Movimento Internazionale di Riconciliazione Il Movimento internazionale della riconciliazio- dell'India e sviluppa metodi di nonviolenza attiva per la ne (MIR) è un'associazione nonviolenta di ispirazio- risoluzione dei conflitti nella ricerca della verità e nel ne ecumenica. È la branca italiana dell'International rispetto dell'avversario. Fellowship of Reconciliation (IFoR).
1
Le origini e l'IFOR
4 Resistenza nonviolenta
Nel 1914, allo scoppio della prima guerra mondiale, dopo aver partecipato a un convegno ecumenico a Colonia, l'inglese Henry Modgkin e il tedesco Siegmund-Schultze promettono di non partecipare mai alla guerra. Alla fine dello stesso anno, a Cambridge, 130 persone danno vita al Movimento e, divenuto obbligatorio il servizio militare in Gran Bretagna, nel 1917 più di 600 membri del MIR inglese si dichiarano obiettori di coscienza e vengono messi in prigione.
Sotto la dittatura nazista sono uccisi, perché dissidenti, il sacerdote cattolico austriaco Max Metiger e l'evangelico tedesco Harman Stocht, tra i fondatori del MIR. Durante la seconda guerra mondiale, nella Francia occupata, il pastore Andrè Trocmè e sua moglie Magda, con tutto il loro villaggio, realizzano una resistenza nonviolenta e salvano la vita a migliaia di ebrei e di perseguitati politici. Dopo la seconda guerra mondiale il MIR, grazie anche all'opera instancabile di Jean Goss e Hildegard Goss-Mayr, cerca vie alternative e nonviolente per conseguire la giustizia e la riconciliazione tra tutti i popoli. In America Latina è presente con Hélder Pessoa Câmara (Dom Camara) e Adolfo Perez Esquivel; negli Stati Uniti con Martin Luther King e Dorothy Day (del Catholic Worker[2] ); in Vietnam collabora alla resistenza nonviolenta con i monaci buddhisti di Thích Nhất Hạnh; in Sudafrica è presente con Albert John Lutuli; in Irlanda con Mairead Corrigan. E inoltre in Medio Oriente, Zaire e Africa Subsahariana, Filippine, India, Bangladesh, Madagascar e, dopo il 1989, anche in molti paesi dell'Europa orientale.
Nel 1919 il Movimento diventa internazionale con la denominazione di Movimento internazionale della riconciliazione (MIR) nei paesi latini e di International Fellowship of Reconciliation (IFOR) nei paesi anglofoni. Il suo primo segretario generale fu lo svizzero Pierre Ceresole. Il movimento si configura come una federazione di gruppi i cui membri operano per la giustizia e la pace, rifiutano l'uso della violenza nonché la preparazione e la partecipazione alla guerra sotto qualsiasi forma. Si definisce movimento a base spirituale, composto da uomini e donne impegnati nella nonviolenza attiva come stile di vita e mezzo di cambiamento personale sociale e politico. il MIR/IFOR è presente in oltre 70 paesi del mondo.
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5 Formazione e gestione dei conflitti
Storia e impegno in Italia
Il MIR nasce in Italia nel 1952, fondato dai valdesi Tullio Vinay e Carlo Lupo, e dai quaccheri Ruth e Mario Il movimento ha organizzato e organizza tuttora corsi Tassoni, avendo per riferimento l'International Fellow- di formazione alla nonviolenza attiva in ogni parte del ship of Reconciliation, fondata nel 1919[1] . Fin dagli ini- mondo, soprattutto nelle aree di tensione e di conflitto. zi si impegna nel divulgare la teoria e la pratica della nonviolenza evangelica, raccogliendo presto adesioni anche tra i cattolici. Dalla sua fondazione l'IFOR è cresciuto a circa 140.000 membri in tutto il mondo. 6 Premi Nobel Per questa attività l'IFoR ha contato finora ben sei premi Nobel per la pace tra i suoi membri: Jane Addams (1931), Emily Green Balch (1946), Albert Luthuli (1960), Dr. Il MIR/IFOR entra in contatto con Gandhi e i suoi so- Martin Luther King (1964), Mairead Corrigan (1976), stenitori fin dalle prime campagne per la liberazione Adolfo Pérez Esquivel (1980).
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Gandhi
1
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13
MIR/IFOR e Nazioni Unite
Oggi il Movimento è presente in più di 50 paesi, è organizzazione non governativa e ha uno stato consultivo permanente presso le Nazioni Unite (ECOSOC) nelle sedi di New York, Ginevra e Vienna.
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Ecumenismo
EDUCAZIONE ALLA PACE E ALLA LEGALITÀ
far espletare agli obiettori il servizio civile nell'attuazione di programmi di formazione alla Pace e alla nonviolenza attiva. Con Rocco Campanella[10] è stato il Movimento che ha avviato per primo in Italia la Campagna di obiezione di coscienza alle spese militari (OSM), nata negli anni ottanta e tuttora in atto, e si adopera per far conoscere la Difesa Popolare Nonviolenta (DPN) come alternativa alla difesa armata. Attualmente è impegnato, con altre organizzazioni pacifiste, nella costituzione di un “Albo degli Obiettori di Coscienza alle Guerre”, che non comprenda solo chi è in età di leva ma anche le donne e gli uomini che ne fanno formalmente richiesta.
L'originale ispirazione spirituale ha portato il MIR ad impegnarsi per un ecumenismo di base attorno ai fondamenti religiosi della nonviolenza. Dagli anni sessanta a oggi è attivo a livello nazionale per un ecumenismo di base e per approfondire i fondamenti religiosi della nonviolenza. 11 Antinucleare Il Movimento italiano ha svolto azione di sensibilizzazione nelle Assemblee ecumeniche europee di Basilea (1989), Graz (1997 e Sibiu nel 2007), nonché nelle rispettive All'inizio degli anni '70 il MIR è stato tra i primi moviChiese per la preparazione dell'incontro di Assisi (1988). menti italiani a schierarsi contro il nucleare civile, fino al referendum del 1987 nel quale l'Italia ha deciso la definitiva rinuncia all'uso del nucleare. Il MIR ha fatto parte dei comitati antinucleari del nuovo referendum che nel 2011 9 Struttura e storia ha confermato la scelta antinucleare degli italiani. Il MIR è stato in Italia tra le realtà fondatrici dell'esperienza delle In Italia il Movimento si è strutturato negli anni in ma- Liste Verdi. niera molto semplice e decentrata, articolandosi su sedi locali con ampia autonomia, accomunate soprattutto dai motivi ispiratori; dopo il fondatore Tullio Vinay, il MIR ha avuto tra i suoi presidenti Domenico Sereno Regis [3][4] (tra i fondatori della Gioventù Operaia Cristiana in Italia) 12 Iniziative internazionali ed in seguito i primi preti operai[5] , come don Sirio Politi [6] e Beppe Socci[7] , per molti anni una figura di riferi- Il MIR ha coordinato a livello nazionale la Campagna per mento e di unione è stata il segretario nazionale, Hedi una soluzione nonviolenta in Kossovo. Sostiene il procesVaccaro Frehner, insignita nel 1992 del Premio Nazio- so di difesa nonviolenta e autodeterminazione delle Conale Cultura della Pace[8] . Enrico Peyretti (già presidente munità di Pace Colombiane all'interno della Rete “Codella Federazione universitaria cattolica italiana (FUCI) lombia vive!” della quale è membro fondatore. Sostiene tra il 1959 e il 1961), fondatore de il foglio (mensile), co- anche campagne nonviolente per la soluzione pacifica del stituisce inoltre un importante riferimento all'interno del conflitto israelo-palestinese. Movimento internazionale della riconciliazione. Altra figura di spicco vicina al MIR italiano è Antonino Drago, oggi impegnato con la Comunità dell'Arca. Ha iniziato la sua militanza nel MIR Gianni Francesco Mattioli, fisico, parlamentare verde e ministro all'ambiente, che nel 1978 13 Educazione alla pace e alla fondò il “Comitato per il Controllo delle Scelte Enerlegalità getiche”, promotore del primo referendum antinucleare. Nel MIR di Roma ha iniziato il suo impegno per i diritti umani pure Cesare Pogliano[9] fondatore di Amnesty Dagli anni '70 il MIR ha organizzato, in varie città, scuole popolari, scuole di pace e manifestazioni in favore International in Italia. dei baraccati e dei terremotati. Negli anni '90 promuove nel Sud, con la Commissione Francescana Giustizia e Pace[11] , seminari su “nonviolenza e criminalità orga10 Obiezione di coscienza nizzata” guidati da Jean Goss e Hildegard Goss-Mayr e, in anni più recenti, interventi di formazione e advocacy Il MIR ha sostenuto Giuseppe Gozzini e Fabrizio Fabbri- sui temi di giustizia, pace e integrità del creato. Promotoni, primi casi cattolici di obiezione di coscienza al servi- re in Italia del decennio 2001-2010 per l'educazione alla zio militare, e si è impegnato per il riconoscimento giuri- pace, è tra le associazioni che hanno dato vita a Libera. Il dico dell'obiezione di coscienza. Dall'approvazione della MIR è impegnato nelle iniziative contro la mafia, l'usura, legge è convenzionato con il Ministero della Difesa per il pizzo.
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14
Il decennio di educazione alla pace ed alla nonviolenza
zione, detenzione e uso dell'arma atomica è un peccato contro Dio e l'umanità, assolutamente ingiustificabile.
La branca italiana del MIR ha contribuito a fondare 17 Presidente il Comitato Italiano per il Decennio che si propone di dare attuazione alle deliberazioni dell'Assemblea Generale delle Nazioni Unite che ha proclamato il periodo Presidente dell'associazione è dal 2014 Luciano Benini, 2001-2010 Decennio internazionale per l'educazione alla fisico nucleare. Vive a Fano. Si occupa da sempre di critica all'energia nucleare sia per usi pacifici che per scopi nonviolenza e alla pace per i bambini del mondo. militari.
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Campi estivi
Il MIR ha avviato da alcuni anni l'organizzazione di campi estivi di formazione alla nonviolenza. Ispirandosi ad un'intuizione di Beppe Marrasso e avvalendosi dell'opera di un “gruppo campi” attivo da decenni in Piemonte. È dal 1987 che il Mir-Mn Piemonte e Valle d’Aosta, in collaborazione con altri gruppi e comunità, organizza campi estivi rivolti a giovani e ad adulti con lo scopo di condividere un'esperienza comunitaria di approfondimento della nonviolenza. I campi estivi, della durata di una settimana, si svolgono in situazioni residenziali presso comunità che hanno già fatto una scelta di vita orientata alla pace e alla nonviolenza, si condivide con gli ospitanti la quotidianità, con il lavoro manuale alla mattina e momenti di approfondimento sulla pratica nonviolenta, di convivialità ed esperienza di gruppo nel resto della giornata.
18 Note [1] Il nome deriva dal testo biblico (paolino) 2 Corinzi 5,18 “Tutto questo però viene da Dio, che ci ha riconciliati con sé mediante Cristo e ha affidato a noi il ministero della riconciliazione.”. [2] http://www.catholicworker.org/ Catholic Worker [3] Biografia Sereno Regis [4] articolo su sereno Regis [5] http://www.pretioperai.it/index.php [6] Biografia Sirio Politi [7] Biografia Beppe Socci [8] Premio Nazionale Cultura della Pace - Albo d'Oro
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Collaborazioni
[9] Città di Moncalieri - Mostra Amnesty International Versione stampabile [10] Il siciliano che non pagava le tasse per l' esercito -
Il MIR ha collaborato e mantiene rapporti con diverla Repubblica.it, su Archivio - la Repubblica.it. URL se associazioni in Italia che si occupano di educazione, consultato il 05 febbraio 2016. nonviolenza e pace: è membro di Libera, collabora con le associazioni “sorelle” Movimento Nonviolento, Pax Chri- [11] JPIC OFM sti, Beati i Costruttori di Pace. È membro del Comitato ita- [12] http://www.church-and-peace.org/ Church and Peace liano per il Decennio, di Rete Lilliput, di Chiama l'Africa, di Church and Peace[12] . Una particolare amicizi lega [13] http://xoomer.virgilio.it/arcadilanzadelvasto/ Comunità dell'Arca in Italia l'esperienza del MIR italiano alla Comunità dell'Arca[13] di Lanza del Vasto. Sostiene inoltre campagne internazionali contro gli esperimenti nucleari, e aderisce a organismi internazionali quali Church and Peace e Balkan Pea- 19 Voci correlate ce Team. Si è impegnata anche nella Campagna Kossovo, per la risoluzione nonviolenta del conflitto, e rappresen• Nonviolenza ta l'IFoR nelle conferenze internazionali ONU sulla criminalità organizzata. Il MIR è impegnato dal 2006 nella • Pacifismo campagna Fermiamo chi scherza col fuoco atomico, che si prefigge di sensibilizzare l'opinione pubblica sui pericoli • Mahatma Gandhi incombenti di uso delle armi atomiche in future guerre • Martin Luther King e di bandire dal territorio italiano la presenza e il transito di armi atomiche. Nell'ambito di questa campagna, • Tullio Vinay in virtù della propria caratteristica di movimento nonviolento a base spirituale, si propone di stimolare le chiese, • Dorothy Day cristiane e non, affinché alzino la loro autorevole voce, • Lanza del Vasto ricordando a tutti, cittadini e governanti, che la fabbrica-
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Collegamenti esterni
• ifor.org (sito ufficiale internazionale), ifor.org. • International Fellowship of Reconciliation • Fellowship of Reconciliation • forusa, forusa.org. • miritalia.org (sito ufficiale italiano), miritalia.org. • mir-ifor (altri siti), peacelink.it. • Riconciliazione (altri Riconciliazione.wordpress.com.
siti),
• Centro Studi S. Regis - Torino, serenoregis.org.
COLLEGAMENTI ESTERNI
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21 21.1
Fonti per testo e immagini; autori; licenze Testo
• Movimento Internazionale di Riconciliazione Fonte: https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movimento_Internazionale_di_Riconciliazione? oldid=79503990 Contributori: Sbisolo, Ary29, ZeroBot, Jalo, Eumolpo, Bultro, Prof75, Gacio, Avemundi, Leodavinci, Narayan89, BetaBot, Phantomas, Pracchia-78, F Ceragioli, Nonno88, Bottuzzu, Viscontino, Marco Plassio, Lentius66, Discanto, Antenor81, Riconciliazone, FrescoBot, AttoBot, YukioSanjo, Tenebroso, Botcrux, 151 cp, Paolomacina e Anonimo: 23
21.2
Immagini
• File:Translation_arrow.svg Fonte: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Translation_arrow.svg Licenza: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributori: Questo file grafico vettoriale è stato creato con Inkscape. Artista originale: Jesse Burgheimer
21.3
Licenza dell'opera
• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Reconciliation Fellowship of Reconciliation
Contents 0.1
0.2
1
International Fellowship of Reconciliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
0.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
0.1.2
IFOR members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
0.1.3
How IFOR works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
0.1.4
International representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
0.1.5
Presidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
0.1.6
Nobel Peace Prizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
0.1.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
0.1.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
0.1.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Fellowship of Reconciliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
0.2.1
The FoR in the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
0.2.2
The FOR in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
0.2.3
Fellowship Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
0.2.4
Religious Peace Fellowships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
0.2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
0.2.6
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
0.2.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
0.2.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
I Fondatori
6
1.1
Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
1.1.1
Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
1.1.2
The Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze Fรถrderpreis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
1.1.3
Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
1.1.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Henry Hodgkin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
1.2.1
Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
1.2.2
Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
1.2.3
Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
1.2.4
Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
1.2.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
1.2.6
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
1.2
i
ii 2
CONTENTS I Nobel del MIR
11
2.1
Jane Addams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.1.1
Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.1.2
Settlement house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.1.3
Hull House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
2.1.4
Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.1.5
Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.1.6
Religion and religious motives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
2.1.7
Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
2.1.8
Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
2.1.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.1.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
2.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
Emily Greene Balch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.2.1
Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.2.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.2.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.2.4
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.2.5
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.2.6
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.2.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
Martin Luther King, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.3.1
Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.3.2
Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.3.3
Southern Christian Leadership Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.3.4
March on Washington, 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.5
Selma Voting Rights Movement and “Bloody Sunday”, 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.3.6
Chicago Open Housing Movement, 1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.3.7
Opposition to the Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.3.8
Poor People’s Campaign, 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
2.3.9
Assassination and aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
2.3.10 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
2.3.11 Ideas, influences, and political stances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
2.3.12 FBI and King’s personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.3.13 Awards and recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
2.3.14 Five Dollar Bill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
2.3.15 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
2.3.16 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
2.3.17 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
2.3.18 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
2.2
2.3
CONTENTS
iii
2.4
Albert Lutuli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
2.4.1
Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
2.4.2
Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
2.4.3
Tribal chief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
2.4.4
Anti-Apartheid activist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
2.4.5
Bans
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
2.4.6
ANC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
2.4.7
Umkhonto we Sizwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
2.4.8
Veneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.4.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.4.10 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.4.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.4.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.4.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
Mairead Maguire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.5.1
Early life (1944–1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.5.2
Northern Ireland peace movement (1976–1980) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
2.5.3
After the Nobel Prize (1980–present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
2.5.4
Personal philosophy and vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
2.5.5
Awards and honours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
2.5.6
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
2.5.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
2.5.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
2.5.9
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
2.5.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
Adolfo Pérez Esquivel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
2.6.1
Works of art
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
2.6.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
2.6.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
2.6.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
2.5
2.6
3
fellowship confessionali
76
3.1
Buddhist Peace Fellowship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
3.1.1
About . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
3.1.2
Current Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
3.1.3
Former Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
3.1.4
Environmentalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
3.1.5
Activist activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
3.1.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
3.1.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
3.1.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
3.1.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
iv
CONTENTS 3.2 3.3
3.4
3.5 3.6
Methodist Peace Fellowship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
3.2.1
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
Presbyterian Peace Fellowship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
3.3.1
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
3.3.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
Lutheran Peace Fellowship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
3.4.1
History and priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
3.4.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
Episcopal Peace Fellowship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
3.5.1
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
Anglican Pacifist Fellowship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
3.6.1
Origins and early history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
3.6.2
Second World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
3.6.3
Historical opposition to nuclear proliferation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
3.6.4
Current status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
3.6.5
Current activities in the United Kingdom
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
3.6.6
New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
3.6.7
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
3.6.8
Other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
3.6.9
Work with other groups
85
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.10 APF publications and resources
3.7
4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
3.6.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
3.6.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
3.6.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
Catholic Worker Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
3.7.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
3.7.2
Beliefs of the Catholic Worker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
3.7.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
3.7.4
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
3.7.5
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
3.7.6
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
3.7.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
le Chiese per la Pace
91
4.1
Peace churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
4.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
4.1.2
Other Christian pacifist groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.1.3
Partially pacifist groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.1.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.1.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
4.1.6
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
4.1.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
CONTENTS
v
4.2
Friends Committee on National Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
4.2.1
Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
4.2.2
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
4.2.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
4.2.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
Mennonite Central Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
4.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
4.3.2
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
4.3.3
AďŹƒliated organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
4.3.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
4.3.5
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
4.3.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
4.3.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
4.3
5
Attivisti per la Pace
99
5.1
List of peace activists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
5.1.1
A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
5.1.2
B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.1.3
C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.1.4
D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.1.5
E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.1.6
F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.1.7
G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.1.8
H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1.9
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.1.10 J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.1.11 K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.1.12 L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 5.1.13 M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 5.1.14 N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.1.15 O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.1.16 P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.1.17 Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 5.1.18 R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 5.1.19 S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 5.1.20 T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.1.21 U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.1.22 V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.1.23 W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.1.24 Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5.1.25 Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5.1.26 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
vi
CONTENTS 5.1.27 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
112
6.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.3
Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
0.1. INTERNATIONAL FELLOWSHIP OF RECONCILIATION
0.1 International Fellowship Reconciliation
of
The International Fellowship of Reconciliation is a non-governmental organization founded in 1914 in response to the horrors of war in Europe. Today IFOR counts 72 branches, groups and affiliates in 48 countries on all continents. IFOR members promote nonviolence, human rights and reconciliation through public education efforts, training programs and campaigns. The IFOR International Secretariat in Alkmaar, Netherlands facilitates communication among IFOR members, links branches to capacity building resources, provides training in gender-sensitive nonviolence through the Women Peacemakers Program, and helps coordinate international campaigns, delegations and urgent actions. IFOR has ECOSOC status at the United Nations.
0.1.1
History
Origins in wartime The first body to use the name "Fellowship of Reconciliation" was formed as a result of a pact made in August 1914 at the outbreak of the First World War by two Christians, Henry Hodgkin (an English Quaker) and Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze (a German Lutheran), who were participating in a Christian pacifist conference in Konstanz, southern Germany (near Switzerland). On the platform of the railway station at Cologne, they pledged to each other that, “We are one in Christ and can never be at war”.[2] To take that pledge forward, Hodgkin organised a conference in Cambridge in 1915 and founded the “Fellowship of Reconciliation” (FOR England). The German branch, Versuhnungsbund, was founded later. It held its first conference in 1932, but in 1933, when Hitler came to power, it dissolved. Schultze was arrested twenty-seven times during World War I and was forced to live in exile during the Nazi period. FOR Germany was officially reestablished just in 1956 with Dr Siegmund Schultze as President.[3] Shortly after the Cambridge conference, in the autumn of 1915, Henry Hodgkin went over to America and, the 11th and the 12th of November, the American Fellowship was founded during a Conference at Garden City, Long Island. More than a thousand members enrolled in the American Fellowship before and during the war, which, for the U.S.A., begun on April 6, 1917. Because of the war, it was not possible to travel to other countries and the Fellowship of Reconciliation focused its activities on trying to influence public opinion, to help victims of war and war prisoners. 600 people in England went to prison for helping more than 16.000 imprisoned during the war. When conscription began in Britain in 1916 and in the United States many FOR members refused military service.[4]
1
After World War one: strengthening the international movement After the end of the war, in 1919, the different Fellowships of Reconciliation raised in those years all around Europe and in the USA agreed to found the International Fellowship of Reconciliation as an umbrella organisation to which they affiliated as members. In October 1919 Christian pacifists from 10 different countries met in the Netherlands, in the town of Bilthoven, to establish the “Movement Towards a Christian International” later called “International Fellowship of Reconciliation”.[5] IFOR first secretary was the Swiss pacifist Pierre Cérésole jailed several times for his peace witness. He established the Service Civil (International Voluntary Service for Peace), initially organizing work camps in areas torn apart by war, with volunteers from former enemy countries. Relief for the victims of war was carried out, and international conferences and meetings spread the work of peace to many other parts of the globe. Immediately after Bilthoven IFOR apponted travelling secretaries such as John Nevin Sayre, André Trocmé, Muriel Lester, Henri Rose and Percy Bartlett. They travelled carrying the Fellowship’s messages around Europe, in Scandinavia, Central Europe, Poland, the Baltic States and the Balkans, giving life to several international conferences that took place between the two world wars. The first one gathered 200 delegates from 20 nations (also India, Burma and Ukrain) in Sonntagberg in Austria.[6] Many others followed and, in such a tense historical moment, IFOR members discussed about the necessity of disarmament and of a new role of Churches, asking clergymen to make a strong stand against the idea of “righteous wars”. In 1932, the IFOR led a Youth Crusade across Europe in support of the Geneva World Disarmament Conference. Protestants and Catholics from all over converged on Geneva by various routes, reaching over 50,000 people and presenting to the Conference a petition calling for total disarmament among the nations. Ambassadors of Reconciliation At the end of the 1930s, given the unstable international situation, IFOR established Embassies of Reconciliation that initiated peace efforts not only in Europe but in Japan and China as well. “Ambassadors of Reconciliation”, such as George Lansbury, Muriel Lester and Anne Seesholtz, visited many world leaders, including Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Leon Blum and Franklin D Roosevelt. Muriel Lester, English social worker, served as IFOR travelling secretary throughout the world, helping to establish its work in many countries. She met Mahatma Gandhi, first in London when, in 1931, he spent some time at Kingsley Hall, a community center with educational, social and recreational purposes, run by the her and her sister Doris, and then in India when she went with him in Bihar on his anti-untouchability tour during 1934. When World War II broke out, travels and commu-
2
CONTENTS
nications became almost impossible. In many countries IFOR members suffered persecution for publicly preaching pacifism. IFOR’s members, especially in America tried by inter-church mediation to find ways of ending the war, to help coscientious objectors, and struggled against internment of Japanese Americans.[7] In France, IFOR members André and Magda Trocmé, with the help of the villagers of le Chambon sur Lignon, saved the lives of thousands of Jews escaping the Holocaust. In Belgium, feminist Magda Yoors Peeters defends Jewish refugees and conscientious objectors.
at supporting sustainable implementation of nonviolence/nonviolent education, peace education and violence prevention in compulsory kindergarten and school education and thus consequent implementation of Children’s Rights expressed in the Convention on the Rights of the Child. This is done through various presentations and training programs, as well as through the creation of resource materials and contact with trainers and resource people.
Supporting nonviolent movements around the world
Thanks to the Youth Working Group, IFOR provides young people with the skills and opportunities to become active peacemakers. This is done through nonviolence and leadership training, campaigning, and through internships with IFOR branches and groups, or with the International Secretariat.
After the war, travelling secretaries continued their work. IFOR branches and affiliates in Latin America, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East grew consistently also thanks to the work of Jean Goss and Hildegard Goss-Mayr from Paris and Vienna, three times nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize.[8] New Zealand pacifist Ormond Burton represented the IFOR in that nation.[9] From such labors arose Servicio Paz y Justicia (SERPAJ) throughout Latin America. SERPAJ’s founder Adolfo Perez Esquivel from Argentina was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1980.[8] SERPAJ participated in the nonviolent resistance to Chile’s 16-year-long military dictatorship, which culminates in free elections that restored democracy. Hildegard Goss-Mayrs’ training in active nonviolence contributed significantly to the people power overthrow of the Ferdinand Marcos dictatorship in the Philippines in 1986, as well as the growth of nonviolent movements in Asia and Africa.[10] The Goss-Mayrs, IFOR Honorary Presidents, were central to the global spread of active nonviolence.
0.1.2
IFOR members
IFOR has 72 members in 48 countries in all continents.
0.1.3
How IFOR works
Decade for a Culture of Nonviolence Since the initiation of the United Nations Decade for a Culture of Peace and Nonviolence for the Children of the World, in 2001, IFOR members have been active in working for peace education and in working to establish national coalitions to support the Decade. Nonviolence education and training IFOR assists groups and individuals to find ways in which they can transform conflicts into positive and growth oriented interactions that involve dialogue and lead to reconciliation. The Nonviolent Education Program aims
Youth empowerment
Interfaith cooperation Religion has on occasion played a central role in fomenting conflict but can also be a source of inspiration and leadership for peace. IFOR sponsors interfaith delegations to areas of conflict and publishes material on nonviolence from different religious traditions. Disarmament Since our founding, IFOR has opposed war and preparations for war. IFOR members support conscientious objectors, campaign for a ban on land mines, and oppose nuclear weapons and all other weapons of mass destruction. During their annual meeting, European members from different branches of the International Fellowship of Reconciliation issued the Declaration of Prali, in occasion of the Global day of Action on Military Spending, 17 April 2012. The Peace and Constitution Committee Working Group promotes actions to raise awareness on the article 9 of the Japanese Constitution which denounces war and war-preparation activities. Gender justice In 2006 IFOR adopted a Gender Policy in which IFOR recognizes that there is a continuum of violence against women that must be confronted, from family violence in the private sphere to armed conflict in the public sphere. Unequal power relations between women and men are one root of violence, conflict and militarization, where women are often severely abused. Gender justice means that women and men can equally contribute to and benefit from peace building, non-violent conflict resolution and reconciliation. This gender policy recognizes that gender equality is an integral part of IFOR’s fundamental values and is a core spiritual value. A transformation of the
0.1. INTERNATIONAL FELLOWSHIP OF RECONCILIATION
3
power relations between women and men is a prerequisite 0.1.7 See also for a culture of peace and non-violence, and must be pro• List of anti-war organizations moted throughout IFOR. The Women Peacemaker Program (WPP) is an IFOR program that works to ensure • List of peace activists the possibility for women’s access to peace negotiations and promotes the application of IFOR’s Gender Policy. The successful program has been institutionalized by the 0.1.8 References end of 2012.
0.1.4
International representation
IFOR maintains permanent representatives at the United Nations (UN) in New York, Geneva, Vienna and Paris (UNESCO) who regularly participate in conferences and meetings of UN bodies, providing testimony and expertise from different regional perspectives, promoting nonviolent alternatives in the fields of human rights, development, and disarmament. IFOR has observer and consultative status to the United Nations, United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and UNESCO organizations.
0.1.5
Presidents
• Al Hassler • Diana Francis 1988-1996 • Marie-Pierre Bovy 1992-1996 • Akadim Chikandamina 1996-2000 • Virginia Baron 2000-2002 • Jonathan Sisson 2002-2006 • Jan Schacke 2006-2010 • Hans Ulrich Gerber 2010-2014 • Davorka Lovrekovic 2014-
[1] Staff, FOR (24 March 2014). “Lucas Johnson named IFOR International Coordinator”. http://www.forusa.org. Fellowship of Reconciliation USA. Retrieved 8 August 2014. External link in |website= (help) [2] Peter Brock and Nigel Young, Pacifism in the Twentieth Century. Syracuse University Press, New York, 1999 ISBN 0-8156-8125-9 (p. 24). [3] The Rebel Passion: Eighty-five Years of the Fellowship of Reconciliation http://forusa.org/content/ rebel-passion-eighty-five-years-fellowship-reconciliation [4] Vera Brittain, “The Rebel Passion: a History of Some Pioneer Peace-Makers”, George Allen and Unwin ltd, London, 1964, p.40 [5] Ferguson, John (December 1984), “The Fellowship of Reconciliation” (PDF), The Cambridge Review, History (IFOR), archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2006. [6] Brittain, Vera (1964), The Rebel Passion: A Short History of Some Pioneer Peace-Makers, London: George-Allen & Unwin, p. 48. [7] Brittain, Vera (1964), The Rebel Passion: A Short History of Some Pioneer Peace-Makers, London: George-Allen & Unwin, p. 59. [8] Brock, Peter; Young, Nigel (1999), Pacifism in the Twentieth Century, New York: Syracuse University Press, pp. 376–7, ISBN 0-8156-8125-9 [9] Button, John (1995), The Radicalism Handbook: Radical Activists, Groups and Movements of the Twentieth Century, ABC-CLIO, p. 119, ISBN 0-87436-838-3 [10] Deats, Richard (2009), Marked for Life: The Story of Hildegard Goss-Mayr, Hyde park, NY: New City Press.
0.1.6
Nobel Peace Prizes
Six Nobel Peace Prize recipients are members of IFOR: • Jane Addams (1931) • Emily Greene Balch (1946) • Chief Albert Luthuli (1960)
0.1.9 External links • IFOR website • IFOR Centennial Celebration, 1–3 August 2014 • "Lucas Johnson named IFOR International Coordinator,” 24 March 2014
• Mairead Corrigan-Maguire (1976)
• List of papers of John Nevin Sayre held at Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania, and Sayre’s biographical details
• Adolfo Pérez Esquivel (1980)
• IFOR Facebook page
• Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (1964)
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CONTENTS
0.2 Fellowship of Reconciliation
Because the membership of the FoR included many members of the Society of Friends (Quakers), who reject any form of written creed, it has always been stressed that the Basis is a statement of general agreement rather than a fixed form of words. Nonetheless the Basis has been an important point of reference for many Christian pacifists.
The Fellowship of Reconciliation (FoR or FOR) is the name used by a number of religious nonviolent organizations, particularly in English-speaking countries. They are linked by affiliation to the International Fellowship of Reconciliation (IFOR). The FoR had a prominent role in acting as a support netIn the United Kingdom, the acronym “FoR” is normally work for Christian pacifists during the war and supporting typeset with a lower-case “o”, and an E added for Eng- them in the difficult choice to become conscientious obland (FoRE); elsewhere, it is usually typeset in all capital jectors - and in taking its consequences, which in many cases included imprisonment. In the interwar years it letters, as “FOR”, such as in “IFOR”. grew to be an influential body in United Kingdom Christianity, with federated associations in all the main denominations (the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship, the Methodist 0.2.1 The FoR in the United Kingdom Peace Fellowship, the Baptist Peace Fellowship, etc.) The first body to use the name “Fellowship of Recon- as well as a strong membership among the Society of ciliation” was formed as a result of a pact made in Au- Friends (Quakers). At one time the Methodist Peace gust 1914 at the outbreak of the First World War by Fellowship claimed a quarter of all Methodist ministers two Christians, Henry Hodgkin (an English Quaker) and among its members. Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze (a German Lutheran), who were participating in a Christian pacifist conference in Konstanz in southern Germany. On the platform of the railway station at Cologne, they pledged to each other that, “We are one in Christ and can never be at war.” To take that pledge forward, Hodgkin organised in 1915 a conference in Cambridge at which over a hundred Christians of all denominations agreed to found the FoR. They set out the principles that had led them to do so in a statement which became known as “The Basis”.[1] It states: • That love as revealed and interpreted in the life and death of Jesus Christ, involves more than we have yet seen, that is the only power by which evil can be overcome and the only sufficient basis of human society. • That, in order to establish a world-order based on Love, it is incumbent upon those who believe in this principle to accept it fully, both for themselves and in relation to others and to take the risks involved in doing so in a world which does not yet accept it. • That therefore, as Christians, we are forbidden to wage war, and that our loyalty to our country, to humanity, to the Church Universal, and to Jesus Christ our Lord and Master, calls us instead to a life-service for the enthronement of Love in personal, commercial and national life. • That the Power, Wisdom and Love of God stretch far beyond the limits of our present experience, and that He is ever waiting to break forth into human life in new and larger ways.
During the 1930s, the FoR’s members included George Lansbury.[2] The FoR was active in the anti-war movement of the 1930s, and provided considerable practical support for active pacifism during and after the Spanish Civil War. It could be argued that it lost influence when the Second World War came, was won, and was widely perceived as morally justified, especially as the horrors of Nazism became known in the post-war period. Equally, it could be argued that the questionable morality of the Cold War threat of mutually assured nuclear destruction again vindicated the FoR philosophy. The FoR retained considerable strength in post-second world war British Christianity, and many of its members were active in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in the 1950s and 1960s. Prominent members included Donald Soper, a high profile President of the Methodist Conference of the period and later a member of the House of Lords. With the continuing decline of Christianity in Britain, the FoR has lost influence, although active Christians in the UK are now probably further to the left politically, on average, than they were in the 1930s or 1950s. FoRE remains active: Norman Kember, the British peace activist kidnapped in Iraq in December 2005 was a member of the Baptist Peace Fellowship and a Trustee of the FoRE. There are Roman Catholic members of FoRE, and although most Catholic pacifists affiliate instead to the specifically Catholic peace organisation, Pax Christi, FoRE and Pax Christi work closely together. Although many members have universalist sympathies and are happy to co-operate with pacifists of other faiths or none, the FoR in England has remained a distinctively Christian organization. However, with a number of Hindu, Buddhist and other supporters, members, and staff, there is a degree of flux here as well.
• That since God manifests Himself in the world through men and women, we offer ourselves to His Currently, there are separate FoR organizations in Engredemptive purpose to be used by Him in whatever land, Scotland and Wales. way He may reveal to us.
0.2. FELLOWSHIP OF RECONCILIATION
0.2.2
The FOR in the United States
Main article: States)
Fellowship of Reconciliation (United
5
0.2.6 Footnotes [1] “The Basis on the FoR (England) website”. For.org.uk. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [2] Schneer, Jonathan (1990). George Lansbury. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 178. ISBN 07190-2170-7. LCCN 90039739. OCLC 246898140.
0.2.3
Fellowship Europe
[3] Thomas W. Currie, Searching for Truth: Confessing Christ in an Uncertain World. Westminster John Knox Press, 2001 ISBN 0664501397 (p.99 ).
The Fellowship also has a European branch. In the postWorld War Two period, the secretary of the European FOR was Pastor André Trocmé, known for saving Jews during the Nazi occupation of France. [3] 0.2.7
0.2.4
Religious Peace Fellowships
Since 1935, FOR has helped form, launch, and strengthen peace fellowships of many faith traditions to form a network of faith-based nonviolent action. Membership of these peace fellowships has changed and grown over the past decades; what follows are fellowships that are currently affiliated with FOR: • Adventist Peace Fellowship • Baptist Peace Fellowship • Buddhist Peace Fellowship • Catholic Peace Fellowship • Church of God Peace Fellowship • Disciples Peace Fellowship • Episcopal Peace Fellowship • Jewish Peace Fellowship • Lutheran Peace Fellowship • Presbyterian Peace Fellowship • Unitarian Universalist Peace Fellowship
0.2.5
Further reading
• Raymond Arsenault, Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006) • Nicholson Baker, Human Smoke: The Beginnings of World War II, the End of Civilization (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008) • Vera Brittain, The Rebel Passion: A Short Biography of Some Pioneer Peacemakers (Nyack, New York: Fellowship Publishers, 1964) • Derek Charles Catsam, Freedom’s Main Line: The Journey of Reconciliation and the Freedom Rides (Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press, 2009) • Paul R. Dekar, Creating the Beloved Community: A Journey with the Fellowship of Reconciliation (Telford, PA: Cascadia Publishing House, 2005) • Joseph “Kip” Kosek, Acts of Conscience: Christian Nonviolence and Modern American Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010) • Murray Polner and Stefan Merken, eds. Peace, Justice and Jews: Reclaiming our Tradition (New York: Bunim & Bannigan, 2007) • Louisa Thomas, Conscience: Two Soldiers, Two Pacifists, One Family – A Test of Will and Faith in World War I (New York: Penguin Press, 2011) • Walter Wink, ed. Peace is the Way: Writings on Nonviolence from the Fellowship of Reconciliation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2000)
See also
• Buddhist Peace Fellowship • List of anti-war organizations • List of peace activists • Religious Left • War Resisters’ International (a more secular organisation).
