Reactivating the Waterfront: Social Integration through Resilient Coastal Infrastructure

Re-activating the Waterfront Social Integration through Resilient Coastal Infrastructure

by Leonardo Coelho

00

Preface

Table of Contents 00 - Preface Acknowledgments

07

01 - Introduction

Thesis Statement Argument

Contextual Relevance

Framing Narrative Audience

Structure of Investigation

Setting the Location: Boston, MA

11 11 12 13 14 15 16

02 - Literature Review

Introduction

Resilience Ideologies

Reconnecting with Nature

Revitalizing Cities

31 32 35 38

03 - Design as Research

Framing the Problem Precedents

Thesis Idea

Design Tests

4 | Preface

44 47 50 52

04 - Outcomes

Coastline Proposal for East Boston

Extending Urban Fabric Marshland

68 73 75

Water Transportation “Archi-Nature”

Public Market

The Lawn

77 79 81 83

05 - Critical Reflection

85

06 - Bibliography

89

Preface | 5

6 | Preface

Acknowledgments People I would like to acknowledge: Family

Nilma Coelho Mccarthy - Mother

Paul Mccarthy - Father

Joao Pedro Morais - Brother Thesis Professors

Jennifer Gaugler

John Ellis

Robert Cowherd

Advisor

Mark Klopfer Friends

Stephan Barthold

Patrick Barthold

Kyle Kinz

Melissa Olsen

Emily Noel

Edgar Romero

Tim Elrick

Thank you all for your love, guidance, support, and laughs through every step of the way.

Preface | 7

01

INTRODUCTION

10 | Introduction

Figure 1.0 “Miami is Flooding�. Illustration from the The New Yorker

Thesis Statement

By redeveloping and reconnecting with their waterfronts, cities can respond to climate change-induced sea level rise while revitalizing spaces to promote social integration of historically underserved communities.

Argument

As a result of global warming, the potential damage and displacement threatens to devastate communities in the coming decades. Yet many cities aren’t prepared to adapt to these rapidly changing conditions. East Boston sits as one of the most vulnerable neighborhoods from challenges with financial neglect, high density population, minimal defense strategies and a derelict industrial waterfront. Through the integration of landscaping, cities can provide a water resiliency barrier along their coastlines. With this merging of green and urban infrastructure, the community can socially reactivate spaces that breathe life back into the urban fabric through recreational uses and redevelopment of the existing fabric . The combination of these spaces creates central community hubs and acts as connectors for the diverse socio-economic classes present within cities. By reconnecting and learning from nature, cities can adapt for the future.

Introduction | 11

Contextual Relevance

Climate change is present everywhere today as it is all over the news and media, even being a hot topic in today’s presidential debates. California experiencing wildfires, Houston’s constant flooding, ecosystem’s collapsing, and many more negative impacts that are felt around the world have shown us that we must adapt. As a result of industrialization and human activity, we have exponentially started to warm the climate.

The burning of fossil fuels, our main source of energy, has led to the production of Co2 emissions which helps trap heat causing rising temperatures.

A main problem that arises from this is the alarming rate of melting happening in the polar ice caps. Scientists have projected that by the year 2100, oceanic sea levels could rise by 1.5 meters which becomes catastrophic for coastal cities and communities.

Boston is subject to this and it has grown greater concern to help prevent further flooding continue. Being primarily a landfilled city, much of its neighborhoods were designed flat and neglected water flooding such as Seaport and East Boston. Implementing the natural landscape of Boston into the urban infrastructure helps provide a resilience barrier that can protect the city.

12 | Introduction

Framing Narrative

Originally born in Framingham, I lived in the heart of Brazilian and Mexican culture. My mother knew that staying close to our roots was safer for her two sons and made it easier for her to adjust to the United States. She then met my father and got married where I ended moving to central Massachusetts in a small city called Marlborough. From living in a one bedroom apartment sharing a bed to moving into a beautiful neighborhood with my own room was eye-opening.

Looking back now I didn’t realize the struggles that we lived in prior because that sense of community was so strong in those areas.

As I got into high school my interest in Architecture rose, which led me to major it at Wentworth Institute of Technology in Boston. With a concentration in urbanism, my sphere of vision widened out to the urban scale and the problems that it faces daily. From socio-economic issues to the effects of climate change, I am hoping to provide solutions for these with this area of study. By having a diverse background in the combination of living on both sides of the financial poverty line, I understand some of the troubles and barriers between society and seek to integrate communities back together in the city-scape.

Introduction | 13

Audience

This is intended for any present and future designers to start becoming adaptable for the changing world. Especially with the effects of climate change, cities need to become more resilient now more than ever.

Too many communities are destroyed and displaced during massive flooding, and it’s up to us to help prevent these disasters happening. Resiliency shouldn’t been seen as just an engineered barrier as it can be designed and manipulated to benefit communities in numerous other ways. This book seeks to inspire urban planners to broaden their sphere of vision and help provide solutions to these problems cities face every day.

14 | Introduction

Structure of Investigation Literature Review

The literature review dives into the relevant re-

search correlating with my thesis investigation. Breaking up the chapter into three sections, resilience ideologies, reconnecting nature, and revitalizing cities. Resilience ideologies look at the failures and success of flood mitigation actions taken by various cities around the world. With the successes of natural design for resiliency, reconnecting nature defends why we must seek to bring nature back into the urban infrastructure of cities. With arguements from Peter Kahn, Charles Weidham, Andres Duany and more highlighting the positive experiences that result from humans interacting with nature. Revitalizing cities analyze two cities and their projects to re-purpose their waterfront edge for the betterment of the respective communities. By combining the elements of these three sections, one can provide resilient spaces that reactivates portions of a city to promote social integration through nature.

Design Research

Dives into the precendents used for investigation

and with the research from the literature review, design as research starts to put those elements to test. Conducting site analysis to uncover to the most vulnerable part of Boston while using design tests that engage a portion of those sections (resilience ideologies, reconnecting nature, and revitalizing cities) to be implemented into East Boston (site location).

