufacturing; or equivalent qualification. They must be able to perform shift work and night duties and have a Class 2 or Class 3 driving licence; own transport is preferable.
the latest environment and waste management trends:
introducing Cleanenviro solutions
CleanEnviro Solutions encapsulates the outcomes of the 2012 Cleanenviro summit singapore, the premier global platform for urban sustainability practitioners. with key statistics, facts and video interviews, it highlights how industry and governments can solve todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s environmental challenges. it also features a wealth of opportunities, plus updates on â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;movers and shakers,â&#x20AC;&#x2122; innovators and key decision makers. this nea publication captures the commercial trends and expert perspectives shaping environmental management worldwide. visit http://tinyurl.com/b85h8xs to download it for your computer or tablet.