0.2.8 External links • Official website
Chapter 1
I Fondatori 1.1 Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze
1914, just before the outbreak of war, he was secretary and co-founder of the “Weltbundes für Freundschaftsarbeit der Kirchen” and formed a pact with his fellowdelegate English Quaker Henry Hodgkin (meeting on the platform of the railway station at Cologne, they pledged to each other that, “We are one in Christ and can never be at war”) that led to the formation of the Fellowship of Reconciliation and the International Fellowship of Reconciliation. During the First World War he organised Gefangenenseelsorge for British and German prisoners of war. Through his contacts with the Quakers and with the “Versöhnungsbund” (reconciliation alliance), he and Elisabeth Rotten organised Quaker meals for schoolchildren in Berlin. In 1915 he met the Dutch pacifist Kees Boeke in Berlin. October 1918 the founder of ecumenism, archbishop Nathan Söderblom, invited him to give a guest lecture on “The social renewal of Christianity and the unity of the Church"at Uppsala University.
In 1925 Siegmund-Schultze received the professorship in “Jugendkunde und Jugendwohlfahrt” (and later in Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze “Sozialpädagogik und Sozialethik”)at the University of Berlin. In spring 1933 he joined the foundation of an Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze (14 June 1885, in Görlitz international aid-committee for German-Jewish refugees. – 11 July 1969, in Soest) was a German academic workThe Nazis arrested him (on 93 charges of “racial help”) ing in theology, social pedagogy and social ethics, as well and expelled from Germany under Gestapobegleitung as a pioneer of peace movements. 1933 with his wife and four children. They went to live in Switzerland and he was active there in student chaplaincy and as a guest lecturer until 1946. 1.1.1 Life In 1947 he was made professor of “Sozialpädagogik und Sozialethik” at the Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universitat at Münster. In 1948 he founded the “JugendWohlfahrtsschule Dortmund”, and was its head until 1954. In 1959 he founded the Ecumenical Archive (Ökumenische Archiv) in Soest, which later received the central archive of the EKD in Berlin. Siegmund-Schultze was friends with Albert Schweitzer and published the Ökumenischen Jahrbuchs.
After studying at several gymnasia, Siegmund-Schultze studied philosophy and theology in Breslau and Magdeburg. In 1908 he became the secretary of the Church Committee for friendly relations between Great Britain and Germany (Kirchlichen Komitees zur Pflege freundschaftlicher Beziehungen zwischen Großbritannien und Deutschland) and later secretary to the World Christian Student League for social work and foreign mission (Christlichen Studentenweltbundes für Sozialarbeit und Ausländermission).
In 1911 he and his wife founded the “Soziale Arbeit- 1.1.2 The Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze Förderpreis ergemeinschaft Berlin-Ost” (SAG) - its offices were shut down after the Nazi seizure of power. At the World Churches Conference in Konstanz from 1 to 3 August • 1994 das Antikriegszentrum Belgrad, 6
1.2. HENRY HODGKIN
7
• 1995 German section of Peace Brigades International • 1998 Yesh Gvul • 2001 Connection e.V. • 2004 War Resisters’ International • 2008 Military Counseling Network sowie Dorf der Freundschaft
1.1.3
Works
• Ökumenisches Jahrbuch 1934-1935, Zürich/Leipzig 1936; Ökumenisches Jahrbuch 1936-1937, Zürich und Leipzig 1939; • Ekklesia 1934-1935, Leipold Klotz Verlag, Gotha
1.1.4
External links
• Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze in the German National Library catalogue • “Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze”. BiographischBibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL) (in German). Henry Hodgkin • http://forge.fh-potsdam.de/~{}BiB/gruender/ siegmund_schultze.pdf • http://www.friedenskooperative.de/themen/ fssprs98.htm • http://www.connection-ev.de/Presse/eak_germer. html • http://www.wri-irg.org/news/2004/speyer-de.htm
mayor of Darlington, and of Mary Anna Pease, both from Quaker families.[2] The Hodgkins lived in the majestic Victorian manor of Elm Ridge in Darlington.[3] After Leighton Park School he studied first in King’s College, Cambridge, then in St Thomas’ Hospital, London, to become a medical doctor (M.B. B.Ch (Cantab) ).[1] Extremely tall, with exceptional charisma and personality,[4] he became President of the English Student Missionary Union from 1902 to 1905. This organization’s aim was to recruit missionaries among British students.[5]
1.2 Henry Hodgkin Henry Hodgkin (1877-1933) was a medical doctor and a British Quaker missionary who, in the course of his 55year life, co-founded the West China Union University in Chengdu, co-founded and led the first Christian pacifist movement, the International Fellowship of Reconciliation, and founded the Pendle Hill Quaker meeting and training center, in Wallingford, Pennsylvania.
Missionnary work in China
After completing his studies in 1905, Henry Hodgkin left immediately for Chengdu, in the Sichuan province, China, as a missionary The Friends’ Foreign Missionary Association, a Quaker organisation which later became The Friends Service Council ; he stayed in China until 1909. During his stay in Chnegdu, he helped set up the West China Union University, a Protestant university sponsored by several Protestant churches until its clo1.2.1 Life sure in 1926; after 1926 the Chinese professors took over from the foreign professors, and perpetuated their work Early Years so well that this university has now been incorporated into Henry Theodore Hodgkin was born on 21 April 1877 in Chengdu’s various universities. a very affluent Quaker family of Darlington in County From 1910 to 1920, Henry Hodgkin returned to England, Durham, North East England.[1] He was the son of to be the Secretary of The Friends’ Foreign Missionary Jonathan Backhouse Hodgkin (1843-1926), banker and Association. He departed again for China in 1921, ini-
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CHAPTER 1. I FONDATORI
tially to deliver a series of lectures. He received however Work in the United States as a result a pressing invitation to become one of the secretaries of the National Christian Council of China; he In 1929 Henry Hodgkin was called to launch the Quaker religious and social meeting centre of Pendle held this position from 1922 to 1929.[1][5] Hill near Philadelphia ( Pendle Hill being the name of the Lancashire hill where George Fox, the inspirator of Quakerism, had his founding vision).[1] Historian Douglas Gwyn has shown Henry Hodgkin’s determining role, contributing his spiritual depth and his social concern to the drafting of the meeting centre’s vision:[9] Pendle Launching of the International Fellowship of Recon- Hill’s early vision was to be “a vital center of spiritual culciliation ture and as a place for training leaders.” In 1929, Henry Hodgkin gathered a dozen leaders to discern the direction for this new center and four key focus areas were chose During his decade in Britain from 1910 to 1920, Hodgkin as a result: became active on the pacifist scene. In the summer of 1914, he had joined a group of about 150 European • House of Rest, a place of peace and deep quiet; Christians who were convinced that a major conflagration was coming soon in Europe and who had gathered in Constance, in southern Germany, to envisage possible actions to avert an actual war. This conference was far from successful since it was interrupted by the actual declaration of war! While conference participants were hurriedly returning home by train, Henry Hodgkin and the German Lutheran pastor Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze made a mutual commitment before parting in Cologne that while their countries might be at war with each other, “We are one in Christ and can never be at war.” This commitment implied of course to abstain from any direct personal participation in the conflict, in line with the traditional pacifist Quaker position, but also to work relentlessly to reestablish peace between their two nations no matter the policies of their governments.[6] Hodgkin kept his word immediately and initiated a first meeting at Queens’ College, Cambridge, where he lectured in philosophy: an ecumenical group of about 20 people came together to reflect on the implications of war on their personal and community life. They wrote a common declaration stating they could conceive God as a nationalist and couldn’t accept the idea of a moratorium on the Sermon on the Mount on hold for the duration of the war. The first chapter of the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR) was born. Another meeting gathered 128 people at Trinity College, Cambridge, where Henry Hodgkin was elected president of the FOR.[7] In 1915 Hodgkin travelled to New York City with a group of 66 people and convened a meeting at Union Theological Seminary that included some very influential theologians and ministers the day, including Reinhold Niebuhr (who would become critical of Christian pacifism in the ’30s and consequently break with the FOR). Among those present that day were Edward Evans, Norman Thomas, socialist educator Jessie Wallace Hughan (who would later found the more secular War Resisters League), Episcopalian bishop Paul Jones (who would be forced to resign his Utah see in April 1918 because of his outspoken opposition to World War I), Grace Hutchins et John Haynes Holmes. The American chapter of the now International Fellowship of Reconciliation was then founded.[8]
• School of the Prophets, a place to be grounded in a few well-chosen areas rather than teaching on many interesting topics; • Laboratory of Ideas, a place to test beliefs in practice; and • Fellowship ’Round Christ among students and staff. He had to leave this position in 1932 for health reasons.[1]
1.2.2 Books Henry Hodgkin wrote several books, among which: • The Message and Mission of Quakerism (1912) (with William Charles Braithwaite (1862 – 1922)) • Friends beyond the Seas (1916)[10] • The Christian Revolution (1923) • Living Issues in China (1932)
1.2.3 Philosophy Henry Hodgkin’s philosophy was rooted in his Quaker faith, which brought along a deep adhesion to pacifism and in a high social sensitivity. His views evolved from a strict English Quaker missionary’s view to a more multicultural approach. One of his biographers wrote that he was “a man large of body and mind”.[4] He summarised his own evolution as follows: “By processes too numerous and diverse even to summarize, I have reached a position which may be stated in a general way somewhat like this: “I believe that God’s best for another may be so different from my experience and way of living as to be actually impossible for me. I recognize a change to have taken place in myself, from a certain assumption that mine was really the better way, to a very complete recognition that
1.2. HENRY HODGKIN
9
there is no one better way and that God needs all kinds of people and ways of living through which to manifest Himself in the World. This has seemed to carry with it two conclusions which greatly affect conduct. One is that I really find myself wanting to learn from people whom I previously would have regarded as fit objects for my 'missionary zeal'. To discover another way in which God is operating - along lines it may be distasteful or dangerous to me - is a large part of the fun of living. The second direction in which conduct is influenced is the deliberate attempt to share the life and interests of others who are not in my circle ... [for] in such sharing I can most deeply understand the other’s life and through that reach, maybe, fresh truths about God.[4] "
1.2.4
Family
Henry Hodgkin married Elizabeth Joy Montgomery. They had three children. He died on 26 March 1933 in Dublin a few weeks after undergoing surgery. His family counted a variety of personalities who deeply influenced the region of Darlington: • As a banker, his father had financed a fair share of the region’s industrial development. • His father-in-law, John Pease was the oldest son of railway pioneer Edward Pease, and another affluent Quaker industrialist who had the Elm Ridge manor built.[11] • His brother Jonathan Edward Hodgkin (1875-1953) was a devoted humanitarian during WWI, heading the local branch of The Friends War Victims Relief Committee - FWVRC.[12] From 1916 on he served in Durham as a Quaker chaplain to the imprisoned conscientious objectors and organised transport for wounded in Darlington district. He also became treasurer of the London Peace Society.[13] • His sister Mary Hodgkin (1882-1956) was the secretary of Darlington Town Mission for many years. She raised the needed money to build the Chapel at the Darlington Memorial Hospital for the use of the patients.[14]
1.2.5
[6] Karl Kupisch, Die deutschen Landes Kirchen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, Publisher: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975, 127 pages, quoting p. 93: “Friedrich SiegmundSchultze was a pioneer of ecumenism. On 1 August 1914, he was present at the conference of the “Council of Churches of the British and German empires for the promotion of friendly relations between the two peoples” as he was the secretary of this organization. Unfortunately the beginning of the war put an end to the debates even before they could start. With great difficulty, and working his way through them thanks to his good relations with the German imperial court as former pastor of the Friedenskirche Potsdam, Siegmund-Schultze managed to secure the return of the 130 British participants by organising a special train to the Netherlands via Cologne. " It is on one of the platforms of the Cologne Central Station that, on 3 August 1914, the famous embrace between Henry Hodgkin Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze took place during which they mutually promised to remain united in Christ in spite of war and to proclaim the message of peace of the Gospel whatever the circumstances.” [7] US site of the International Fellowship of Reconciliation, last accessed on 14/12/2015 [8] « Levellers » site, last accessed on 14/12/2015 [9] Douglas Gwyn, Personality and Place: The Life and Times of Pendle Hill, Plain Press, 2014. 512 pages. ISBN 9781500549367 Review by Valerie Brown in The Friends’ Journal, 1 November 2015, last accessed on 14/12/2105 [10] Publisher Headley Bros., London, 1916 [11] Page historique sur Elm Ridge [12] Historical page about the Quakers, last accessed on 15/12/2015 [13] “Conscription and Conscience: A History, 1916-1919″, quoted by Historical of Durham city [14] Her grave can be seen in Darlington Quaker cemetery.
1.2.6 Sources
References
[1] British Medical Journal, 1 April 1933 [2] Genealogic site ancestry.co.uk, 14/12/2015.
[5] Ralph R. Covell, article du Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity, citant George Herbert Wood, Henry T. Hodgkin: A Memoir (1937). Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions, Macmillan Reference USA, copyright (c) 1998; Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan. All rights reserved.
last accessed on
[3] Elm Ridge manor (now belonging to the Methodist Church) history page, last accessed on 15/12/2015. [4] Dave D’Albert, A Lexicon of Spiritual Leaders In the IFOR Peace Movement, Part 1, Version 3, 2010
• Gijsbert Gerrit Jacob den Boggende, “The Fellowship of Reconciliation 1914-1945”, A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, 1986 • Dave D’Albert, A Lexicon of Spiritual Leaders In the IFOR Peace Movement, Part 1, Version 3, 2010
10 • Douglas Gwyn, Personality and Place: The Life and Times of Pendle Hill (Anglais) Broché – 22 December 2014, ISBN 9781500549367 • Obituary published by the British Medical Journal, 1 April 1933
CHAPTER 1. I FONDATORI
Chapter 2
I Nobel del MIR 2.1 Jane Addams For other people with a similar name, see Jane Adams. Jane Addams (September 6, 1860 – May 21, 1935) was a pioneer American settlement activist/reformer, social worker, public philosopher, sociologist, author, and leader in women’s suffrage and world peace. She created the first Hull House. In an era when presidents such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson identified themselves as reformers and social activists, Addams was one of the most prominent[1] reformers of the Progressive Era. She helped America to address and focus on issues that were of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, local public health, and world peace. She said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up their communities and making them better places to live, they needed to be able to vote to do so effectively. Addams became a role model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities. She is increasingly being recognized as a member of the American pragmatist school of philosophy.[2] In 1889 she co-founded Hull House, and in 1920 she was a co-founder for the ACLU.[3] In 1931 she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize and is recognized as the founder of the social work profession in the United States. Jane Addams as a young woman, undated studio portrait by Cox, Chicago
2.1.1
Early life
Born in Cedarville, Illinois,[4] Jane Addams was the youngest of eight children born into a prosperous northern Illinois family of English-American descent which traced back to colonial New England; her father was politically prominent. Three of her siblings died in infancy, and another died at age 16, leaving only four by the time Addams was age 8.[5] Her mother, Sarah Addams[4] (née Weber), died when Jane was two years old.[6] Addams spent her childhood playing outdoors, reading indoors, and attending Sunday school. When she was four, she contracted tuberculosis of the spine, Potts’s disease, which caused a curvature in her spine and lifelong health problems. This made it complicated as a child to
function with the other children, considering she had a limp and could not run as well.[7] As a child, she thought she was “ugly” and later remembered wanting not to embarrass her father, when he was dressed in his Sunday best, by walking down the street with him.[8] Addams adored her father when she was a child, as she made clear in the stories she told in her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull House (1910). John Huy Addams was an agricultural businessman with large timber, cattle, and agricultural holdings; flour and timber mills; and a woolen factory. He was the president of The Second National Bank of Freeport. He remarried in 1868, when Jane was eight years old. His second wife was Anna Hostetter Haldeman, the widow of a miller in Freeport.[9]
11
12 John Addams was a founding member of the Illinois 2.1.2 Republican Party, served as an Illinois State Senator (1855–70), and supported his friend Abraham Lincoln in his candidacies, for senator (1854) and the presidency (1860). John Addams kept a letter from Lincoln in his desk, and Jane Addams loved to look at it as a child.[10]
CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR
Settlement house
Meanwhile, Jane Addams gathered inspiration from what she read. Fascinated by the early Christians and Tolstoy's book My Religion, she was baptized a Christian in the Cedarville Presbyterian Church, in the summer of 1886.[14] Reading Giuseppe Mazzini's Duties of Man, she began to be inspired by the idea of democracy as a social ideal. Yet she felt confused about her role as a woman. John Stuart Mill's The Subjection of Women made her Addams’s father encouraged her to pursue higher educaquestion the social pressures on a woman to marry and tion but close to home. She was eager to attend the new devote her life to family.[15] college for women, Smith College in Massachusetts; but her father required her to attend nearby Rockford Female In the summer of 1887, Addams read in a magazine about Seminary (now Rockford University), in Rockford, Illi- the new idea of starting a settlement house. She decided nois.[4] After graduating from Rockford in 1881,[4] with to visit the world’s first, Toynbee Hall, in London. She a collegiate certificate, she still hoped to attend Smith to and several friends, including Ellen Gates Starr, traveled earn a proper B.A. That summer, her father died unex- in Europe from December 1887 through the summer of pectedly from a sudden case of appendicitis. Each child 1888. After watching a bullfight in Madrid, fascinated by inherited roughly $50,000 (equivalent to $1.23 million to- what she saw as an exotic tradition, Addams condemned this fascination and her inability to feel outraged at the day). suffering of the horses and bulls. At first, Addams told That fall, Addams, her sister Alice, Alice’s husband no one about her dream to start a settlement house; but, Harry, and their stepmother, Anna Haldeman Addams, she felt increasingly guilty for not acting on her dream.[16] moved to Philadelphia so that the three young peoBelieving that sharing her dream might help her to act on ple could pursue medical educations. Harry was alit, she told Ellen Gates Starr. Starr loved the idea and ready trained in medicine and did further studies at the agreed to join Addams in starting a settlement house.[17] University of Pennsylvania. Jane and Alice completed their first year of medical school at the Woman’s Medical Addams and another friend traveled to London without [18] College of Philadelphia,[4] but Jane’s health problems, a Starr, who was busy. Visiting Toynbee Hall, Addams [4] spinal operation and a nervous breakdown, prevented was enchanted. She described it as “a community of Uniher from completing the degree. She was filled with sad- versity men who live there, have their recreation clubs ness at her failure. Stepmother Anna was also ill, so the and society all among the poor people, yet, in the same entire family canceled their plans to stay two years and style in which they would live in their own circle. It is so free of 'professional doing good,' so unaffectedly sinreturned to Cedarville.[11] cere and so productive of good results in its classes and The following fall her brother-in-law/step brother Harry libraries seems perfectly ideal.” Addams’s dream of the performed surgery on her back, to straighten it. He then classes mingling socially to mutual benefit, as they had in advised that she not pursue studies but, instead, travel. early Christian circles seemed embodied in the new type In August 1883, she set off for a two-year tour of Euof institution.[19] rope with her stepmother, traveling some of the time with friends and family who joined them. Addams decided The settlement house as Addams discovered was a space that she did not have to become a doctor to be able to within which unexpected cultural connections could be made and where the narrow boundaries of culture, class, help the poor.[12] and education could be expanded. They doubled up as Upon her return home, in June 1887, she lived with community arts centers and social service facilities. They her stepmother in Cedarville, and spent the winters with laid the foundations for American civil society, a neutral her in Baltimore. Addams, still filled with vague amspace within which different communities and ideologies bition, sank into depression, unsure of her future and could learn from each other and seek common grounds feeling useless leading the conventional life expected of for collective action. The role of the settlement house a well-to-do young woman. She wrote long letters to was an “unending effort to make culture and 'the issue of her friend from Rockford Seminary, Ellen Gates Starr, things’ go together.” The unending effort was the story of mostly about Christianity and books but sometimes about her own life, a struggle to reinvigorate her own culture by her despair.[13] reconnecting with diversity and conflict of the immigrant communities in America’s cities and with the necessities of social reform.[20] In her teens, Addams had big dreams—to do something useful in the world. Long interested in the poor from her reading of Dickens and inspired by her mother’s kindness to the Cedarville poor, she decided to become a doctor so that she could live and work among the poor. It was a vague idea, nurtured by literary fiction. She was a voracious reader.
2.1. JANE ADDAMS
2.1.3
13
Hull House
ers to acquire training. Eventually, Hull House became a 13-building settlement complex, which included a playground and a summer camp (known as Bowen Country Main article: Hull House In 1889[21] Addams and her college friend and paramour Club). One aspect of the Hull House that was very important to Jane Addams was the Art Program. The art program at Hull house allowed Addams to challenge the system of industrialized education, which “fitted” the individual to a specific job or position. She wanted the house to provide a space, time and tools to encourage people to think independently. She saw art as the key to unlocking the diversity of the city through collective interaction, mutual self-discovery, recreation and the imagination. Art was integral to her vision of community, disrupting fixed ideas and stimulating the diversity and interaction on which a healthy society depends, based on a continual rewriting of cultural identities through variation and interculturalism.[26] Jane Addams, 1915
Ellen Gates Starr[22] co-founded Hull House, a settlement house in Chicago. The run-down mansion had been built by Charles Hull in 1856 and needed repairs and upgrading. Addams at first paid for all of the capital expenses (repairing the roof of the porch, repainting the rooms, buying furniture) and most of the operating costs. However gifts from individuals supported the House beginning in its first year and Addams was able to reduce the proportion of her contributions, although the annual budget grew rapidly. A number of wealthy women became important long-term donors to the House, including Helen Culver, who managed her first cousin Charles Hull’s estate, and who eventually allowed the contributors to use the house rent-free. Other contributors were Louise DeKoven Bowen, Mary Rozet Smith, Mary Wilmarth, and others.[23][24] Addams and Starr were the first two occupants of the house, which would later become the residence of about 25 women. At its height,[25] Hull House was visited each week by some 2,000 people. The Hull House was a center for research, empirical analysis, study, and debate, as well as a pragmatic center for living in and establishing good relations with the neighborhood. Residents of Hull-house conducted investigations on housing, midwifery, fatigue, tuberculosis, typhoid, garbage collection, cocaine, and truancy. Its facilities included a night school for adults, clubs for older children, a public kitchen, an art gallery, a gym, a girls’ club, a bathhouse, a book bindery, a music school, a drama group and a theater, apartments, a library, meeting rooms for discussion, clubs, an employment bureau, and a lunchroom.[26] Her adult night school was a forerunner of the continuing education classes offered by many universities today. In addition to making available social services and cultural events for the largely immigrant population of the neighborhood, Hull House afforded an opportunity for young social work-
With funding from Edward Butler, Addams opened an art exhibition and studio space as one of the first additions to Hull House. On the first floor of the new addition there was a branch of the Chicago Public Library, and the second was the Butler Art Gallery, which featured recreations of famous artwork as well as the work of local artists. Studio space within the art gallery provided both Hull House residents and the entire community with the opportunity to take art classes or to come in and hone their craft whenever they liked. As Hull House grew, and the relationship with the neighborhood deepened, that opportunity became less of a comfort to the poor and more of an outlet of expression and exchange of different cultures and diverse communities. Art and culture was becoming a bigger and more important part of the lives of immigrants within the 19th ward, and soon children caught on to the trend. These working-class children were offered instruction in all forms and levels of art. Places such as the Butler Art Gallery or the Bowen Country Club often hosted these classes, but more informal lessons would often be taught outdoors. Addams, with the help of Ellen Gates Starr, founded the Chicago Public School Art Society (CPSAS) in response to the positive reaction the art classes for children caused. The CPSAS provided public schools with reproductions of world-renowned pieces of art, hired artists to teach children how to create art, and also took the students on field trips to Chicago’s many art museums.[27] Neighborhood The Hull House neighborhood was a mix of European ethnic groups that had immigrated to Chicago around the start of the 20th century. That mix was the ground where Hull House’s inner social and philanthropic elitists tested their theories and challenged the establishment. The ethnic mix is recorded by the Bethlehem-Howard Neighborhood Center: "Germans and Jews resided south of that inner core (south of Twelfth Street) [...] The Greek delta
14 formed by Harrison, Halsted, and Blue Island Streets served as a buffer to the Irish residing to the north and the Canadian–French to the northwest.”[28] Italians resided within the inner core of the Hull House Neighborhood [...] from the river on the east end, on out to the western ends of what came to be known as Little Italy.[29] Greeks and Jews, along with the remnants of other immigrant groups, began their exodus from the neighborhood in the early 20th century. Only Italians continued as an intact and thriving community through the Great Depression, World War II, and well beyond the ultimate demise of Hull House proper in 1963.[30] Hull House became America’s best known settlement house. Addams used it to generate system-directed change, on the principle that to keep families safe, community and societal conditions had to be improved.[31] The neighborhood was controlled by local political bosses.
CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR Emphasis on children Hull House stressed that the role of children in the Americanization process of new immigrants, and fostered the play movement and the research and service fields of leisure, youth, and human services. Addams argued in The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (1909) that play and recreation programs are needed because cities are destroying the spirit of youth. Hull-House featured multiple programs in art and drama, kindergarten classes, boys’ and girls’ clubs, language classes, reading groups, college extension courses, along with public baths, a freespeech atmosphere, a gymnasium, a labor museum and playground. They were all designed to foster democratic cooperation and collective action and downplay individualism. She helped pass the first model tenement code and the first factory laws. Documenting social illnesses
Ethics Starr and Addams developed three “ethical principles” for social settlements: “to teach by example, to practice cooperation, and to practice social democracy, that is, egalitarian, or democratic, social relations across class lines.”[32] Thus Hull House offered a comprehensive program of civic, cultural, recreational, and educational activities and attracted admiring visitors from all over the world, in including William Lyon Mackenzie King, a graduate student from Harvard University who later became prime minister of Canada. In the 1890s Julia Lathrop, Florence Kelley, and other residents of the house made it a world center of social reform activity. Hull House used the latest methodology (pioneering in statistical mapping) to study overcrowding, truancy, typhoid fever, cocaine, children’s reading, newsboys, infant mortality, and midwifery. Starting with efforts to improve the immediate neighborhood, the Hull House group became involved in city- and statewide campaigns for better housing, improvements in public welfare, stricter childlabor laws, and protection of working women. Addams brought in prominent visitors from around the world, and had close links with leading Chicago intellectuals and philanthropists. In 1912, she helped start the new Progressive Party and supported the presidential campaign of Theodore Roosevelt. “Addams’ philosophy combined feminist sensibilities with an unwavering commitment to social improvement through cooperative efforts. Although she sympathized with feminists, socialists, and pacifists, Addams refused to be labeled. This refusal was pragmatic rather than ideological.”[33]
Addams and her colleagues documented the geography of typhoid fever and reported that poor workers bore the brunt of illness. She identified the political corruption and business avarice that caused the city bureaucracy to ignore health, sanitation, and building codes. Linking environmental justice and municipal reform, she eventually defeated the bosses and fostered a more equitable distribution of city services and modernized inspection practices.[34] Addams spoke of the “undoubted powers of public recreation to bring together the classes of a community in the keeping them apart.”[35] Addams worked with the Chicago Board of Health and served as the first vice-president of the Playground Association of America. Emphasis on prostitution In 1912 Addams published “A New Conscience and Ancient Evil”, about prostitution. This book was extremely popular because it was published in the traffic time of the white slave trade. Addams believed that prostitution was a result of kidnapping only.[36] Feminine ideals Addams and her colleagues originally intended Hull House as a transmission device to bring the values of the college-educated high culture to the masses, including the Efficiency Movement. However, over time, the focus changed from bringing art and culture to the neighborhood (as evidenced in the construction of the Butler Building) to responding to the needs of the community by providing childcare, educational opportunities, and large meeting spaces. Hull-House became more than a proving ground for the new generation of college-educated, professional women: it also became part of the community
2.1. JANE ADDAMS
15
in which it was founded, and its development reveals a 2.1.4 Teaching shared history.[37] Addams called on women—especially middle class Addams kept up her heavy schedule of public lectures [43] women with leisure and energy, as well as rich around the country, especially at college campuses. In the Extenphilanthropists—to exercise their civic duty to become addition, she offered college courses through[44] sion Division of the University of Chicago. She deinvolved in municipal affairs as a matter of “civic houseclined offers from the university to become directly affilkeeping.” Addams thereby enlarged the concept of civic iated with it, including an offer from Albion Small, chair duty to include roles for women beyond motherhood (which involved child rearing). Women’s lives revolved of the Department of Sociology, of a graduate faculty poaround “responsibility, care, and obligation,” and this sition. She declined in order to maintain her indepenarea represented the source of women’s power.[38] This dent role outside of academia. Her goal was to teach notion provided the foundation for the municipal or civil adults not enrolled in formal academic institutions, behousekeeping role that Addams defined, and gave added cause of their poverty and/or lack of credentials. Furtherwanted no university controls over her political weight to the women’s suffrage movement that Addams more, she[45] activism. supported. Addams argued that women, as opposed to men, were trained in the delicate matters of human welfare and needed to build upon their traditional roles of housekeeping to be civic housekeepers. Enlarged housekeeping duties involved reform efforts regarding poisonous sewage, impure milk (which often carried tuberculosis), smoke-laden air, and unsafe factory conditions. Addams led the “garbage wars"; in 1894 she became the first woman appointed as sanitary inspector of Chicago’s 19th Ward. With the help of the Hull-House Women’s Club, within a year over 1000 health department violations were reported to city counsel and garbage collection reduced death and disease.[39]
Addams was a charter member of the American Sociological Society, founded in 1905. She gave papers to it in 1912, 1915, and 1919. She was the most prominent woman member during her lifetime.
2.1.5 Relationships Generally, Adams was close to a wide set of other women and was very good at eliciting their involvement from different classes in Hull House’s programs. Nevertheless, throughout her life Addams did have significant romantic relationships with a few of these women, including Mary Rozet Smith and Ellen Starr. Her relationships offered her the time and energy to pursue her social work, while being supported emotionally and romantically. From her exclusively romantic relationships with women, she would most likely be described as a lesbian in contemporary terms, similar to many leading figures in the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom of the time.[46]
Addams had long discussions with philosopher John Dewey in which they redefined democracy in terms of pragmatism and civic activism, with an emphasis more on duty and less on rights.[40] The two leading perspectives that distinguished Addams and her coalition from the modernizers more concerned with efficiency were the need to extend to social and economic life the democratic structures and practices that had been limited to the political sphere, as in Addams’ programmatic support of trade unions; and second, their call for a new social ethic to Her first romantic partner was Ellen Starr, with whom she supplant the individualist outlook as being no longer ad- founded Hull House, and whom she met when both were equate in modern society.[41] students at Rockford Female Seminary. In 1889, both Addams’ construction of womanhood involved daughter- had visited Toynbee Hall together, and started their set[47] hood, sexuality, wifehood, and motherhood. In both tlement house project, purchasing a house in Chicago. of her autobiographical volumes, Twenty Years at Hull- Her second romantic partner was Mary Rozet Smith, who House (1910) and The Second Twenty Years at Hull- was financially wealthy and supported Addams’s work at House (1930), Addams’s gender constructions parallel the Hull House, and with whom she shared a house.[48] LilProgressive-Era ideology she championed. In A New ian Faderman, the notable historian, writes that she adConscience and an Ancient Evil (1912) she dissected the dressed Mary as “My Ever Dear”, “Darling” and “Dearsocial pathology of sex slavery, prostitution and other sex- est One”, and conclusively establishes that they shared the ual behaviors among working class women in American intimacy of a married couple. Their couplehood did not industrial centers during 1890-1910. Addams’s autobi- end until 1934, when Mary died of pneumonia, after forty ographical persona manifests her ideology and supports years together.[49] It was said that, “Mary Smith became her popularized public activist persona as the “Mother of and always remained the highest and clearest note in the Social Work,” in the sense that she represents herself as music that was Jane Addams’ personal life”.[50] Together a celibate matron, who served the suffering immigrant they owned a summer house in Bar Harbor, Maine. When masses through Hull-House, as if they were her own chil- apart, they would write to each other at least once a day dren. Although not a mother herself, Addams became sometimes twice. Addams would write to Smith, “I miss the “mother to the nation,” identified with motherhood in you dreadfully and am yours 'til death”.[51] The letters also the sense of protective care of her people.[42] show that the women saw themselves as a married couple:
16
CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR
“There is reason in the habit of married folks keeping to- tablished Jewish community, notably with the rabbi of gether”, Addams wrote to Smith.[52] Chicago Sinai Congregation, Emil G. Hirsch, and several of Sinai’s congregants, among them Judge Julian Mack and Julius Rosenwald.
2.1.6
Religion and religious motives
According to Christie and Gauvreau (2001), while the 2.1.7 Politics Christian settlement houses sought to Christianize, Jane Addams “had come to epitomize the force of secular hu- Peace movement manism.” Her image was, however, “reinvented” by the Christian churches.[53] According to Joslin (2004), “The new humanism, as [Addams] interprets it comes from a secular, and not a religious, pattern of belief”.[54] According to the Jane Addams Hull-House Museum, “Some social settlements were linked to religious institutions. Others, like Hull-House [co-founded by Addams], were secular.”[55] In fact, the co-founders of Toynbee Hall, Samuel and Henrietta Barnett, shared Addams’s desire to bring Christianity back to its roots. Part of what was called the "social Christian" movement, the Barnetts held a great interest in converting others to Christianity, but they believed that Christians should be more engaged with the world, and, in the words of one of the leaders of the movement in England, W.H. Fremantle, “imbue all human relations with the spirit of Christ’s self-renouncing love.” Addams learned about social Christianity from them, soon considered herself one, and soon made friends among the leaders of the “social Christian” movement in the United States.[56] Jane Addams’s religious faith was thus a central motive in co-founding Hull House with Starr. She sought to convert others to Christianity in greater numbers. A brief experiment in weekly prayer among the residents of the settlement house, requested by some of them, was highly religious and retained many converts to Christianity, to the delight of Addams and the other founder’s helpers. Other settlements in both Great Britain and the United States later followed a religious approach and sought conversions.[57]
Delegation to the Women’s Suffrage Legislature Jane Addams (left) and Miss Elizabeth Burke of the University of Chicago, 1911
In 1898 Addams joined the Anti-Imperialist League, in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines. A staunch supporter of the 'Progressive' Party, she nominated Theodore Roosevelt for the Presidency during the Party Convention, held in Chicago in August 1912.[59] She signed up on the party platform, even though it called for building more battleships. She went on to speak and campaign extensively for Roosevelt’s 1912 presidential campaign. In January 1915 she became involved in the Woman’s Peace Party and was elected national chairman.[4][60] Addams was invited by European women peace activists to preside over the International Congress of Women in The Hague, 28–30 April 1915,[4] and was chosen to head the commission to find an end to the war. This included meeting ten leaders in neutral countries as well as those at war to discuss mediation. This was the first significant international effort against the war. Addams, along with co-delegates Emily Balch and Alice Hamilton, documented their experiences of this venture, published as a book Women at The Hague (University of Illinois).[61]
Addams’s own religious beliefs were shaped by her wide reading and life experience.[58] By the time she had graduated from Rockford Seminary, she knew the Bible (especially the New Testament) thoroughly, having studied it throughout her young life, including in college courses. She had also been required to memorize a verse from the Bible every day at Rockford, and listen to a short sermon on the daily verse by the school’s principal. Evidence of In her journal, Balch recorded her impression of Jane Adthis deep familiarity with Scripture can be found through- dams (April 1915): out her later writings. While she remained a member of a Presbyterian church, Addams regularly attended a Unitarian Church and Ethical Society in Chicago. At one point, she was appointed “interim lecturer” at the Ethical Society. Addams also established a close relationship with members of the es-
“Miss Addams shines, so respectful of everyone’s views, so eager to understand and sympathize, so patient of anarchy and even ego, yet always there, strong, wise and in the lead. No 'managing', no keeping dark and
2.1. JANE ADDAMS
17
bringing things subtly to pass, just a radiating wisdom and power of judgement.”[60] Addams was elected president of the International Committee of Women for a Permanent Peace, established to continue the work of the Hague Congress; at a conference in 1919 in Zurich, Switzerland, the International Committee developed into the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF).[4][62] Addams continued as president, a position that entailed frequent travel to Europe and Asia. In 1917 she became also a member of the Fellowship of Reconciliation USA (American branch of the International Fellowship of Reconciliation founded in 1919) and was a member of the Fellowship Council until 1933.[63] When the US joined the war, in 1917, Addams started to be strongly criticized. She faced increasingly harsh rebukes and criticism as a pacifist. Her 1915 speech on pacifism at Carnegie Hall received negative coverage by newspapers such as the New York Times, which branded her as unpatriotic.[64][65] Later, during her travels, she spent time meeting with a wide variety of diplomats and civic leaders and reiterating her Victorian belief in women’s special mission to preserve peace. Recognition of these efforts came with the award of the No- Addams in 1914 bel Peace Prize to Addams in 1931.[66] As the first U.S. woman to win the prize, Addams was applauded for her “expression of an essentially American democracy.”[67] She donated her share of the prize money to the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom.[4] Pacifism Addams was a major synthesizing figure in the domestic and international peace movements, serving as both a figurehead and leading theoretician; she was influenced especially by Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy and by the pragmatism of philosophers John Dewey and George Herbert Mead.[68] She envisioned democracy, social justice and peace as mutually reinforcing; they all had to advance together to achieve any one. Addams became an anti-war activist from 1899, as part of the anti-imperialist movement that followed the Spanish–American War. Her book Newer Ideals of Peace (1907) reshaped the peace movement worldwide to include ideals of social justice. She recruited social justice reformers like Alice Hamilton, Lillian Wald, Florence Kelley, and Emily Greene Balch to join her in the new international women’s peace movement after 1914. Addams’s work came to fruition after World War I, when major institutional bodies began to link peace with social justice and probe the underlying causes of war and conflict.[69] Addams damned war as a cataclysm that undermined human kindness, solidarity, civic friendship, and caused families across the world to struggle. In turn her views were denounced by patriotic groups and newspapers during World War I (1917–18). Oswald Garrison Villard
came to her defense when she suggested that armies gave liquor to soldiers just before major ground attacks. “Take the case of Jane Addams for one. With what abuse did not the [New York] Times cover her, one of the noblest of our women, because she told the simple truth that the Allied troops were often given liquor or drugs before charging across No Man’s Land. Yet when the facts came out at the hands of Sir Philip Gibbs and others not one word of apology was ever forthcoming.” [70] Even after the war the WILPF’s program of peace and disarmament was characterized by opponents as radical, Communistinfluenced, unpatriotic, and unfeminine. Young veterans in the American Legion, supported by some members of the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) and the League of Women Voters, were ill prepared to confront the older, better-educated, more financially secure and nationally famous women of the WILPF. Nevertheless, the DAR could and did expel Addams from membership in their organization.[71] The Legion’s efforts to portray the WILPF members as dangerously naive females resonated with working class audiences, but President Calvin Coolidge and the middle classes supported Addams and her WILPF efforts in the 1920s to prohibit poison gas and outlaw war. After 1920, however, she was widely regarded as the greatest woman of the Progressive Era.[72] In 1931 the award of the Nobel Peace prize earned her near-unanimous acclaim.[73]
18 Prohibition
CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR by a “friendly visitor” model in which typically wealthy women of high public stature visited impoverished individuals and, through systematic assessment and intervention, aimed to improve the lives of the poor. Addams rejected the friendly visitor model in favor of a model of social reform/social theory-building, thereby introducing the now-central tenets of social justice and reform to the field of social work.[77]
While “no record is available of any speech she ever made on behalf of the eighteenth amendment”,[74] she nonetheless supported prohibition on the basis that alcohol “was of course a leading lure and a necessary element in houses of prostitution, both from a financial and a social standpoint.” She repeated the claim that “professional houses of prostitution could not sustain themselves without the Hull House enabled Addams to befriend and become a 'vehicle of alcohol.'" [75] colleague to early members of the Chicago School of Sociology. Her influence, through her work in applied sociology, impacted their thoughts and their direction. In 2.1.8 Legacy 1893, she co-authored the Hull-House Maps and Papers that came to define the interests and methodologies of See also: History of social work the School. She worked with George H. Mead on social reform issues including promoting women’s rights, endHull House and the Peace Movement are widely recog- ing child labor, and mediating during the 1910 Garment nized as the key tangible pillars of Addams’ legacy. While Workers’ Strike. her life focused on the development of individuals, her Addams worked with labor as well as other reform ideas continue to influence social, political and economic groups toward goals including the first juvenile-court law, reform in the United States as well as internationally. tenement-house regulation, an eight-hour working day for Willard Motley, a resident artist of Hull House, extracting from Addams’ central theory on symbolic interactionism, used the neighborhood and its people to write his 1948 best seller, Knock on Any Door.[76]
women, factory inspection, and workers’ compensation. She advocated research aimed at determining the causes of poverty and crime, and supported women’s suffrage. She was a strong advocate of justice for immigrants and blacks, becoming a chartered member of the NAACP. Among the projects that the members of the Hull House opened were the Immigrants’ Protective League, the Juvenile Protective Association, the first juvenile court in the United States, and a Juvenile Psychopathic Clinic. Addams’ writings and speeches, on behalf of the formation of the League of Nations and as peace advocate, influenced the later shape of the United Nations.