Introduction | 15

Figure 1.01 (Above) “Boston Land Growth”. GIS mapping of Boston landfill development since founding. (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 1.02 (Right) “Boston Projected Flooding”. Elevation GIS map showcasing floodzones. (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Setting the Location: Boston, MA

Boston is one of the oldest cities in the United States, and its construction process differs from many other cities within the country. Originally being the small Shawmut peninsula and the harbour islands, one of the first urban projects for the city was to expand it. Due to being surrounded by water it was built through landfills. Creating a better harbour for trade as well as extending land creating neighborhoods such as Back bay, East Boston, and Seaport while also entirely creating space for Logan International airport. One of the 16 | Introduction

problems that arise was that when the city constructed these areas, they made the areas generally flat to make building more feasible as well as only focusing on the present water levels during construction. As shown in the figures, the geographical areas that were already present to the peninsula stay dry while the developed zones are the ones that flood. Outside of the seaport district, many of the zones that constantly are underwater are situated in low income zones causing further damage to the communities.

Chelsea

East Boston

Charlestown

t idge

M ass

Pi k e

Jeffries Point

Boston

as

sP ike

Beacon Hill

M

M a ss

P ik e

South Boston

Indep City Point

Dorchester Heights

Elevation Value

´

100 ft -20 ft Projected 2030 Flooding

Uphams

Corner Projected 2050 Flooding

Projected 2070 Flooding

0 0.19 0.38

0.75

Introduction | 17 1.13 1.5 Miles

Savin HillSources: Esri, HERE, Garmin, FAO, NOAA, USGS, © OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS User Community

Boston Trees / Vegetation Density

18 | Introduction

Figure 1.03 “Boston Trees / Vegetation Density”. GIS map showcasing areas of concentration of vegetation. (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 1.04 “Boston Income Disparity Zones”. GIS map showcasing low-income neighborhoods. (Leo Coelho CC BY)

As described in the literature review, trees and other sorts of vegetation help with absorbing and mitigating flood waters. In relation to the flood map on the previous page, the areas of dense vegetation have little to no flooding such as the riverway that eats up the storm surges and keep all of back bay, kenmore and fenway dry. Meanwhile places that have spread out sparse vegetation are more vunerable to the flooding. Places like Seaport and East Boston’s waterfront are prone to this.

Boston, just like any city, is subject to income disparities that can cause division between neighborhoods. Areas such as Charlestown and East Boston have lower income housing in relation to the rest of the city. With the lack of financial resources, a household in one of these areas is impaired in preporation for a flooding and they cannot keep affording to reconstruct their homes from the constant damages. For evacuations low income households tend to rely on public transportation and if they cannot leave they will stay, putting themselves at greater risk.

Introduction | 19

Figure 1.05 “Population Density”. GIS map showcasing which neighborhoods contain high number of people. (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 1.06 “Projected Development”. GIS map showcasing five year plan for development projects within Boston (Leo Coelho CC BY)

This is portraying the population density within the city. The North End, Charlestown, East Boston, and areas near northeastern university are highly dense residential neighborhoods.

The flood prone neighborhoods that have these high densities affect more people causing negatives that impact communities.

This is showcasing the projected development projects within the next five years for Boston. The budgets and amount of developments are higher in the high income areas and minimal in the low income sections. The city tends to neglect these parts of the city and this continues to feed to the financial instabilities between neighborhoods.

20 | Introduction

Population Density

Projected Development for the Next 5 years

Introduction | 21

22 | Introduction

Figure 1.07 “Urban Vegetation�. Infrastructure and nature seeking to find a balance within Boston. (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Boston has started to incorporate more greenery in this century with the reconstruction of the central artery (old elevated highway that used to cut through city) in the Rose Kennedy Greenway. Integrating the greenery back into the landscape, reviving the areas and maintaining infrastructures already placed within the city

Introduction | 23

Figure 1.08 “Open Space�. GIS map showcasing open green space present in East Boston (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Based off of the combination of elements from the previous maps, East Boston seems to be one of the most vulnerable areas of the city from flooding. With the combination of low income households, investment neglection from the city, and dense populations, many problems tend to arise. The amount of public open space within the neighborhood is relatively low and disconnected. The waterfront is left for private use or old industrial sites restricting the public access to it which can cause tension within communities and impact their personal experience with the environment.

24 | Introduction

Introduction | 25

East Boston Flooding Versus Open Space

East Boston Intervention Proposed Intervention

26 | Introduction

Figure 1.09 “East Boston Flooding”. GIS map highlighting floodzones of East Boston . (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 1.10 “East Boston Intervention”. Proposed area of intervention in East Boston (Leo Coelho CC BY)

The proposed intervention would sit along most of East Boston’s waterfront acting as a protective barrier for the community. The once underused and private spaces can now be open to the public revitalizing these areas. Having it connect to many of the parks within East Boston can bond the residence to establish a stronger tie between them and the city. Incorporating areas of recreation, public events, cultural implentations etc. will breathe life back into this portion of Boston while still achieving its main goal of resilience.

Introduction | 27

02

Literature Review

Figure 2.0 St. Marks Square in Venice, Italy constantly faces flooding and exponentially sinking

Introduction As the constantly rising majority of the global population keeps moving to live in major cities, the problems that arise become larger scale. Numerous major cities were built along the coast or on a river, and so flooding is something that becomes natural for these places. However as the severity of storms arise with the combination of higher sea levels; flooding and destruction have terrified, displaced, and killed families. Some places have implemented designs to help provide resiliency, such as Venice, or China’s Wuhan “Sponge City�, but many others have not incorporated efficient methodologies. Two completely opposite

approaches that accomplish the same goal. By looking at the failures of past strategies, it leads to newer innovative methods that have been implemented such as resiliency through landscape and ecological design. By diving into the works of Peter Kahn, Charles Weidham, Andres Duany, and Baruch Givoni, one can understand our innate tendency to integrate nature back into the urban infrastructure, and repurpose areas of cities that were neglected before. The main question that arises is how can vulnerable cities start to provide a barrier for the communities and its neighborhoods to prevent further damage?

Literature Review | 31

Resilience Ideologies

Figure 2.01 Venice’s main transportation is through water canal travel. The buildings are put on wooden piles raised above the sea level.

Figure 2.02 New Orleans water levee system that sits in the wetlands and help to regulate waterflow in and out of the city.

32 | Literature Review

Before we talk about how to provide solutions to these problems, first we must understand what floods are and its different types. A flood is an abundance of water that overflows the natural dry land. In Natural Disasters: Floods1, Emeritus and Ruby Miller explain the four main types of floods are coastal, river, flash, and storm-surges.