Remembrances On December 10, 2007, Illinois celebrated the first annual Jane Addams Day.[78] Jane Addams Day was initiated by a dedicated school teacher from Dongola, Illinois, assisted by the Illinois Division of the American Association of University Women (AAUW).[79] Chicago activist Jan Lisa Huttner traveled throughout Illinois as Director of International Relations for AAUW-Illinois to help publicize the date, and later gave annual presentations about Jane Addams Day in costume as Jane AdAddams is honored in the 'Famous Americans Series’, postal Is- dams. In 2010, Huttner appeared as Jane Addams at a 150th Birthday Party sponsored by Rockford University sues of 1940 (Jane Addams’ alma mater), and in 2011 she appeared as Addams’ role as reformer enabled her to petition the Jane Addams at an event sponsored by the Chicago Park [80] establishment at and alter the social and physical ge- District. ography of her Chicago neighborhood. Although con- There is a Jane Addams Memorial Park located near temporary academic sociologists defined her engagement Navy Pier in Chicago.[81] as “social work,” Addams’ efforts differed significantly from activities typically labeled as “social work” dur- In 2007, the state of Illinois also renamed the Northwest [82] ing that time period. Before Addams’ powerful influ- Tollway as the Jane Addams Memorial Tollway. ence on the profession, social work was largely informed In 2008 Jane Addams was inducted into the Chicago Gay
2.1. JANE ADDAMS
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2.1.9 See also • Jane Addams Burial Site • Jane Addams School for Democracy • Jane Addams Middle School • Jane Addams Children’s Book Award • John H. Addams Homestead • List of American philosophers • List of female Nobel laureates • List of peace activists • List of suffragists and suffragettes • List of women’s rights activists • John Dewey • Florence Kelley • Flora Dunlap • Mary Treglia A wall-mounted quote by Jane Addams in The American Adventure (Epcot) in the World Showcase pavilion of Walt Disney World's Epcot.
• Elizabeth Harrison (educator) • Community practice social work • Stanton Street Settlement • Progressive Party (United States, 1912) • American philosophy
and Lesbian Hall of Fame.[83]
• International Fellowship of Reconciliation
In 2012 Jane Addams was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people.[84]
• Addams (crater) • American Commission for Peace in Ireland Interim Report
In 2014, Jane Addams was one of the first 20 honorees awarded a 3-foot x 3-foot bronze plaque on San Francisco’s Rainbow Honor Walk (www.rainbowhonorwalk. 2.1.10 org) paying tribute to LGBT heroes and heroines. In 2015, Addams was named as one of the 31 Icons of 2015’s LGBT History Month by Equality Forum.[85] Outside Illinois, Jane Addams House is a residence hall built in 1969 at Connecticut College. Hull House had to be demolished for the establishment of the Chicago campus of the University of Illinois, in 1963, and relocated. The Hull residence itself was preserved as a museum and monument to Jane Addams.[86] The Jane Addams College of Social Work is a professional school at the University of Illinois at Chicago.[87] Jane Addams Business Careers Center is a high school in Cleveland, Ohio.[88] Jane Addams High School For Academic Careers is a high school in The Bronx, NY.[89]
References
[1] John M. Murrin, Paul E. Johnson, and James M. McPherson, Liberty, Equality, Power (2008) p. 538; Eyal J. Naveh, Crown of Thorns (1992) p 122 [2] Maurice Hamington, “Jane Addams” in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2010) portrays her as a radical pragmatist and “the first woman 'public philosopher' in United States history”. [3] “Celebrating Women’s History Month: The Fight for Women’s Rights and the ACLU”. ACLU Virginia. [4] Kathryn Cullen-DuPont (2000). Encyclopedia of women’s history in America. Infobase Publishing. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0-8160-4100-8. [5] Linn, James Weber (2000) [1935]. Jane Addams: A Biography. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-252-06904-8.
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[6] Knight, Louise W. (2005). Citizen: Jane Addams and the Struggle for Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 32–33. [7] “Jane Addams and Hull-House”. Her childhood: DeVry University. 2001. p. 1. [8] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 36–37. [9] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 24, 45. [10] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 30–32, 424n64. [11] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 77–79, 109, 119–120. ISBN 0-226-44699-9.
[30] “Taylor Street Archives: Florence Scala”. Taylor Street Archives. Retrieved 29 November 2014. [31] Elshtain (2002). For some years previously Catholic nuns at Holy Family Parish had operated social welfare services in the same neighborhood. Hull House represented the first Protestant activity. See Ellen Skerrett, “The Irish Of Chicago’s Hull-House Neighborhood.” Chicago History 2001 30(1): 22-63. ISSN 0272-8540 [32] Knight (2005) p. 182 [33] “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy website”. [34] Platt (2000)
[12] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 124–25, 130–31, 138–39.
[35] Addams, 1909, p. 96
[13] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 139–142.
[36] Victoria Bissell Brown. “Sex and the City: Jane Addams Confronts Modernity.” Women in America Lecture: Dr. Victoria Brown, Simpson College, Indianola, Indiana, March 5, 2014.
[14] She was baptized a Presbyterian. Her certificate of baptism is from 1888, but she says that she joined the church slightly earlier: Knight, Louise W. (October 2003). Citizen. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 451n46. ISBN 978-0-8122-3747-4.
[16] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 152–55, 157.
[37] Kathryn Kish Sklar, et al. eds. “How Did Changes In The Built Environment At Hull-House Reflect The Settlement’s Interaction With Its Neighbors, 1889-1912?" Women And Social Movements In The United States, 16002000 2004 8(4).
[17] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 162–65.
[38] Elshtain (2002) p. 157
[18] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 166, 175–76.
[39] Eileen Maura McGurty, “Trashy Women: Gender and the Politics of Garbage in Chicago, 1890-1917.” Historical Geography 1998 26: 27-43. ISSN 1091-6458
[15] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 142–145, 147–48.
[19] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. p. 169. [20] Bilton, Chris (2006). “Jane Addams Pragmatism and Cultural Policy”. International Journal of Cultural Policy 12 (2): 135–150. doi:10.1080/10286630600813644.
[40] Knight (2005)
[21] Colquhoun, Alan. Modern Architecture. Oxford: University Press, 2002
[42] Ostman (2004)
[22] Morrow, Deana F.; Lori Messinger (2005). Sexual Orientation and Gender Expression in Social Work Practice: Working with Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender People. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0231127286. [23] Brown, Victoria Bissell (February 2000). “Jane Addams”. American National Biography online. Oxford University Press. [24] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 195–96, 219, 224–25, 335, 378. [25] Joseph Palermo. “First Wave -- Second Wave -- And Then Came Sarah Palin”. LA Progressive. Retrieved 29 November 2014. [26] Lundblad, Karen Shafer (Sep 1995). “Jane Addams and Social Reform: A Role Model for the 1990s”. Social Work 40 (5). [27] “Jane Addams”. Internest Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 3 May 2015. [28] Hull House Museum [29] “Stories from Chicago’s Little Italy”. Archives. Retrieved 2010-04-27.
Taylor Street
[41] Scherman (1999)
[43] Davis, American Heroine, p. 125 [44] Addams is listed as lecturer in the Extension Division of the University of Chicago for several years (e.g. 1902, 1909, 1912). For a copy of the syllabus of one of her courses, see “Survivals and Intimations in Social Ethics,” Ely Papers, Wisconsin State Historical Society, 1900. Farrell noted the syllabus of another course in his footnotes; see Beloved Lady, p.83. This was titled “A Syllabus of a Course of Twelve Lectures, Democracy and Social Ethics.” [45] Deegan, Jane Addams and the men of the Chicago school p 28. [46] Faderman, Lilian (June 8, 2000). To Believe in Women: What Lesbians Have Done For America - A History. Mariner Books. p. 155.Link to reference [47] Faderman, Lilian (June 8, 2000). To Believe in Women: What Lesbians Have Done For America - A History. Mariner Books. p. 120. [48] Sarah, Holmes (2000). Who’s Who in Gay and Lesbian History. London. [49] Faderman, Lilian (June 8, 2000). To Believe in Women: What Lesbians Have Done For America - A History. Mariner Books. p. 132.
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[50] Brown, Victoria Bissell (2003). The Education of Jane Addams. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 361. ISBN 0-8122-3747-1. [51] Loerzel, Robert (June 2008). “Friends—With Benefits?". Chicago Magazine (Chicago Magazine). Retrieved 200903-29.
[70] Villard, Oswald Garrison. Some Newspapers and Newspaper-Men, (New York: Knopf, 1923)pp. 9-10. , [71] Bailey, Kennedy, and Cohen. The American Pageant. Vol. II: Since 1865. 11th Ed. Houghton Mifflin, 1998. p 574.
[52] Roger Streitmatter, Outlaw Marriages: The hidden histories of 15 extraordinary same sex couples, Beacon Press, 2012
[72] Allison. Sobek, “How Did the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom Campaign against Chemical Warfare, 1915-1930?" Women And Social Movements In The United States, 1600–2000 2001 5(0).
[53] Christie, C., Gauvreau, M. (2001). A Full-Orbed Christianity: The Protestant Churches and Social Welfare in Canada, 1900–1940. McGill-Queen’s Press – MQUP, Jan 19, 2001 pg 107.
[73] Louise W. Knight, Citizen: Jane Addams and the Struggle for Democracy, p. 405
[54] Joslin, K. (2004). Jane Addams, a writer’s life. Illinois: University of Illinois press p. 170
[74] Linn, James Weber (2000) [1935]. Jane Addams: A Biography. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. p. 365. ISBN 0-252-06904-8.
[55] “Jane Addams Hull-House Museum”. November 2014.
[75] Addams, Jane. A Decade of Prohibition, The Survey, October 1, 1929, p 6.
Retrieved 29
[56] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 173–74, 181.
[76] Taylor Street Arhies
[57] Knight, Louise W. Citizen. pp. 189–90, 461n30. [58] Curti, Merle. “JANE ADDAMS ON HUMAN NATURE.” Journal of the History of Ideas 22, no. 2 (April 1961): 240-253. Historical Abstracts, EBSCOhost (accessed July 2, 2010). [59] Bailey, Kennedy, and Cohen. The American Pageant. Vol. II: Since 1865. 11th Ed. Houghton Mifflin, 1998. p 704.
[77] “U-M-SSW: Ongoing Magazine”. Ssw.umich.edu. Retrieved 2010-04-27. [78] “Jane Addams Day”. [79] AAUW-Illinois Applauds New State Day Honoring Jane Addams: Carbondale Branch Members Instrumental in Lobbying State Legislature
[60] “Woman’s Peace Party”. Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk. Retrieved 2010-04-27.
[80] “Celebrate Jane Addams Day!". Retrieved 29 November 2014.
[61] UI Press|Jane Addams, Emily G. Balch, and Alice Hamilton|Women at The Hague: The International Congress of Women and Its Results
[81] “Jane Addams Memorial Park”. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
[62] “Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom”. WILPF. Archived from the original on 2009-05-15. Retrieved 2010-04-27.
[82] “Jane Addams Memorial Tollway (I-90)". Illinois Department of Transportation Website. State of Illinois. 2009. Archived from the original on July 16, 2007. Retrieved 2009-03-29.
[63] Vera Brittain, “The Rebel Passion”, George Allen & Unwin ltd, London, 1964, p. 111
[83] Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame
[64] “The revolt against war"; Jane Addams’ rhetorical challenge to the patriarchy Sherry R. Shepler, Anne F. Martina, Communication Quarterly, Vol. 47, Iss. 2, 1999 [65] “AN INSULT TO WAR.; Miss Addams Would Strip the Dead of Honor and Courage”. The New York Times. 1915-07-13. [66] “Nobel Peace 1931”. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2010-0427. [67] “Jane Addams (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". Plato Stanford. Retrieved 2010-04-27. [68] Maurice Hamington, “Jane Addams,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2007) [69] Alonzo (2003)
[84] Victor Salvo // The Legacy Project. “2012 INDUCTEES”. Retrieved 29 November 2014. [85] Malcolm Lazin (August 20, 2015). “Op-ed: Here Are the 31 Icons of 2015’s Gay History Month”. Advocate.com. Retrieved 2015-08-21. [86] “Jane Addams Hull-House Museum”. Uic.edu. Retrieved 2010-04-27. [87] Jane Addams College of Social Work [88] “Jane Addams Business Career Center”. Cmsdnet.net. Retrieved 2010-04-27. [89] “High School For Academic Careers”. schools.nyc.gov. Retrieved 2011-09-17.
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Further reading
Archival resources • Jane Addams Collection, 1838-date (bulk 18801935) (130 linear feet (40 linear metres)) is housed at Swarthmore College Peace Collection. • Jane Addams Papers, 1904-1960 (bulk 1904-1936) (1.5 linear feet (0.46 linear metres)) is housed at Smith College Sophia Smith Collection. • Jane Addams Correspondence, 1872-1935 (inclusive) (23 reels) is housed at Harvard University Radcliffe Institute of Advanced Study. Biographies • Berson, Robin Kadison. Jane Addams: a biography (2004), 140pp. • Brown, Victoria Bissell. The Education of Jane Addams: Politics and Culture in Modern America. (2003). 421 pp. excerpt and text search • Davis, Allen F. American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (1973), 339pp, solid scholarship but tends toward debunking • Diliberto, Gioia. A Useful Woman: The Early Life of Jane Addams. (1999). 318 pp. • Elshtain, Jean Bethke. Jane Addams and the Dream of American Democracy: A Life Basic Books: 2002 online edition, by a leading conservative scholar • Haldeman-Julius, Marcet. Jane Addams As I Knew Her. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Publications, ca. 1936. Marcet was Addams’s niece. • Knight, Louise W. Citizen: Jane Addams and the Struggle for Democracy. (2005). 582 pp.; biography to 1899 online edition • Knight, Louise W. Jane Addams: Spirit in Action. (2010). 334 pp., complete biography aimed at a broader audience. • Joslin, Katherine. Jane Addams: A Writer’s Life. (2004). 306 pp. • Linn, James W. Jane Addams: A biography. (1935) 457 pp, by her admiring nephew Specialty studies • “How Did Changes in the Built Environment at Hull-House Reflect the Settlement’s Interaction with Its Neighbors, 1889–1912?" by Kathryn Kish Sklar, Rima Lunin Schultz, Melissa Doak, Marian Horan, and Kerry Lippincott. Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600-2000
• Alonso, Harriet Hyman. “Nobel Peace Laureates, Jane Addams And Emily Greene Balch: Two Women Of The Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom.” Journal Of Women’s History 1995 7(2): 6–26. • Beauboeuf-Lafontant, Tamara. “Becoming Jane Addams: Feminist Developmental Theory and' The College Woman'" Girlhood Studies (2014) 7#2 pp: 61-78. • Beer, Janet and Joslin, Katherine. “Diseases of the Body Politic: White Slavery in Jane Addams’ “A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil” and “Selected Short Stories” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman.” Journal of American Studies 1999 33(1): 1–18. ISSN 0021-8758 • Bowen, Louise de Koven. Growing up with Pity. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1926. • Brinkmann, Tobias. Sundays at Sinai: A Jewish Congregation in Chicago (2012), on Addams relationship with Chicago Jews. • Bryan, Mary Linn McCree, and Allen F. Davis. One Hundred Years at Hull-House (1990), a history of the programs there • Craraft, James. Two Shining Souls: Jane Addams, Leo Tolstoy, and the Quest for Global Peace (Lanham: Lexington, 2012).179 pp. • Carson, Minal. Settlement Folk: Social Thought and the American Settlement Movement, 1885-1930 (1990) • Chansky, Dorothy. “Re-visioning Reform,” American Quarterly vol 55 #3 (2003) 515–523 online at Project Muse • Curti, Merle. “Jane Addams on Human Nature,” Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 22, No. 2 (Apr., 1961), pp. 240–253 in JSTOR • Danielson, Caroline Page. “Citizen Acts: Citizenship and Political Agency in the Works of Jane Addams, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and Emma Goldman.” PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 1996. 331 pp. DAI 1996 57(6): 2651-A. DA9635502 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses • Dawley, Alan. Changing the World: American Progressives in War and Revolution (2003) • Deegan, Mary Jo. “Jane Addams, the Hull-House School of Sociology, and Social Justice, 1892 to 1935.” Humanity & Society (2013) 37#3 pp: 248258. • Deegan, Mary. Jane Addams and the Men of the Chicago School, 1892–1918. (Transaction, Inc., 1988)
2.1. JANE ADDAMS • Donovan, Brian. White Slave Crusades: Race, Gender, and Anti-Vice Activism, 1887-1917. (U of Illinois Press. 2006). 186 pp. • Duffy, William. “Remembering is the Remedy: Jane Addams’s Response to Conflicted Discourse.” Rhetoric Review (2011) 30#2 pp: 135–152. • Fischer, Marilyn, et al. eds. Jane Addams and the Practice of Democracy (2009), 230pp; 11 specialized essays by scholars excerpt and text search • Foust, Mathew A. “Perplexities of Filiality: Confucius and Jane Addams on the Private/Public Distinction,” “Asian Philosophy” (2008) 18(2): 149-166. • Grimm, Robert Thornton, Jr. “Forerunners for a Domestic Revolution: Jane Addams, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and the Ideology Of Childhood, 1900-1916.” Illinois Historical Journal 1997 90(1): 47–64. ISSN 0748-8149
23 • Joslin, Katherine. Jane Addams: A writer’s Life (2009) excerpt and text search • Krysiak, Barbara H. “Full-Service Community Schools: Jane Addams Meets John Dewey.”. School Business Affairs, v67 n8 pp. 4–8 Aug 2001. ISSN 0036-651X • Knight, Louise W. “An Authoritative Voice: Jane Addams and the Oratorical Tradition.” Gender & History 1998 10(2): 217–251. ISSN 0953-5233 Fulltext: Ebsco • Knight, Louise W. “Biography’s Window on Social Change: Benevolence and Justice in Jane Addams’s 'A Modern Lear.'" Journal Of Women’s History 1997 9(1): 111–138. ISSN 1042-7961 Fulltext: Ebsco • Lissak, R. S. Pluralism and Progressives: HullHouse and the New Immigrants. (1989)
• Hamington, Maurice. “Jane Addams,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2007) online edition, Addams as philosopher
• Matassarin, Kat. “Jane Addams of Hull-House: Creative Drama at the Turn of the Century”. Children’s Theatre Review, Oct 1983. v32 n4 pp 13–15
• Hamington, Maurice. Embodied Care Jane Addams, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Feminist Ethics (2004) excerpt and online search at amazon.com
• Morton, Keith. “Addams, Day, and Dewey: The Emergence of Community Service in American Culture”. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, Fall 1997 v4 pp 137–49 * Oakes, Jeannie. Becoming Good American Schools: The Struggle for Civic Virtue in Education Reform. (2000). ISBN 07879-4023-2
• Hamington, Maurice. “Jane Addams and a Politics of Embodied Care,” The Journal of Speculative Philosophy v 15 #2 2001, pp. 105–121 online at Project Muse • Hamington, Maurice. “Public Pragmatism: Jane Addams and Ida B. Wells on Lynching,” The Journal of Speculative Philosophy v. 19#2 (2005), pp. 167–174 online at Project Muse • Hansen, Jonathan M. “Fighting Words: The Transnational Patriotism of Eugene V. Debs, Jane Addams, and W. E. B. Du Bois.” PhD dissertation Boston U. 1997. 286 pp. DAI 1997 57(10): 4511A. DA9710148 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses • Henderson, Karla A. “Jane Addams: Leisure Services Pioneer”. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, (1982) 53#2 pp. 42–45 • Imai, Konomi, and . “The Women’s Movement and the Settlement Movement in Early Twentieth-Century Japan: The Impact of Hull House and Jane Addams on Hiratsuka Raichō.” Kwansei Gakuin University humanities review 17 (2013): 85-109. online • Jackson, Shannon. Lines of Activity: Performance, Historiography, Hull-House Domesticity (2000). 384 pp.
• Ostman, Heather Elaine. “Social Activist Visions: Constructions of Womanhood in the Autobiographies of Jane Addams and Emma Goldman.” PhD dissertation Fordham U. 2004. 240 pp. DAI 2004 65(3): 934-A. DA3125022 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses • Packard, Sandra. “Jane Addams: Contributions and Solutions for Art Education”. Art Education, 29, 1, 9–12, Jan 76. • Phillips, J. O. C. “The Education of Jane Addams”. History of Education Quarterly, 14, 1, 49–68, Spr 74. • Philpott, Thomas. L. The Slum and the Ghetto: Immigrants, Blacks, and Reformers in Chicago, 1880– 1930. (1991). • Platt, Harold. “Jane Addams and the Ward Boss Revisited: Class, Politics, and Public Health in Chicago, 1890–1930.” Environmental History 2000 5(2): 194–222. ISSN 1084-5453 • Polacheck, Hilda Satt. I Came a Stranger: The Story of a Hull-House Girl. Chicago, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1989.
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• Sargent, David Kevin. “Jane Addams’s Rhetori- Primary sources cal Ethic.” PhD dissertation Northwestern U. 1996. • Bryan, Mary Lynn McCree, Barbara Bair, and Ma275 pp. DAI 1997 57(11): 4597-A. DA9714673 ree De Angury. eds., The Selected Papers of Jane Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Addams Volume 1: Preparing to Lead, 1860-1881. • Scherman, Rosemarie Redlich. “Jane Addams and University of Illinois Press, 2002. online excerpt the Chicago Social Justice Movement, 1889-1912.” and text search PhD dissertation City U. of New York 1999. 337 • Addams, Jane. “A Belated Industry” The American pp. DAI 1999 60(4): 1297-A. DA9924849 FullJournal of Sociology Vol. 1, No. 5 (Mar., 1896), pp. text: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses 536–550 in JSTOR • Schott, Linda. “Jane Addams and William James • Addams, Jane. The subjective value of a social seton Alternatives to War.” Journal Of The History Of tlement (1892) online Ideas 1993 54(2): 241–254. in JSTOR • Seigfried, Charlene H. “A Pragmatist Response to Death: Jane Addams on the Permanent and the Transient” “Journal of Speculative Philosophy” (2007) 21(2): 133-141. • Shields, Patricia M. 2006. “Democracy and the Social Feminist Ethics of Jane Addams: A Vision for Public Administration”. Administrative Theory & Praxis, vol. 28, no. 3, September, pp. 418–443. https://digital.library.txstate.edu/handle/ 10877/3959 • Shields, Patricia M. 2011. Jane Addams’ Theory of Democracy and Social Ethics: Incorporating a Feminist Perspective. In Women in Public Administration: Theory and Practice. Edited by Maria D'Agostiono and Helisse Levine, Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlet. • Sklar, Kathryn Kish. “Hull House in the 1890s: A Community of Women Reformers,” Signs, Vol. 10, No. 4, (Summer, 1985), pp. 658–677 in JSTOR • Sklar, Kathryn Kish. "'Some of us who deal with the Social Fabric': Jane Addams Blends Peace and Social Justice, 1907-1919.” Journal Of The Gilded Age And Progressive Era 2003 2(1): 80–96. ISSN 1537-7814 Fulltext: at History Cooperative • Stebner, E. J. The Women of Hull-House: A Study in Spirituality, Vocation, and Friendship. (1997). • Stiehm, Judith Hicks. Champions for Peace: Women Winners of the Nobel Peace Prize. Rowman and Littlefield, 2006. • Sullivan, M. “Social work’s legacy of peace: echoes from the early 20th century.” Social Work, Sep93; 38(5): 513–20. EBSCO • Toft, Jessica and Abrams, Laura S. “Progressive Maternalists and the Citizenship Status of LowIncome Single Mothers.” Social Service Review 2004 78(3): 447-465. ISSN 0037-7961 Fulltext: Ebsco
• Addams, Jane, ed. Hull-House Maps and Papers: A Presentation of Nationalities and Wages in a Congested District of Chicago, Together with Comments and Essays on Problems Growing Out of the Social Conditions (1896; reprint 2007) excerpts and online search from amazon.com full text • Kelley, Florence. “Hull House” The New England magazine. Volume 24, Issue 5. (July 1898) pp. 550–566 online at MOA • Addams, Jane. “Ethical Survivals in Municipal Corruption,” International Journal of Ethics Vol. 8, No. 3 (Apr., 1898), pp. 273–291 in JSTOR • Addams, Jane. “Trades Unions and Public Duty,” The American Journal of Sociology Vol. 4, No. 4 (Jan., 1899), pp. 448–462 in JSTOR • Addams, Jane. “The Subtle Problems of Charity,” The Atlantic monthly. Volume 83, Issue 496 (February 1899) pp. 163–179 online at MOA • Addams, Jane. Democracy and Social Ethics (1902) online at Internet Archive online at Harvard Library • 23 editions published between 1902 and 2006 in English and held by 1,570 libraries worldwide • Addams, Jane. Child labor 1905 Harvard Library online • Addams, Jane. “Problems of Municipal Administration,” The American Journal of Sociology Vol. 10, No. 4 (Jan., 1905), pp. 425–444 JSTOR • Addams, Jane. “Child Labor Legislation - A Requisite for Industrial Efficiency,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Vol. 25, Child Labor (May, 1905), pp. 128–136 in JSTOR • Addams, Jane. The operation of the Illinois child labor law, (1906) online at Harvard Library • Addams, Jane. Newer Ideals of Peace (1906) online at Internet Archive
2.1. JANE ADDAMS • 13 editions published between 1906 and 2007 in English and held by 686 libraries worldwide • Addams, Jane. National protection for children 1907 online at Harvard Library • Addams, Jane. The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (1909) online at books.google.com, online at Harvard Library • 16 editions published between 1909 and 1972 in English and held by 1,094 libraries worldwide
25 • Harvard University Library Open Collections Program. Women Working, 1870–1930. Jane Addams (1860–1935). A full-text searchable online database with complete access to publications written by Jane Addams. • FBI file on Jane Addams • Jane Addams entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy • Jane Addams Hull-House Museum
• Addams, Jane. Twenty Years at Hull-House: With Autobiographical Notes, 1910 online at A Celebration of Women Writers online at Harvard Library
• The Bitter Cry of Outcast London by Rev. Andrew Mearns
• 72 editions published between 1910 and 2007 in English and held by 3,250 libraries worldwide
• Online photograph exhibit of Jane Addams from Swarthmore College’s Peace Collection
• Addams, Jane. A new conscience and an ancient evil (1912) online at Harvard Library • 14 editions published between 1912 and 2003 in English and held by 912 libraries worldwide • Addams, Jane; Balch, Emily Greene; and Hamilton, Alice. Women at the Hague: The International Congress of Women and Its Results. (1915) reprint ed by Harriet Hyman Alonso, (2003). 91 pp. online at Harvard Library • Addams, Jane. The Long Road of Woman’s Memory (1916) online at Internet Archive online at Harvard Library, also reprint U. of Illinois Press, 2002. 84 pp. • Addams, Jane. Peace and Bread in Time of War 1922 online edition, online at Harvard Library • 12 editions published between 1922 and 2002 in English and held by 835 libraries worldwide • Addams, Jane. My Friend, Julia Lathrop. (1935; reprint U. of Illinois Press, 2004) 166 pp. • Addams, Jane. Jane Addams: A Centennial Reader (1960) online edition
• Taylor Street Archives; Hull House: Bowen Country Club • Maurice Hamington. “Jane Addams”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Looks at her as “the first woman 'public philosopher' in United States history”. • Women at the Hague: the International Congress of Women and its Results By Jane Addams, Emily Greene Balch, Alice Hamilton. 171 pages, published 1915 by MacMillan. • International Fellowship of Reconciliation • Jane Addams at Find A Grave • Twenty Years at Hull House University of Virginia American Studies Hypertext project. • Short historical film showing Jane Addams in Berlin in 1915, on her peace mission with Aletta Jacobs and Alice Hamilton. • Jane Addams Papers Finding Aid, Sophia Smith Collection
• Elshtain, Jean B. ed. The Jane Addams Reader (2002), 488pp
• American Commission for Peace in Ireland Interim Report
• Lasch, Christopher, ed. The Social Thought of Jane Addams. (1965).
• Works by Jane Addams at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about Jane Addams at Internet Archive
2.1.12
External links
• Jane Addams at the Internet Movie Database • Jane Addams on the history of social work timeline
• Works by Jane Addams at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) • Jane Addams National Women’s Hall of Fame
26
CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR
2.2 Emily Greene Balch Emily Greene Balch (January 8, 1867 – January 9, 1961) was an American economist, sociologist and pacifist. Balch combined an academic career at Wellesley College with a long-standing interest in social issues such as poverty, child labor and immigration, as well as settlement work to uplift poor immigrants and reduce juvenile delinquency. She moved into the peace movement at the start of the World War I in 1914, and began collaborating with Jane Addams of Chicago. She became a central leader of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) based in Switzerland, for which she won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1946.
2.2.1
Life
Her major achievements were just beginning, as she became an American leader of the international peace movement. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1946 for her work with the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF). In 1919, Balch played a central role in the International Congress of Women. It changed its name to the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, and was based in Geneva. She was hired by the League as its first international Secretary-Treasurer, administering the organization’s activities. She helped set up summer schools on peace education, and created new branches in over 50 countries. She cooperated with the newly established League of Nations regarding drug control, aviation, refugees, and disarmament. In World War II, she favored Allied victory and did not criticize the war effort, but did support the rights of conscientious objectors.[3] Balch never married. She died the day after her 94th birthday.
Born to a prominent Yankee family near Boston, her father was a lawyer. She graduated Bryn Mawr College in 1889, reading widely in the classics and languages, 2.2.2 See also and focusing on economics. She did graduate work in Paris and published her research as Public Assistance of • List of female Nobel laureates the Poor in France (1893). She did settlement housework in Boston, but decided on an academic career. She then • List of peace activists studied at Harvard, University Chicago, and the Univer• Boston Women’s Heritage Trail sity of Berlin, and began teaching at Wellesley College in 1896. She focused on immigration, consumption, and the economic roles of women. She served on numerous state commissions, such as the first commission on minimum 2.2.3 References wages for women. She was a leader of the Women’s Trade • Nobel Committee information on 1946 Peace Prize Union League, which supported women who belonged to laureates labor unions. She published a major sociological study of Our Slavic Fellow Citizens in 1910. She was a longtime pacifist, and was a participant in Henry Ford’s International Committee on Mediation. When the United States 2.2.4 Notes entered the war, she became a political activist opposing conscription in espionage legislation, and supporting [1] Mercedes Moritz Randall, Improper Bostonian: Emily Greene Balch, Nobel Peace Laureate, 1946 (1964) pp. the civil liberties of conscientious objectors. She collab364; 378 orated with Jane Addams in the Women’s Peace party, and numerous other groups. [2] Randall, Improper Bostonian p. 60 In a letter to the president of Wellesley, she wrote we [3] Suzanne Niemeyer, editor, Research Guide to American should follow “the ways of Jesus”. Her spiritual thoughts Historical Biography: vol. IV (1990) pp 1806–1814 were that American economy was “far from being in harmony with the principles of Jesus which we profess.” [1] Wellesley College terminated her contract in 1919. Balch 2.2.5 Bibliography served as an editor of The Nation, a well-known magazine of political commentary. Balch converted from • Emily Greene Balch, Public Assistance of the Poor Unitarianism and became a Quaker in 1921. She stated, in France, Vol. 8, Nos. 4 & 5, Publications of the “Religion seems to me one of the most interesting things American Economic Association. in life, one of the most puzzling, richest and thrilling fields of human thought and speculation... religious experience • Emily Greene Balch, “A Study of Conditions of City and thought need also a light a day and sunshine and a Life: with Special Reference to Boston, A Bibliogcompanionable sharing with others of which it seems to raphy”, 1903, 13 pages me there is generally too little... The Quaker worship at • Our Slavic Fellow Citizens By Emily Greene Balch, its best seems to me give opportunities for this sort of 1910, 536 pages. sharing without profanation.”[2]
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. • Women at the Hague: the International Congress of Women and its Results, By Jane Addams, Emily Greene Balch, and Alice Hamilton. 171 pages, New York: MacMillan, 1915.
27 humanitarian, and leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs.
• Approaches to the Great Settlement By Emily Greene King became a civil rights activist early in his career. Balch, Pauline Knickerbocker Angell, 351 pages, He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference published 1918. (SCLC) in 1957, serving as its first president. With the SCLC, King led an unsuccessful 1962 struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia (the Albany Movement), 2.2.6 Further reading and helped organize the 1963 nonviolent protests in • Alonso, Harriet Hyman (1993). Peace As a Birmingham, Alabama. King also helped to organize the Women’s Issue: A History of the U.S. Movement for 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his faWorld Peace and Women’s Rights. Syracuse Univer- mous "I Have a Dream" speech. There, he established sity Press. ISBN 0815602693. OCLC 25508750. his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history. • Foster, Catherine (1989). Women for All Seasons: The Story of the Women’s International League for On October 14, 1964, King received the Nobel Peace Peace and Freedom. University of Georgia Press. Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolence. In 1965, he helped to organize the Selma to MontISBN 0820310921. OCLC 18051898. gomery marches, and the following year he and SCLC • Gwinn, Kristen E. (2010). Emily Greene Balch: The took the movement north to Chicago to work on segreLong Road to Internationalism. University of Illinois gated housing. In the final years of his life, King exPress. ISBN 9780252090158. OCLC 702844599. panded his focus to include poverty and speak against the Vietnam War, alienating many of his liberal allies with a • Nichols, Christopher McKnight (2011). Promise 1967 speech titled "Beyond Vietnam". and Peril: America at the Dawn of a Global Age. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674061187. In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D.C., to be called the Poor People’s CamOCLC 754841336. paign, when he was assassinated on April 4 in Memphis, • Randall, Mercedes M. (1964). Improper Bostonian: Tennessee. His death was followed by riots in many U.S. Emily Greene Balch. Twayne Publishers. OCLC cities. 779059266., scholarly biography King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal • Solomon, Barbara Miller. “Balch, Emily Greene,” of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. Martin in Barbara Sicherman and Carol Hurd Green, eds. Luther King, Jr. Day was established as a holiday in Notable American Women: The Modern Period, A numerous cities and states beginning in 1971, and as a Biographical Dictionary (1980) pp 41–45 U.S. federal holiday in 1986. Hundreds of streets in the U.S. have been renamed in his honor, and a county in • Who’s Who in New England, Marquis, 1916 Washington State was also renamed for him. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., was dedicated in 2011. 2.2.7 External links • Emily Green Balch biography at Nobel Prize site.
2.3.1 Early life and education
• Tribute to Emily Greene Balch by John Dewey, pages 149–150 in Later Works of John Dewey volKing was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georume 17. First published in Women’s International gia, to Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr., and Alberta League for Peace and Freedom, 1946 page 2. Williams King.[1] King’s legal name at birth was Michael King,[2] and his father was also born Michael King, but the elder King changed his and his son’s names following 2.3 Martin Luther King, Jr. a 1934 trip to Germany to attend the Fifth Baptist World Alliance Congress in Berlin. It was during this time he “Martin Luther King” and “MLK” redirect here. For chose to be called Martin Luther King in honor of the other uses, see Martin Luther King (disambiguation) and German reformer Martin Luther.[3][4] King had Irish anMLK (disambiguation). cestry through his paternal great-grandfather.[5][6] King was a middle child, between an older sister, Willie Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April Christine King, and a younger brother, Alfred Daniel 4, 1968) was an American Baptist minister, activist, Williams King.[7] King sang with his church choir at
28
King’s high school alma mater was named after AfricanAmerican scholar Booker T. Washington.
the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind.[8] King liked singing and music. King’s mother, an accomplished organist and choir leader, took him to various churches to sing. He received attention for singing “I Want to Be More and More Like Jesus.” King later became a member of the junior choir in his church.[9] King said his father regularly whipped him until he was fifteen and a neighbor reported hearing the elder King telling his son “he would make something of him even if he had to beat him to death.” King saw his father’s proud and unafraid protests in relation to segregation, such as King Sr. refusing to listen to a traffic policeman after being referred to as “boy” or stalking out of a store with his son when being told by a shoe clerk that they would have to move to the rear to be served.[10] When King was a child, he befriended a white boy whose father owned a business near his family’s home. When the boys were 6, they attended different schools, with King attending a segregated school for African-Americans. King then lost his friend because the child’s father no longer wanted them to play together.[11] King suffered from depression throughout much of his life. In his adolescent years, he initially felt some resentment against whites due to the “racial humiliation” that he, his family, and his neighbors often had to endure in the segregated South.[12] At age 12, shortly after his maternal grandmother died, King blamed himself and jumped out of a second story window, but survived.[13] King was originally skeptical of many of Christianity’s claims. At the age of thirteen, he denied the bodily resurrection of Jesus during Sunday school.[14] From this point, he stated, “doubts began to spring forth unrelentingly”.[15][14] However, he later concluded that the Bible has “many profound truths which one cannot escape” and decided to enter the seminary.[14] Growing up in Atlanta, King attended Booker T. Washington High School. He became known for his public speaking ability and was part of the school’s debate
CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR team.[16] King became the youngest assistant manager of a newspaper delivery station for the Atlanta Journal in 1942 at age 13.[17] During his junior year, he won first prize in an oratorical contest sponsored by the Negro Elks Club in Dublin, Georgia. Returning home to Atlanta by bus, he and his teacher were ordered by the driver to stand so white passengers could sit down. King refused initially, but complied after his teacher informed him that he would be breaking the law if he did not go along with the order. He later characterized this incident as “the angriest I have ever been in my life”.[16] A precocious student, he skipped both the ninth and the twelfth grades of high school.[18] It was during King’s junior year that Morehouse College announced it would accept any high school juniors who could pass its entrance exam. At that time, most of the students had abandoned their studies to participate in World War II. Due to this, the school became desperate to fill in classrooms. At age 15, King passed the exam and entered Morehouse.[16] The summer before his last year at Morehouse, in 1947, an eighteenyear-old King made the choice to enter the ministry after he concluded the church offered the most assuring way to answer “an inner urge to serve humanity”. King’s “inner urge” had begun developing and he made peace with the Baptist Church, as he believed he would be a “rational” minister with sermons that were “a respectful force for ideas, even social protest.”[19] In 1948, he graduated from Morehouse with a B.A. degree in sociology, and enrolled in Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania, from which he graduated with a B.Div. degree in 1951.[20][21] King’s father fully supported his decision to continue his education. King was joined in attending Crozer by Walter McCall, a former classmate at Morehouse.[22] At Crozer, King was elected president of the student body.[23] The African-American students of Crozer for the most part conducted their social activity on Edwards Street. King was endeared to the street due to a classmate having an aunt that prepared the two collard greens, which they both relished.[24] King once called out a student for keeping beer in his room because of their shared responsibility as African-Americans to bear “the burdens of the Negro race.” For a time, he was interested in Walter Rauschenbusch's “social gospel”.[23] In his third year there, he became romantically involved with the daughter of an immigrant German woman working as a cook in the cafeteria. The daughter had been involved with a professor prior to her relationship with King. King had plans of marrying her, but was advised not to by friends due to the reaction an interracial relationship would spark from both blacks and whites, as well as the chances of it destroying his chances of ever pastoring a church in the South. King tearfully told a friend that he could not endure his mother’s pain over the marriage and broke the relationship off around six months later. He would continue to have lingering feelings, with one friend being quoted as saying, “He never recovered.”[23]
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. King married Coretta Scott, on June 18, 1953, on the lawn of her parents’ house in her hometown of Heiberger, Alabama.[25] They became the parents of four children: Yolanda King (b. 1955), Martin Luther King III (b. 1957), Dexter Scott King (b. 1961), and Bernice King (b. 1963).[26] During their marriage, King limited Coretta’s role in the Civil Rights Movement, expecting her to be a housewife and mother.[27]
29 in the US South that enforced racial segregation. King was on the committee from the Birmingham AfricanAmerican community that looked into the case; because Colvin was pregnant and unmarried, E.D. Nixon and Clifford Durr decided to wait for a better case to pursue.[33]
On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat.[34] The Montgomery Bus King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church Boycott, urged and planned by Nixon and led by King, in Montgomery, Alabama, when he was twenty-five years soon followed.[35] The boycott lasted for 385 days,[36] old, in 1954.[28] and the situation became so tense that King’s house was bombed.[37] King was arrested during this campaign, which concluded with a United States District Court rulDoctoral studies ing in Browder v. Gayle that ended racial segregation on all Montgomery public buses.[38][39] King’s role in the bus See also: Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues boycott transformed him into a national figure and the best-known spokesman of the civil rights movement.[40] King began doctoral studies in systematic theology at Boston University and received his Ph.D. degree on June 5, 1955, with a dissertation on “A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman". An academic inquiry concluded in October 1991 that portions of his dissertation had been plagiarized and he had acted improperly. However, "[d]espite its finding, the committee said that 'no thought should be given to the revocation of Dr. King’s doctoral degree,' an action that the panel said would serve no purpose.”[29][30][31] The committee also found that the dissertation still “makes an intelligent contribution to scholarship.” However, a letter is now attached to King’s dissertation in the university library, noting that numerous passages were included without the appropriate quotations and citations of sources.[32]
2.3.3 Southern Christian Leadership Conference
In 1957, King, Ralph Abernathy, Fred Shuttlesworth, Joseph Lowery, and other civil rights activists founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The group was created to harness the moral authority and organizing power of black churches to conduct nonviolent protests in the service of civil rights reform. One of the group’s inspirations was the crusades of evangelist Billy Graham, who befriended King after he attended a Graham crusade in New York City in 1957.[41] King led the SCLC until his death.[42] The SCLC’s 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom was the first time King addressed a national audience.[43] Other civil rights leaders involved in the SCLC with King included: James Bevel, Allen 2.3.2 Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955 Johnson, Curtis W. Harris, Walter E. Fauntroy, C. T. Vivian, Andrew Young, The Freedom Singers, Charles Main articles: Montgomery Bus Boycott and Jim Crow Evers, Cleveland Robinson, Randolph Blackwell, Annie laws § Public arena Bell Robinson Devine, Charles Kenzie Steele, Alfred In March 1955, a fifteen-year-old school girl in Mont- Daniel Williams King, Benjamin Hooks, Aaron Henry and Bayard Rustin.[44]
Rosa Parks with King, 1955
On September 20, 1958, while signing copies of his book Stride Toward Freedom in Blumstein’s department store in Harlem,[45] King narrowly escaped death when Izola Curry, a mentally ill black woman who believed he was conspiring against her with communists, stabbed him in the chest with a letter opener. After emergency surgery, King was hospitalized for several weeks, while Curry was found mentally incompetent to stand trial.[46][47] In 1959, he published a short book called The Measure of A Man, which contained his sermons "What is Man?" and “The Dimensions of a Complete Life”. The sermons argued for man’s need for God’s love and criticized the racial injustices of Western civilization.[48]
Harry Wachtel—who joined King’s legal advisor gomery, Claudette Colvin, refused to give up her bus seat Clarence B. Jones in defending four ministers of the to a white man in compliance with Jim Crow laws, laws SCLC in a libel suit over a newspaper advertisement
30 (New York Times Co. v. Sullivan)—founded a taxexempt fund to cover the expenses of the suit and to assist the nonviolent civil rights movement through a more effective means of fundraising. This organization was named the “Gandhi Society for Human Rights”. King served as honorary president for the group. Displeased with the pace of President Kennedy’s addressing the issue of segregation, King and the Gandhi Society produced a document in 1962 calling on the President to follow in the footsteps of Abraham Lincoln and use an Executive Order to deliver a blow for Civil Rights as a kind of Second Emancipation Proclamation - Kennedy did not execute the order.[49]
CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR Most of these rights were successfully enacted into the law of the United States with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the 1965 Voting Rights Act.[55][56] King and the SCLC put into practice many of the principles of the Christian Left and applied the tactics of nonviolent protest with great success by strategically choosing the method of protest and the places in which protests were carried out. There were often dramatic stand-offs with segregationist authorities. Sometimes these confrontations turned violent.[57] Throughout his participation in the civil rights movement, King was criticized by many groups. This included opposition by more militant blacks such as Nation of Islam member Malcolm X.[58] Stokely Carmichael was a separatist and disagreed with King’s plea for racial integration because he considered it an insult to a uniquely African-American culture.[59] Omali Yeshitela urged Africans to remember the history of violent European colonization and how power was not secured by Europeans through integration, but by violence and force.[60]
Albany Movement Main article: Albany Movement
Lyndon Johnson and Robert Kennedy with Civil Rights leaders, June 22, 1963
The FBI, under written directive from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, began tapping King’s telephone in the fall of 1963.[50] Concerned that allegations of communists in the SCLC, if made public, would derail the administration’s civil rights initiatives, Kennedy warned King to discontinue the suspect associations, and later felt compelled to issue the written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretap King and other SCLC leaders.[51] J. Edgar Hoover feared Communists were trying to infiltrate the Civil Rights movement, but when no such evidence emerged, the bureau used the incidental details caught on tape over the next five years in attempts to force King out of the preeminent leadership position.[52] King believed that organized, nonviolent protest against the system of southern segregation known as Jim Crow laws would lead to extensive media coverage of the struggle for black equality and voting rights. Journalistic accounts and televised footage of the daily deprivation and indignities suffered by southern blacks, and of segregationist violence and harassment of civil rights workers and marchers, produced a wave of sympathetic public opinion that convinced the majority of Americans that the Civil Rights Movement was the most important issue in American politics in the early 1960s.[53][54]
The Albany Movement was a desegregation coalition formed in Albany, Georgia, in November 1961. In December, King and the SCLC became involved. The movement mobilized thousands of citizens for a broadfront nonviolent attack on every aspect of segregation within the city and attracted nationwide attention. When King first visited on December 15, 1961, he “had planned to stay a day or so and return home after giving counsel.”[61] The following day he was swept up in a mass arrest of peaceful demonstrators, and he declined bail until the city made concessions. According to King, “that agreement was dishonored and violated by the city” after he left town.[61] King returned in July 1962, and was sentenced to fortyfive days in jail or a $178 fine. He chose jail. Three days into his sentence, Police Chief Laurie Pritchett discreetly arranged for King’s fine to be paid and ordered his release. “We had witnessed persons being kicked off lunch counter stools ... ejected from churches ... and thrown into jail ... But for the first time, we witnessed being kicked out of jail.”[62] It was later acknowledged by the King Center that Billy Graham was the one who bailed King out of jail during this time.[63]
After nearly a year of intense activism with few tangible results, the movement began to deteriorate. King requested a halt to all demonstrations and a “Day of Penance” to promote nonviolence and maintain the moral high ground. Divisions within the black community and King organized and led marches for blacks’ right to vote, the canny, low-key response by local government dedesegregation, labor rights and other basic civil rights.[39] feated efforts.[64] Though the Albany effort proved a key
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. lesson in tactics for Dr. King and the national civil rights movement,[65] the national media was highly critical of King’s role in the defeat, and the SCLC’s lack of results contributed to a growing gulf between the organization and the more radical SNCC. After Albany, King sought to choose engagements for the SCLC in which he could control the circumstances, rather than entering into preexisting situations.[66]
31 became more open to blacks. King’s reputation improved immensely.[69]
King was arrested and jailed early in the campaign—his 13th arrest[72] out of 29.[73] From his cell, he composed the now-famous Letter from Birmingham Jail which responds to calls on the movement to pursue legal channels for social change. King argues that the crisis of racism is too urgent, and the current system too entrenched: “We know through painful experience that freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be deBirmingham campaign manded by the oppressed.”[74] He points out that the Boston Tea Party, a celebrated act of rebellion in the Main article: Birmingham campaign In April 1963, the SCLC began a campaign against racial American colonies, was illegal civil disobedience, and that, conversely, “everything Adolf Hitler did in Germany was 'legal'".[74] King also expresses his frustration with white moderates and clergymen too timid to oppose an unjust system:
King following his arrest in Birmingham
segregation and economic injustice in Birmingham, Alabama. The campaign used nonviolent but intentionally confrontational tactics, developed in part by Rev. Wyatt Tee Walker. Black people in Birmingham, organizing with the SCLC, occupied public spaces with marches and sit-ins, openly violating laws that they considered unjust. King’s intent was to provoke mass arrests and “create a situation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open the door to negotiation”.[67] However, the campaign’s early volunteers did not succeed in shutting down the city, or in drawing media attention to the police’s actions. Over the concerns of an uncertain King, SCLC strategist James Bevel changed the course of the campaign by recruiting children and young adults to join in the demonstrations.[68] Newsweek called this strategy a Children’s Crusade.[69][70] During the protests, the Birmingham Police Department, led by Eugene “Bull” Connor, used high-pressure water jets and police dogs against protesters, including children. Footage of the police response was broadcast on national television news and dominated the nation’s attention, shocking many white Americans and consolidating black Americans behind the movement.[71] Not all of the demonstrators were peaceful, despite the avowed intentions of the SCLC. In some cases, bystanders attacked the police, who responded with force. King and the SCLC were criticized for putting children in harm’s way. But the campaign was a success: Connor lost his job, the “Jim Crow” signs came down, and public places
I have almost reached the regrettable conclusion that the Negro’s great stumbling block in his stride toward freedom is not the White Citizen’s Councilor or the Ku Klux Klanner, but the white moderate, who is more devoted to “order” than to justice; who prefers a negative peace which is the absence of tension to a positive peace which is the presence of justice; who constantly says: “I agree with you in the goal you seek, but I cannot agree with your methods of direct action"; who paternalistic-ally believes he can set the timetable for another man’s freedom; who lives by a mythical concept of time and who constantly advises the Negro to wait for a “more convenient season”.[74]
St. Augustine, Florida Main article: St. Augustine movement In March 1964, King and the SCLC joined forces with Robert Hayling’s then-controversial movement in St. Augustine, Florida. Hayling’s group had been affiliated with the NAACP but was forced out of the organization for advocating armed self-defense alongside nonviolent tactics. Ironically, the pacifist SCLC accepted them.[75] King and the SCLC worked to bring white Northern activists to St. Augustine, including a delegation of rabbis and the 72-year-old mother of the governor of Massachusetts, all of whom were arrested.[76][77] During June, the movement marched nightly through the city, “often facing counter demonstrations by the Klan, and provoking violence that garnered national media attention.” Hundreds of the marchers were arrested and jailed. During the course of this movement, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed.[78]
32
CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR
Selma, Alabama Main article: Selma to Montgomery marches In December 1964, King and the SCLC joined forces with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in Selma, Alabama, where the SNCC had been working on voter registration for several months.[79] A local judge issued an injunction that barred any gathering of 3 or more people affiliated with the SNCC, SCLC, DCVL, or any of 41 named civil rights leaders. This injunction temporarily halted civil rights activity until King defied it by speaking at Brown Chapel on January 2, 1965.[80] New York City On February 6, 1964, King delivered the inaugural speech of a lecture series initiated at the New School called “The American Race Crisis”. No audio record of his speech has been found, but in August 2013, almost 50 years later, the school discovered an audiotape with 15 minutes of a question-and-answer session that followed King’s address. In these remarks, King referred to a conversation he had recently had with Jawaharlal Nehru in which he compared the sad condition of many African March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom Americans to that of India’s untouchables.[81]
2.3.4
March on Washington, 1963
ers and the UAW union to help mobilize demonstrators for the cause.[87]
Main article: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom King, representing the SCLC, was among the leaders of the so-called “Big Six” civil rights organizations who were instrumental in the organization of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which took place on August 28, 1963. The other leaders and organizations comprising the Big Six were Roy Wilkins from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; Whitney Young, National Urban League; A. Philip Randolph, Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; John Lewis, SNCC; and James L. Farmer, Jr., of the Congress of Racial Equality.[82] The primary logistical and strategic organizer was King’s colleague Bayard Rustin.[83] For King, this role was another which courted controversy, since he was one of the key figures who acceded to the wishes of President John F. Kennedy in changing the focus of the march.[84][85] Kennedy initially opposed the march outright, because he was concerned it would negatively impact the drive for passage of civil rights legislation. However, the organizers were firm that the march would proceed.[86] With the march going forward, the Kennedys decided it was important to work to ensure its success. President Kennedy was concerned the turnout would be less than 100,000. Therefore, he enlisted the aid of additional church lead-
King is most famous for his “I Have a Dream” speech, given in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.
The march originally was conceived as an event to dramatize the desperate condition of blacks in the southern
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. U.S. and an opportunity to place organizers’ concerns and grievances squarely before the seat of power in the nation’s capital. Organizers intended to denounce the federal government for its failure to safeguard the civil rights and physical safety of civil rights workers and blacks. However, the group acquiesced to presidential pressure and influence, and the event ultimately took on a far less strident tone.[88] As a result, some civil rights activists felt it presented an inaccurate, sanitized pageant of racial harmony; Malcolm X called it the “Farce on Washington”, and the Nation of Islam forbade its members from attending the march.[88][89] The march did, however, make specific demands: an end to racial segregation in public schools; meaningful civil rights legislation, including a law prohibiting racial discrimination in employment; protection of civil rights workers from police brutality; a $2 minimum wage for all workers; and self-government for Washington, D.C., then governed by congressional committee.[90][91][92] Despite tensions, the march was a resounding success.[93] More than a quarter of a million people of diverse ethnicities attended the event, sprawling from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial onto the National Mall and around the reflecting pool. At the time, it was the largest gathering of protesters in Washington, D.C.'s history.[93] King delivered a 17-minute speech, later known as "I Have a Dream". In the speech’s most famous passage— in which he departed from his prepared text, possibly at the prompting of Mahalia Jackson, who shouted behind him, “Tell them about the dream!"[94][95] —King said:[96] I say to you today, my friends, so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal.' I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today. I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification; one day right there in
33 Alabama, little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. I have a dream today. “I Have a Dream” came to be regarded as one of the finest speeches in the history of American oratory.[97] The March, and especially King’s speech, helped put civil rights at the top of the agenda of reformers in the United States and facilitated passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[98][99] The original, typewritten copy of the speech, including Dr. King’s handwritten notes on it, was discovered in 1984 to be in the hands of George Raveling, the first African-American basketball coach of the University of Iowa. In 1963, Raveling, then 26, was standing near the podium, and immediately after the oration, impulsively asked King if he could have his copy of the speech. He got it.[100]
2.3.5 Selma Voting Rights Movement and “Bloody Sunday”, 1965 Main article: Selma to Montgomery marches Acting on James Bevel’s call for a march from Selma to Montgomery, King, Bevel, and the SCLC, in partial collaboration with SNCC, attempted to organize the march to the state’s capital. The first attempt to march on March 7, 1965, was aborted because of mob and police violence against the demonstrators. This day has become known as Bloody Sunday, and was a major turning point in the effort to gain public support for the Civil Rights Movement. It was the clearest demonstration up to that time of the dramatic potential of King’s nonviolence strategy. King, however, was not present.[101]
The civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama in 1965
King met with officials in the Lyndon B. Johnson Administration on March 5 in order to request an injunction against any prosecution of the demonstrators. He did not attend the march due to church duties, but he later
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wrote, “If I had any idea that the state troopers would use the kind of brutality they did, I would have felt compelled to give up my church duties altogether to lead the line.”[102] Footage of police brutality against the protesters was broadcast extensively and aroused national public outrage.[103]
several white couple / black couple tests of real estate offices uncovered racial steering: discriminatory processing of housing requests by couples who were exact matches in income, background, number of children, and other attributes.[112] Several larger marches were planned and executed: in Bogan, Belmont Cragin, Jefferson Park, of Chicago), Gage King next attempted to organize a march for March 9. Evergreen Park (a suburb southwest [111][113][114] Marquette Park, and others. Park, The SCLC petitioned for an injunction in federal court against the State of Alabama; this was denied and the Abernathy later wrote that the movement received a judge issued an order blocking the march until after a worse reception in Chicago than in the South. Marches, hearing. Nonetheless, King led marchers on March 9 to especially the one through Marquette Park on August 5, the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, then held a short 1966, were met by thrown bottles and screaming throngs. prayer session before turning the marchers around and Rioting seemed very possible.[115][116] King’s beliefs miliasking them to disperse so as not to violate the court tated against his staging a violent event, and he negotiated order. The unexpected ending of this second march an agreement with Mayor Richard J. Daley to cancel a aroused the surprise and anger of many within the lo- march in order to avoid the violence that he feared would cal movement.[104] The march finally went ahead fully on result.[117] King was hit by a brick during one march March 25, 1965.[105][106] At the conclusion of the march but continued to lead marches in the face of personal on the steps of the state capitol, King delivered a speech danger.[118] that became known as "How Long, Not Long". In it, King When King and his allies returned to the South, they stated that equal rights for African Americans could not left Jesse Jackson, a seminary student who had previbe far away, “because the arc of the moral universe is ously joined the movement in the South, in charge of long, but it bends toward justice”.[lower-alpha 1][107][108] their organization.[119] Jackson continued their struggle
2.3.6
for civil rights by organizing the Operation Breadbastargeted chain stores that did not deal Chicago Open Housing Movement, ket movement that[120] fairly with blacks.
1966
Main article: Chicago Freedom Movement 2.3.7 In 1966, after several successes in the South, King,
Opposition to the Vietnam War
See also: Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War
Bevel, and others in the civil rights organizations tried to spread the movement to the North, with Chicago as their first destination. King and Ralph Abernathy, both from the middle class, moved into a building at 1550 S. Hamlin Ave., in the slums of North Lawndale[109] on Chicago’s West Side, as an educational experience and to demonstrate their support and empathy for the poor.[110]
King long opposed American involvement in the Vietnam War,[121] but at first avoided the topic in public speeches in order to avoid the interference with civil rights goals that criticism of President Johnson’s policies might have created.[121] However, at the urging of SCLC’s former Director of Direct Action and now the head of the Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, James Bevel,[122] King eventually agreed to publicly oppose the war as opposition was growing among the American public.[121] In an April 4, 1967, appearance at the New York City Riverside Church—exactly one year before his death—King delivered a speech titled "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence".[123] He spoke strongly against the U.S.'s role in the war, arguing that the U.S. was in Vietnam “to occupy it as an American colony”[124] and calling the U.S. government “the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today”.[125] He also connected the war with economic injustice, arguing that the country needed serious moral change:
The SCLC formed a coalition with CCCO, Coordinating Council of Community Organizations, an organization founded by Albert Raby, and the combined organizations’ efforts were fostered under the aegis of the Chicago Freedom Movement.[111] During that spring,
A true revolution of values will soon look uneasily on the glaring contrast of poverty and wealth. With righteous indignation, it will look across the seas and see individual capitalists
President Lyndon Johnson with King in 1966
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. of the West investing huge sums of money in Asia, Africa and South America, only to take the profits out with no concern for the social betterment of the countries, and say: “This is not just.”[126] King also opposed the Vietnam War because it took money and resources that could have been spent on social welfare at home. The United States Congress was spending more and more on the military and less and less on anti-poverty programs at the same time. He summed up this aspect by saying, “A nation that continues year after year to spend more money on military defense than on programs of social uplift is approaching spiritual death”.[126] He stated that North Vietnam “did not begin to send in any large number of supplies or men until American forces had arrived in the tens of thousands”,[127] and accused the U.S. of having killed a million Vietnamese, “mostly children”.[128] King also criticized American opposition to North Vietnam’s land reforms.[129]
35 and economic injustice.[137] He guarded his language in public to avoid being linked to communism by his enemies, but in private he sometimes spoke of his support for democratic socialism.[138][139] In a 1952 letter to Coretta Scott, he said “I imagine you already know that I am much more socialistic in my economic theory than capitalistic ...”[140] In one speech, he stated that “something is wrong with capitalism” and claimed, “There must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism.”[141] King had read Marx while at Morehouse, but while he rejected “traditional capitalism”, he also rejected communism because of its “materialistic interpretation of history” that denied religion, its “ethical relativism”, and its “political totalitarianism”.[142]
King also stated in “Beyond Vietnam” that “true compassion is more than flinging a coin to a beggar ... it comes to see that an edifice which produces beggars needs restructuring”.[143] King quoted a United States official who said that, from Vietnam to Latin America, the country was “on the wrong side of a world [143] King condemned America’s “alliance King’s opposition cost him significant support among revolution”. with the landed gentry of Latin America”, and said that white allies, including President Johnson, Billy [130] [131] the U.S. should support “the shirtless and barefoot peoGraham, union leaders and powerful publishers. [132] ple” in the Third World rather than suppressing their at“The press is being stacked against me”, King said, [143] tempts at revolution. complaining of what he described as a double standard that applauded his nonviolence at home, but On April 15, 1967, King participated in and spoke at deplored it when applied “toward little brown Viet- an anti-war march from New York’s Central Park to namese children”.[133] Life magazine called the speech the United Nations organized by the Spring Mobilization “demagogic slander that sounded like a script for Radio Committee to End the War in Vietnam and initiated by Hanoi",[126] and The Washington Post declared that King its chairman, James Bevel. At the U.N. King also brought had “diminished his usefulness to his cause, his country, up issues of civil rights and the draft. his people”.[133][134] I have not urged a mechanical fusion of the civil rights and peace movements. There are people who have come to see the moral imperative of equality, but who cannot yet see the moral imperative of world brotherhood. I would like to see the fervor of the civil-rights movement imbued into the peace movement to instill it with greater strength. And I believe everyone has a duty to be in both the civilrights and peace movements. But for those who presently choose but one, I would hope they will finally come to see the moral roots common to both.[144] King speaking to an anti-Vietnam war rally at the University of Minnesota, St. Paul on April 27, 1967
The “Beyond Vietnam” speech reflected King’s evolving political advocacy in his later years, which paralleled the teachings of the progressive Highlander Research and Education Center, with which he was affiliated.[135][136] King began to speak of the need for fundamental changes in the political and economic life of the nation, and more frequently expressed his opposition to the war and his desire to see a redistribution of resources to correct racial
Seeing an opportunity to unite civil rights activists and anti-war activists,[122] Bevel convinced King to become even more active in the anti-war effort.[122] Despite his growing public opposition towards the Vietnam War, King was also not fond of the hippie culture which developed from the anti-war movement.[145] In his 1967 Massey Lecture, King stated: The importance of the hippies is not in their unconventional behavior, but in the fact
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CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR that hundreds of thousands of young people, in turning to a flight from reality, are expressing a profoundly discrediting view on the society they emerge from.[145]
After King’s death
The plan to set up a shantytown in Washington, D.C., was carried out soon after the April 4 assassination. Criticism of King’s plan was subdued in the wake of his death, and On January 13, 1968, the day after President Johnson’s the SCLC received an unprecedented wave of donations State of the Union Address, King called for a large march for the purpose of carrying it out. The campaign officially on Washington against “one of history’s most cruel and began in Memphis, on May 2, at the hotel where King was murdered.[155] senseless wars”.[146][147] We need to make clear in this political year, to congressmen on both sides of the aisle and to the president of the United States, that we will no longer tolerate, we will no longer vote for men who continue to see the killings of Vietnamese and Americans as the best way of advancing the goals of freedom and selfdetermination in Southeast Asia.[146][147]
2.3.8
Thousands of demonstrators arrived on the National Mall and established a camp they called “Resurrection City”. They stayed for six weeks.[156]
2.3.9 Assassination and aftermath Main article: Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. On March 29, 1968, King went to Memphis, Tennessee,
Poor People’s Campaign, 1968
Main article: Poor People’s Campaign In 1968, King and the SCLC organized the “Poor People’s Campaign” to address issues of economic justice. King traveled the country to assemble “a multiracial army of the poor” that would march on Washington to engage in nonviolent civil disobedience at the Capitol until Congress created an “economic bill of rights” for poor Americans.[148][149] The campaign was preceded by King’s final book, Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?, which laid out his view of how to address social issues and poverty. King quoted from Henry George and George’s book, Progress and Poverty, particularly in support of a guaranteed basic income.[150][151][152] The campaign culminated in a march on Washington, D.C., demanding economic aid to the poorest communities of the United States.
The Lorraine Motel, where King was assassinated, is now the site of the National Civil Rights Museum.
in support of the black sanitary public works employees, represented by AFSCME Local 1733, who had been on strike since March 12 for higher wages and better treatment. In one incident, black street repairmen received pay for two hours when they were sent home because of King and the SCLC called on the government to invest bad weather, but white employees were paid for the full [157][158][159] in rebuilding America’s cities. He felt that Congress day. had shown “hostility to the poor” by spending “military On April 3, King addressed a rally and delivered his funds with alacrity and generosity”. He contrasted this “I've Been to the Mountaintop” address at Mason Temple, with the situation faced by poor Americans, claiming the world headquarters of the Church of God in Christ. that Congress had merely provided “poverty funds with King’s flight to Memphis had been delayed by a bomb miserliness”.[149] His vision was for change that was more threat against his plane.[160] In the close of the last speech revolutionary than mere reform: he cited systematic flaws of his career, in reference to the bomb threat, King said of “racism, poverty, militarism and materialism”, and ar- the following: gued that “reconstruction of society itself is the real issue to be faced”.[153] And then I got to Memphis. And some beThe Poor People’s Campaign was controversial even within the civil rights movement. Rustin resigned from the march, stating that the goals of the campaign were too broad, that its demands were unrealizable, and that he thought that these campaigns would accelerate the backlash and repression on the poor and the black.[154]
gan to say the threats, or talk about the threats that were out. What would happen to me from some of our sick white brothers? Well, I don't know what will happen now. We've got some difficult days ahead. But it doesn't matter with me now. Because I've
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. been to the mountaintop. And I don't mind. Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity has its place. But I'm not concerned about that now. I just want to do God’s will. And He’s allowed me to go up to the mountain. And I've looked over. And I've seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land. So I'm happy, tonight. I'm not worried about anything. I'm not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.[161] King was booked in room 306 at the Lorraine Motel, owned by Walter Bailey, in Memphis. Abernathy, who was present at the assassination, testified to the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations that King and his entourage stayed at room 306 at the Lorraine Motel so often it was known as the “King-Abernathy suite”.[162] According to Jesse Jackson, who was present, King’s last words on the balcony before his assassination were spoken to musician Ben Branch, who was scheduled to perform that night at an event King was attending: “Ben, make sure you play 'Take My Hand, Precious Lord' in the meeting tonight. Play it real pretty.”[163] King was shot at 6:01 p.m., April 4, 1968, as he stood on the motel’s second-floor balcony. The bullet entered through his right cheek, smashing his jaw, then traveled down his spinal cord before lodging in his shoulder.[164][165] Abernathy heard the shot from inside the motel room and ran to the balcony to find King on the floor.[166] Jackson stated after the shooting that he cradled King’s head as King lay on the balcony, but this account was disputed by other colleagues of King; Jackson later changed his statement to say that he had “reached out” for King.[167]
37 leaders also called for nonviolent action, while the more militant Stokely Carmichael called for a more forceful response.[173] The city of Memphis quickly settled the strike on terms favorable to the sanitation workers.[174] President Lyndon B. Johnson declared April 7 a national day of mourning for the civil rights leader.[175] Vice President Hubert Humphrey attended King’s funeral on behalf of the President, as there were fears that Johnson’s presence might incite protests and perhaps violence.[176] At his widow’s request, King’s last sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church was played at the funeral,[177] a recording of his “Drum Major” sermon, given on February 4, 1968. In that sermon, King made a request that at his funeral no mention of his awards and honors be made, but that it be said that he tried to “feed the hungry”, “clothe the naked”, “be right on the [Vietnam] war question”, and “love and serve humanity”.[178] His good friend Mahalia Jackson sang his favorite hymn, “Take My Hand, Precious Lord”, at the funeral.[179] Two months after King’s death, escaped convict James Earl Ray was captured at London Heathrow Airport while trying to leave the United Kingdom on a false Canadian passport in the name of Ramon George Sneyd on his way to white-ruled Rhodesia.[180] Ray was quickly extradited to Tennessee and charged with King’s murder. He confessed to the assassination on March 10, 1969, though he recanted this confession three days later.[181] On the advice of his attorney Percy Foreman, Ray pled guilty to avoid a trial conviction and thus the possibility of receiving the death penalty. He was sentenced to a 99-year prison term.[181][182] Ray later claimed a man he met in Montreal, Quebec, with the alias “Raoul” was involved and that the assassination was the result of a conspiracy.[183][184] He spent the remainder of his life attempting, unsuccessfully, to withdraw his guilty plea and secure the trial he never had.[182]
After emergency chest surgery, King died at St. Joseph’s Hospital at 7:05 p.m.[168] According to biographer Taylor Branch, King’s autopsy revealed that though only 39 years Allegations of conspiracy old, he “had the heart of a 60 year old”, which Branch attributed to the stress of 13 years in the Civil Rights Ray’s lawyers maintained he was a scapegoat similar to Movement.[169] the way that John F. Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is seen by conspiracy theorists.[185] Supporters of this assertion say that Ray’s confession was given under Aftermath pressure and that he had been threatened with the death penalty.[182][186] They admit Ray was a thief and burglar, Further information: King assassination riots but claim he had no record of committing violent crimes with a weapon.[184] However, prison records in different The assassination led to a nationwide wave of race ri- U.S. cities have shown that he was incarcerated on nuots in Washington, D.C.; Chicago; Baltimore; Louisville; merous occasions for charges of armed robbery.[187] In a Kansas City; and dozens of other cities.[170][171] Pres- 2008 interview with CNN, Jerry Ray, the younger brother idential candidate Robert F. “Bobby” Kennedy was on of James Earl Ray, claimed that James was smart and was his way to Indianapolis for a campaign rally when he sometimes able to get away with armed robbery. Jerry was informed of King’s death. He gave a short speech Ray said that he had assisted his brother on one such robto the gathering of supporters informing them of the bery. “I never been with nobody as bold as he is,” Jerry tragedy and urging them to continue King’s ideal of said. “He just walked in and put that gun on somebody, nonviolence.[172] James Farmer, Jr., and other civil rights it was just like it’s an everyday thing.”[187]
38 Those suspecting a conspiracy in the assassination point to the two successive ballistics tests which proved that a rifle similar to Ray’s Remington Gamemaster had been the murder weapon. Those tests did not implicate Ray’s specific rifle.[182][188] Witnesses near King at the moment of his death said that the shot came from another location. They said that it came from behind thick shrubbery near the boarding house—which had been cut away in the days following the assassination—and not from the boarding house window.[189] However, Ray’s fingerprints were found on various objects (a rifle, a pair of binoculars, articles of clothing, a newspaper) that were left in the bathroom where it was determined the gunfire came from.[187] An examination of the rifle containing Ray’s fingerprints also determined that at least one shot was fired from the firearm at the time of the assassination.[187]
CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR ister, Rev. Ronald Denton Wilson, claimed his father, Henry Clay Wilson—not James Earl Ray—assassinated King. He stated, “It wasn't a racist thing; he thought Martin Luther King was connected with communism, and he wanted to get him out of the way.” Wilson provided no evidence to back up his claims.[197] King researchers David Garrow and Gerald Posner disagreed with William F. Pepper’s claims that the government killed King.[198] In 2003, Pepper published a book about the long investigation and trial, as well as his representation of James Earl Ray in his bid for a trial, laying out the evidence and criticizing other accounts.[199] King’s friend and colleague, James Bevel, also disputed the argument that Ray acted alone, stating, “There is no way a ten-cent white boy could develop a plan to kill a milliondollar black man.”[200] In 2004, Jesse Jackson stated: The fact is there were saboteurs to disrupt the march. And within our own organization, we found a very key person who was on the government payroll. So infiltration within, saboteurs from without and the press attacks. ... I will never believe that James Earl Ray had the motive, the money and the mobility to have done it himself. Our government was very involved in setting the stage for and I think the escape route for James Earl Ray.[201]
2.3.10 Legacy Martin Luther King and Coretta Scott King’s sarcophagus, located on the grounds of the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site in Atlanta, Georgia
In 1997, King’s son Dexter Scott King met with Ray, and publicly supported Ray’s efforts to obtain a new trial.[190] Two years later, Coretta Scott King, King’s widow, along with the rest of King’s family, won a wrongful death claim against Loyd Jowers and “other unknown coconspirators”. Jowers claimed to have received $100,000 to arrange King’s assassination. The jury of six whites and six blacks found in favor of the King family, finding Jowers to be complicit in a conspiracy against King and that government agencies were party to the assassination.[191][192] William F. Pepper represented the President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Among the guests behind him is Martin Luther King. King family in the trial.[193] In 2000, the U.S. Department of Justice completed the investigation into Jowers’ claims but did not find evidence to support allegations about conspiracy. The investigation report recommended no further investigation unless some new reliable facts are presented.[194] A sister of Jowers admitted that he had fabricated the story so he could make $300,000 from selling the story, and she in turn corroborated his story in order to get some money to pay her income tax.[195][196]
King’s main legacy was to secure progress on civil rights in the U.S. Just days after King’s assassination, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1968.[202] Title VIII of the Act, commonly known as the Fair Housing Act, prohibited discrimination in housing and housing-related transactions on the basis of race, religion, or national origin (later expanded to include sex, familial status, and disability). This legislation was seen as a tribute to King’s struggle in his final years to combat residential discrimiIn 2002, The New York Times reported that a church min- nation in the U.S.[202]
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.