Coastal floods are usually due to an astronomical tide that has the sea water come above it’s regular levels. Storm surges cause coastal floods to be even higher with the combination of the storm and winds making levels reach higher than 20 feet in some cases. Flash floods are caused by torrential downpours in a short period of time. The heavy flow from the extreme rain tears through streets and riverbeds which can cause landslides as well.

River floods happen often due to storms or ice meltage. Storms happening upstream still trickle and affect downstream. Floods have shaped many city landscapes that various cultures have gotten used to. Meanwhile some have adapted to become resilient by providing integrated methods that have helped regulate water flow.

One of the prominent water resiliency methods is the raising of surface elevations. By raising the ground plane, certain areas can be protected while diverting water to other areas that may be more suitable for flooding. Venice was built with this methodology as water envelops the city entirely. They constructed the city with wooden piles driven into mud with flat surfaces that sits above sea level and created canals (Figure 2.1) that act 1

Miller, E. Willard, and Ruby M. Miller, Natural Disasters: Floods

(ABC-CLIO Interactive, 2000) 2

as the main method of transportation2. Although, due to the flat design of the floating city plus the constant rise of sea levels, numerous zones of the city are subject to severe floods. The weight of the city has actually caused it to sink nine inches in the past decade alone. This is a place that has lasted thousands of years but with the changing world today it could be fully submerged by 2100.

This methodology has served its purpose but the great city of Venice must look to integrate other strategies if it looks to remain as a statement for Italy. Alexander Herzen once said “To build a city where it is impossible to build a city is madness in itself, but to build there one of the most elegant and grandest of cities is the madness of genius”.

Just because it seems impractical doesn’t mean it’s impossible, through development and integration of new strategies, the city and its genius can be saved.

In 2007 Hurricane Katrina devastated southern United States and infamously New Orleans. This was because their levee systems failed during the storm leaving the city vulnerable. With New Orleans being a natural basin, it filled up and wiped out massive chunks of the city primarily the Lower Ninth Ward. This single handedly became the U.S most expensive natural disaster. The city has since spent 14 billion dollars on a new levee system that is equally failing causing more trouble for the city. In Richard Campanella’s article How Humans Sank New Orleans3, he says the reason 2

3

Fletcher, Caroline, and T. Spencer, Flooding and Environmental Challenges for Venice and Its Lagoon: State of Knowledge.

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), Campanella, Richard, How Humans Sank New Orleans

that New Orleans truly flooded was due to the rapid urbanization of the city that resulted in the destruction of the natural wetlands and anthropogenic soil subsidence due to dense human activity. When the city was expanding during the early 1800s, urban growth and prosperity was the main focus of the general public. The marshland that protected the city was actually hated and seen as “a source of miasma” and “the cause of disease”4.

With that they decided to destroy and build on it while trying to provide infrastructural methods of resiliency. They instituted diversion canals to help dry areas and store water, floodwalls as well as water pumps to push water out and of course the levee system (Figure 2.2) to regulate inflows.

Water resilient barriers are one of the first attempts in water regulation and this tradition has been carried through many cultures. However in cases such as this, levees can be overflown and fail thus resulting in catastrophic damages. Levee and barriers seems to help regulate floods to a certain degree but cannot be the main solution to provide resilience or at the very least needs to be combined with other methods. Campanella essentially caps the article with this view on future resilience5: “Yet, history shows that ‘walls’ (that is, levees, embankments, floodwalls, and other rigid barriers) have gotten New Orleans into topographical trouble, even if they have also been essential to the viability of this 300-year-old experiment in delta urbanism. The city cannot rely on them alone. The biggest and most important part of assuring a future for this region is to supplement structural solUtions with nonstructural approaches.”

This approach has gotten other susceptible cities to re-evaluate their methods of traditional barrier 4

5

Campanella, How Humans Sank New Orleans Campanella,

Literature Review | 33

resiliency. How can we start to establish a more positive future (in context of resiliency) for cities with nonstructural approaches?

Figure 2.03 Sponge City visual concept diagram.

Sustainable design doesn’t always convey quality or innovative design but according to Mohsen Mostafavi if the design can accommodate to “promote disciplinary knowledge” and advocate sustainability, it can break the constant tension between those two6. With the “Sponge City” ideology (Figure 2.3), it is able to find a harmonious balance. It entails the combination of urban water management infrastructure with natural landscaping and vegetation. Its primary objective is not only to prevent severe flooding, but to also provide the ability to use the water. With the help of green spaces, it allows the city to soak up, store, clean and redistribute the water back for utilization7. This is extremely helpful for areas that lack clean water as approximately one billion people don’t have access to that. In Traditions of Landscape Urbanism by Bruno De Meulder and Kelly Shannon, they note that landscapes have become the “savior of the professions of the built environment”8 as it is deals with ever changing conditions of society. Many cities and governments have taken up this urban design approach, with the front-runners being China. In 2013, the Chinese Central Government decided to start implementing the Sponge city concept to most of its cities and future developments. Wuhan, China

Figure 2.04 Igloos (above) and Native American Huts (below) regardless of completely different environments still hold same functionalities.

6

7

8

34 | Literature Review

Mostafavi, Mohsen, “Why Ecological Urbanism? Why Now?” in Landscape Architecture (Topos #71), 32 Sponge City : Water Resource Management = Ville Perméable: L’eau, Ressource Urbaine. ( Images Publishing, 2015), 14 De Meulder, Bruno, and Kelly Shannon, “Traditions of Land scape Urbanism” in Landscape Architecture (Topos #71), 72

Reconnecting with Nature has become the catalyst for the ideology. It did not just focus on the waterfront but incorporated the entire city with porous pavement, vegetated roofs, stormwater wetlands, bioretention, grass swales, increased tree coverage and ISD (impervious surface disconnections). ISD concludes of controlling runoff water by catching, filtering, and reusing it as it transitions from the impervious surface to drainage networks. By using this procedure it helps to manage the quantity of water that enters into the drain and thus creating diversions to prevent overflows of sewers. Bioretention zones, green roofs, vegetated locations act as areas that can capture and retain water by using greenery as filters to be reutilized as clean water.