39
Protesters at the 2012 Republican National Convention display Dr. King’s words and image on a banner
eralism and American progressivism.[207] King’s wife, Coretta Scott King, followed in her husband’s footsteps and was active in matters of social justice and civil rights until her death in 2006. The same year that Martin Luther King was assassinated, she established the King Center in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to preserving his legacy and the work of championing nonviolent conflict resolution and tolerance worldwide.[208] Their son, Dexter King, serves as the center’s chairman.[209][210] Daughter Yolanda King, who died in 2007, was a motivational speaker, author and founder of Higher Ground Productions, an organization specializing in diversity training.[211] Even within the King family, members disagree about his religious and political views about gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people. King’s widow Coretta said publicly that she believed her husband would have supported gay rights.[212] However, his youngest child, Bernice King, has said publicly that he would have been opposed to gay marriage.[213] On February 4, 1968, at the Ebenezer Baptist Church, in speaking about how he wished to be remembered after his death, King stated: Martin Luther King, Jr., statue over the west entrance of Westminster Abbey, installed in 1998
Internationally, King’s legacy includes influences on the Black Consciousness Movement and Civil Rights Movement in South Africa.[203][204] King’s work was cited by and served as an inspiration for South African leader Albert Lutuli, who fought for racial justice in his country and was later awarded the Nobel Prize.[205] The day following King’s assassination, school teacher Jane Elliott conducted her first “Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes” exercise with her class of elementary school students in Riceville, Iowa. Her purpose was to help them understand King’s death as it related to racism, something they little understood as they lived in a predominantly white community.[206] King has become a national icon in the history of American lib-
I'd like somebody to mention that day that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to give his life serving others. I'd like for somebody to say that day that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to love somebody. I want you to say that day that I tried to be right on the war question. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try to feed the hungry. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try in my life to clothe those who were naked. I want you to say on that day that I did try in my life to visit those who were in prison. And I want you to say that I tried to love and serve humanity. Yes, if you want to say that I was a drum major. Say that I was a drum major for justice. Say that I was a drum major for peace. I
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CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR was a drum major for righteousness. And all of the other shallow things will not matter. I won't have any money to leave behind. I won't have the fine and luxurious things of life to leave behind. But I just want to leave a committed life behind.[173][214]
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day Main article: Martin Luther King, Jr. Day Beginning in 1971, cities such as St. Louis, Missouri, and states established annual holidays to honor King.[215] At the White House Rose Garden on November 2, 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill creating a federal holiday to honor King. Observed for the first time on January 20, 1986, it is called Martin Luther King, Jr. Day. Following President George H. W. Bush's 1992 proclamation, the holiday is observed on the third Monday of January each year, near the time of King’s birthday.[216][217] On January 17, 2000, for the first time, Martin Luther King, Jr. Day was officially observed in all fifty U.S. states.[218] Arizona (1992), New Hampshire (1999) and Utah (2000) were the last three states to recognize the holiday. Utah previously celebrated the holiday at the same time but under the name Human Rights Day.[219] Liturgical commemorations
Religion As a Christian minister, King’s main influence was Jesus Christ and the Christian gospels, which he would almost always quote in his religious meetings, speeches at church, and in public discourses. King’s faith was strongly based in Jesus’ commandment of loving your neighbor as yourself, loving God above all, and loving your enemies, praying for them and blessing them. His nonviolent thought was also based in the injunction to turn the other cheek in the Sermon on the Mount, and Jesus’ teaching of putting the sword back into its place (Matthew 26:52).[224] In his famous Letter from Birmingham Jail, King urged action consistent with what he describes as Jesus’ “extremist” love, and also quoted numerous other Christian pacifist authors, which was very usual for him. In another sermon, he stated: Before I was a civil rights leader, I was a preacher of the Gospel. This was my first calling and it still remains my greatest commitment. You know, actually all that I do in civil rights I do because I consider it a part of my ministry. I have no other ambitions in life but to achieve excellence in the Christian ministry. I don't plan to run for any political office. I don't plan to do anything but remain a preacher. And what I'm doing in this struggle, along with many others, grows out of my feeling that the preacher must be concerned about the whole man.[225][226]
King is remembered as a martyr by the Episcopal Church In his speech "I've Been to the Mountaintop", he stated in the United States of America with an annual feast that he just wanted to do God’s will. day on the anniversary of his death, April 4.[220] The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America commemorates King liturgically on the anniversary of his birth, January Nonviolence 15.[221] UK legacy and The Martin Luther King Peace Committee In the United Kingdom, The Northumbria and Newcastle Universities Martin Luther King Peace Committee[222] exists to honour King’s legacy, as represented by his final visit to the UK to receive an honorary degree from Newcastle University in 1967.[223] The Peace Committee operates out of the chaplaincies of the city’s two universities, Northumbria and Newcastle, both of which remain centres for the study of Martin Luther King and the US Civil Rights Movement. Inspired by King’s vision, it undertakes a range of activities across the UK as it seeks to “build cultures of peace.”
2.3.11
Ideas, influences, stances
King at the 1963 Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C.
and political Veteran
African-American civil rights activist Bayard Rustin was King’s first regular advisor on nonviolence.[227] King was also advised by the white
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. activists Harris Wofford and Glenn Smiley.[228] Rustin and Smiley came from the Christian pacifist tradition, and Wofford and Rustin both studied Gandhi’s teachings. Rustin had applied nonviolence with the Journey of Reconciliation campaign in the 1940s,[229] and Wofford had been promoting Gandhism to Southern blacks since the early 1950s.[228] King had initially known little about Gandhi and rarely used the term “nonviolence” during his early years of activism in the early 1950s. King initially believed in and practiced self-defense, even obtaining guns in his household as a means of defense against possible attackers. The pacifists guided King by showing him the alternative of nonviolent resistance, arguing that this would be a better means to accomplish his goals of civil rights than self-defense. King then vowed to no longer personally use arms.[230][231] In the aftermath of the boycott, King wrote Stride Toward Freedom, which included the chapter Pilgrimage to Nonviolence. King outlined his understanding of nonviolence, which seeks to win an opponent to friendship, rather than to humiliate or defeat him. The chapter draws from an address by Wofford, with Rustin and Stanley Levison also providing guidance and ghostwriting.[232] Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's success with nonviolent activism, King had “for a long time ... wanted to take a trip to India”.[233] With assistance from Harris Wofford, the American Friends Service Committee, and other supporters, he was able to fund the journey in April 1959.[234][235] The trip to India affected King, deepening his understanding of nonviolent resistance and his commitment to America’s struggle for civil rights. In a radio address made during his final evening in India, King reflected, “Since being in India, I am more convinced than ever before that the method of nonviolent resistance is the most potent weapon available to oppressed people in their struggle for justice and human dignity”.
41 Tolstoy, and King, Gandhi and Tolstoy had been strongly influenced by Jesus' Sermon on the Mount. King quoted Tolstoy’s War and Peace in 1959.[241] Another influence for King’s nonviolent method was Henry David Thoreau's essay On Civil Disobedience, which King read in his student days. He was influenced by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system.[242] He also was greatly influenced by the works of Protestant theologians Reinhold Niebuhr and Paul Tillich,[243] as well as Walter Rauschenbusch’s Christianity and the Social Crisis. King also sometimes used the concept of "agape" (brotherly Christian love).[244] However, after 1960, he ceased employing it in his writings.[245] Even after renouncing his personal use of guns, King had a complex relationship with the phenomenon of selfdefense in the movement. He publicly discouraged it as a widespread practice, but acknowledged that it was sometimes necessary.[246] Throughout his career King was frequently protected by other civil rights activists who carried arms, such as Colonel Stone Johnson,[247] Robert Hayling, and the Deacons for Defense and Justice.[248][249] Politics
As the leader of the SCLC, King maintained a policy of not publicly endorsing a U.S. political party or candidate: “I feel someone must remain in the position of nonalignment, so that he can look objectively at both parties and be the conscience of both—not the servant or master of either.”[250] In a 1958 interview, he expressed his view that neither party was perfect, saying, “I don't think the Republican party is a party full of the almighty God nor is the Democratic party. They both have weaknesses ... And I'm not inextricably bound to either party.”[251] King did praise Democratic Senator Paul Douglas of Illinois as Bayard Rustin’s open homosexuality, support of being the “greatest of all senators” because of his fierce democratic socialism, and his former ties to the advocacy for civil rights causes over the years.[252] Communist Party USA caused many white and AfricanKing critiqued both parties’ performance on promoting American leaders to demand King distance himself from racial equality: [236] [237] Rustin, which King agreed to do. However, King agreed that Rustin should be one of the main organizers Actually, the Negro has been betrayed by of the 1963 March on Washington.[238] both the Republican and the Democratic party. King’s admiration of Gandhi’s nonviolence did not diThe Democrats have betrayed him by capituminish in later years. He went so far as to hold up his lating to the whims and caprices of the Southexample when receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, ern Dixiecrats. The Republicans have betrayed hailing the “successful precedent” of using nonviolence him by capitulating to the blatant hypocrisy of “in a magnificent way by Mohandas K. Gandhi to chalreactionary right wing northern Republicans. lenge the might of the British Empire ... He struggled And this coalition of southern Dixiecrats and only with the weapons of truth, soul force, non-injury and right wing reactionary northern Republicans courage.”[239] defeats every bill and every move towards liberal legislation in the area of civil rights.[253] Gandhi seemed to have influenced him with certain moral principles,[240] though Gandhi himself had been influAlthough King never publicly supported a political party enced by The Kingdom of God Is Within You, a nonvior candidate for president, in a letter to a civil rights olent classic written by Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy. supporter in October 1956 he said that he was undeIn turn, both Gandhi and Martin Luther King had read cided as to whether he would vote for Adlai Stevenson
42 or Dwight Eisenhower, but that “In the past I always voted the Democratic ticket.”[254] In his autobiography, King says that in 1960 he privately voted for Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy: “I felt that Kennedy would make the best president. I never came out with an endorsement. My father did, but I never made one.” King adds that he likely would have made an exception to his non-endorsement policy for a second Kennedy term, saying “Had President Kennedy lived, I would probably have endorsed him in 1964.”[255] In 1964, King urged his supporters “and all people of goodwill” to vote against Republican Senator Barry Goldwater for president, saying that his election “would be a tragedy, and certainly suicidal almost, for the nation and the world.”[256] King supported the ideals of democratic socialism, although he was reluctant to speak directly of this support due to the anti-communist sentiment being projected throughout America at the time, and the association of socialism with communism. King believed that capitalism could not adequately provide the basic necessities of many American people, particularly the African American community.[257] Compensation King stated that black Americans, as well as other disadvantaged Americans, should be compensated for historical wrongs. In an interview conducted for Playboy in 1965, he said that granting black Americans only equality could not realistically close the economic gap between them and whites. King said that he did not seek a full restitution of wages lost to slavery, which he believed impossible, but proposed a government compensatory program of $50 billion over ten years to all disadvantaged groups.[258] He posited that “the money spent would be more than amply justified by the benefits that would accrue to the nation through a spectacular decline in school dropouts, family breakups, crime rates, illegitimacy, swollen relief rolls, rioting and other social evils”.[259] He presented this idea as an application of the common law regarding settlement of unpaid labor, but clarified that he felt that the money should not be spent exclusively on blacks. He stated, “It should benefit the disadvantaged of all races”.[260]
CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR afraid they would be stupefied at our conduct. They would observe that for death planning we spend billions to create engines and strategies for war. They would also observe that we spend millions to prevent death by disease and other causes. Finally they would observe that we spend paltry sums for population planning, even though its spontaneous growth is an urgent threat to life on our planet. Our visitors from outer space could be forgiven if they reported home that our planet is inhabited by a race of insane men whose future is bleak and uncertain. There is no human circumstance more tragic than the persisting existence of a harmful condition for which a remedy is readily available. Family planning, to relate population to world resources, is possible, practical and necessary. Unlike plagues of the dark ages or contemporary diseases we do not yet understand, the modern plague of overpopulation is soluble by means we have discovered and with resources we possess. What is lacking is not sufficient knowledge of the solution but universal consciousness of the gravity of the problem and education of the billions who are its victims...[261][262]
2.3.12 FBI and King’s personal life FBI surveillance and wiretapping FBI director J. Edgar Hoover personally ordered surveillance of King, with the intent to undermine his power as a civil rights leader.[131][263] According to the Church Committee, a 1975 investigation by the U.S. Congress, “From December 1963 until his death in 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. was the target of an intensive campaign by the Federal Bureau of Investigation to 'neutralize' him as an effective civil rights leader.”[264]
The Bureau received authorization to proceed with wiretapping from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy in the fall of 1963[265] and informed President John F. Kennedy, both of whom unsuccessfully tried to persuade King to dissociate himself from Stanley Levison, a New York lawyer who had been involved with Communist Party The lack of attention given to family planning USA.[266][267] Although Robert Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King’s phones On being awarded the Planned Parenthood Federation of “on a trial basis, for a month or so”,[268] Hoover exAmerica's Margaret Sanger Award on 5th May, 1966, tended the clearance so his men were “unshackled” to King said: look for evidence in any areas of King’s life they deemed worthy.[269] The Bureau placed wiretaps on Levison’s and Recently, the press has been filled with reKing’s home and office phones, and bugged King’s rooms ports of sightings of flying saucers. While we in hotels as he traveled across the country.[266][270] In need not give credence to these stories, they al1967, Hoover listed the SCLC as a black nationalist hate low our imagination to speculate on how visgroup, with the instructions: “No opportunity should be itors from outer space would judge us. I am missed to exploit through counterintelligence techniques
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.
43
the organizational and personal conflicts of the leader- to before World War I. King said that “the Negro revoships of the groups ... to insure the targeted group is dis- lution is a genuine revolution, born from the same womb rupted, ridiculed, or discredited.”[263][271] that produces all massive social upheavals—the womb of intolerable conditions and unendurable situations.”[281] NSA monitoring of King’s communications In a secret operation code-named "Minaret", the National Security Agency (NSA) monitored the communications of leading Americans, including King, who criticized the U.S. war in Vietnam.[272] A review by the NSA itself concluded that Minaret was “disreputable if not outright illegal.”[272]
Adultery
Allegations of communism For years, Hoover had been suspicious about potential influence of communists in social movements such as labor unions and civil rights.[273] Hoover directed the FBI to track King in 1957, and the SCLC as it was established (it did not have a full-time executive director until 1960).[52] The investigations were largely superficial until 1962, when the FBI learned that one of King’s most trusted advisers was New York City lawyer Stanley Levison.[274] The FBI feared Levison was working as an “agent of influence” over King, in spite of its own reports in 1963 that Levison had left the Party and was no longer associated in business dealings with them.[275] Another King lieutenant, Hunter Pitts O'Dell, was also linked to the Communist Party by sworn testimony before the House UnAmerican Activities Committee (HUAC).[276] However, by 1976 the FBI had acknowledged that it had not obtained any evidence that King himself or the SCLC were actually involved with any communist organizations.[264]
Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X, March 26, 1964
Having concluded that King was dangerous due to communist infiltration, the FBI shifted to attempting to discredit King through revelations regarding his private life. FBI surveillance of King, some of it since made public, that he also engaged in numerFor his part, King adamantly denied having any connec- attempted to demonstrate[270] ous extramarital affairs. Lyndon Johnson once said tions to communism, stating in a 1965 Playboy interthat King was a “hypocritical preacher”.[282] view that “there are as many Communists in this freedom movement as there are Eskimos in Florida”.[277] He ar- Ralph Abernathy stated in his 1989 autobiography And gued that Hoover was “following the path of appeasement the Walls Came Tumbling Down that King had a “weakof political powers in the South” and that his concern for ness for women”, although they “all understood and becommunist infiltration of the Civil Rights Movement was lieved in the biblical prohibition against sex outside of meant to “aid and abet the salacious claims of southern marriage. It was just that he had a particularly diffiracists and the extreme right-wing elements”.[264] Hoover cult time with that temptation”.[283] In a later interview, did not believe King’s pledge of innocence and replied Abernathy said that he only wrote the term “womanizby saying that King was “the most notorious liar in the ing”, that he did not specifically say King had extramarital country”.[278] After King gave his “I Have A Dream” sex and that the infidelities King had were emotional speech during the March on Washington on August 28, rather than sexual.[284] Abernathy criticized the media 1963, the FBI described King as “the most dangerous and for sensationalizing the statements he wrote about King’s effective Negro leader in the country”.[270] It alleged that affairs,[284] such as the allegation that he admitted in his he was “knowingly, willingly and regularly cooperating book that King had a sexual affair the night before he was with and taking guidance from communists”.[279] assassinated.[284] In his original wording, Abernathy had The attempt to prove that King was a communist was re- claimed he saw King coming out of his room with a lady lated to the feeling of many segregationists that blacks in when he awoke the next morning and later claimed that the South were happy with their lot but had been stirred “he may have been in there discussing and debating and get her to go along with the movement, I don't up by “communists” and “outside agitators”.[280] How- trying to [284] know.” ever, the 1950s and '60s Civil Rights Movement arose from activism within the black community dating back In his 1986 book Bearing the Cross, David Garrow wrote
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about a number of extramarital affairs, including one woman King saw almost daily. According to Garrow, “that relationship ... increasingly became the emotional centerpiece of King’s life, but it did not eliminate the incidental couplings ... of King’s travels.” He alleged that King explained his extramarital affairs as “a form of anxiety reduction”. Garrow asserted that King’s supposed promiscuity caused him “painful and at times overwhelming guilt”.[285] King’s wife Coretta appeared to have accepted his affairs with equanimity, saying once that “all that other business just doesn't have a place in the very high level relationship we enjoyed.”[286] Shortly after Bearing the Cross was released, civil rights author Howell Raines gave the book a positive review but opined that Garrow’s allegations about King’s sex life were “sensational” and stated that Garrow was “amassing facts rather than analyzing them”.[287]
cific reason, it has definite practical significant [sic]). You are done. There is but one way out for you. You better take it before your filthy fraudulent self is bared to the nation.[291] A tape recording of several of King’s extramarital liaisons, excerpted from FBI wiretaps, accompanied the letter.[292] King interpreted this package as an attempt to drive him to suicide,[293] although William Sullivan, head of the Domestic Intelligence Division at the time, argued that it may have only been intended to “convince Dr. King to resign from the SCLC”.[264] King refused to give in to the FBI’s threats.[270]
Judge John Lewis Smith, Jr., in 1977 ordered all known copies of the recorded audiotapes and written transcripts resulting from the FBI’s electronic surveillance of King between 1963 and 1968 to be held in the National The FBI distributed reports regarding such affairs to the Archives and sealed from public access until 2027.[294] executive branch, friendly reporters, potential coalition partners and funding sources of the SCLC, and King’s family.[288] The Bureau also sent anonymous letters to Police observation during the assassination King threatening to reveal information if he did not cease his civil rights work.[289] One such letter sent to King just Across from the Lorraine Motel, next to the boarding house in which James Earl Ray was staying, was a fire stabefore he received the Nobel Peace Prize read, in part: tion. Police officers were stationed in the fire station to keep King under surveillance.[295] Agents were watching King at the time he was shot.[296] Immediately following the shooting, officers rushed out of the station to the motel. Marrell McCollough, an undercover police officer, was the first person to administer first aid to King.[297] The antagonism between King and the FBI, the lack of an all points bulletin to find the killer, and the police presence nearby led to speculation that the FBI was involved in the assassination.[298]
2.3.13 Awards and recognition
The so-called “suicide letter”,[290] mailed anonymously by the FBI
The American public, the church organizations that have been helping—Protestants, Catholics and Jews will know you for what you are—an evil beast. So will others who have backed you. You are done. King, there is only one thing left for you to do. You know what it is. You have just 34 days in which to do (this exact number has been selected for a spe-
King was awarded at least fifty honorary degrees from colleges and universities.[299] On October 14, 1964, King became the youngest recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, which was awarded to him for leading nonviolent resistance to racial prejudice in the U.S.[300] In 1965, he was awarded the American Liberties Medallion by the American Jewish Committee for his “exceptional advancement of the principles of human liberty”.[299][301] In his acceptance remarks, King said, “Freedom is one thing. You have it all or you are not free.”[302] In 1957, he was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP.[303] Two years later, he won the AnisfieldWolf Book Award for his book Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story.[304] In 1966, the Planned Parenthood Federation of America awarded King the Margaret Sanger Award for “his courageous resistance to bigotry and his lifelong dedication to the advancement of social justice and human dignity”.[305] Also in 1966, King was elected as a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[306] In November 1967 he made a 24 hour
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.
45
Martin Luther King, Jr., showing his medallion received from Mayor Wagner
trip to the United Kingdom to receive an honorary degree from Newcastle University, being the first African American to be so honoured by Newcastle.[307] In a moving impromptu acceptance speech,[308] he said There are three urgent and indeed great problems that we face not only in the United States of America but all over the world today. That is the problem of racism, the problem of poverty and the problem of war. Statue of King in Birmingham’s Kelly Ingram Park
In 1971 he was posthumously awarded a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for his Why I Oppose the War in Vietnam.[309] King was second in Gallup’s List of Most Widely Ad[312] In 1963, he was In 1977, the Presidential Medal of Freedom was posthu- mired People of the 20th Century. named Time Person of the Year, and in 2000, he was mously awarded to King by President Jimmy Carter. The voted sixth in an online “Person of the Century” poll by citation read: the same magazine.[313] King placed third in the Greatest American contest conducted by the Discovery Channel Martin Luther King, Jr., was the conand AOL.[314] science of his generation. He gazed upon the great wall of segregation and saw that the power of love could bring it down. From the pain and exhaustion of his fight to fulfill the promises of our founding fathers for our humblest citizens, he wrung his eloquent statement of his dream for America. He made our nation stronger because he made it better. His dream sustains us yet.[310] King and his wife were also awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 2004.[311]
Memorials and eponymous places and buildings There are numerous memorials to King in the United States, including: • More than 730 cities in the United States have streets named after King.[315] • King County, Washington, rededicated its name in his honor in 1986, and changed its logo to an image
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Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial in Yerba Buena Gardens
• The beginning words of King’s “I Have a Dream” speech are etched on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, at the place where King stood during that speech.[320] These words from the speech—"five short lines of text carved into the granite on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial”—were etched in 2003, on the 40th anniversary of the march to Washington, by stone carver Andy Del Gallo, after a law was passed by Congress providing authorization for the inscription.[320] Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, where King ministered, was renamed Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church in 1978.
• In 1996, Congress authorized the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, of which King is still a member, to establish a foundation to manage fund raising and design of a national Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.[321] King was the first African American and the fourth nonpresident honored with his own memorial in the National Mall area.[322] The memorial opened in August 2011[323] and is administered by the National Park Service.[324] The address of the monument, 1964 Independence Avenue, S.W., commemorates the year that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 became law.[325] • The Landmark for Peace Memorial in Indianapolis, Indiana[318]
Martin Luther King Jr. Street at Liberty Bell Park in Jerusalem, Israel
• The Homage to King sculpture in Atlanta, Georgia[318] • The Dream sculpture in Portland, Oregon
of his face in 2007.[316] • The city government center in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, is named in honor of King.[317] • In 1980, the U.S. Department of the Interior designated King’s boyhood home in Atlanta and several nearby buildings the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site.[318] • A bust of Dr. King was added to the “gallery of notables” in the United States Capitol in 1986, portraying him in a “restful, nonspeaking pose.”[319]
• The National Civil Rights Museum, at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, where King died[318] • Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church in Selma, Alabama[318] • On October 11, 2015, the Atlanta JournalConstitution reported a proposed “Freedom Bell” may be installed atop Stone Mountain honoring King and his I Have A Dream speech, specifically the line “Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia.”[326]
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.
47
Numerous other memorials honor him around the world, including:
• “All Labor Has Dignity” (2011) ed. Michael Honey ISBN 978-0-8070-8600-1
• The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. Church in Debrecen, Hungary[318]
• “Thou, Dear God": Prayers That Open Hearts and Spirits Collection of Dr. King’s prayers. (2011), ed. Dr. Lewis Baldwin ISBN 978-0-8070-8603-2
• The King-Luthuli Transformation Johannesburg, South Africa[318]
Center
in
• The Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. Forest in Israel's Southern Galilee region (along with the Coretta Scott King Forest in Biriya Forest, Israel)[318] • The Martin Luther King, Jr. Ghana[318]
School in Accra,
• The Gandhi-King Plaza (garden), at the India International Center in New Delhi, India
• MLK: A Celebration in Word and Image Photographed by Bob Adelman, introduced by Charles Johnson ISBN 978-0-8070-0316-9
2.3.16 See also • Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues • Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.
• The Meeting • In Norfolk, Virginia stands a memorial in honor of King. The 83-foot-high granite obelisk was conConcepts ceived by former Norfolk Councilman and General District Court Judge Joseph A. Jordan Jr.[327][328] • Equality before the law
2.3.14
Five Dollar Bill
• Violence begets violence
On April 20, 2016 Treasury Secretary Jacob Lew an- General nounced that the $5, $10, and $20 would all undergo re• List of civil rights leaders design prior to 2020. Lew said that while Lincoln would remain on the obverse of the $5 bill, the reverse would • List of peace activists be redesigned to depict various historical events that had occurred at the Lincoln Memorial. Among the planned designs are images from King’s "I Have a Dream" speech After Martin Luther King and the 1939 concert by opera singer Marian Ander• Post–Civil Rights era in African-American history son.[329]
2.3.15
Works
• Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (1958) ISBN 978-0-06-250490-6 • The Measure of a Man (1959) ISBN 978-0-80060877-4
2.3.17 References Notes [1] Though commonly attributed to King, this expression originated with 19th-century abolitionist Theodore Parker.[107]
• Strength to Love (1963) ISBN 978-0-8006-9740-2 • Why We Can't Wait (1964) ISBN 978-0-8070-01127 • Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? (1967) ISBN 978-0-8070-0571-2 • The Trumpet of Conscience (1968) ISBN 978-08070-0170-7 • A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1986) ISBN 978-0-06-250931-4 • The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1998), ed. Clayborne Carson ISBN 978-0-44667650-2
Citations [1] Ogletree, Charles J. (2004). All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education. W W Norton & Co. p. 138. ISBN 0-393-058972. [2] “Upbringing & Studies”. The King Center. Archived from the original on January 9, 2013. Retrieved September 2, 2012. [3] Mohn, Tanya (January 12, 2012). “Martin Luther King Jr.: The German Connection and How He Got His Name”. Forbes.com. Retrieved January 16, 2012. [4] “Martin Luther King Jr. name change”. way.com. Retrieved July 9, 2013.
German-
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[5] “King, James Albert”. [6] Nsenga, Burton. “AfricanAncestry.com Reveals Roots of MLK and Marcus Garvey”. [7] King 1992, p. 76. [8] Katznelson, Ira (2005). When Affirmative Action was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America. WW Norton & Co. p. 5. ISBN 0-393-05213-3. [9] Millender, Dharathula H. (1986). Martin Luther King Jr.: Young Man with a Dream. Aladdin. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-0-02-042010-1. [10] Frady, Marshall (2005). Martin Luther King, Jr: A Life. pp. 12–15. ISBN 978-0-14-303648-7. [11] Pierce, Alan (2004). Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Abdo Pub Co. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-59197-727-8. [12] Blake, John. “How MLK became an angry black man”. [13] Carson, Clayborn. “Martin Luther King Jr.”. [14] “An Autobiography of Religious Development”. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute. Stanford University. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
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[27] Civil Rights History from the Ground Up: Local Struggles, a National Movement. University of Georgia Press. p. 410. [28] Fuller, Linda K. (2004). National Days, National Ways: Historical, Political, And Religious Celebrations around the World. Greenwood Publishing. p. 314. ISBN 0-27597270-4. [29] Radin, Charles A. (October 11, 1991). “Panel Confirms Plagiarism by King at BU”. The Boston Globe. p. 1. [30] “Martin Luther King”. Snopes. Retrieved March 14, 2011. [31] “Boston U. Panel Finds Plagiarism by Dr. King”. The New York Times. October 11, 1991. Archived from the original on November 13, 2013. Retrieved November 13, 2013. [32] “King’s Ph.D. dissertation, with attached note” (PDF). Retrieved November 7, 2014. [33] Manheimer, Ann S. (2004). Martin Luther King Jr.: Dreaming of Equality. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 103. ISBN 1-57505-627-5.
[15] King 1998, p. 6.
[34] “December 1, 1955: Rosa Parks arrested”. CNN. March 11, 2003. Retrieved June 8, 2008.
[16] Fleming, Alice (2008). Martin Luther King Jr.: A Dream of Hope. Sterling. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-4027-4439-6.
[35] Walsh, Frank (2003). The Montgomery Bus Boycott. Gareth Stevens. p. 24. ISBN 0-8368-5403-9.
[17] King, Martin Luther (1992). The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr, Volume 1. University of California Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-520-07950-2.
[36] McMahon, Thomas F. (2004). Ethical Leadership Through Transforming Justice. University Press of America. p. 25. ISBN 0-7618-2908-3.
[18] Ching, Jacqueline (2002). The Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Rosen Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 0-82393543-4.
[37] Fisk, Larry J.; Schellenberg, John (1999). Patterns of Conflict, Paths to Peace. Broadview Press. p. 115. ISBN 1-55111-154-3.
[19] Frady, p. 18.
[38] King 1992, p. 9.
[20] Downing, Frederick L. (1986). To See the Promised Land: The Faith Pilgrimage of Martin Luther King, Jr. Mercer University Press. p. 150. ISBN 0-86554-207-4.
[39] Jackson 2006, p. 53.
[21] Nojeim, Michael J. (2004). Gandhi and King: The Power of Nonviolent Resistance. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 179. ISBN 0-275-96574-0.
[41] Miller, Steven P. (2009). Billy Graham and the Rise of the Republican South. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-8122-4151-8. Retrieved April 8, 2015.
[22] Farris, Christine King (2009). Through It All: Reflections on My Life, My Family, and My Faith. Atria Books. pp. 44–47. ISBN 978-1-4165-4881-2. [23] Frady, pp. 20–22. [24] L. Lewis, David (2013). King: A Biography. University of Illinois Press. p. 27.
[40] Frady 2002, p. 52.
[42] Marable, Manning; Mullings, Leith (2000). Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal: an African American Anthology. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 391–2. ISBN 0-8476-8346-X. [43] “Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom”. Civil Rights Digital Library. Retrieved October 25, 2013.
[25] “Coretta Scott King”. The Daily Telegraph. February 1, 2006. Archived from the original on January 9, 2013. Retrieved September 8, 2008.
[44] “Program from the SCLC’s Tenth Annual Convention”. The King Center. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
[26] Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. InterVarsity Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-8308-2658-0.
[45] Pearson, Hugh (2002). When Harlem Nearly Killed King: The 1958 Stabbing of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Seven Stories Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-58322-614-8.
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.
[46] Graham, Renee (February 4, 2002). "'King' is a Deft Exploration of the Civil Rights Leader’s Stabbing”. The Boston Globe. – via HighBeam Research (subscription required) . Retrieved January 20, 2013.
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[62] King, Martin Luther (1990). A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. Harper Collins. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-06-064691-2. [63] King Center:Billy Graham Accessed September 15, 2014
[47] “Today in History, September 20”. – via HighBeam Research (subscription required) . Associated Press. September 19, 2012. Retrieved January 20, 2013.
[64] Glisson 2006, pp. 190–93.
[48] “Measure of a Man, The (1959)". Martin Luther King Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle. Stanford University. Archived from the original on January 24, 2013. Retrieved January 24, 2013.
[66] Frady 2002, p. 96.
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[255] King Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne (1998). The Autobiography of Martin Luther King Jr. Hachette Digital. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-446-52412-4. [256] “Mr. Conservative: Barry Goldwater’s Opposition to the Civil Rights Act of 1964”. September 18, 2006. Retrieved May 17, 2015.
[257] Hendricks Jr., Obery M. “The Uncompromising AntiCapitalism of Martin Luther King Jr.”. [241] King Jr., Martin Luther; Clayborne Carson; et al. (2005). The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., Volume V: Thresh- [258] Washington 1991. old of a New Decade, January 1959 – December 1960. University of California Press. pp. 149, 269, 248. ISBN [259] Washington 1991, pp. 365–67. 0-520-24239-4. [260] Washington 1991, pp. 367–68. [242] King, M. L. Morehouse College (Chapter 2 of The Auto[261] “Quotes”. worldpopulationbalance.org. Retrieved 9 July biography of Martin Luther King Jr.) 2014. [243] Reinhold Niebuhr and Contemporary Politics: God and [262] “Family Planning - A Special and Urgent Concern”. Power Planned Parenthood. Retrieved 9 July 2014. [244] “Agape”. Martin Luther King Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle. The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Edu- [263] Honey, Michael K. (2007). “Standing at the Crossroads”. Going down Jericho Road the Memphis strike, Martin cation Institute. Retrieved January 19, 2015. Luther King’s last campaign (1 ed.). Norton. ISBN 978[245] Wang, Lisa. “Martin Luther King Jr.'s Troubled Attitude 0-393-04339-6. Hoover developed a round-the-clock toward Nonviolent Resistance” (PDF). Exposé. Harvard surveillance campaign aimed at destroying King. College Writing Program. Retrieved January 19, 2015. [264] Church, Frank (April 23, 1976), “Church Committee [246] “Nonviolence: The Only Road to Freedom - Teaching Book III”, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study American History”. teachingamericanhistory.org. (Church Committee)
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.
55
[265] Garrow, David J. (July–August 2002). “The FBI and Mar- [286] tin Luther King”. The Atlantic Monthly. [287] [266] Ryskind, Allan H. (February 27, 2006). “JFK and RFK Were Right to Wiretap MLK”. Human Events. Retrieved [288] August 27, 2008.
Frady 2002, p. 67. Raines, Howell (November 30, 1986). “Driven to Martyrdom”. The New York Times. Retrieved July 12, 2013. Burnett, Thom (2005). Conspiracy Encyclopedia. Collins & Brown. p. 58. ISBN 1-84340-287-4.
[267] Kotz 2005. [268] Herst 2007, p. 372. [269] Herst 2007, pp. 372–74. [270] Christensen, Jen (April 7, 2008). “FBI tracked King’s every move”. CNN. Retrieved June 14, 2008.
[289] Thragens, William C. (1988). Popular Images of American Presidents. Greenwood Publishing. p. 532. ISBN 0-313-22899-X. [290] Gage, Beverly (November 11, 2014). “What an Uncensored Letter to M.L.K. Reveals”. The New York Times. Retrieved January 9, 2015.
[271] Glick, Brian (1989). War at Home: Covert Action Against U.S. Activists and What We Can Do About It. South End [291] Kotz 2005, p. 247. Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-89608-349-3. [292] Frady 2002, pp. 158–159. [272] The Guardian, September 26, 2013, “Declassified NSA [293] Wilson, Sondra K. (1999). In Search of Democracy: The Files Show Agency Spied on Muhammad Ali and MLK NAACP Writings of James Weldon Johnson, Walter White, Operation Minaret Set Up in 1960s to Monitor Antiand Roy Wilkins (1920–1977). Oxford University Press. Vietnam Critics, Branded 'Disreputable If Not Outright p. 466. ISBN 0-19-511633-X. Illegal' by NSA Itself,” The Guardian [294] Phillips, Geraldine N. (Summer 1997). “Documenting [273] Downing, Frederick L. (1986). To See the Promised Land: the Struggle for Racial Equality in the Decade of the SixThe Faith Pilgrimage of Martin Luther King, Jr. Mercer ties”. Prologue (The National Archives and Records AdUniversity Press. pp. 246–7. ISBN 0-86554-207-4. ministration). Retrieved June 15, 2008. [274] Kotz 2005, p. 233. [295] Polk, Jim (December 29, 2008). “Black In America - Behind the Scenes: 'Eyewitness to Murder: The King Assas[275] Kotz 2005, pp. 70–74. sination'". CNN. Retrieved 14 April 2016. [276] Woods, Jeff (2004). Black Struggle, Red Scare: Segregation and Anti-communism in the South, 1948–1968. LSU [296] McKnight, Gerald (1998). The Last Crusade: Martin Luther King, Jr., the FBI, and the Poor People’s Crusade. Press. p. 126. ISBN 0-8071-2926-7. See also: Wannall, Westview Press. p. 76. ISBN 0-8133-3384-9. Ray (2000). The Real J. Edgar Hoover: For the Record. Turner Publishing. p. 87. ISBN 1-56311-553-0. [297] Martin Luther King Jr.: The FBI Files. Filiquarian Pub[277] Washington 1991, p. 362. lishing. 2007. pp. 40–2. ISBN 1-59986-253-0. See also: Polk, James (April 7, 2008). “King conspiracy theories [278] Bruns, Roger (2006). Martin Luther King Jr.: A Biograstill thrive 40 years later”. CNN. Retrieved June 16, 2008. phy. Greenwood Publishing. p. 67. ISBN 0-313-33686and “King’s FBI file Part 1 of 2” (PDF). FBI. Retrieved 5. January 16, 2012. and “King’s FBI file Part 2 of 2” (PDF). FBI. Retrieved January 16, 2012. [279] Kotz 2005, p. 83. [280] Gilbert, Alan (1990). Democratic Individuality: A Theory [298] Knight, Peter (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 408–9. ISBN of Moral Progress. Cambridge University Press. p. 435. 1-57607-812-4. ISBN 0-521-38709-4. [299] Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. InterVarsity Sidey, Hugh (February 10, 1975). “L.B.J., Hoover and Press. p. 79. ISBN 0-8308-2658-0. Domestic Spying”. Time. Archived from the original on [300] Wintle, Justin (2001). Makers of Modern Culture: Makers September 21, 2011. Retrieved June 14, 2008. of Culture. Routledge. p. 272. ISBN 0-415-26583-5. Abernathy, Ralph (1989). And the walls came tumbling down: an autobiography. Harper & Row. p. 471. ISBN [301] Engel, Irving M. “Commemorating Martin Luther King Jr.: Presentation of American Liberties Medallion”. 978-0-06-016192-7. American Jewish Committee. Retrieved June 13, 2008. Abernathy, Ralph David (October 29, 1989). “And the Walls Came Tumbling Down”. Booknotes. Archived [302] King, Jr., Martin Luther. “Commemorating Martin Luther King Jr.: Response to Award of American Liberfrom the original on December 11, 2007. Retrieved June ties Medallion”. American Jewish Committee. Retrieved 14, 2008. June 13, 2008. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. William Morrow & Co. [303] “Spingarn Medal Winners: 1915 to Today”. NAACP. Retrieved January 16, 2013. 1986. pp. 375–6.