With combination of planned soil mix, plants, and underdrain it can absorb the water, provide as a barrier, and again helps stop drains from overflowing. According to Stormwater Management for Sustainable Urban Environments by Scott Slaney constructed wetlands are deemed as a BMP (best management practices) for water collection and absorption due to the quality of performance9.

They help diminish pollutants and can be adjusted to already developed areas to maintain the urban infrastructure where needed. With all the qualities of the Sponge city concept, Wuhan has helped to establish solutions for water resiliency while also addressing the socio economic problems of water scarcity that is present throughout many parts of the world. Outside of the ecological beneficial elements of the Sponge City and natural design, the incorporation of nature provides positive psychological and physical impacts for humans.

9 Slaney, Scott, Stormwater Management for Sustainable Urban Environments (Shanghai: Images Publishing, 2016), 10

As humans have evolved and become more civilized we have disconnected from nature more evidently. We started to make things that would be fuel for our survival. In Peter Kahn’s book The Human Relationship with Nature10 he points out “that houses do not exist spontaneously in nature. Rather we construct houses.� We have created these barriers from the outside world, as it is used to keep out the elements such as wind, rain, while protecting against animals and extreme climates. Kahn follows that we build physical and psychological structures from the interactions we have with our surrounding conditions but the functionalities are similar11. For example, compare an igloo in greenland and a 1600s native american hut (Figure 2.4). They can respond to different environments but they share the same qualities of having insulation, doors, cover, interior living spaces and so on. With these interactions with the environment we establish diversity between one another but also adherence to collective needs for communities. Creating communities that grow into cities and governments where we start to socially integrate with one another. Although the result of us creating homes, we distanced ourselves from the outside world with that barrier. With this we began to psychologically see ourselves separate establishing further distance from that. Our bodies have also evolved to become accustomed to the indoor conditions and are more vulnerable to nature. When cities are being constructed, we take away the natural land, flatten it and build man-made structures on top. Boston for example 9

11

Kahn, Peter H., The Human Relationship with Nature: Development and Culture (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999), 51 Kahn, Peter H., The Human Relationship with Nature, 52

Literature Review | 35

was merely nothing but a small peninsula until most of the city has been expanded through infill development into the water to give space for the growing neighborhoods and dense population.

Figure 2.5 Ulrich hospital present day patient room.

Figure 2.6 Solitary confinement cell.

All of this has thus disconnected us from nature but were not going to go backwards and start living in the wilderness. Integrating it back into society is something that should be sought after for future urban plan designers. The biophilia hypothesis suggests that humans fundamentally seek to affiliate themselves with nature and other forms of life, through physiological and psychological responses with the natural world. Even though we have distanced ourselves greatly we tend to find ways to connect ourselves back to it, which can be attributed to nature triggering our instinctive side. Kahn argues that if certain landscapes have sustained human endurance through evolution then it is safe to say that those landscapes have nourished human physiology and establish emotional wellness12. This evolutionary connection with nature cannot be separated. It starts to affect the way that we live and our experiences of the world thus creating our perception of it. Ulrich hospital conducted a series of studies on the recovery of 120 post-surgery patients, on the basis of if they were placed in rooms that had views to natural landscapes (Figure 2.5) or not13. Patients that had the view tended to leave postoperative treatment earlier. The patients with no view would often have constant headaches and nausea requiring stronger medicine. People were having 12

36 | Literature Review

13

Kahn, Peter H., 12 Kahn, Peter H., 14

different physical and psychological effects just because of their relationship with the natural. This relates to when prison inmates are put into solitary confinement (Figure 2.6), that separation from the natural elements causes negative implications with the mind. The isolation from the outside world in coalition with no social contact causes anxiety and other psychological harm, thus being a form of punishment so the chances of the action previously committed will diminish. Nature is fundamentally part of us and must be incorporated back into the urban fabric of cities.

Urban green spaces have positive effects to the richness of life and the condition of the urban fabric (Figure 2.7). Environmental characteristics inside a public space greatly influences the comfort conditions of a person. How it is used and placed can deflect stressful climates. Especially in the hectic chaos of the city, people look for places of quietness and contemplation. Charles Weidham claims that landscape urbanism is the most optimistic substitution to traditional urban forms as it is able to provide as a cultural, ecological, and economic model for modern urbanization14, such as the sponge city concept did for Wuhan. By using green spaces, they can mold a much more desired location where it can integrate the chaos with the harmony creating social unification and community inside a city. Andres Duany highlights by utilizing landscape and topography as flow, it starts to intertwine human movement with nature, acting as the mechanism of water 14 Weidham, Charles, “On Landscape, Ecology, and Other

Modifiers to Urbanism� in Landscape Architecture (Topos #71), 24

Figure 2.7 Public green space (London, England) promote social and recreational activity that encourages positive experiences.

and pedestrian activity15. Inevitably generating subsequent experiences and improving the visual aspects. Especially in areas where the flow of a space seems disrupted or segregated, using landscape the city can establish new seams of circulation that change the atmosphere of the space. Baruch Givoni argues that while designing open spaces, one must accommodate for the division of spaces into individual parcels as it promotes multipurpose use resulting in diversity and social integration between neighborhoods16. Creating large gathering spaces where public cultural activities can prosper while also having other areas focus on small group gathering establishing social contacts and the ability to escape from the 15 Duany, Andres, and Emily Talen, Landscape Urbanism and Its

16

Discontents : Dissimulating the Sustainable City. New Society Publishers, 2013 Givoni, Baruch, Climate Considerations in Building and Urban

Design (New York: J. Wiley & Sons, 1998), 326

Literature Review | 37

Figure 2.8 2011 flood that destoyed the coastline of Japan.

strains of urban life. Having nature in these areas gives aesthetically pleasing perspectives consequently creating positive experiences for someone as they’re walking engaging with the space.

A massive negative that can result from social integration in parks is the development of conflict and competition for the utilization of the park and its facilities which causes greater division within the city. Finding the right balance between activities and facilities that are accommodating for the whole public regardless of socioeconomic boundaries can be difficult. A space that is only allowed and accessed to high income residents establishes rifts in society creating further tension. Givoni claims that the allocation of open space should be available in the center and boundaries of the city17.

Having the accessibility be feasible throughout most, if not all parts of the city generates social interactions as well as prevent discrepancies between the heterogeneous socioeconomic classes that utilize the spaces. How can urban planners design green open spaces that can provide for positive social collaboration and flood resiliency?

Revitalizing Cities

In 2010 an earthquake followed by a tsunami devastated the city of Constitución, Chile.

In a ted talk, Alejandro Aravena talks about the reconstruction process as the lead architectural Figure 2.9 Aerial masterplan of the forest design in Constitución, Chile.

designer and his implementation of sustainability within the city18. One of the ideas he originally brought light to was constructing a sea wall of 17 18

38 | Literature Review

Givoni, Baruch, Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Aravena, Alejandro, “My Architectural Philosophy? Bring the Community into the Process.” (TED, October 2014)

some sort. This is often preferred for the political and economical institutions of the city as it shies away from governments using the enforcement of eminent domain as it also provides contracts and jobs for the public. However he argues that Japan used this method to resist the force but ultimately failed showcasing the 2011 tsunami disaster (Figure 2.8). This leads him to his philosophy for resilient design that must be adopted and it states that “against geographical threats, have geographical answers”19. This goes hand in hand with Campanella’s approach to future resiliency, and start thinking outside the box than just structural infrastructure. The destroyed waterfront was replaced by a forest (Figure 2.9) that acts as the obstruction between the city and the sea. Rather than full on resistance, it “dissipates” the force of nature by presenting friction20. By also having the forest now on the edge, it allowed public access to the waterfront (that was previously privately owned properties) providing beneficial elements to most, considering the primary means of living was as a fisherman or trade. Incorporating the greenery helped dissolve the boundaries of socio-economic problems that were present prior to the disaster. In Post-Disaster Reconstruction, Mathew Clarke, Ismet Fanany, and Sue Kenny argue that “It is important to note that local people are not passive receivers of aid but are very much part of the aid distribution process, which can result in corruption through unequal power relations but also in the community deciding that priority should be given to the most vulnerable.

19

20

Arevana, Alejandro, “My Architectural Philosophy? Bring the Community into the Process.”

Arevana, Alejandro

Furthermore, reconstruction should not be seen as just a technical process, but at least as much as a political and social process”21. In relation to this, Aravena chose to listen and respond to the people that were most vulnerable and made sure to create public spaces. Aravena’s work also raises the need for participatory design, the incorporation of the public with the designer can set the most effective construction process that positively affects that specific community. Now incorporating a forest into the already economically prominent established waterfront of Boston may be less viable, but its elements of resiliency and social integration should be drawn from. Providing a public space helps to connect the community more and draws their focus to become environmentally aware.

Even though industrialization revolutionized the way we create things and innovate, it has become a thing of the past for many developed countries. Industrial zones usually sit on the waterfront edge of cities and is not nearly as utilized anymore as it previously was. These parts of cities become fatigued and worn down taking up quality space that can be used to protect and engage the city’s public. Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates’ Allegheny Riverfront park implementation located in Pittsburgh is a great example of how they were able to revitalize a section of the city for future impacts. It was a design intervention to add a series of parks along the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers that split the city. By repur21

Clarke, Matthew, Ismet Fanany, and Susan Kenny, Post-Disaster Reconstruction: Lessons from Aceh, (Earthscan, 2010) 219

Literature Review | 39

posing old industrial sites that sat along the bank of the rivers, they provided resiliency and social spaces to that run down portion of the city22. Recreating the waters edge to allow docking from water travel (Figure 2.10). helps breathes new life into the city while possibly integrating some of the old. Prior to construction, Allegheny riverfront park had a lower and upper level highways that ran parallel to the river. This made a separation of the pedestrian to the waterfront. They kept the highways while integrating natural design as well as pedestrian walkways that sit right on the water (Figure 2.11). When explaining the scissoring of the highway and pedestrian walkway of the project the firm states:

Figure 2.10 Harborwalk allows for water travel docking encouraging social integration and allowing more access to the public revitalizing the space.

“The river and the floodplain provided a natural model for the landscape on the lower level. Then there is the civic landscape of the cultural district presented on the upper level of the park. By civic, we mean welcoming, comfortable, civilized. It has a material language that is established, even though it’s not used in traditional ways...The experience of each along its length has a drawn-out duration. Sensations change incrementally over the length”23

Constructing this, people start to activate areas that they weren’t allowed in previously as the space feels more inviting and friendly. Implicating that people should be with the natural and have that connection and “sensations” with the water.

The seawall also acts as a barrier between the upper and lower level, leaving major vehicular traffic to the upper, and pedestrian to the lower.

Urban above and wild below.

22

23

Amidon, Jane, Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates: Allegheny Riverfront Park. (Princeton Architectural Press, 2005), 17 Amidon, Jane, Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates: Allegheny Riverfront Park, 74

40 | Literature Review

Figure 2.11 Allegheny Riverfront park natural sea wall barrier creates resiliency and incorporates space for human activity.

Conclusion

We are a part of nature and it is a part of us. Even with the separation we have established through civilization, nature tends to keep coming back. Instead of creating barriers from it, cities should embrace its presence into the urban fabric. The positive physical and psychological experiences that it evokes helps fade away the daily stresses of life while creating moments that can mend communities together. Cities constantly go through a construction process, so finding the balance between natural and built is critical for adapting. Ecological urban design can be implemented into Boston to help revitalize areas, reconnect communities, and establish resilience for the city and its future. Recreating a city built for sustainability.

Literature Review | 41

03

Design Research

Figure 3.0 “Climate Change Reality”. Understanding the impacts of the warming climate. (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Framing the Problem

Since the boom of industrialization we have accomplished many inventions and innovations, but with all great things, problems tend to follow. Our reliance and use of fossil fuels have created global climatic impacts that have affected essentially every ecosystem on the planet. Our habits and way of life have contributed to the emission of greenhouse gases, primarily Co2 (Carbon dioxide), that helps trap heat and warm up the climate. You might think “great, better beach days during the summer”, well that beach might not be there anymore in a few years. It could be right through your living room. Global warming has resulted in the accelerated melting rate of the polar ice caps causing the rise of oceanic sea levels. Its impacts have been felt strongly across the world causing numerous flooding and disasters that have plagued communities, cities, and entire nations.