[281] Washington 1991, p. 363. [282]
[283]
[284]
[285]
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[304] “Martin Luther King Jr.”. Anisfield-Wolf Book Awards. [320] Ramanathan, Levanya, “Pieces of Black History”, WashRetrieved October 2, 2011. ington Post, January 27, 2012. Retrieved January 27, 2012. [305] “The Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. upon accepting The Planned Parenthood Federation Of America Mar- [321] “Washington, DC Martin Luther King Jr. National garet Sanger Award”. PPFA. Archived from the original Memorial Project Foundation Breaks Ground On Hison February 24, 2008. Retrieved August 27, 2008. toric $100 Million Memorial On The National Mall In [306] “SCLC Press Release”. SCLC via the King Center. May 16, 1966. Archived from the original on January 9, 2013. Retrieved August 31, 2012.
Washington, D.C.”. Washington, DC Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. November 6, 2006. Archived from the original on June 16, 2012. Retrieved August 27, 2008.
[307] Ward, Brian. “A King in Newcastle; Martin Luther King Jr. And British Race Relations, 1967–1968.” The Georgia [322] Tobias, Randall L. (January 18, 2007). “Celebrating the Birthday of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.”. U.S. DepartHistorical Quarterly 79, no. 3 (1995): 599-632. ment of State. Archived from the original on November [308] “Martin Luther King Honorary Ceremony - Congrega15, 2007. Retrieved January 16, 2012. tions - Newcastle University”. ncl.ac.uk. [323] Tavernise, Sabrina (August 23, 2011). “A Dream Ful[309] Gates, Henry Louis; Appiah, Anthony (1999). Africana: filled, Martin Luther King Memorial Opens”. New York The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Times. Archived from the original on January 4, 2013. Experience. Basic Civitas Books. p. 1348. ISBN 0-46500071-1. [324] “Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial”. National Park Service. Archived from the original on January 4, 2013. Re[310] Carter, Jimmy (July 11, 1977). “Presidential Medal of trieved January 4, 2013. Freedom Remarks on Presenting the Medal to Dr. Jonas E. Salk and to Martin Luther King, Jr.”. The American Presidency Project. Archived from the original on January [325] Guevara, Brittni (July 26, 2011). “FYIDC: Paying Tribute To Dr. King”. Washington Life. Retrieved January 20, 4, 2013. Retrieved January 4, 2013. 2013. [311] “Congressional Gold Medal Recipients (1776 to Present)". Office of the Clerk: U.S. House of Represen- [326] “A monument to MLK will crown Stone Mountain - Potatives. Retrieved June 16, 2008. litical Insider blog”. [312] Gallup, George; Gallup, Jr., Alec (2000). The Gallup Poll: [327] “Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial”. Downtown Norfolk. Public Opinion 1999. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 249. Retrieved February 20, 2016. ISBN 0-8420-2699-1. [313] Harpaz, Beth J. (December 27, 1999). “Time Names Ein- [328] Parker, Stacy (February 1, 2012). “Memorial’s story reflects King’s vision”. The Virginian Pilot. stein as Person of the Century”. – via HighBeam Research (subscription required) . Associated Press. Retrieved Jan[329] http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2016/04/ uary 20, 2013. 20/report-lew-considered-anthony-10-bill/83274530/ [314] “Reagan voted 'greatest American'". BBC. June 28, 2005. Retrieved August 27, 2008. [315] Alderman, Derek H. (February 13, 2006). “Naming Streets for Martin Luther King, Jr.: No Easy Road” (PDF). Landscape and Race in the United States. Routledge Press. Retrieved July 4, 2011. [316] “King County Was Rededicated For MLK”. The Seattle Times. January 18, 1998. Retrieved June 13, 2008. See also: “New logo is an image of civil rights leader”. King County. Retrieved June 13, 2008. [317] “Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Essay Competition Winners Announced”. City of Harrisburg. January 19, 2003. Archived from the original on December 7, 2007. Retrieved August 27, 2008. [318] Wax, Emily (2011-08-23). “Martin Luther King Jr. sites across the globe”. The Washington Post. Lifestyle: Full Coverage: The Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial. Retrieved October 20, 2011. [319] Trescott, Jacqueline (2011-08-23). “Across D.C., statues honor African Americans”. The Washington Post. Retrieved January 19, 2012.
Sources • Abernathy, Ralph (1989). And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: An Autobiography. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-016192-2. • Branch, Taylor (2006). At Canaan’s Edge: America In the King Years, 1965–1968. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85712-X. • Cohen, Adam Seth; Taylor, Elizabeth (2000). Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley: His Battle for Chicago and the Nation. Back Bay. ISBN 0-31683489-0. • Frady, Marshall (2002). Martin Luther King Jr.: A Life. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303648-7. • Garrow, David J. (1981). The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14006486-9.
2.3. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. • Garrow, David. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1989). Pulitzer Prize. ISBN 978-0-06056692-0 • “James L. Bevel, The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement”, a 1984 paper by Randall Kryn, published with a 1988 addendum by Kryn in Prof. David Garrow's We Shall Overcome, Volume II (Carlson Publishing Company, 1989). • Glisson, Susan M. (2006). The Human Tradition in the Civil Rights Movement. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-4409-5. • Herst, Burton (2007). Bobby and J. Edger. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1982-6. • Jackson, Thomas F. (2006). From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3969-0. • King Jr., Martin Luther (1998). Carson, Clayborne, ed. Autobiography. Warner Books. p. 6. ISBN 0-446-52412-3.
57 • Branch, Taylor (1998). Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–1965. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80819-6. • King, Coretta Scott (1993) [1969]. My Life with Martin Luther King, Jr. Henry Holth & Co. ISBN 0-8050-2445-X. • King Jr., Martin Luther (2015). Cornel West, ed. The Radical King. Beacon Press. ISBN 0-80701282-3. • Kirk, John A., ed. Martin Luther King Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement: Controversies and Debates (2007). pp. 224 • Schulke, Flip; McPhee, Penelope. King Remembered, Foreword by Jesse Jackson (1986). ISBN 978-1-4039-9654-1 • Waldschmidt-Nelson, Britta. Dreams and Nightmares: Martin Luther King Jr. Malcolm X, and the Struggle for Black Equality. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2012. ISBN 0-8130-37239.
• King Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne; Hollo- 2.3.18 External links ran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A. (1992). The papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. University of General California Press. ISBN 0-520-07950-7. • Martin Luther King, Jr. at DMOZ • Kotz, Nick (2005). Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines • The King Center Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws that Changed America. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN • “Martin Luther King, Jr. Collection”, Morehouse 0-618-08825-3. College, RWWL • Lawson, Steven F.; Payne, Charles M.; Patterson, James T. (2006). Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 1945–1968. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 07425-5109-1. • Robbins, Mary Susannah (2007). Against the Vietnam War: Writings by Activists. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5914-9. • Washington, James M. (1991). A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06064691-8. Further reading • Ayton, Mel (2005). A Racial Crime: James Earl Ray And The Murder Of Martin Luther King Jr. Archebooks Publishing. ISBN 1-59507-075-3. • Branch, Taylor (1988). Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-46097-8.
• The Martin Luther King, Jr. Papers Project • FBI file on Martin Luther King, Jr. • FBI letter sent MLK to convince him to kill himself Vox, 2015. • Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Nobel Peace Prize, Civil Rights Digital Library • Works by Martin Luther King, Jr. at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about Martin Luther King, Jr. Internet Archive
at
• Westminster Abbey: Martin Luther King, Jr. • Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. at Buffalo, digital collection of Dr. King’s visit and speech in Buffalo, New York on November 9, 1967, from the University at Buffalo Libraries • King and Parks at Highlander Folk School. The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks.
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Speeches and interviews
the Zulu Christians inhabiting the mission reserve area now covered by the Umzinyathi District Municipality. [2] • Audio from April 1961 King, “The Church on the Lutuli attended the Adams College south of Durban. Frontier of Racial Tensions”, speech at Southern Seminary • “Martin Luther King, Jr. Historic Speeches and Interviews” • • • • •
2.4.2 Teaching
On completing a teaching course at Edendale, near Pietermaritzburg, Lutuli accepted the post of principal The New Negro, King interviewed by J. Waites and only teacher at a primary school in rural BlaauwWaring bosch, Newcastle, Natal. Here Lutuli was confirmed in the Methodist Church and became a lay preacher. In “Interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark”, PBS 1920 he received a government bursary to attend a higher “Beyond Vietnam” speech text and audio teachers’ training course at Adams College, and subsequently joined the training college staff, teaching alongKing Institute Encyclopedia multimedia side Z. K. Mathews, who was then head of the Adams “Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam”, ser- College High School. To provide financial support for his mon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, mother, he declined a scholarship to University of Fort Hare. 1967 (audio of speech with video 23:31)
In 1928 he became secretary of the African Teacher’s As• “Walk to Freedom”, Detroit, June 23, 1963. Walsociation and in 1933 its president. He was also active in ter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs. missionary work. Wayne State University. • Chiastic outline of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s “I Have 2.4.3 a Dream” speech • Digitized images of Jim Curtis photograph collection on Civil Rights in Kentucky, 1964. March on Frankfort led by Martin Luther King, Jr. and Jackie Robinson. Housed at the University of Kentucky Special Collections Research Center
2.4 Albert Lutuli Inkosi Albert John Lutuli (commonly spelled Luthuli;[lower-alpha 1] c. 1898 – 21 July 1967), also known by his Zulu name Mvumbi, was a South African teacher, activist, Nobel Peace Prize winner, and politician. Luthuli was elected president of the African National Congress (ANC), at the time an umbrella organisation that led opposition to the white minority government in South Africa. He was awarded the 1960 Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the non-violent struggle against apartheid. He was the first African, and the first person from outside Europe and the Americas, to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
2.4.1
Early life
The third son of Seventh-day Adventist missionary John Bunyan Lutuli and Mtonya Gumede, Albert Lutuli was born near Bulawayo in what was then called Rhodesia, around 1898. His father died, and he and his mother returned to her ancestral home of Groutville in KwaDukuza (Stanger), Natal, South Africa. He stayed with his uncle, Martin Lutuli, who was at that time the elected chief of
Tribal chief
In 1933 the tribal elders asked Lutuli to become chief of the tribe. For two years he hesitated, but accepted the call in early 1936 and became a chieftain. He held this position until he was removed from his office by the Apartheid government in 1953. Their having done so notwithstanding, amongst his people he retained the use of the dignity “chief” as a pre-nominal style for the remainder of his life.
2.4.4 Anti-Apartheid activist In 1936 the government disenfranchised the only black Africans who had voting rights at that time — those in Cape Province. In 1948 the Nationalist Party, which was in control of the government, adopted the policy of apartheid (apartness) and over the next decade the Pass Laws were tightened. In 1944 Lutuli joined the African National Congress (ANC). In 1945 he was elected to the Committee of the KwaZulu Provincial Division of ANC and in 1951 to the presidency of the Division. The next year he joined with other ANC leaders in organizing nonviolent campaigns to defy discriminatory laws. The government, charging Lutuli with a conflict of interest, demanded that he withdraw his membership in ANC or forfeit his office as tribal chief. Refusing to do either, he was dismissed from his chieftainship. A month later Lutuli was elected president-general of ANC, formally nominated by the future Pan Africanist Congress leader Potlako Leballo. Responding immedi-
2.4. ALBERT LUTULI
59
ately, the government imposed two two-year bans on Lutuli’s movement. When the second ban expired in 1956, he attended an ANC conference only to be arrested and charged with treason a few months later, along with 155 others. In December 1957, after nearly a year in custody during the preliminary hearings, Lutuli was released and the charges against him and sixty-four of his compatriots were dropped.
terist” wings. Africanist critics claim Lutuli was peripherialized in Natal and the Transvaal ANC Provincial branch and its Communist Party (CPSA officially dissolved 1950 but secretly reconstituted 1953 as SACP) allies took advantage of this situation. Lutuli did not see the Freedom Charter before it was adopted by acclaim at Kliptown in 1955. After reading the document and realising the ANC, despite its numerical superiority, had been subordinated to one vote in a five-member multiraHe stood close to the International Fellowship of Reconciliation that in 1957 opened a branch in Southern cial and trade union “Congress Alliance”, Lutuli rejected the Charter but then later accepted it partly to counter the Rhodesia.[3] more radical Africanist wing whom he likened to black nazis. In 1959 the Africanists split from the ANC over the issue of the Freedom Charter and Oliver Tambo's 2.4.5 Bans 1958 rewriting of the ANC Constitution, founding the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). The PAC posed a serious challenge to the ANC until its military wing was destroyed at Itumbi camp, Chunya, Tanzania in March 1980.
2.4.7 Umkhonto we Sizwe In December 1961, without Lutuli’s sanction, Nelson Mandela of the Provincial ANC publicly launched Umkhonto we Sizwe at the All In Conference, where delegates from several movements had convened to discuss cooperation. Mandela’s charisma and the global publicity surrounding his trial and imprisonment upstaged Lutuli, who grew increasingly despondent in isolation. (In Mandela’s autobiography, he claims that Lutuli was consulted and consented before the formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe.) In 1962 he was elected Rector of the University of Glasgow by the students, serving until 1965. Since he was banned from travelling to Glasgow the Luthuli ScholarAnother five-year ban confined him to a 15-mile (24 km) ship Fund was set up by the Student Representative Counradius of his home. The ban was temporarily lifted while cil to enable a black South African student to study at he testified at the continuing treason trials. It was lifted Glasgow University. again in March 1960, to permit his arrest for publicly In 1962 he published an autobiography entitled Let My burning his pass following the Sharpeville massacre. In People Go. the ensuing state of emergency he was arrested, found guilty, fined, given a suspended jail sentence, and finally A fourth ban, to run for five years confining Lutuli to the returned to Groutville. One final time the ban was lifted, immediate vicinity of his home, was issued in May 1964, this time for ten days in early December 1961, to permit to run concurrently with the third ban. Lutuli and his wife to attend the Nobel Peace Prize cere- In 1966, he was visited by United States Senator Robert F. monies in Oslo, an award described by Die Transvaler as Kennedy, who was visiting South Africa at the time. The “an inexplicable pathological phenomenon”. two discussed the ANC’s struggle. Senator Kennedy’s Albert Lutuli during his Oslo visit in 1961.
2.4.6
ANC
visit to the country, and his meeting with Lutuli in particular, caused an increase of world awareness of the plight of black South Africans.
Lutuli’s leadership of the ANC covered the period of vio- In July 1967, at the age of 69, Lutuli was fatally injured lent disputes between the party’s “Africanist” and “Char- in an accident near his home in Stanger.
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CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR • Pillay, Gerald J (1993). Voices of Liberation: Albert Lutuli. HSRC Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7969-13562. • Wilburn, Kenneth (2014). “Albert Lutuli”. In Frank N. Magill. The 20th Century Go-N: Dictionary of World Biography. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317-74060-5. • Brittain, Vera (1964). The rebel passion: a short history of some pioneer peacemakers. London: Allen & Unwin.
2.4.13 External links • ANC’s Lutuli Page • Nobel Committee information on Lutuli
Statue of Albert Lutuli at Nobel Square at the V&A Waterfront in Cape Town.
2.5 Mairead Maguire
Mairead Maguire (born 27 January 1944), also known as Mairead Corrigan Maguire and formerly as 2.4.8 Veneration Mairéad Corrigan, is a peace activist from Northern Ireland. She co-founded, with Betty Williams and Ciaran Lutuli is honoured with a feast day on the liturgical cal- McKeown, the Women for Peace, which later became the endar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on 21 July. Community for Peace People, an organisation dedicated to encouraging a peaceful resolution of the Troubles in Northern Ireland.[7] Maguire and Williams were awarded 2.4.9 See also the 1976 Nobel Peace Prize.[8] Maguire has also won several other awards. • Black Nobel Prize laureates In recent years, she has criticised the Israeli government’s • International Fellowship of Reconciliation policy towards Gaza, in particular to the naval blockade. In June 2010, Maguire went on board the MV Rachel Corrie as part of a flotilla that unsuccessfully attempted 2.4.10 Footnotes to breach the blockade. [1] Note about names: Lutuli’s surname is very often spelled Luthuli, as it is in his autobiography, which was prepared for publication by non-vernacular-speaking friends. But Lutuli himself preferred another spelling and signed his name without an h.[1]
2.4.11
Notes
[1] South African History Online, biography of Chief Albert John Luthuli [2] Adams College, Historic Schools Restoration Project, accessed 30 August 2014 [3] Brittain 1964, p. 197.
2.4.12
References
• Benson, Mary (1963). Chief Albert Lutuli of South Africa. Oxford University Press.
2.5.1 Early life (1944–1976) Maguire was born into a Roman Catholic community in Belfast, Northern Ireland, the second of eight children – five sisters and two brothers. Her parents were Andrew and Margaret Corrigan.[9][10] She attended St. Vincent’s Primary School, a private Catholic school, until the age of 14, at which time her family could no longer pay for her schooling. After working for a time as a babysitter at a Catholic community center, she was able to save enough money to enroll in a year of business classes at Miss Gordon’s Commercial College, which led her at the age of 16 to a job as an accounting clerk with a local factory. She volunteered regularly with the Legion of Mary, spending her evenings and weekends working with children and visiting inmates at Long Kesh prison. When she was 21 she began working as a secretary for the Guinness brewery, where she remained employed until December 1976.[11][12][13][14]
2.5. MAIREAD MAGUIRE
61
Maguire told The Progressive in 2013 that her early Yousafzai`s peace prize in 2014.[27] Catholic heroes included Dorothy Day and the Berrigan brothers.[15]
2.5.3 After the Nobel Prize (1980–present) 2.5.2
Betty Williams resigned from the Peace People Northern Ireland peace movement Though [28] in 1980, Maguire has continued her involvement in the (1976–1980) organization to this day and has served as the group’s hon-
Maguire became active with the Northern Ireland peace movement after three children of her sister, Anne Maguire, were run over and killed by a car driven by Danny Lennon, a Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) fugitive who had been fatally shot by British troops while trying to make a getaway. Danny Lennon had been released from prison in April 1976 after serving three years for suspected involvement in the PIRA.[16] On 10 August, Lennon and comrade John Chillingworth were transporting an Armalite rifle through Andersonstown, Belfast, when British troops, claiming to have seen a rifle pointed at them,[17] opened fire on the vehicle, instantly killing Lennon and critically wounding Chillingworth. The car Lennon drove went out of control and mounted a pavement on Finaghy Road North, colliding with Anne Maguire and three of her children who were out shopping.[18] Joanne (8) and Andrew (6 weeks) died at the scene; John Maguire (2) succumbed to his injuries at a hospital the following day.[19]
orary president.[26] It has since taken on a more global agenda, addressing an array of social and political issues from around the world.
Jackie and Mairead Maguire
In January 1980, after a prolonged battle with depression over the loss of her children in the 1976 Finaghy Road incident, Mairead Maguire’s sister Anne finally committed suicide by slashing her wrists and throat.[29][30][31] A year and a half later, in September 1981, Mairead married Jackie Maguire, who was her late sister’s widower.[32] She has three stepchildren and two children of her own, John Francis (b. 1982) and Luke (b. 1984).[9]
Betty Williams, a resident of Andersonstown who happened to be driving by, witnessed the tragedy and accused the IRA of firing at the British patrol and provoking the incident.[20] In the days that followed she began gathering signatures for a peace petition from Protestants and Catholics and was able to assemble some 200 women to march for peace in Belfast. The march passed near the home of Mairead Maguire (then Mairead Corrigan) who In 1981 Maguire co-founded the Committee on the Adjoined it. She and Williams thus became “the joint lead- ministration of Justice, a nonsectarian organisation dediers of a virtually spontaneous mass movement.”[21] cated to defending human rights.[9][33] The next march, to the burial sites of the three Maguire She is a member of the pro-life group Consistent Life children, brought 10,000 Protestant and Catholic women Ethic, which is against abortion, capital punishment and together. The marchers, including Maguire and euthanasia.[34] Williams, were physically attacked by PIRA members. By the end of the month Maguire and Williams had Maguire has been involved in a number of campaigns on brought 35,000 people onto the streets of Belfast pe- behalf of political prisoners around the world. In 1993 titioning for peace between the republican and loyalist she and six other Nobel Peace Prize laureates tried unsucfactions.[22] Initially adopting the name “Women for cessfully to enter Myanmar from Thailand to protest the detention of opposition leader Aung San Suu Peace,” the movement changed its name to the gender- protracted [35] She was a first signatory on a 2008 petition calling Kyi. neutral “Community of Peace People,” or simply “Peace on Turkey to end its torture of Kurdish leader Abdullah People,” when Irish Press correspondent Ciaran McKe[36] Öcalan. In October 2010, she signed a petition call[23] own joined. In contrast with the prevailing climate at ing on China to release Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu [24] the time, Maguire was convinced that the most effecXiaobo from house arrest.[37] tive way to end the violence was not through violence but through re-education.[25] The organization published a bi- Maguire was selected in 2003 to serve on the honorary weekly paper, Peace by Peace, and provided for families board of the International Coalition for the Decade, a of prisoners a bus service to and from Belfast’s jails.[26] coalition of national and international groups, presided In 1977, she and Betty Williams received the 1976 Nobel over by Christian Renoux, whose aim was to promote Peace Prize for their efforts.[8] Aged 32 at the time, she the United Nations’ 1998 vision of the first decade of the was the youngest Nobel Peace Prize laureate until Malala twenty-first century as the International Decade for the
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Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for questioned as to what my background is.”[15] the Children of the World.[38][39] In 2006, Maguire was one of the founders of the Nobel Women’s Initiative along with fellow Peace Prize laureates Betty Williams, Shirin Ebadi, Wangari Maathai, Jody Williams, and Rigoberta Menchú Tum. The Initiative describes itself as six women representing North and South America, Europe, the Middle East, and Africa who decided to bring together their “extraordinary experiences in a united effort for peace with justice and equality” and “to help strengthen work being done in support of women’s rights around the world.”[40]
Iraq and Afghanistan Mairead Maguire voiced strong opposition to the U.N. sanctions against Iraq, which is alleged by some to have resulted in hundreds of thousands of civilian deaths,[43] calling them “unjust and inhuman,” “a new kind of bomb,” and “even more cruel than weapons.”[44] During a visit to Baghdad with Argentinian colleague Adolfo Pérez Esquivel in March 1999, Maguire urged then-U.S. President Bill Clinton and British Prime Minister Tony Blair to end the bombing of Iraq and to permit the lifting of U.N. sanction. “I have seen children dying with their mothers next to them and not being able to do anything,” Maguire said. “They are not soldiers.”[45][46]
Maguire supported the Occupy movement and has described WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange as “very courageous.” She has also praised Chelsea Manning. “I think they’ve been tremendously courageous in telling the truth,” she has said, adding that “the American government and NATO have destroyed Iraq and Afghanistan. In the aftermath of al-Qaeda's attacks on the U.S. in Their next targets will be Syria and Iran.”[15] September 2001, as it became clear that the U.S. would Together with Desmond Tutu and Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, retaliate and deploy troops in Afghanistan, Maguire camMaguire published a letter in support of Chelsea Man- paigned against the impending war. In India she claimed ning, saying:"The words attributed to Manning reveal that to have marched with “hundreds of thousands of Indian [47] he went through a profound moral struggle between the people walking for peace.” In New York, Maguire was time he enlisted and when he became a whistleblower. reported to have marched with 10,000 protesters, purThrough his experience in Iraq, he became disturbed by portedly including families of 9/11 victims, as U.S. war top-level policy that undervalued human life and caused planes were already en route to strike Taliban targets in [48] the suffering of innocent civilians and soldiers. Like Afghanistan. other courageous whistleblowers, he was driven foremost In the period leading up to the March 2003 invasion of by a desire to reveal the truth.”[41] Iraq, Mairead Maguire campaigned vigorously against the Maguire has also earned a degree from the Irish School of Ecumenics. She works with various interchurch and interfaith organizations and is a councilor with the International Peace Council. She is also a Patron of the Methodist Theological College, and of the Northern Ireland Council for Integrated Education.[42]
United States Mairead Maguire is an outspoken critic of U.S. and British policy in the Middle East, particularly in Iraq and Afghanistan. She has also been personally critical of U.S. President Barack Obama’s leadership. Her activism in the U.S. has occasionally brought her into confrontations with the law. After initially accepting an invitation to a 2012 Nobel summit in Chicago, she changed her mind because the event was hosted by the U.S. State Department, “and to me the Nobel Peace laureates should not be hosted by a State Department that is continuing with war, removing basic civil liberties and human rights and international law and then talking about peace to young people. That’s a double standard” Maguire said in a 2013 interview that ever since her fortyday fast and arrest outside the White House in 2003 (see below), “whenever I now come into America, I’m always
anticipated hostilities. Speaking at the 23rd War Resisters’ International Conference in Dublin, Ireland in August 2002, Maguire called on the Irish government to oppose the Iraq War “in every European and world forum of which they are a part.”[49][50] On 17 March 2003, St. Patrick’s Day, Maguire protested the war outside the United Nations Headquarters with, among other activists, Frida Berrigan. On 19 March, Maguire addressed an audience of 300 people in a chapel at Le Moyne College in Syracuse, N.Y. “Armies with all their advanced weapons of mass destruction are facing the Iraqi people who have nothing,” she told the crowd. “In anybody’s language, it’s not fair.”[51] Around this time, Maguire held a 30-day vigil and began a 40-day liquid fast outside the White House, joined by members of Pax Christi USA and Christian church leaders. As the war got under way in the days that followed, Maguire described the invasion as an “ongoing and shameful slaughter.” “Daily we sit, facing Mecca in solidarity with our Muslim brothers and sisters in Iraq, and we ask Allah for forgiveness,” she said in a statement to the press on 31 March.[52][53][54] Maguire would later remark that the media in the U.S. distorted news from Iraq and that the Iraq War was carried out in pursuit of American “economic and military interests.”[55] In February 2006 she expressed her belief that George W. Bush and Tony Blair “should be made accountable for illegally taking the world to war and for war crimes against humanity.”[56]
2.5. MAIREAD MAGUIRE Criticism of President Barack Obama Maguire expressed disappointment with the selection of U.S. President Barack Obama as winner of the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize. “They say this is for his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and co-operation between peoples,” she said, “and yet he continues the policy of militarism and occupation of Afghanistan, instead of dialogue and negotiations with all the parties to the conflict. [...] Giving this award to the leader of the most militarised country in the world, which has taken the human family against its will to war, will rightly be seen by many people around the world as a reward for his country’s aggression and domination.”[57] After declining to meet with the Dalai Lama during his visit to the U.S. in 2008, citing conflicting travel schedules,[58] Obama declined to meet with the exiled Tibetan spiritual leader again in 2009. Maguire condemned what she considered Obama’s deliberate refusal to meet with the Dalai Lama, calling it “horrifying.”[59]
63 Israel A 2013 profile of Maguire in The Progressive noted that “she hasn’t lost her passion yet” and that “it is the Israeli occupation of Palestine that has occupied much of her attention in recent years.”[15] Mairead Maguire first visited Israel at age 40 in 1984. She came then as part of an interfaith initiative seeking forgiveness from Jews for years of persecution by Christians in Jesus’ name. Her second visit was in June 2000, this time in response to invitations from Rabbis for Human Rights and the Israeli Committee Against House Demolitions. The two groups had taken upon themselves to defend Ahmed Shamasneh in an Israeli military court against charges of illegally constructing his home in the West Bank town of Qatanna, and Maguire traveled to Israel to observe the court proceedings and support the Shamasneh family.[65][66]
In a 2013 interview, she omitted any mention of her 1984 trip to Israel, saying that “I first went to Israel/Palestine at the invitation of Rabbis for Human Rights and the Israeli Committee against House Demolitions” and “was absolutely horrified” at Palestinians’ living conditions. It was after that visit that she “started going on a regular basis,” because she was “very hopeful that there is a solution to the Israeli/Palestinian injustice. In Northern Ireland, people said there would never be a solution. But once people begin to have the political will and force their governments to sit down, it can happen.”[15] Maguire has at times been fiercely critical of the State of Israel, even calling for its membership in the United Nations to be revoked or suspended.[67] She has accused the Israeli government of “carrying out a policy of ethnic cleansing against Palestinians...in east Jerusalem”[68] and supports boycott and divestment initiatives against Israel.[69][70] Concomitantly, Maguire has also said that [71][72] and that “to live in Israel for JewConfrontations with the law Mairead Maguire was she loves Israel ish people, is to live in fear of suicide bombs and Kassam twice arrested in the United States. On 17 March 2003, [73] rockets.” she was arrested outside the United Nations headquarters in New York City during a protest against the Iraq War. Later that month, on 27 March, she was one of 65 anti-war protesters briefly taken into custody by po- Mordechai Vanunu advocacy Mairead Maguire has lice after penetrating a security barricade near the White been a vocal supporter of Mordechai Vanunu, a former House.[61][62] Israeli nuclear technician who revealed details of Israel’s In May 2009, following a visit to Guatemala, Maguire was nuclear defence program to the British press in 1986 and [74] detained by immigration authorities at the Houston Air- subsequently served 18 years in prison for treason. to Israel in April 2004 to greet Vanunu upon port in Texas detained Maguire for a number of hours, Maguire flew [75] his release and has since flown to meet with him in Isduring which time she was questioned, fingerprinted and rael on several occasions. photographed, and consequently missed her connecting Speaking at the Carl von Ossietzky Medal Award Ceremony in Berlin in December 2010, Maguire imputed criminal accountability to President Obama for violation of international law. “When President Obama says he wants to see a world without nuclear weapons and says, in respect of Iran and their alleged nuclear weapons ambitions, that 'all option [sic] are on the table,' this is clearly a threat to use nuclear weapons, clearly a criminal threat against Iran, under the world court advisory opinion. The Nuremberg Charter of August 8, 1945 says the threat or use of nuclear weapons is criminal, so officials in all nine nuclear weapons states who maintain and use nuclear deterrence as a threat are committing crimes and breaking international law.”[60]
flight to Northern Ireland. “They insisted I must tick the box in the Immigration form admitting to criminal activities,” she explained.[63] In late July that same year, Maguire was again detained by immigration authorities, this time at the Dulles International Airport in Virginia, on her way from Ireland to New Mexico to meet with colleague Jody Williams. As in May, the delay resulted in Maguire missing her connecting flight.[64]
Maguire has described as “draconian” the terms of Vanunu’s parole – including a special order prohibiting contact with foreign journalists and a refusal to allow him to leave Israel – and said he “remains a virtual prisoner.”[76] In an open letter addressed to the Israeli people in July 2010, after Vanunu was returned to prison for violating the terms of his parole, Maguire urged Jews in Israel to petition their government for Vanunu’s release and free-
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dom. She praised Vanunu as “a man of peace,” “a great are responsible for each other, and we are interconnected visionary,” “a true Gandhian spirit,” and compared his in a mysteriously spiritual and beautiful way.”[82] actions to those of Alfred Nobel.[77] Maguire declared in a December 2011 interview that “Hamas is an elected party and should be recognized as References to the Holocaust At a joint press confer- such by all. It has the democratic vote and should be recence with Mordechai Vanunu in Jerusalem in December ognized.” She pointed out that on her 2008 Gaza trip she [83] 2004, Maguire compared Israel’s nuclear weapons to the had been invited to speak “to the Hamas parliament.” Nazi gas chambers in Auschwitz. “When I think about On 20 April 2007, Maguire participated in a protest nuclear weapons, I've been to Auschwitz concentration against the construction of Israel’s separation barrier outcamp.” She added, “Nuclear weapons are only gas cham- side the Palestinian village of Bil'in. The protest was held bers perfected ... and for a people who already know what in a no-access military zone. Israeli forces used tear-gas gas chambers are, how can you even think of building per- grenades and rubber-coated bullets in an effort to disfect gas chambers.”[78] perse the protesters, while the protesters hurled rocks at In January 2006, close to Holocaust Memorial Day, the Israeli troops, injuring two Border Guard policemen. Maguire asked that Mordechai Vanunu be remembered One rubber bullet hit Maguire in the leg, whereupon she together with the Jews that perished in the Holocaust. was transferred to an Israeli hospital for treatment. She “As we, with sorrow and sadness, remember the Holo- was also reported to have inhaled large quantities of tear [84][85][86] caust Victims, we remember too those individuals of con- gas. science who refused to be silenced in the face of danger In October 2008, Maguire arrived in Gaza aboard the SS and paid with their freedom and lives in defending their Dignity. Although Israel had insisted that the yacht would Jewish brothers and sisters, and we remember our brother not be permitted to approach Gaza, then-Prime MinisMordechai Vanunu – the lonely Israeli prisoner in his own ter Ehud Olmert ultimately capitulated and allowed the country, who refused to be silent.”[79] ship to sail to its destination without incident.[87] During In a speech delivered in February 2006 to the Nuclear Age her stay in Gaza, Maguire met with Hamas leader Ismail Peace Foundation in Santa Barbara, California, Maguire Haniyeh. She was photographed accepting an honorary again made a comparison between nuclear weapons and golden plate depicting the Palestinian flag draped over all [88][89] the Nazis. “Last April some of us protested at Dimona of Israel and the occupied territories. Nuclear Plant, in Israel, calling for it to be open to UN In March 2009 Mairead Maguire joined a campaign Inspection, and bombs to be destroyed. Israeli Jets flew for the immediate and unconditional removal of Hamas overhead, and a train passed into the Dimona nuclear site. from the European Union list of proscribed terrorist This brought back to me vivid memories of my visit to organisations.[90] Auschwitz concentration camp, with its rail tracks, trains, destruction and death.”[80] Maguire firmly denied comparing Israel to Nazi Germany in an interview with Tal Schneider of Lady Globes in November 2010. “I have for years been speaking out against nuclear weapons. I am actively opposed to nuclear weapons in Britain, in the United States, in Israel, in any country, because nuclear weapons are the ultimate destruction of humankind. But I have never said that Israel is like Nazi Germany, and I don't know why I am quoted like that in Israel. I also never compared Gaza to an extermination camp. I visited the death camps in Austria, with Nobel Prize laureate Elie Wiesel, and I think it is terrible that people did not try to stop the genocide of the Jewish people.”[81] Palestinian activism Maguire said in a 2007 speech that Israel’s separation wall “is a monument to fear and failed politics” and that “for many Palestinians daily living is so hard, it is indeed an act of resistance.” She praised the “inspirational work of the International Solidarity Movement” and paid tribute to the memory of “Rachel Corrie, who gave her life protesting the demolition of Palestinian homes by Israeli military,” saying that “it is the Rachels of this world who reminds us that we
Huwaida Arraf and Maguire, 2009
On 30 June 2009, Maguire was taken into custody by the Israeli military along with twenty others, including former U.S. Congresswoman Cynthia McKinney. She was on board a small ferry, the MV Spirit of Humanity (formerly the Arion), said to be carrying humanitarian aid to the Gaza Strip,[91] when Israel intercepted the vessel off the coast of Gaza. From an Israeli prison, she gave a lengthy interview with Democracy Now! via cell phone,[92] and was deported on 7 July 2009 to Dublin.[93]
2.5. MAIREAD MAGUIRE on 2 July 2009. In the interview, she rejected Israeli authorities’ claim that aid can pass freely into Gaza, charging that “Gaza is like a huge prison...a huge occupied territory of one-and-a-half million people who have been subjected to collective punishment by the Israeli government.” She further said that “the tragedy is that the American government, the UN and Europe, they remain silent in the face of the abuse of Palestinian human rights, like freedom, and it’s really tragic.” In addition, she claimed that when her boat was approached by Israeli naval vessels in international waters, “we were in grave danger of actually being killed at that point....really we were in a very, very dangerous position. So we were literally hijacked, taken at gunpoint by the Israeli military.”[94] In May–June 2010, Maguire was a passenger on board the MV Rachel Corrie, one of seven vessels that were part of the Gaza Freedom Flotilla, a flotilla of pro-Palestinian activists that attempted to bust the Israeli-Egyptian blockade of the Gaza Strip. In an interview with BBC Radio Ulster while still at sea, Maguire called the blockade an “inhumane, illegal siege.”[95] Having been delayed due to mechanical problems, the Rachel Corrie did not actually sail with the flotilla and only approached the Gazan coast several days after the main flotilla did. In contrast with the violence that characterised the arrival of the first six ships, Israel’s takeover of the Rachel Corrie was met only with passive resistance. Israeli naval forces were even lowered a ladder by the passengers to assist their ascent onto the deck.[96] After the incident, Maguire said she did not feel her life was in danger as the ship’s captain, Derek Graham, had been in touch with the Israeli navy to assure them that there would be no violent resistance.[97]
65 of the judges scolded her saying, “This is no place for propaganda.” Mairead Corrigan-Maguire was deported on a flight to the UK the following morning, 5 October 2010.[101] As preparations for a second Gaza flotilla got underway in the summer of 2011, with the Irish MV Saoirse expected to take part, Maguire expressed her support for the campaign and called on Israel to grant the flotilla passengers safe passage to Gaza.[102] In March 2014, Maguire tried to arrive to Gaza through Egypt, as a part of activist delegation which also included the American anti-war activist Medea Benjamin. The members of the delegation were arrested in Cairo, questioned and deported.[103] Comparison of Palestinians and Israelis
Maguire has more than once suggested that Palestinians are more interested in peace than Israelis are. She said in a 2011 interview that when she and some colleagues left Gaza in 2008, “we were very hopeful because there is a passionate desire among the Palestinian people for peace,” but “then Operation Cast Lead started the following week. That was horrific. It was devastating.” Israel, she said, had killed Palestinian farmers and fishermen who were just “trying to fish for their families,” thus proving “that the Israeli government does not want peace.”[104] In a 2013 interview, she repeated the same point, saying that in Gaza in 2008, she had been told by Hamas and Fatah leaders “that they want dialogue and peace,” yet a week later “Israel bombed Gaza, commitOn 28 September 2010, Maguire landed in Israel as part ting war crimes,” showing “that there[15]is no political will of a delegation of the Nobel Women’s Initiative. She was for peace in the Israeli government.” refused an entry visa by Israeli authorities on the grounds that she had twice in the past tried to run Israel’s naval Russell Tribunal embargo of the Gaza Strip and that a 10-year exclusion order was in effect against her.[98][99] She fought her de- In October 2012, Maguire traveled to New York City to portation with the help of Adalah an NGHO devoted to serve on the Russell Tribunal on Israel/Palestine alongthe rights of Palestinians in Israel. Fatmeh El-Ajou, an at- side writer Alice Walker, activist Angela Davis, former torney for Adalah noted, “We believe that the decision to Congresswoman Cynthia McKinney, and Pink Floyd’s refuse entry to Ms. Maguire is based on illegitimate, irrel- Roger Waters.[15] During her participation in the Rusevant, and arbitrary political considerations.”[100] Her le- sell Tribunal, Maguire, according to one report, “asked gal team filed a petition against the order with the Central the question that seems to be taboo in the U.S.: Why District Court on Maguire’s behalf, but the court ruled does President Barack Obama allow Israel to threaten pronounced that the deportation order was valid. Maguire Iran with war when Iran has signed the NPT and Israel then appealed to Israel’s Supreme Court. Initially, the has at least 200 nuclear weapons? Why does the presiCourt proposed that Maguire be allowed to remain in the dent not demand that Israel sign the NPT?"[105] country for a few days on bail despite the deportation order; however, the state rejected the proposal, arguing that After her work on the Russell Tribunal was completed Maguire had known prior to her arrival she was barred Maguire said that the experience had “opened the mind, from entering Israel and that her conduct amounted to and deepened the understanding of all those present to taking the law into her own hands. A three-judge panel the facts of the ongoing injustice which the Palestiniaccepted the state’s position and upheld the ruling of the ans are daily suffering under Israeli siege and occupation. Central District Court. At one point during the hear- The RToP’s findings and conclusions challenge Governing, Maguire reportedly spoke up, saying that Israel must ments and civil society to have courage and act by implestop “its apartheid policy and the siege on Gaza.” One menting sanctions, BDS etc., thereby refusing to be silent and complicit in the face of Israel ’s violation of Inter-
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national Laws. The RToP was brilliant, informative and decisive, reminding us that all our Governments, and we the people, have a moral and legal responsibility to act to protect Human Rights and International Law and we cannot be silent when injustice is being done to anyone, anywhere.”[106]
2.5.4
Personal philosophy and vision
Mairead Maguire is a proponent of the belief that violence is a disease that humans develop but are not born with. She believes humankind is moving away from a mindset of violence and war and evolving to a higher consciousness of nonviolence and love. Among the figures she considers spiritual prophets in this regard are Jesus, Francis of Assisi, Gandhi, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Fr. John L. McKenzie, and Martin Luther King, Jr.[108][109][110][111]
Island awarded her an honorary degree in 2000.[118] She was presented with the Science and Peace Gold Medal by the Albert Schweitzer International University in 2006, for meaningfully contributing to the spread of culture and the defence of world peace.[119] In 1990 she was awarded the Pacem in Terris Award, named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII that called upon all people of good will to secure peace among all nations. The Davenport Catholic Interracial Council extolled Maguire for her peace efforts in Northern Ireland and for being “a global force against violence in the name of religion.”[120] Pacem in terris is Latin for “Peace on Earth”. The Nuclear Age Peace Foundation honoured Maguire with the Distinguished Peace Leadership Award in 1992, “for her moral leadership and steadfast commitment to social justice and nonviolence.”[121]
Maguire professes to rejects violence in all its forms. “As a pacifist I believe that violence is never justified, and there are always alternatives to force and threat of force. We must challenge the society that tells us there is no such alternative. In all areas of our lives we should adopt non- 2.5.6 Criticism violence, in our lifestyles, our education, our commerce, our defence, and our governance.”[108] Maguire has called Nobel Prize decision and Peace People movement for the abolition of all armies and the establishment of a multi-national community of unarmed peacekeepers in their stead.[112] Referring to the decision to award Mairead Maguire and Betty Williams the 1976 Nobel Peace Prize, journalist Michael Binyon of The Times commented, “The Nobel The Vision of Peace: Faith and Hope in Northern Irecommittee has made controversial awards before. Some land have appeared to reward hope rather than achievement.” He described as sadly “negligible” the two women’s conMaguire has written a book, The Vision of Peace: Faith tribution to bringing peace to Northern Ireland.[122] and Hope in Northern Ireland.[113] Published in 2010, it is a collection of essays and letters, in many of which Alex Maskey of Sinn Féin charged that at the time of she discusses the connections between her political ac- the Troubles, the Peace People movement was hijacked tivities and her faith. Most of the book is about Northern by the British government and used to turn public opinIreland, but Maguire also discusses the Holocaust, India, ion against Irish republicanism. “For me and others, the East Timor, and Yugoslavia. Maguire writes that “hope Peace People and their good intentions were quickly exfor the future depends on each of us taking non-violence ploited and absorbed into British state policy,” Maskey into our hearts and minds and developing new and imagi- opined.[123] native structures which are non-violent and life-giving for Derek Brown, the Belfast correspondent for The all.... Some people will argue that this is too idealistic. I Guardian, wrote that Maguire and Betty Williams were believe it is very realistic.... We can rejoice and celebrate “both formidably articulate and, in the best possible today because we are living in a miraculous time. Every- sense, utterly naive.” He described their call for an end thing is changing and everything is possible.”[114] to violence in response to the will of the people as an “awesomely impractical demand.”[124]
2.5.5
Awards and honours
Maguire has received numerous awards and honours in recognition of her work. Yale University awarded Maguire an honorary Doctor of Laws degree in 1977.[115] The College of New Rochelle awarded her an honorary degree 1978, as well.[116] In 1998 Maguire received an honorary degree from Regis University, a Jesuit institution in Denver, Colorado.[117] The University of Rhode
In his extensive study of the Peace People movement, Rob Fairmichael found that the Peace People were seen by some as being “more anti-IRA than anti-UDA,” i.e. less loyal to republican factions than to loyalist ones. Fairmichael also noted that “Betty Williams and Mairead Corrigan were beaten up numerous times and at times the leaders were threatened by a hostile crowd.” Fairmichael noted, as examples of forms that some of the extreme negative reactions took.[125]
2.5. MAIREAD MAGUIRE Prize money controversy While most Nobel Prize laureates keep their prize money,[126] it is not uncommon for prize winners to donate prize money to scientific, cultural or humanitarian causes.[127] Upon announcing their intention to keep their prize funds, Maguire and Williams were severely criticised.[128] The move angered many people, including members of the Peace People, and fuelled unpleasant rumours about the two women.[129] Rob Fairmichael writes of “gossip of fur coats” and concludes that the prize money controversy was perceived by the public, in the context of the Peace People’s eventual decline, as specifically problematic.[130] Jewish and Israeli reactions
67 sible leadership that respects human rights and religious freedom, as well as that it accept the UN-recognized right of the Jewish people to self-determination and political sovereignty in their historical homeland.” But Maguire “seems more intent on enabling Israel’s terrorist enemies,” exploiting “charges of a 'humanitarian crisis’ in Gaza in order to empower Hamas terrorists.”[135] Jewish and Israeli opinion is not all negative. Following the June 2010 Gaza flotilla raid, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu was careful to distinguish between Mairead Maguire’s nonviolent resistance aboard the Rachel Corrie, which he referred to as “a flotilla of peace activists – with whom we disagree, but whose right to a different opinion we respect,” and the conduct of the activists aboard the other six vessels, which he described as “a flotilla of hate, organized by violent, terrorism-supporting extremists.”[136] Gideon Levy strongly defended Mairéad Maguire in the Israeli newspaper Haaretz in October 2010, calling her “the victim of state terror” after Israel refused to allow her to enter the country and kept her detained for several days.[137]
In the wake of the 2009 Gaza flotilla, Ben-Dror Yemini, a popular columnist for the Israeli daily Ma'ariv, wrote that Maguire was obsessed with Israel. “There is a lunatic coalition that does not concern itself with the slaughtered in Sri Lanka or with the oppressed Tibetans. They see only the struggle against the Israeli Satan.” He further 2.5.7 See also charged that Maguire chose to identify with a population that elected an openly antisemitic movement to lead it – • List of female Nobel laureates one whose raison d'etre is the destruction of the Jewish • List of peace activists state.[131] Eliaz Luf, the deputy head of the Israeli foreign mission to Canada, has argued that Maguire’s activism plays into the hands of Hamas and other terrorist organisations in Gaza.[132]
• International Fellowship of Reconciliation • PeaceJam
Michael Elterman, Chairman of the Canada-Israel Com2.5.8 References mittee Pacific Region, Michael Elterman, warned that Maguire’s actions, though probably well-intentioned, [1] Fairmichael, p. 28: “Mairead Corrigan, now Mairead have promoted a hateful, antisemitic agenda.[133] Maguire, married her former brother-in-law, Jackie In an 4 October 2010 editorial entitled “The disingenuous Nobel laureate,” The Jerusalem Post called Maguire’s comparison of Israel’s nuclear weapons to the gas chambers of Auschwitz “outrageous” and maintained that “Israel can and must use its sovereignty to stop people like Maguire who are essentially seeking to endanger the lives of Israeli citizens.” The Post applauded Maguire’s expulsion from Israel, “not because of Maguire’s outrageous comparison in 2004 of Israel’s purported nuclear capability to Auschwitz’s gas chambers, nor because of her absurd, reprehensible accusation made in court Monday that Israel is an “apartheid state” perpetrating “ethnic cleansing against Palestinians,” but because she had taken “actions that undermine Israel’s ability to protect itself.”[134] The Post argued that if Maguire and others “truly desire to improve the lives of Gazans, they should send their humanitarian aid in coordination with Israel,” pressure Hamas “and the other radical Islamists who control the Gaza Strip to stop senseless ballistic attacks on Israeli towns and villages, kibbutzim and moshavim,” and “insist that Hamas provide Gaza’s citizens with a stable, respon-
Maguire, and they have two children of their own as well as three by Jackie’s previous marriage to Ann Maguire.” [2] Abrams (2001) p. 27 “For many years Mairead Corrigan (now Maguire), thirty-three when she received the 1976 prize in 1977, was the youngest in the year of the award, but she has now been matched by Rigoberta Menchú Tum, also thirty-three when she won the prize in 1992.” [3] “Mairead Maguire: Nobel winner, veteran peace campaigner”. AFP. 4 June 2010. Retrieved 5 February 2011. Maguire was born into a Catholic community in Belfast on January 27, 1944, the daughter of a window cleaner father and housewife mother, growing up with five sisters and two brothers. [4] “Mairead Corrigan Maguire”. The Peace People. Retrieved 4 February 2011. In September, 1981, Mairead married Jackie Maguire, widower of her sister Anne, who never recovered from the loss of her children and died in January, 1980. In addition to the remaining three children from the earlier marriage – Mark, Joanne and Marie Louise – Mairead and Jackie are the parents of John and Luke.