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Timeline of Climate Change Awareness 1957

1979

1989

U.S oceanographer Roger Revelle says that by releasing greenhouse gases, we are performing a “large-scale geophysical experiment

First World Climate Conference

Fossil fuel industries form the Global Climate Coalition and try to change public opinion claiming that climate change inconclusive

1967 International Global Atmospheric Research Program studies determine the possibility of Antarctic ice sheets collapsing

2000 Major floods around the world start to sway the opinion of the public. IPCC scientists predict worse case the planet warms 6 degrees celsius by end of decade

1987 1997 Warmest year since Establishment of the Kyoto recording began. protocol in efforts for countries 80s also being to reduce green house gas hottest decade emissions

2008 Climate scientists state that even if all emissions could instantly stop, global warming still to occur for the century and past

2007 Scientist collectively agree that humankind is the main problem to global warming

Present Many countries around the world have initiated green deals in response to climate change, working in the process of lowering emissions

2015 Irreversable collapse of the West Antarctic ice sheet causing sea levels to rise for the upcoming century

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Change of Global Temperature (° C)

Global Cities Affected by Sea Level Rise 1 New York City, USA

Sea Level Change (mm)

Industrialization

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Figure 3.01 “The Big U”. Series of resilient landscape parks proposed on waterfront of New York City (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 3.02 “Sponge City”. Green defense that envelopes and soaks up Wuhan (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Precedent: NYC, New York The Big U Architect - One Architecture & Urbanism

The Big U is a landscape design project that will incorporate essentially a green barrier surrounding lower Manhattan and its waterfront.

Not only will it add a raised land barrier for protection, but also ability to provide social / communal events and infrastructures. This project reshpaes entirey how cities should viw and interact with their waters edge.

Precedent: Wuhan, China Sponge City Principle Consultant - Arcadis

The Sponge city design project is vey intriguing. China faces flooding daily, but they also deal with clean water scarcity. This system gives an approach where the city soaks up, holds, clean and redistributes the water back into the areas needed. Even implementing porous pavement which allows the water to pass through into the soil. The combination of urban infrastructure and the natural land seems to be the most effiecient way to deal with rising sea levels.

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Figure 3.03 “Reinventing the Edge”. Visual analysis pointing out methods toward a revitalized waterfront edge (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Precedent: Bristol, United Kingdom Bristol’s Waterfront Edge Analysis

Many cities have taken the right steps into solutions for sea level rise and Bristol’s waterfront edge is a great example of this. Through the use of natural landscaping and elevated surfaces, they created a barrier between the water’s edge and the urban fabric while having the vegetation help soak up the water rather than just dispersing it. Also they have created pathways through the greenery and a harborwalk to implement positive experiences and circulation throughout the site. The harbor walk is essentially sitting at sea level to have that connection with water but also providing docking and space for water travel. By reconnecting with nature we can provide resilience as well as revitalize cities to provide social interactive spaces for the public.

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Figure 3.04 “The Three R’s”. Venn diagram merging resilience, nature, revitilization to prepare cities for the future. (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 3.05 “Merging the Natural and Built”. Collage of the relationship between natural and built throughout time. (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Thesis Idea

Breaking down the three main points of my thesis, resiliency, reconnecting nature, and revitalization. By combining those categories, cities can evolve to accomodate to future climates and respond to the needs of the city. Previously when cities were being constructed, nature ended up being destroyed and replaced. As Alejandro Aravena stated “against geographical threats, have geographical answers”, and so by integrating nature with urban infrastructure, cities can have a bio-engineered barrier that stimulates life.

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Reconnecting Nature

Using natural landscaping to establish flood prevention

Providing more green spaces while creating socioeconomic benefits

Sustainble cities that adapt to the future climate

Resiliency

Prevents damages while bringing back utlization of spaces previously hindered

Revitalizing Cities

Natural City

Built City

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Figure 3.06 “Stitching the Community”. Central hub for the community at the waterfront. Masterplan (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 3.07 “Remembering Spain”. Implemented water canal slicing through ur fabic simulating cities in Spain (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Design Test: Conjoining Two Cultures This was a design project for my M.Arch travel studio in partner with Adam Richter a fellow classmate. The objective of the project was to incorporate Iberian culture into the already latin based neighborhood of East Boston. Even though they are various different cultures, many of the practices and languages are the same. Adam and I revitalized this section of the city as it was previously used for an old industrial marina. Within the site parameters we added a channel that cuts through the heart of the project and helps to envelope overflow. Spain and Portugal have many cities with numerous waterways that cut through

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and engage with the corresponding buildings edge.The channel allows access for human activity and generates a stronger connection with the water while remaining resilient. Not only that but the green open spaces also help to soak up the water keeping this area dry. The programming includes a cultural center, plazas, sailing center, rambla, restaurants / retail, soccer stadium and a church. With incorporating these programmatic spaces we establish the Iberian cultur within the framework of East Boston and help to re-activate this area.

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Private/ Reflective

Public Events/ Active Space

Nightlife/ Recreational

Figure 3.08 (Above) “Program Zoning”. Diagram analyzing the programmatic division of spaces included (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 3.09 (Left) “Experiencing the Waterfront”. Walking through key moments of interest in the project (Leo Coelho CC BY)

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Figure 3.10 “Rising Tide�. Model experimenting elevation surface changes for water resilience (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Design Test: Rising Tide

This design test focuses on providing resiliency through raising and lowering surfaces.

In this test there were two different clay models with a barrier inbetween them. One had a single raised surface, while the other had a multi-layered system that also has channels inbetween the layers. When water was poured in they both provided a better reslience method than a raised flat surface. Although when the water passed the first barrier for the left clay model, the area behind being protected became exposed. The right clay model allowed the water to fall into the two channels when it passed the raised surface thus not allowing the area behind to be vulnerable to the water. In urban design the channels can be used for storing and cleaning the water that gets trapped within. However with the vast ocean, once its water level goes past the first berm, the channel will not be able to contain all the water that fills in. The berm must be over any height that the water can get to within the future climate.

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Figure 3.11 “Resilience Methodologies�. Combining various methods to create a layered barrier. (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Design Test: Resilience Methodologies

Outside of elevating the ground plane, other strategies have been tested through participatory practice. Models were made, each one representing a certain method such as terraced seating, berm, chanel, sea wall, marshland, docks, wave breaker, and heavily dense vegetation. Fellow M.arch collegues then were able to rearrange the order and combination of the methods to try and produce the most resilient design while interweaving programming. By doing this, it opens for other perspectives for approaching this situation, possibly obtaining knowledge their previous experiences. In almost all cases, resiliency methods that involved vegetation were picked the most and it was able to be multipurpose.

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e or

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Figure 3.12 “Elevated Flow�. Allowing the landscape resilience to be generated from existing site conditions (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Design Test: Elevated Flow

In indentify the existing streets grids of East Boston, it provided a way to respond and connect to the existing fabric of the neighborhood. The landscape extends from those grids and provides the elevated areas throughout the site. Then allowing the circulation through each iteration to start fluidly shifting and responding to the site. In result of these extensions being elevated, they are visible to the neighborhoods further inland, thus creating that visual connection in and out of the site. This will help create a smooth transitional mergence of the urban fabric with the natural. Infrastructure that is respecting the existing while also protecting from sea level rise helps the community accept the development of new construction.

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Figure 3.13 “Retention�. Sections of different types of natural rention zones (Leo Coelho CC BY)

With retention centers, it can help mitigate flooding as well as store water for future use. Using simple grass swale retention, the water gets absorbed through the ground, filtered, and contained within a storage tank. The water if put into non-biodiverse areas can become polluted and creates further problems / stress for the community by poisoning possible supplies and emmiting fowl smells The vegetation helps to clean the water by removing polluted materials as it passes through the root systems and absorbing Co2 emissions. Using the recycled water would cut down on water filtration centers and provide an eco-friendly approach to utilization of clean water.

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Hardwood Shredded Mulch

Pretreatment

Engineered Soil Media

Shrubs / Vegetation for Absorbtion

Choker Stone

Hardwood Shredded Mulch

Pretreatment

Engineered Soil Media

Shrubs / Vegetation for Absorbtion

Choker Stone Underdrain Stone

Shrubs / Vegetation for Absorbtion Water Storage Tank / Zone

Engineered Soil Media Underdrain Pipe

Hardwood Shredded Mulch

Pretreatment

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Choker Stone

Underdrain Stone

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Figure 3.14 “Lifting Urban Fabric�. Raising the ground plane and replacing the bottom floor with services / parking (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Design Test: Lifting Urban Fabric

During floods the ground floor of homes and buildings get absolutely destroyed and waterlogged. Currently most of the existing buildings surrounding this site are primarily residential triple deckers and mixed use buildings. For a long term proposal, redevelop the ground floors to be for services such as parking. That floor can now be floodable and it also helps to open the streets back up to the pedestrian. The previous residential floor can be added on top of the housing unit to not displace families. If the building has retail on the first floor, that retail would be shifted a floor up while then adding more residential with another floor on top. The building in the lower picture is the proposed redeveloped Shaws center with housing units as well. The angles are administered from the street grid and openings on the facade to allow visibility.

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04

Outcomes

Figure 4.00 (Above) “Front Lawn”. Open space allows areas for tents and gatherings (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 4.01 (Right) “Masterplan”. Intervention providing multiple public amenities (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Coastline Proposal for East Boston

When designing the proposal, the results of the design tests guide every decision that is place on the site. The proposal offers a series of green and open public spaces to restore the natural landscape. Programming includes a main lawn, redeveloped Shaws center, market spaces, a Marine Biology center, a beach, housing, marshland, elevated baywalks, water transportation and more. Experiential pathways throughout

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which allow circulation that provides views along the waterfront. Central Square is a perfect area to establish this infrastructure as it is a major transportation node for East Boston with Meridian street connecting directly to Maverick T Station.

Accessibility to downtown Boston is much more feasible. The proposed infrastructure connects with the neighborhood making it a community hub at the waterfront presenting public amenities.

Legend 1) Marina 2) Redeveloped Shaw’s Center 3) Amphitheatre 4) Marine Biology Center 5) Constructed Marshland 6) Beach 7) The Lawn 8) Ferry Stop 9) Elevated Baywalk 10) Market Space

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1

The raised berm landscape is kept at 15’ above current sea levels. Resisting flooding from not only present storm surges but even during the 2100 projected levels. The landscape is separated into two planes, a lower and a higher one.

When the lower one is flooded, the higher plane (where most of the circulation paths are) stays out of the flood line allowing the utilization to still be possible. To condone accessibility to all, the landscape had to be gradual as the ground elevated, making the spaces habitable as well. Implementing resilience that helps create new public spaces rather than take it away, establishes multipurpose use helping to avoid having to choose one or the other.

Figure 4.02 (Right) “Floodable Infrastructure”. The park imbraces the flooding up through 2100 storm surges. (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 4.03 (Below) “Gradual Incline”. Smooth incline to establish accessible pathways for all explored bySections (Leo Coelho CC BY)

A A

B B

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Figure 4.04 (Top) “Neighborhood Extension”. Diagram analyzing the street grids drawing into the intervention (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 4.05 (Bottom) “Green Coast”. Vegetation returning to waters edge in integration with urban infrastructures (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Extending Urban Fabric

The existing street grid is quite prominent in the community. Creating extensions of them into the site by representing infrastructures, resilience and circulation that stems from the exact angles the streets portray onto the site. The proposal offers multiple new edge conditions that work together to help protect the city. The site sections itself from different parts to allow the spaces to vary in public and private programming. The mass amounts of trees responds to restoring the historically dense forests of Boston, stop wave surges and soak up water.

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Figure 4.06 (Top) “Marshland”. Elevated baywalks offering experiental views through marshland and Marine Center (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 4.07 (Bottom) “Engaging the Water”. Terraced seating giving people access to the water. (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Marshland

Marshlands have historically protected New England’s coast. For example, South Shore Massachussetts has a vibrant natural marshland within places like Plymouth, Marshfield and Duxbury. However many pre-industrial cities destroyed their wetlands in order to construct urban infrastruct such as Boston. Within the site, the incorporation of constructed marshlands has been implemented to recall back to one of Nature’s natural water barriers. Boston is also known for its fishing and love for the sea. A marine biology center extends out onto the pier which connects to the baywalks that surround the marshland. This offers a learning center for marine life native to New England and allows residence to obtain greater knowledge of their home. The terraced seating gives a greater connection to the water while also acting as wave breakers.