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[5] “NORTHERN IRELAND: A People’s Peace Prize”. TIME. 13 December 1976. Retrieved 26 February 2011. To a standing ovation, Betty Williams, 33, and Mairead Corrigan, 32, co-founders of the Ulster Peace Movement (TIME, Sept. 6) arrived to accept the Norwegian People’s Peace Prize. [6] “Die Carl-von-Ossietzky-Medaille” [The Carl von Ossietzky Medal] (in German). Internationale Liga für Menschenrechte (International League for Human Rights). Retrieved 20 February 2011. [7] “Peace People – History”. The Peace People. Retrieved 20 February 2011. This was the beginning of the Movement and the three co-founders worked to harness the energy and desire of many people in Northern Ireland for peace... Ciaran named the movement, Peace People, wrote the Declaration, and set out its rally programme, etc. [8] “The Nobel Peace Prize 1976”. Nobel Foundation. 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2009. The Nobel Peace Prize 1976 was awarded jointly to Betty Williams and Mairead Corrigan. Betty Williams and Mairead Corrigan received their Nobel Prize one year later, in 1977. [9] “Mairead Corrigan – Curriculum Vitae”. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 21 March 2011. Mairead was a co-founder of the Committee on the Administration of Justice, a nonsectarian organisation of Northern Ireland which defends human rights and advocates repeal of the government’s emergency laws. [10] Elizabeth Sleeman, ed. (2003). The International Who’s Who, 2004 (67 ed.). London: Europa Publications. p. 359. ISBN 1-85743-217-7. Retrieved 22 March 2011. CORRIGAN-MAGUIRE, Mairead; Northern Irish human rights activist; b. 27 Jan. 1944, Belfast; d. of Andrew Corrigan and Margaret Corrigan. [11] Darraj, Susan Muaddi (2006). Mairead Corrigan and Betty Williams: Partners for Peace in Northern Ireland. Modern Peacmakers. Infobase Publishing. p. 45. [12] Deutsch, Richard (1977). Mairead Corrigan, Betty Williams. Barron’s. pp. 27–31. [13] Tore Frängsmyr; Irwin Abrams (1997). Peace: Nobel Lectures. Singapore: World Scientific. p. 149. ISBN 981-021178-3. Education: St. Vincent’s Primary School, Falls Road, Belfast; Miss Gordon’s Commercial College. Employment: From age 16 worked in various positions as a shorthand typist. [14] Buscher, p. 32: “Máiread left school at the age of fourteen. She went to business school for a year, taking babysitting jobs to earn money. That year she also joined the Legion of Mary, a Catholic lay organization dedicated to helping the very poor in the Catholic community.” [15] Pal, Amitabh. “Mairead Maguire”. The Progressive. Retrieved 5 November 2013. [16] Adams, Gerry (May 1997). “In Defense of Danny Lennon”. Cage Eleven: Writings from Prison. Colorado: Roberts Rinehart Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56833-189-8.
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Retrieved 23 February 2011. Danny Lennon became involved in the republican movement in August 1971. He came into jail in October 1972 and he was released on 20 April 1976. [17] Fairmichael, p. 7. “Even if one accepted the official, army version of the incident (that a passenger in the escaping car was seen to point a rifle at the pursuing patrol, that the soldiers then fired 4 shots, killing Lennon) it took two sides to bring the incident about.” [18] Resistance (PDF) (Irish Republican Support Group (C.P.G.B.)) (3). 1986 http://cedarlounge.files.wordpress. com/2010/04/irepsupgrp-cpgb-binder.pdf. Retrieved 23 February 2011. In August, Belfast IRA Volunteers Danny Lennon and John Chillingworth were moving a broken Armalite rifle in a car through Andersonstown when they were pursued by British soldiers. Without any provocation, the Brits opened fire. Danny, who was driving the car, was killed instantly and his comrade was seriously wounded. The soldiers continued shooting and the car, now out of control, mounted the footpath at Finaghy Road North and crashed into Mrs Annie Maguire who was going to the shops with her children, Joanna, John and Andrew, who all died of their injuries. Missing or empty |title= (help) [19] Gilchrist, Jim (28 July 2006). “A woman of peace”. The Scotsman (Edinburgh). Archived from the original on 23 February 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2011. Eight-and-a-half-year-old Joanne, who was cycling alongside, and her six-week-old brother, Andrew, in his pram, were killed instantly; their brother, John, just two-and-ahalf, died in hospital the following day. On August 10th Mairead Corrigan accompanied her stricken brother-inlaw Jackie Maguire to the hospital, for the formal identification of his dead children. Afterwards, she went down to the television studio and asked to go on the UTV programme to make an appeal for an end to the violence in Northern Ireland from all sides, the appeal also appeared on the BBC and moved people around the world. [20] Williams, Betty. "'Each Child Belongs to Us’: A New way forward for children of the world”. Peace Proposal. Retrieved 23 February 2011. Provisional I.R.A., on a mission to kill British soldiers, opened fire from the back of a speeding car on an Army foot patrol. They missed. The foot patrol returned fire killing the driver of the car, a young man named Danny Lennon. [21] Reed, Roy (October 1977). “Two Battlers for Peace: Mairead Corrigan and Betty Williams”. The New York Times Biographical Service (New York: Arno Press) 8: 1372–1373. Retrieved 6 March 2011. As part of the petition drive, she and some friends organized a small peace march. It attracted about 200 women. Miss [Corrigan] saw it pass her house. She joined it, and she and Betty Williams that day became the joint leaders of a virtually spontaneous mass movement. [22] Ramos-Horta, José; Hopkins, Jeffrey (2000). The Art of Peace: Nobel Peace Laureates Discuss Human Rights, Conflict and Reconciliation. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications. p. 52. ISBN 1-55939-149-9. Retrieved 8 March 2011. Together, Williams and Maguire
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organized a peace march of ten thousand Protestant and Catholic women. The marchers were physically assaulted by members of the Irish Republican Army, a violent pro-independence group, who called them dupes of the British. Nonetheless, they succeeded in their trek to the gravesites of the Maguire children. A week later, thirty-five thousand Belfasters marched for peace from a Catholic area of the city to a Protestant area – again led by Williams and Maguire. [23] Badge, Peter (2008). Turner, Nikolaus, ed. Nobel Faces: A Gallery of Nobel Prize Winners. Weinheim: WileyVCH. p. 474. ISBN 978-3-527-40678-4. Retrieved 9 March 2011. She and Mairead created the Women for Peace movement, later renamed Community of Peace People after they were joined by Dublin-based journalist and pacifist Ciaran McKeown. [24] Stiehm, Judith (2006). Champions for Peace: Women Winners of the Nobel Peace Prize. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-0-74254025-5. Retrieved 9 March 2011. By that time [McKeown] possessed a developed philosophy of nonviolence and of reconciliation, but the times were becoming unreceptive to that position. [25] Encyclopedia of World Biography: Chippendale– Dickinson 4 (2 ed.). Gale Research. 1998. ISBN 978-0-7876-2221-3. Retrieved 9 March 2011. Corrigan was convinced that only reeducating the entire populace would stop the killing. [26] “Máiread Maguire”. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 7 November 2013. [27] “Nobel Laureates – FAQ”. nobelprize.org. Retrieved 7 October 2011. [28] Bourke, Angela, ed. (2002). The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing: Irish Women’s Writings and Traditions V. New York: New York University Press. p. 387. ISBN 08147-9907-8. Retrieved 9 March 2011. The movement’s popularity was brief and by 1977 was on the wane. Betty Williams resigned from the organization in 1980. [29] “A Belfast Tragedy: Death of a Mother”. The Boston Globe. Associated Press. 22 January 1980. Retrieved 21 March 2011. The 34-year-old woman was discovered yesterday by one of her two surviving children, 9-year-old Mark. The whereabouts of her husband, Jack, 35, and her surviving daughter were not immediately known. [30] “Tragedy of a Broken Heart”. TIME. 4 February 1980. Retrieved 21 March 2011. But for Mrs Maguire herself there was no consolation. She emigrated to New Zealand with her husband Jack in 1977 and there gave birth to a second daughter. She suffered a nervous breakdown, and the homesick family returned to Belfast in less than a year. Perpetual grief led to even more breakdowns-ever deeper mental depression. Last week Anne Maguire finally gave up. She took her own life, slashing her wrists and throat with an electric carving knife. [31] Lynn, Brendan; Martin Melaugh (1996–2010). “CAIN: People: Biographies of Prominent People During 'the Troubles’ – C”. CAIN Web Service (Conflict Archive on
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the INternet). Retrieved 23 February 2011. In 1980 Anne Maguire committed suicide and in 1981 Corrigan married her widow, Jackie Maguire. [32] Dear, John (2008). A Persistent Peace. Lolyola Press. p. 298. [33] “Warrior for peace: Mairead Corrigan Maguire”. The Belfast Telegraph. 5 June 2010. Retrieved 21 March 2011. She co-founded the Committee of the Administration of Justice – a group involved in the debate on legal matters and special laws – and studied at the Irish School of Ecumenics, pursuing inter-faith contact and picking up international awards along the way. [34] “The Consistent Life Ethic and the Catholic Tradition” (PDF). consistent-life.org. Consistent Life. Retrieved 22 March 2011. We are an international network of 200 groups and hundreds of individuals. Our member groups and endorsers include...Mairead Corrigan Maguire, Ireland (Nobel Laureate). [35] D'Albert, Dave (2010). “A Lexicon of Spiritual Leaders in the IFOR Peace Movement, Part 2” (PDF). ifor.org. International Fellowship of Reconciliation. p. 24. Retrieved 18 March 2011. In 1993 she travelled to Thailand with six other Nobel peace laureates in a vain effort to enter Myanmar (Burma) to protest the detention of laureate Aung San Suu Kyi. [36] “Freedom for Abdullah Ocalan – Peace in Kurdistan” (PDF). International Initiative. 17 October 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2011. [37] “15 Nobel Peace Prize Laureates Call on World Leaders to Urge Chinese President Hu Jintao to Release Nobel Peace Prize Laurate Liu Xiaobo and his wife Liu Xia”. Freedom Now. 25 October 2010. Retrieved 17 January 2011. [38] “Coordination Internationale pour la Décennie – Our Honorary Board”. nvpdecade.org. International Coalition for the Decade. Retrieved 22 March 2011. [39] “International Coalition for the Decade Mid-decade Report” (PDF). unesco.org. Paris: Coordination Internationale pour la Décennie. pp. 2–3. Retrieved 24 March 2011. The International Coalition has created in 2003 an Honorary board that gathers so far seven members: Anwarul K. Chowdhury (Under-Secretary-General and High Representative of the UN), Dalaï Lama (Peace Nobel Prize Laureate), Hildegard GossMayr (Peace Niwano Prize Laureate), Mairead Maguire (Peace Nobel Prize Laureate), Adolfo Pérez Esquivel (Peace Nobel Prize Laureate), Joseph Roblat (Peace Nobel Prize Laureate), Desmond Tutu (Peace Nobel Prize Laureate). [40] “About Us”. Nobel Women’s Initiative. Retrieved 8 July 2009. [41] “Nobel Laureates Salute Bradley Manning”. Retrieved 15 February 2013. [42] “Mairead Maguire-Northern Ireland, 1976”. Nobel Women’s Initiative. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
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[43] Michael Powell (17 December 1998). “U.N. worker details harm”. Washington Post. Archived from the original on unknown. Retrieved 2010-07-22. Check date values in: |archive-date= (help) [44] Abrams (2003) pp. 94, 99 [45] Faleh, Waiel (9 March 1999). “Nobel Winners: Give Iraq a Break”. Associated Press. [46] “Iraq Peace Plea”. The Peace People. Retrieved 29 January 2011. [47] Abrams (2003) pp. 95–96 [48] “New York City protest opposes war in Afghanistan”. wsws.org. World Socialist Web Site. 12 October 2001. Retrieved 30 January 2011. Over 10,000 people turned out in New York City on Sunday, October 7 to oppose the Bush administration’s so-called war on terrorism.” “Speakers at the rally on Broadway included two Nobel Peace Prize winners, Adolfo Perez Esquivel from Argentina and Mairead Maguire from Ireland. [49] “Peace on the Move”. UNESCO. Retrieved 30 January 2011. [50] Corrigan Maguire, Mairead (4 August 2002). “Act to Save the Children of Iraq”. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Retrieved 30 January 2011. [51] Cissel, Connie (27 March 2003). “She’s a Peacemaker”. The Catholic Sun. Retrieved 30 January 2011. [52] “War in Iraq and Anti-war Protests”. The Peace People. Retrieved 30 January 2011. [53] Abrams (2003) p. 97 [54] “Mairead Corrigan Maguire” (PDF). Pax Christi. Retrieved 30 January 2011. [55] Abrams (2003) pp. 96–97 [56] Corrigan-Maguire, Mairead (21 February 2006). “A Right to Live Without Violence, Nuclear Weapons and War”. Nobel Women’s Initiative. Retrieved 28 January 2011. [57] “Nobel Peace Laureate: Obama Choice 'Disappointing'". Institute for Public Accuracy. 9 October 2009. Retrieved 9 October 2009. [58] Barack Obama (24 July 2008). to the Dalai Lama. Wikisource.
Barack Obama’s Letter
[59] Devraj, Ranjit (31 October 2009). “Rising China Poses Danger to Peace, Say Nobel Laureates”. Inter Press Service (IPS). Retrieved 30 January 2011. [60] “Speech by Nobel Laureate Mairead Maguire During the Carl-von-Ossietzky Medal Award Ceremony Berlin 12th December 2010”. World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates. Retrieved 30 January 2011. [61] “Protest Arrests Include Nobel Winners, Ellsberg”. The Los Angeles Times. 27 March 2003. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
[62] “War on Iraq and Anti-war Protests”. The Peace People. 3 April 2003. Retrieved 31 January 2011. [63] “Nobel Peace Laureate Mairead Maguire Detained by USA Homeland Security” (PDF). Nobel Women’s Initiative. Retrieved 31 January 2011. [64] Wright, Ann (24 August 2009). “Could U.S. Officials Please Treat a Nobel Peace Laureate with Respect?". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 31 January 2011. [65] Prince-Gibson, Eeta (2000). “From Northern Ireland to Israel and Palestine”. Jerusalem Post (via peacecouncil.org). Retrieved 6 February 2011. Two weeks ago, Maíread Maguire, 1976 Nobel Peace Prize laureate from Northern Ireland, visited Israel and the Palestinian Territories as a representative of the Peace Council. Invited by Rabbis for Human Rights and the Israeli Committee Against House Demolitions, she came to observe the trial of Ahmed Shamasneh, who was charged with illegally building his home. It was Maguire’s second trip to Israel. Ten years ago, she came to fast and pray in repentance for what Christians have done to Jews in Jesus’s name. [66] "[From Report from the Peace Council, Fall, 2000]". International Committee for the Peace Council. 2000. Retrieved 6 February 2011. On very short notice Peace Councilor Máiread Maguire agreed to attend the June, 2000 trial in an Israeli military court of Ahmed (Abu Faiz) Shamasneh, a Palestinian grandfather accused of illegally building a home for his family, and the result was a flood of stories in Israeli, Palestinian, and European newspapers, television, and radio about the case and about the plight of Palestinians who are not able to provide legal housing for their families. [The photo shows Máiread Maguire being briefed by Phil Halper of the Israeli Committee Against Home Demolitions. Eetta Prince-Gibson, author of the following article, is in the foreground.] [67] “Nobel laureate Maguire: UN should suspend Israel membership”. Haaretz. Associated Press. 20 November 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2010. Nobel Peace Prize laureate Mairead Maguire said Thursday the United Nations should suspend or revoke Israel’s membership. [68] “Nobel laureate accuses Israel of 'ethnic cleansing'". Google News. AFP. 22 April 2009. Retrieved 27 March 2011. 'I believe the Israeli government is carrying out a policy of ethnic cleansing against Palestinians here in east Jerusalem,' said Maguire, who won the 1976 Nobel prize for her efforts at reaching a peaceful solution to the violence in Northern Ireland. [69] Maguire, Mairead (18 February 2009). “Saving Succeeding Generations from the Scourge of War” (PDF). actionfor-un-renewal.org.uk. Action for UN Renewal. Retrieved 27 March 2011. I would encourage people to support the Boycott/Divestment campaign against Israel until they start to uphold their obligations under International law and give human rights and justice to the Palestinians. [70] “Mairead Maguire Speech at Sabeel 7th International Conference”. fosna.org. Friends of Sabeel – North America. 19 November 2008. Retrieved 27 March 2011. As part of this non-violent civil resistance struggle, I support
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the Divestment/Disinvestment Campaign and the Campaign to end USA’s military support ($10 million dollars per day) to Israel which helps funds the military occupation of Palestine and other moves for Boycott. [71] Yossi Zilberman; Amit Waldman (4 October 2010). "האם [ "?כלת פרס נובל לשלום תורשה להיכנס לישראלWill the Nobel Peace Prize laureate Be Allowed to Enter Israel?]. Mako (in Hebrew). Israeli News Company. Retrieved 27 March 2011. יש,אני מקווה שבית המשפט יאשר לי להישאר אמרה מגוויר לכתבים,"לי חברים רבים ישראלים ופלסטינים כשנשאלה מדוע היא רוצה.הרבים שהתעניינו הבוקר במצבה להיכנס לארץ ענתה שהיא אוהבת את המדינה ו"עצובה שיש "כאן כל כך הרבה סבל. [72] Yossi Zilberman (reporter), Amit Waldman (reporter) (4 October 2010). "פעילת השלום האירית לא תיכנס לישראל "(Irish Peace Activist Will Not Enter Israel) (in Hebrew and English). Israel: Mako. Event occurs at 00:05:05. (Why did you come here?)" “Because I love this country and I'm very sad there’s so much suffering. [73] “Mairead Corrigan Maguire Calls for an End to 40 Years of Israeli Occupation in Palestine”. nobelwomensinitiative.org. Nobel Women’s Initiative. 9 June 2007. Retrieved 27 March 2011. Also to live in Israel for Jewish people, is to live in fear of suicide bombs and Kassam rockets. We all know violence begets violence and is never excusable or acceptable, and all violent activities from Palestinian paramilitaries must cease if there is to be any hope for peace. [74] “Vanunu released after 18 years”. The Guardian. 21 April 2004. Retrieved 22 February 2011. Among Mr Vanunu’s supporters were British actress Susannah York and Nobel peace prize laureate Mairead Corrigan Maguire of Northern Ireland. [75] “Israel frees nuclear whistleblower Vanunu”. USA Today (AP). 21 April 2004. Retrieved 8 July 2009. [76] Corrigan Maguire, Mairead (16–17 September 2006). “A Visit with Mordechai Vanunu”. counterpunch. Retrieved 22 February 2011. Upon his release, the Israeli Government imposed draconian restrictions on his freedom. He is forbidden to speak to foreigners or to foreign press or to leave Israel. Each year for the past two years, on the 21st of April, these restrictions have been renewed and Vanunu remains a virtual prisoner, living within a couple of square miles of East Jerusalem and under constant security surveillance everywhere he goes. [77] Maguire, Mairead (14 July 2010). “An Open Letter to the People of Israel about Mordechai Vanunu”. Peace People. Retrieved 22 February 2011. I have met Mordechai many times since he was released from prison on 21st April, 2004. He is a good man, a man of peace, and a true Gandhian spirit. [78] “Nobel laureate compares Israeli nuclear arms to gas chambers”. Haaretz. AP. 19 December 2004. Retrieved 1 July 2010. [79] Maguire, Mairead (January 2006). “The Lonely Israeli Prisoner – Mordechai Vanunu”. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Retrieved 22 February 2011.
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[80] “Nobel Women’s Initiative – a Right to Live without Violence, Nuclear Weapons and War”. Nobelwomensinitiative.org. 21 February 2006. Retrieved 1 July 2010. [81] Schneider, Tal (10 November 2011). :כלות פרס נובל ' מפעילה טיהור אתני,['ישראל מדינת אפרטהיידNobel Prize laureate: 'Israel is an apartheid state, engages in ethnic cleansing']. Lady Globes (in Hebrew) (Globes). Retrieved 11 March 2011. אני.אני שנים מדברת נגד נשק גרעיני , בישראל, בארה"ב,אקטיביסטית נגד נשק גרעיני בבריטניה כי נשק גרעיני הוא ההרס האולטימטיבי של,בכל מדינה אבל אני מעולם לא אמרתי שישראל היא כמו.האנושות ואני לא יודעת למה מצטטים אותי כך,גרמניה הנאצית אני. גם לא השוויתי בין עזה לבין מחנה השמדה.בישראל ביחד עם חתן פרס נובל,ביקרתי במחנות ההשמדה באוסטריה ואני חושבת שזה נורא שאנשים לא ניסו לעצור את,אלי ויזל רצח העם היהודי. [82] “Mairead Corrigan Maguire: Nobel Peace Laureate Shot with Israeli Rubber-coated Steel Bullet”. God’s Politics. Retrieved 25 November 2013. [83] Chehata, Dr. Hanan (1 Dec 2011). “Nobel Peace Laureate Mairead Maguire speaks to MEMO about Palestine, political prisoners and nuclear weapons”. Middle East Monitor. Retrieved 25 November 2013. [84] Waked, Ali (20 April 2007). “Nobel peace laureate Corrigan injured in anti-fence protest”. Ynetnews. Retrieved 8 July 2009. [85] Morahan, Justin (23 April 2007). “Palestine: IDF Shoots Irish Peace Prize Winner With Rubber Bullets”. Indymedia Ireland. Retrieved 8 July 2009. [86] Corrigan Maguire, Mairead (26 April 2007). “End the Occupation Now”. Common Dreams. Retrieved 8 July 2009. [87] Khalil, Ashraf (30 October 2008). “Protesters’ boat arrives in Gaza”. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 24 January 2011. [88] “Photo from Getty Images”. Daylife.com. October 2008. Archived from the original on 18 March 2012. Retrieved 14 October 2010. [89] Israel and the Palestinians: Key terms, BBC [90] “Removal of Hamas from the EU Terror List”. Information Clearing House. 2 March 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2011. [91] “Israel navy intercepts boat with ex-U.S. Rep. McKinney”. CNN. 30 June 2009. Retrieved 25 August 2013. [92] “Nobel Peace Laureate Mairead Maguire Speaks from Israeli Jail Cell After Arrest on Boat Delivering Humanitarian Aid to Gaza”. Democracy Now!. 2 July 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2009. [93] Jansen, Michael (7 July 2009). “Israel deports Nobel laureate”. The Irish Times. Retrieved 8 July 2009. [94] “Nobel Peace Laureate Mairead Maguire Speaks from Israeli Jail Cell After Arrest on Boat Delivering Humanitarian Aid to Gaza”. Democracy Now. 2 July 2009. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
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[95] “Irish aid ship expects Israelis to board vessel”. BBC. 2 [110] “Mairead Corrigan Maguire by John Dear, S.J.”. The June 2010. Retrieved 29 December 2010. Peace People. Retrieved 19 February 2011. I believe that hope for the future depends on each of us taking non[96] Meranda, Amnon (6 June 2010). “Seized ship enters Ashviolence into our hearts and minds and developing new dod Port”. Ynet. Retrieved 29 December 2010. and imaginative structures which are nonviolent and lifegiving for all...Some people will argue that this is too ide[97] “Rachel Corrie activists 'relieved' to be home”. RTÉ. 8 alistic. I believe that it is very realistic. I am convinced June 2010. Retrieved 29 December 2010. that humanity is fast evolving to this higher consciousness...Everything is changing and everything is possible. [98] “Irish Nobel laureate challenges Israeli detention”. Associated Press. 3 October 2010. Retrieved 7 October 2010. [111] Maguire, Mairead. “We Need Wisdom”. Jesus Our Shepherd. Retrieved 19 February 2011. I believe each one of [99] “Supreme Court rejects Maguire’s appeal”. Ynet News. 4 us is called to seek truth in our own lives, and to live out October 2010. Retrieved 7 October 2010. that truth with as much integrity as possible. That means reclaiming the ethic of non-violence and love. [100] Guarnieri, Mya (28 Sep 2010). “Nobel Peace Prize Winner Detained in Israel”. The Huffington Post. Retrieved [112] Maguire, Mairead (18 February 2009). "'Saving Succeeding Generations from the Scourge of War': Building a 27 November 2013. Nonkilling, Nonviolent Culture for the Human Family”. [101] “Irish Nobel winner Maguire boards flight out of Israel”. Mehta Centre. Retrieved 19 February 2011. Armies: I Jerusalem Post. 5 October 2010. Retrieved 7 October believe we should work to transform the culture of mili2010. tarism into a culture of nonkilling, nonviolence and peace. Armies could be abolished (as has been done in countries [102] Reilly, Gavan (25 June 2011). “Nobel laureate appeals for like Costa Rica) and instead establish multi-national comsafe passage for Gaza flotilla”. The Journal.ie. Retrieved munity unarmed peacekeepers. 26 June 2011. One of Ireland’s former Nobel peace laureates has urged the Israeli government not to pursue vio- [113] “Mairead Maguire - Northern Ireland, 1976”. Nobel Women’s Initiative. Retrieved 2 December 2013. lence against the people sailing on a second aid flotilla to Gaza at the end of the month. [114] “The Vision of Peace: Faith and Hope in Northern Ireland”. Amazon.com. Retrieved 2 December 2013. [103] al-Atrush, Samer (5 March 2014). “Egypt bars Gazabound Irish Nobel Peace Laureate Maguire”. Yahoo [115] “Yale Honorary Degree Recipients”. yale.edu. Yale UniNews. Retrieved 13 March 2014. versity. Retrieved 22 March 2011. [104] Chehata, Dr. Hanan (1 Dec 2011). “Nobel Peace Laure[116] Flynn, William J. (Summer 2009). Lenore, Boytim ate Mairead Maguire speaks to MEMO about Palestine, Carpinelli, ed. “Peacemaker” (PDF). College of New political prisoners and nuclear weapons”. Middle East Rochelle Quarterly: 30. Retrieved 22 March 2011. Sr. Monitor. Retrieved 30 November 2013. Dorothy Ann presents Mairead Corrigan Maguire (left) of the Northern Ireland Peace People with the Pope John [105] Adas, Jane (2013). “Russell Tribunal on Palestine ExamXXIII Medal in 1977, as Ann Close (center), a member ines Roles of U.N. and U.S.”. Retrieved 30 November of the Peace People, looks on. Mairead Corrigan Maguire 2013. returned to the College in 1978 when she (as well as Betty Williams) received an honorary degree. line feed charac[106] “Mairead Maguire, Russell Tribunal on Palestine find Ister in |quote= at position 169 (help) rael guilty of Apartheid”. Nobel Women’s Initiative. 10 Nov 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
[117] “Recipients of honorary degrees from the [1960s] to the 1990s are” (PDF). regis.edu. Regis University. Retrieved [107] “Mairead Corrigan Maguire Reflects on Working Toward 22 March 2011. Peace”. Santa Clara University. Retrieved 27 March 2011. [118] “Previous Honorary Degree Recipients”. uri.edu. The University of Rhode Island. Retrieved 22 March 2011. [108] Corrigan Maguire, Mairead (21 December 2006). “Journeying with Active Nonviolence”. Nuclear Age [119] “Medals and Honorary Degrees”. albertsc.com. FunPeace Foundation. Retrieved 20 February 2011. The dación Universidad Albert Schweitzer. Retrieved 22 good news is that we are not born violent, most humans March 2011. Gold Medal Science and Peace. This will never kill, and the World Health Organization says Human be awarded once a year to a person that has distinguished Violence is a 'preventable disease'. him or herself in the spread of culture and in defense of world peace. The successful candidate for the award will [109] Corrigan Maguire, Mairead (17 November 2006). “A have contributed in both areas. Nonkilling, Nonviolent World for the 21st Century”. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Retrieved 19 February 2011. [120] “Pacem in Terris”. davenportdiocese.org. Diocese of Davenport. Retrieved 21 March 2011. MAIREAD CORRIThe Human family is moving away from the violent mindGAN MAGUIRE, peace advocate in Ireland, has become set, and increasingly violence, war, armed struggles, vioa global force against violence in the name of religion. lent revolutions, are no longer romanticed, glorified, or (1990) culturally accepted as ways of solving our problems.