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Figure 4.08 (Top) “Beach Life”. New edge condition that promotes recreational activities and local economy (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 4.09 (Bottom) “Land Ho!”. View from the new ferry stop that helps increase density and transportation (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Water Transportation

A beach gives rise to a new edge condition with the waterfront for East Boston. It opens recreational oportunities like swimming, fishing, beachcombing, sunbathing. It helps be a buffer from the waves and winds due to storm surges.

With having a beach, it also helps drive the local economy increasing density for surrounding retail. Boating and water transportation is very present within Boston’s harbor and the Charles river. However water transportation between the financial district downtown and East Boston is minimal so docks and a pier for ferry transportation have been added. Livening the waters edge while reconnecting separated portions of the city.

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Figure 4.10 (Top) “Elevated Footpaths”. Experiental pathways promoting mental and physical health (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 4.11 (Bottom) “Archi-nature”. Imbedding buildings into the landscape finding a balance of both (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Archi-nature

Experiental pathways are laid out through the site. The main circulation is elevated staying clear of 2100 storm surge lines. People on Boats coming back from being out in the harbour or bay during a storm can feel safe knowing that even during the worst storms, their route for evacuation are able to stay clear. Where the pathway nears the amphitheater, platforms (Figure 4.10) extend off to present access to the lower portion of the park. The market (Figure 4.11) relates back to that ideal of “Archi-nature” by being imbedded into the landscape while allowing for an accessible rooftop. The lower pathway sits aligned with the grid of Saratoga street to be visible.

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Figure 4.12 (Top) “Public Market”. Market eating are that sits with amphitheatre for multiporpuse use (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 4.13 (Bottom) “Shaw’s Center”. Outdoor gathering areas enjoying a warm summer sunset (Leo Coelho CC BY)

Public Market

The western facade of the market opens to the amphitheater space where the main outdoor eating area is. The platforms overhead provide some shading to help regulate direct sunlight creating a thermally comfortable experience. That facade of the market also acts as the berm layer within this section, helping be a barrier to hold back the water. The tables can be pulled aside and open up the space for concerts, festivals or events. Outside of the redeveloped Shaw’s center (Figure 4.13) is also additional outside seating after shopping or getting lunch inside. Outdoor fire pits as well giving families a relaxing night at the Boston waterfront. Community gardens, a playground and cornhole boards have been implemeneted to create recreational activities for the public outside.

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Figure 4.14 (Top) “Neighborhood Extension”. Diagram analyzing the street grids drawing into the intervention (Leo Coelho CC BY) Figure 4.15 (Bottom) “Green Coast”. Vegetation returning to waters edge in integration with urban infrastructures (Leo Coelho CC BY)

The Lawn

The lawn offers as the main open green space for the site. It has a gradual slope down to the water where one side connects with the beach and the other with terraced seating. This area allows for recreational activities with accessibility to the waterfront. Concerts and events can be held here, providing a site for things such as fireworks on the 4th of July in Boston’s harbor. Even during a 2100 storm surge, this area is able to flood while still holding back the water from reaching inside to the community and central square.

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05

Critical Reflections

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Figure 5.0 (Top) “Re-activating the Waterfront�. Analytique combining main ideas of thesis project. (Leo Coelho CC BY)

After reflecting on all the research in the past school year, the final thesis defense and the critiques of my reviewers, the proposal is a successful failure. It is successful as it is able to provide coastal resiliency for East Boston for the future climate while promoting social integration.

It is a failure in the sense that the climate is always going to be changing as well as the urban fabric. This should not serve as a single permanent design project but a methodology that can

Resilience

be incorporated throughout generations to enable a layered resiliency plan extending much further inward than just the waterfront.

Protecting infrastructures like transit and other key community ammenities that take East Boston from the highest at risk neighborhood of Boston to the most resilient in all aspects. This proposal should be a guide to all urban designers that are looking to re-activate underserved portions of their city that are dealing with coastal flooding. In all urban design is capable of affecting us on the global level to rethink our negative impacts on the climate in hopes to reduce the individuals carbon footprint. Truly finding a balance between civilization and nature. If we want to continue living on Earth, our connection with nature must rekindle and we have to make a change.

Boston is homes to millions including myself. I hope that my career path leads me to help this historic city adapt for the future and preserve the cultural diversity that are so proudly present here.

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06

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY Amidon, Jane. Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates: Allegheny Riverfront Park. Source Books

in Landscape Architecture: 1. Princeton Architectural Press, 2005.

Aravena, Alejandro. “My Architectural Philosophy? Bring the Community into the Process.”

TED, October 2014. https://www.ted.com/talks/alejandro_aravena_my_architectural_ philosophy_bring_the_community_into_the_process/discussion?referrer=pla ylist-11_must_see_ted_talks.

Clarke, Matthew, Ismet Fanany, and Susan Kenny. Post-Disaster Reconstruction: Lessons

from Aceh. Earthscan, 2010.

De Meulder, Bruno, and Kelly Shannon, “Traditions of Landscape Urbanism” in Landscape

Architecture.Topos #71, 2010.

Duany, Andres, and Emily Talen. Landscape Urbanism and Its Discontents : Dissimulating the

Sustainable City. New Society Publishers, 2013 Fletcher, Caroline, and T. Spencer. Flooding and Environmental Challenges for Venice and Its

Lagoon: State of Knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005 Givoni, Baruch. Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design. New York: J. Wiley &

Sons, 1998.

Kahn, Peter H., Jr. The Human Relationship with Nature: Development and Culture. MIT Press, 1999.

Miller, E. Willard., and Ruby M. Miller. Natural Disasters: Floods. ABC-CLIO Interactive, 2000.

Mostafavi, Mohsen, “Why Ecological Urbanism? Why Now?” in Landscape Architecture. Topos

#71, 2010.

Slaney, Scott, Stormwater Management for Sustainable Urban Environments. Shanghai:

Images Publishing, 2016.

Sponge City : Water Resource Management = Ville Perméable: L’eau, Ressource Urbaine.

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Weidham, Charles, “On Landscape, Ecology, and Other Modifiers to Urbanism” in Landscape Architecture. Topos #71, 2010.

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