2.6. ADOLFO PÉREZ ESQUIVEL
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[121] “Distinguished Peace Leadership Award”. wagingpeace.org. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
• Abrams, Irwin; Wang, Gungwu, eds. (2003). The Iraq War and Its Consequences. Singapore: World Scientific. ISBN 9812385908.
[122] Binyon, Michael (9 October 2009). “Comment: absurd decision on Obama makes a mockery of the Nobel Peace Prize”. The Times. UK. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
• Buscher, Sarah and Ling, Bettina (1999). Máiread Corrigan and Betty Williams: Making Peace in Northern Ireland. New York: The Feminist Press. p. 32. ISBN 1558612009. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
[123] “Legacy of NI peace movement”. BBC News. 11 August 2006. Retrieved 2 February 2011. [124] Brown, Derek (16 August 1976). “The Sad History of Ulster’s Peace Movements”. The Guardian. they are both formidably articulate and, in the best possible sense, utterly naive...Their simple, awesomely impractical demand is that all men of violence lay down their arms in response to the will of the people. [125] Fairmichael, pp. 17, 18
• Fairmichael, Rob (1987). “The Peace People Experience” (PDF). Irish Network for Nonviolent Action, Training and Education.
2.5.10 External links • Peace People
[126] Pederson, T. (2006). “Reflections on the prize of prizes: Alfred Nobel”. The FASEB Journal (The FASEB Journal) 20 (13): 2186–9. doi:10.1096/fj.06-1102ufm. PMID 17077294.
• Mairead Corrigan Maguire Peace People • International Fellowship of Reconciliation
[127] Locke, Michelle. “Berkeley Nobel laureates donate prize money to charity” (PDF). Retrieved 2 February 2011.
• Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Mairead Corrigan Peace Heroes
[128] Abrams (2001) p. 28
• Mairead Corrigan – Curriculum Vitae Nobel Prize
[129] Buscher, pp. 89–90
• Irish Nobel Prize winners The Best Question
[130] Fairmichael
• Nobel Women’s Initiative
[131] Yemini, Ben Dror (7 July 2009). “Hovevei ha-Ayatollot ba-Hevra ha-Yisre'elit (Hebrew)". NRG (Maariv). Retrieved 22 January 2011.
• Appearances on C-SPAN
[132] Mittleman, Shmuel (29 September 2010). “Calat Pras Nobel le-Shalom Mevaqeshet le-Hishaer ba-Aretz (Hebrew)". NRG (Maariv). Retrieved 23 January 2011. [133] “Michael Elterman: Nobel laureate Mairead Maguire’s good intentions promote anti-Semitism”. Georgia Straight. 6 October 2009. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
2.6 Adolfo Pérez Esquivel This name uses Spanish naming customs: the first or paternal family name is Pérez and the second or maternal family name is Esquivel.
Adolfo Pérez Esquivel (born November 26, 1931) is an Argentine human rights activist, community organizer, pacifist, art painter, writer and sculptor. He was the reThe cipient of the 1980 Nobel Peace Prize.
[134] “Editorial: The disengenuous Nobel laureate”. Jerusalem Post. 4 October 2010. Retrieved 5 February 2011. [135] “Editorial: The disingenuous Nobel laureate”. Jerusalem Post. 4 Oct 2010. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
Pérez Esquivel was born in Buenos Aires to a Spanish fisherman from Poio, Galicia, who emigrated to [136] Yagna, Yanir; Ravid, Barak; Pfeffer, Anshel (6 June Argentina. His mother died when he was three, and 2010). “Navy takes over Rachel Corrie without incident”. despite his poverty, he attended the Manuel Belgrano Haaretz. Retrieved 13 February 2011. School of Fine Arts and the National University of La [1] [137] Levy, Gideon (3 October 2010). “A Nobel Peace Prize Plata, where he was trained as a painter and sculptor. laureate in prison”. Haaretz. Retrieved 8 February 2011. He was appointed professor of architecture and worked with a variety of sculptural media, and for 25 years taught in all levels from primary to university. Pérez Esquivel began working with popularly based Latin Amer2.5.9 Bibliography ican Christian pacifist groups during the 1960s. He • Abrams, Irwin (2001). The Nobel Peace Prize and relinquished his teaching post in 1974, when he was the Laureates: An illustrated biographical history chosen as coordinator general for a network of Latin 1901–2001. USA: Science History Publications. America-based communities promoting liberation of the ISBN 0881353884. poor through non-violence.[2]
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CHAPTER 2. I NOBEL DEL MIR dictatorship,[6] and later joined causes in support of the indigenous peoples of Argentina and environmentalism and against austerity policies and the Free Trade Area of the Americas.[5] Pérez Esquivel was awarded the Pacem in Terris Award in 1999. Pérez Esquivel served as president of the Honorary Council of Service, Latin American Peace and Justice Foundation and of the International League for Human Rights and Liberation of Peoples (based in Milan), and as a member of the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal. He published Caminando Junto al Pueblo (“Walking Together with the People”, 1995), in which he relates his experiences with nonviolence in Latin America, and he was appointed Professor of Peace and Human Rights Studies at the University of Buenos Aires in 1998.[7] He campaigned during 2010 against the practice on the part of the Esquel Police Department of training children into paramilitary squads, an operation that he compared to the creation of Nazi Germany's Hitler Youth.[8]
Adolfo Pérez Esquivel in 1983
When systematic repression followed the March 1976 coup, which brought the dictatorship of General Jorge Videla to power, Pérez Esquivel contributed to the formation and financing of the linkages between popularly based organizations to defend human rights in Argentina and support the families of the victims of the Dirty War. The NGO Servicio Paz y Justicia (“Service, Peace and Justice Foundation”, or SERPAJ), which he co-founded in 1974, and served as an instrument for the defense of human rights by promoting an international campaign to denounce the atrocities committed by the military regime.[3] SERPAJ is a member of the International Fellowship of Reconciliation (IFOR), which supported Esquivel’s work from the beginning.[4] Pérez Esquivel was detained by the Brazilian Military Police in 1975. He was jailed in 1976 in Ecuador, along with Latin American and North American bishops. He was detained in Buenos Aires in 1977 by the Argentine Federal Police, tortured, and held without trial for 14 months; during that, he received, among other distinctions, the Pope John XXIII Peace Memorial.[2] Nominated by 1976 Nobel Peace Prize laureates Mairead Corrigan and Betty Williams,[5] Pérez Esquivel was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on December 10, 1980, for his efforts in the defense of human rights. Accepting the prize “in the name of the poorest and smallest of my brothers and sisters,”[5] he donated the prize money to charity.[6] He remained active in support of the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo despite ongoing harassment by the
He opposed the European intervention in the 2011 Libyan Civil War and warned against an intervention in the Syrian Civil War.[9] In the aftermath of the death of Osama bin Laden, he sent a letter to President Barack Obama suggesting the United States killed rather than tried bin Laden because he could have revealed unsettling information about 9/11.[9] He argued, “You know that there are people who have investigated the tragic events of 9/11/2001 and claim there is evidence that this was a self-coup (self-inflicted attack).”[9] Later, he added, “this event was the perfect excuse to launch a war against Afghanistan and Iraq and now against Libya,” and referred to the United States an “axis of evil.”[9] Pérez Esquivel expressed himself regarding the historic, March 13, 2013, election of Archbishop of Buenos Aires Jorge Bergoglio as Pope Francis, stating that as Provincial superior of Jesuits “he had lacked the sufficient courage shown by other Bishops to support our cause for human rights during the dictatorship.”[10] Pérez Esquivel also said that “Bergoglio did what he could given his age at that time.”[11] He, however, clarified that the future Pope “was no accomplice and had no links with the dictatorship” and that while “it is said he did not do enough to get two priests out of jail, I know personally that many bishops called on the military junta for the release of prisoners and priests and that these requests were not granted.”[12]
2.6.1 Works of art Esquivel’s work[13] ranges from exhibitions to murals and monuments, including the 15 station Latin American Via Crucis (including a Lenten cloth “A new sky and a new land”) made in 1992 to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the conquest of America; Monument to Refugees, located in the Headquarters of the UNHCR in Switzerland; the Latin American Peoples Mural in the Cathedral
2.6. ADOLFO PÉREZ ESQUIVEL
75
of Riobamba, Ecuador, dedicated to Monsignor Proaño 2.6.4 External links and the indigenous peoples; and a bronze statue in tribute • Adolfo Pérez Esquivel official site, edited by Juan to Mahatma Gandhi at Gandhi Square, in Barcelona. Varni
See also
• Esquivel’s Art – Stations of the CrossC (English, French, Spanish, Portuguese)
• World Social Forum
• 'The Military Did Not Do It Alone'- a video interview with Adolfo Pérez Esquivel
2.6.2
2.6.3
References
[1] “Adolfo Pérez Esquivel”. Peace Jam. [2] “Adofo Pérez Esquivel”. Nobel Prize Committee. [3] "Panelist:Adolfo Pérez Esquivel”. OAS. Archived from the original on February 20, 2002. [4] On November 17, 1980, his wife, Amanda, wrote a letter to Hildegard Goss-Mayr, IFOR travelling secretary: “This [Nobel] prize will have to be woven with all those who have been for years in this difficult task of uniting and reconciling brothers. Although I never told you this, through your letters and personal contacts you have stimulated in one way or another the path that Adolfo has walked. He has always had you as his first teacher, who one distant day arrived in Buenos Aires, connected with the Ark, and explained in the most simple and humble way what nonviolence was... [with] your suggesting... the way to work and organize. You have always accompanied us in the good and bad moments. For that reason too, I believe you are also part of this prize”. Letter from Amanda Esquivel, in Richard Deats, 'Marked for Life: The Story of Hildegard Goss-Mayr', New City Press, Hyde Park, New York, 2009, p. 58-59. [5] “Adolfo Pérez Esquivel”. Encyclopedia of World Biography. [6] Carol Brennan. “Adolfo Pérez Esquivel”. Contemporary Hispanic Biography. [7] “Biografía”. Adolfo Pérez Esquivel. [8] “Polémica en Argentina por la “policía infantil que promueve un sacerdote”. Noticias24. [9] Luis Fleishman, The Gaza Crisis and the Intellectual Left in Latin America: A Dark Picture, The Americas Report: Center for Security Policy, December 6, 2012 [10] “Bergoglio no fue cómplice directo de la dictadura pero no tuvo el coraje para acompañar nuestra lucha”. InfoNews. March 14, 2013. [11] El Nobel de la Paz Pérez Esquivel defiende al Papa durante la dictadura. elmundo.es. March 14, 2013. [12] “Bergoglio had no links with the dictatorship, says Nobel Peace Prize winner”. Buenos Aires Herald. March 14, 2013. [13] Obra Artística. Official website of Adolfo Pérez Esquivel (in Spanish)
• Appearances on C-SPAN
Chapter 3
fellowship confessionali 3.1 Buddhist Peace Fellowship
bers were centered primarily in Hawaii or the San Francisco Bay Area, and by 1979 the group had roughly fifty members. To stay connected, the group formulated a newsletter spearheaded by Nelson Foster which evolved into Turning Wheel—the quarterly magazine published by the BPF.[8] Today, Turning Wheel Media is an online home for activists and thinkers, writers and readers, a place to bring Buddhist teachings into conversation with the world. By the late 1980s the association had hundreds of members, and the headquarters had moved to office space in Berkeley, California. During this time much of their work was geared toward human rights efforts in areas of the world such as Cambodia, Vietnam and Bangladesh, working particularly hard at freeing Buddhist prisoners of the Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam. This period in BPF history also was marked by the hiring of a coordinator and the development of national chapters.[8]
The Buddhist Peace Fellowship (BPF) is a nonsectarian international network of engaged Buddhists participating in various forms of nonviolent social activism and environmentalism.[1] The nonprofit BPF is an affiliate of the international Fellowship of Reconciliation[2][3] working toward global disarmament and peace, helping individuals suffering under governmental tyranny[4] in places such as Burma, Bangladesh, Tibet and Vietnam.[5] Currently headquartered in Oakland, California, BPF was incorporated in 1978 in Hawaii by Robert Baker Aitken, his wife Anne Hopkins Aitken, Nelson Foster, Ryo Imamura and others. Shortly after other notable individuals joined, including Gary Snyder, Alfred Bloom, Joanna Macy and Jack Kornfield.[6] Generally speaking, the BPF has a tendency to approach social issues from a left-wing perspective and, while the fellowship is nonsectarian, the majority of its members are practitioners of Zen.[7] BPF went through a turbulent period after longtime executive director Alan Senauke left at the end of 2001. BPF’s work includes: After two executive directors who served less than a year and a period of no clear leadership, board member Maia 1 Sparking conversation at the intersection Duerr was asked to lead the organization in 2004. Durof Buddhism and social justice; ing her three-year tenure, the BPF stabilized its finances, 2 Training Buddhist political activists; and considerable effort were made to bolster its nation3 Mobilizing people to action from a Buddhist wide outreach and include chapters in decision-making perspective; processes. Also during this period, Duerr led two “Bud4 Building a network of radical Buddhist acdhist Peace Delegations” to Washington, D.C., to call for tivists. an end to war in Iraq. Since 2012, Co-Directors Katie Loncke and Dawn Haney have supported the organizaBPF is currently led by codirectors Katie Loncke and tion’s “Radical Rebirth” as one focused on present-day issues of racial justice, climate change, and militarizaDawn Haney and a national board of seven individuals. tion.
3.1.1
About
The Buddhist Peace Fellowship is a grassroots movement established in 1978 by Robert Baker Aitken and Anne Hopkins Aitken, along with Nelson Foster and others, on the front porch of their Maui Zendo in Hawaii. Sitting around a table, the assembled group discussed nuclear weapons and militarism within the United States in the years following the Vietnam War, finding that these issues must be addressed with compassion from a Buddhist perspective in order to bring about peace.[2] Original mem76
The Buddhist Peace Fellowship appeals to Westerners who have embraced Buddhism and who also believe that their chosen path must address the pressing issues of the day. More a religious movement than a political one, the BPF is fueled by an expressed need to modify or extend traditional spiritual practice. —Kraft, Kenneth (1992). Inner Peace, World Peace: Essays on Buddhism and Nonviolence. pp. 23–24.
3.1. BUDDHIST PEACE FELLOWSHIP Many individual activists from different traditions network through the Buddhist Peace Fellowship (BPF), an organization that facilitates individual and group social engagement in the United States and Asia and often works together with the International Network of Engaged Buddhists (INEB). The BPF is the largest and most effective of the engaged Buddhist networks. —Jones, Ken (2003). The New Social Face of Buddhism: A Call to Action. pp. 201–202.
3.1.2
Current Projects
Turning Wheel Media Turning Wheel Media is the online version of BPF’s award-winning magazine, Turning Wheel. It provides a platform for lively debate, lifts up Buddhist perspectives on current events, guides inspired readers to groups already taking action, and brings Buddhist teachings into conversation with the world. The System Stinks: Curriculum for Buddhist Activists Designed to help promote collective liberation and subvert the highly individualistic bent of much mainstream dharma these days, in 2013 Buddhist Peace Fellowship began offering The System Stinks — a collection of Buddhist social justice media named for the favorite protest sign of one of BPF’s founders, Robert Aitken, Roshi. In 2013, the curriculum covered a systemic take on The Five Precepts - violence, theft, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxication. In 2014, The System Stinks reviewed the Buddha’s core teachings on The Four Noble Truths, from seasoned practitioners like Mushim Ikeda, Maia Duerr, Zenju Earthlyn Manuel, and Alan Senauke, as well as newcomers like Funie Hsu and Faith Adiele. Starting in 2015, The System Stinks will cover teachings on The Three Dharma Seals - impermanence, non-self, and liberation.
3.1.3
Former Projects
77 was originally conceived of by Robert Baker Aitken during discussions at a BPF meeting held in Oakland, California in 1992, although it was Diana Winston who ultimately saw this vision through. She was somewhat disheartened to find that many of the BPF members were not actively engaged in meditation, so she set out to develop a “training program that would integrate Buddhist practice, social engagement, and community life into one organic whole.”[11] BASE is meant to provide for lay American Buddhists the kind of institutional support for the cultivation of socially engaged Buddhism available to Asian monks and nuns who are part of a monastic sangha. But it is also inspired by the BASE community of Latin America, which was founded in the 1970s as a vehicle for Catholic liberation theology...BASE emphasized social engagement as a path of Buddhist practice, not simply as a mode of Buddhist social service. —Seager, Richard Hughes (1999). Buddhism in America. pp. 207–208. BASE participants combine weekly meetings for meditation and study with fifteen to thirty hours a week working in hospices, homeless shelters, prisons, medical clinics, and activist organizations. —Coleman, James William (2002). The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition. p. 18.
Buddhist Peace Fellowship Prison Project Another outgrowth of the BPF is the Buddhist Peace Fellowship Prison Project, a committee within BPF which works with prisoners and their families and other religious groups in an effort to address violence within the criminal justice system. They oppose the implementation of capital punishment and also offer prisons information on chaplaincy opportunities.[12] The committee’s founding director was Diana Lion, who also has served as associate director of the Buddhist Peace Fellowship.[13]
Buddhist Alliance for Social Engagement The Buddhist Alliance for Social Engagement (BASE) is an extension of the Buddhist Peace Fellowship established in 1995,[9] offering training and internship programs based on the model set forward by the Jesuit Volunteer Corps for social workers, activists and human service workers. It has chapters in various cities in the United States, including Berkeley, California and Boston, Massachusetts, aiming to help professionals integrate their work with Buddhist practice.[10] The idea behind BASE
...the BPF Prison project...is attempting to transform the prison system through reforming the prison-industrial complex, abolishing the death penalty, and bringing the teachings of “dharma” to those persons confined in prisons and jails... —Barak, Gregg (2003). Violence and Nonviolence: Pathways to Understanding. p. 287.
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CHAPTER 3. FELLOWSHIP CONFESSIONALI
Buddhist AIDS Project
• List of peace activists
In 1993 the Buddhist AIDS Project (BAP), based in San Francisco, California was founded, a non-profit affiliate of the BPF run entirely by volunteers, serving individuals with HIV/AIDS, those who are HIV positive, their families, and their caregivers.[14]
• Methodist Peace Fellowship
• http://www.buddhistaidsproject.org
• Order of Interbeing • Peace churches
3.1.7 Notes
Think Sangha
[1] Clarke, Peter Bernard (2000). Japanese New Religions: In Global Perspective. p. 100.
3.1.4
[2] Queen, Christopher (2000). Engaged Buddhism in the West. pp. 67–69.
Environmentalism
Green Sangha
3.1.5
Activist activities
[3] Diamond, Louise; Walsch, Neale Donald (2000). The Courage for Peace: Creating Harmony in Ourselves and the World. p. 259.
On Hiroshima Day of August 6, 2005 the Tampa, Florida chapter of BPF organized The Hiroshima Memorial in conjunction with Pax Christi, designed to raise consciousness about the issue of nuclear war. The two groups released “peace lanterns” into the air and participants held vigils and various talks.[15] On Hiroshima Day of August 6, 2006, the Buddhist Peace Fellowship of Santa Cruz, California used the occasion to protest the Iraq War. Participants of the group “displayed a three foot tall, hundred foot long, scroll listing 40,000 names of Iraqi civilians killed in the war. There was also a pair of booths created which listed the names, photos, and brief stories, of over 2,000 US and coalition soldiers who also died in the war.”[16]
[4] Fleming, Marrianne; Worden, David (2004). Thinking about God and Morality. p. 114.
In October 2007 the Milwaukee chapter of BPF organized a silent “lakefront demonstration” to lend their support to the Buddhists of Myanmar protesting the oppression of the military junta there. Plans were made to sneak photographs and information on the Milwaukee event into Myanmar, to let protesters know that there are outsiders standing with them in solidarity. Some members reported being told that their phones were likely bugged in the United States.[17]
[10] Mink, Gwendolyn; O'Connor, Alice (2004). Poverty in the United States: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, and Policy. pp. 121–122.
3.1.6
[14] Irwin, Alexander C.; Irwin, Alec; Millen, Joyce; Fallows, Dorothy (2003). Global AIDS: Myths and Facts : Tools for Fighting the AIDS Pandemic. p. 200.
See also
• Baptist Peace Fellowship of North America • Engaged Buddhism • Episcopal Peace Fellowship • Fellowship of Reconciliation • International Network of Engaged Buddhists • Jesuit Volunteer Corps • Jewish Peace Fellowship • List of anti-war organizations
[5] Wright, Christopher (2003). God and Morality. p. 148. [6] Prebish, Charles S.; Keown, Damien (2005). Buddhism the Ebook: An Online Introduction. pp. 311–312. [7] Wilson, Jeff; Townsend, Jeff (2000). The Buddhist Guide to New York. p. 230. [8] Prebish, Charles S. (1999). Luminous Passage: The Practice and Study of Buddhism in America. pp. 108–109. [9] Jones, Ken (2003). The New Social Face of Buddhism: A Call to Action. pp. 201–202.
[11] Queen, Christopher (2000). Engaged Buddhism in the West. pp. 86–87. [12] Queen, Christopher (2000). Engaged Buddhism in the West. p. 358. [13] Gregory, Peter N.; Mrozik, Susanne (2007). Women Practicing Buddhism: American Experiences. p. 101.
[15] Moore, Waveney Ann (2005-08-04). “In peace, they honor Hiroshima: Saturday marks 60 years since the first atomic bomb fell upon the Japanese city”. St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 2008-04-05. [16] “Hiroshima Day: Buddhist Peace Fellowship Displays Names of Iraq War Dead”. Santa Cruz Indymedia. 200608-06. Retrieved 2008-04-05. [17] Heinen, Tom (2007-10-19). “Myanmar is march’s focus: Demonstrations help solidarity, organizers say”. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Retrieved 2008-04-05.
3.1. BUDDHIST PEACE FELLOWSHIP
3.1.8
References
• Aitken, Robert Baker (1997). Original Dwelling Place: Zen Buddhist Essays. Counterpoint. ISBN 1-887178-41-4. • Appleby, R. Scott (2000). The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0-84768555-1. • Backhurst, Paul (2005). Alternatives to the Peace Corps: A Guide to Global Volunteer Opportunities. Food First Books. ISBN 0-935028-99-4. • Barak, Gregg (2003). Violence and Nonviolence: Pathways to Understanding. Sage Publications. ISBN 0-7619-2695-X. • Chappell, David W. (2000). Buddhist Peacework: Creating Cultures of Peace. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-167-X. • Clarke, Peter Bernard (2000). Japanese New Religions: In Global Perspective. RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-7007-1185-6. • Coleman, James William (2002). The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19515241-7. • Coleman, John Aloysius (1991). One Hundred Years of Catholic Social Thought: Celebration and Challenge. Orbis Books. ISBN 0-88344-745-2. • De La Torre, Miguel A. (2008). The Hope of Liberation in World Religions. Baylor University Press. ISBN 1-932792-50-3. • Diamond, Louise; Walsch, Neale Donald (2000). The Courage for Peace: Daring to Create Harmony in Ourselves and the World. Conari Press. ISBN 157324-165-2. • Eppsteiner, Fred (1988). The Path of Compassion: Writings on Socially Engaged Buddhism. Parallax Press. ISBN 0-938077-02-3. • Fleming, Marrianne; Worden, David (2004). Thinking about God and Morality. Heinemann. ISBN 0-435-30713-4. • Ford, James Ishmael (2006). Zen Master Who?: A Guide to the People and Stories of Zen. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-509-8. • Gottlieb, Roger S. (2003). Liberating Faith: Religious Voices for Justice, Peace, and Ecological Wisdom. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 07425-2534-1.
79 • Gottlieb, Roger S. (2004). This Sacred Earth: Religion, Nature, Environment. Routledge. ISBN 0415-94359-0. • Gottlieb, Roger S. (2006). The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Ecology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517872-6. • Gregory, Peter N.; Mrozik, Susanne (2007). Women Practicing Buddhism: American Experiences. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-539X. • Griffin, Kevin E. (2004). One Breath at a Time: Buddhism and the Twelve Steps. Rodale. ISBN 157954-905-5. • Hanson, Eric O. (2006). Religion and Politics in the International System Today. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85245-5. • Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. 1990: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31333-3. • Hashmi, Sohail H.; Lee, Steven (2004). Ethics and Weapons of Mass Destruction: Religious and Secular Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521-54526-9. • Henning, Daniel H. (2002). Buddhism and Deep Ecology. 1st Books Library. ISBN 1-4033-7006-0. • Hunt Badiner, Allan (2008). Dharma Gaia. Parallax Press. ISBN 0-938077-30-9. • Irwin, Alexander C.; Irwin, Alec; Millen, Joyce; Fallows, Dorothy (2003). Global AIDS: Myths and Facts : Tools for Fighting the AIDS Pandemic. South End Press. ISBN 0-89608-673-9. • Jones, Ken (2003). The New Social Face of Buddhism: A Call to Action. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-365-6. • Kaufman, Donald G.; Franz, Cecilia M. (2000). Biosphere 2000: Protecting Our Global Environment. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co. ISBN 0-78725713-3. • Kraft, Kenneth (1992). Inner Peace, World Peace: Essays on Buddhism and Nonviolence. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0969-4. • Maguire, Jack (2001). Essential Buddhism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs and Practices. Pocket Books. ISBN 0-671-04188-6. • Matthews, Clifford N.; Tucker, Mary Evelyn; Hefner, Philip J. (2002). When Worlds Converge: What Science and Religion Tell Us about the Story of the Universe and Our Place In It. Open Court. ISBN 0-8126-9451-1.
80 • Mink, Gwendolyn; O'Connor, Alice (2004). Poverty in the United States: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, and Policy. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-597-4. • Mullen, Christopher A.; Ryan, J. Atticus (1997). Yearbook 1996: Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 90-411-0439-9. • O'Grady, John F.; Schüttke-Scherle, Peter; May, John D'Arcy. Ecumenics From the Rim: Explorations in Honour of John D'Arcy May. Global. ISBN 3-8258-0637-5. • Porterfield, Amanda (2002). American Religious History. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-223223.
CHAPTER 3. FELLOWSHIP CONFESSIONALI • Wheeler, Kate; Johnson, Charles (2004). Nixon Under the Bodhi Tree and Other Works of Buddhist Fiction. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-354-0. • Wilson, Jeff; Townsend, Jeff (2000). The Buddhist Guide to New York. Macmillan. ISBN 0-31226715-0. • Winston, Diana (2003). Wide Awake: A Buddhist Guide for Teens. Perigee Book. ISBN 0-39952897-0. • Woodward, Cheryl; Hwang, Lucia (2007). Every Nonprofit’s Guide to Publishing. Nolo. ISBN 14133-0658-6. • Wright, Christopher (2003). God and Morality. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-914839-2.
• Prebish, Charles S.; Baumann, Martin (2002). 3.1.9 External links Westward Dharma: Buddhism Beyond Asia. Uni• Buddhist Peace Fellowship versity of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22625-9. • Newsletter • Prebish, Charles S.; Keown, Damien (2005). • Buddhist Peace Fellowship Chapters Buddhism the Ebook: An Online Introduction. Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books. ISBN 09747055-3-5.
3.2 Methodist Peace Fellowship
• Prebish, Charles S (1999). Luminous Passage: The Practice and Study of Buddhism in America. The Methodist Peace Fellowship is a British Methodist University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21697- Christian pacifist organization. 0. The Methodist Peace Fellowship (MPF) was founded • Prebish, Charles S.; Queen, Christopher S.; Keown, by Rev. Henry Carter in 1933 to inform and unite Damien (2003). Action Dharma: New Studies in En- Methodists who covenanted together “to renounce war gaged Buddhism. RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-7007- and all its works and ways."' It is part of the international 1594-0. Fellowship of Reconciliation. Members are expected to accept a fully pacifist position, but the MPF now encour• Queen, Christopher S. (2000). Engaged Buddhism ages others to enrol as 'supporters’. in the West. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171The MPF arranges a public meeting each year in connec159-9. tion with the British Methodist Conference, and in other • Roof, Wade Clark; Silk, Mark (2005). Religion and ways seeks to witness at national level through Methodist Public Life in the Pacific Region: Fluid Identities. channels. The MPF has little local organisation with members usually working through the Fellowship of ReAlatmira Press. ISBN 0-7591-0639-8. conicilation or local peace organisations. • Ryan, Mary Jane (1998). The Fabric of the Future: At one time the Methodist Peace Fellowship claimed a Women Visionaries Illuminate the Path to Tomorrow. quarter of all Methodist ministers among its members. Conari Press. ISBN 1-57324-197-0. • Seager, Richard Hughes (1999). Buddhism In Amer- 3.2.1 External links ica. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-23110868-0. • Methodist Peace Fellowship website • Smith, Huston; Novak, Philip (2004). Buddhism: A Concise Introduction. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06073067-6.
3.3 Presbyterian Peace Fellowship
• Spuler, Michelle (2003). Developments in Aus- The Presbyterian Peace Fellowship (PPF) is a peacetralian Buddhism: Facets of the Diamond. Rout- making organization affiliated with the Presbyterian ledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-7007-1582-7. Church (USA). Its offices are in Stony Point, NY.
3.4. LUTHERAN PEACE FELLOWSHIP
81 • Presbyterian Peace Fellowship Facebook page • 2014 Israel/Palestine delegation blog
3.3.2 References This logo is copyright Presbyterian Peace Fellowship and displayed here under fair use policy.
Started in the early 1940s, PPF provided support for Presbyterians who were conscientious objectors during the Second World War. In the 1950s PPF worked to oppose the development of nuclear weapons. During the 1960s and the 1970s, members were doing draft resistance counseling and working to end the war in Vietnam. In the 1980s PPF was one of the founding organizations of the US-Soviet Bi-Lateral Nuclear Weapons Freeze Campaign, leading the PC(USA) to become the first major church to endorse the proposal. In the 1990s PPF’s work included the Jubilee 2000 Third World Debt Relief. Throughout the last several decades, PPF members have worked toward dealing with gun violence and landmines. In 1980, members of the Presbyterian Peace Fellowship were instrumental in encouraging the Presbyterian General Assembly to pass the document called “Peacemaking: The Believers’ Calling", which initiated the annual Peacemaking Offering in many Presbyterian churches, and established the Presbyterian Peacemaking Program of the denomination. More than twenty-five years later, PPF continues to work closely with the PPP. Often the role of the PPF is to push the denomination to new and bolder policies and actions on behalf of peace, while the PPP works within the policies of the denomination. Since the late 1990s, the direction of the PPF has shifted to an emphasis on nonviolent direct action. Current focuses include gun violence prevention, an accompaniment program in Colombia, and advocacy and Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions for justice in Israel and Palestine.
[1] http://presbypeacefellowship.org/GA/peaceseeker [2] http://peacedelegation.wordpress.com/ [3] http://presbypeacefellowship.org/about/leadership/ nationalcommittee
3.4 Lutheran Peace Fellowship Lutheran Peace Fellowship (LPF) is an organization of Lutherans who work for peace and social justice issues. It includes members and supporters in all the Lutheran denominations and more than a few people from other faith traditions. LPF is a nonprofit organization supported largely by its members as well as a variety of grants and honoraria from workshops, events, and trainings. Although not an official part of the ELCA, it has received funding from various units within that denomination.
3.4.1 History and priorities Founded in 1941, LPF offers a wide range of resources, workshops, support, and encouragement. LPF’s main priority is to support effective peace education and advocacy by its members and local chapters, networks, and congregations. Membership is open to any individual, chapter, or congregation. LPF periodically plays a significant role in the most pressing issues of our time. In recent years, these have included world hunger, landmines, and Senate ratification of the Chemical Weapons Treaty. In 1999, LPF’s national coordinator served as US delegate to meetings in India to help plan the UN Decade for Peace. LPF’s top advocacy priority is to end hunger and extreme poverty through such efforts as the ONE campaign and the Millennium Development Goals. Other issues include federal budget priorities, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, nuclear weapons.
PPF gives out the Peaceseeker Award[1] each year since 1970 to recognized Presbyterians on the front lines of reducing war and violence. In January 2014 PPF led a delLutheran Peace Fellowship’s national leaders facilitate an egation of 28 Presbyterians to Palestine and Israel.[2] average of 100 workshops a year; local leaders an even In 2006 the PPF appointed Rick Ufford-Chase, former larger number. Popular topics for LPF workshops inModerator of the PC(USA), as its first full-time Executive clude Current Advocacy Priorities, Biblical PeacemakDirector. The organization is managed by a 54-member ing, Christian Peace Witness for Iraq, Nonviolence for a National Committee[3] and approximately five part-time Violent World, Leadership Training in Peacemaking, and staff. How to Be a Bridge in a World Full of Walls.
3.3.1
External links
• Presbyterian Peace Fellowship
LPF runs peace education and workshop resources. For example, it is currently updating a series of computerbased education activities, one of which was chosen to be part of the largest critical thinking project in US public education.
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The international LPF headquarters are located in Seattle, founded as a specifically Anglican offshoot of Reverend Washington and there are local chapters and networks in Dick Sheppard's secular Peace Pledge Union. APF was many parts of the U.S. formed by Anglican clergy and laity led by Sheppard who were intent on undertaking a torchlit peace march to Lambeth Palace in 1937 as the threat of a Second World 3.4.2 References War loomed on the horizon. The aim of the march was to give Sheppard’s colleague, the then-Archbishop of Can• Official website terbury, Cosmo Lang, a statement of pacifist conviction. This was at a time when many churchmen were intent on “trying to reconcile the teachings of Christ with the prac3.5 Episcopal Peace Fellowship tice of war”.[2] The Episcopal Peace Fellowship (EPF) is a U.S. peace organization composed of members of the Episcopal Church. It was originally founded on November 11, 1939 as the Episcopal Pacifist Fellowship by Bishop William Appleton Lawrence, Mrs. Henry Hill Pierce, Rev. John Nevin Sayre and Bishop Paul Jones and others with the mission to pray, study and work for peace. In the 1960s it changed its name.
Besides many priests and bishops, notable early members of the group included British Labour Leader George Lansbury and famous literary figure Vera Brittain. In 2006, songwriter and fellow Anglican Pacifist Fellowship member Sue Gilmurray wrote a song in Brittain’s memory, entitled “Vera”.[3] In addition to her famous novels, which were heavily imbued with pacifist ideology, Brittain was very much an active member of the "Ban the Bomber" campaign during the inter-war period, which sought to outlaw bomber aeroplanes as an illegal weapon of war, in recognition of the fact that they directly target civilian populations, beyond the frontline of conflicts and that they carry increasingly deadly payloads. This campaign had parallels to later attempts to ban nuclear weapons and ICBMs
The EPF has a national office with a small paid staff, and many local chapters (71 as of January 2009). It urges the broader Episcopal Church, other organizations and people in general to adopt a more peaceful stance on issues such as the Iraq War, Iran, promoting peace in the broader Middle East, nuclear weapons and Cuba. It offers Active Nonviolence Training, takes part in peace demonstrations, helps organize action groups and awards peace prizes to individuals around the world who strive 3.6.2 Second World War for peace. It is a sister organization of the Anglican Pacifist Fellow- During the war, “as well as campaigning for peace at every opportunity, APF had a support role for conscientious ship. objectors... Anglican pacifists [also] became involved in social projects as an alternative to military duties”.[4]
3.5.1
External links
• Episcopal Peace Fellowship • History of the EPF • The Cross Before the Flag
3.6 Anglican Pacifist Fellowship The Anglican Pacifist Fellowship (APF) is a body of people within the Anglican Communion who reject war as a means of solving international disputes, and believe that peace and justice should be sought through nonviolent means.[1]
3.6.1
Origins and early history
The Anglican Pacifist Fellowship was established in 1937, and now has some 1,400 members in over 40 countries, as well as a sister organisation, the Episcopal Peace Fellowship, in the United States of America. APF was
Lansbury was particularly active in this period, though his life was nearing its end. In contrast to Neville Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement, Lansbury took a pro-active diplomatic approach towards preventing a war. He sought negotiation with all the major parties in order to arbitrate a peaceful settlement, as related in his book My Pilgrimage for Peace, published in 1938. His efforts were, however, in vain, and most APF members now acknowledge that, to counteract Hitler by non-violent means, Governments should not have allowed the economic and political situation of instability in the Weimar Republic to arise in the first place. This issue is discussed at depth in APF’s 1989 publication, What to Do About Hitler: A Pacifist Symposium. Notably, many early pacifists had argued against the excessively harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles from its inception. It is notable that, by 1944, Vera Brittain was on Hitler’s list of those English people posing the greatest threat to his regime. The leader of the Reich clearly felt deeply threatened by her pacifism. Upon a successful Nazi invasion of Britain, the Gestapo were to arrest her immediately. Undaunted, she continued writing further tracts on the immorality of saturation bombing, as the British
3.6. ANGLICAN PACIFIST FELLOWSHIP
83
Royal Air Force undertook its campaign against target APF and the Stop the War Coalition to proactively pursue cities such as Dresden.[5][6] peace and an end to the 2003 Iraq War. Another famous female Christian to actively work for APF during the war period was the Anglo-Catholic intellectual, Evelyn Underhill. Although initially opposed to pacifism (and, in fact, working for Naval Intelligence during World War I), after much soul-searching, she found pacifism to be the correct Christian position by 1939[7] and threw herself whole-heartedly behind APF’s work, for “Not content to be merely a proclaimer of pacifism, Underhill tried to live by its principles”.[8]
Oestreicher, an honorary doctor from the University of Sussex,[15] fled Nazi Germany as a child refugee. He grew up in New Zealand and was for many years director of the Centre for International Reconciliation at Coventry Cathedral. Like many APF members, he also works for other peace organisations. In his case, he has worked for the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and was also the founding chair for Amnesty International. Though an Anglican priest, also holds a strong affinity for the Quaker [16] Writing in a famous pamphlet for APF entitled Church religion. and War (1940),[9] Underhill stated that, “If she remains He continues to write columns for the Guardian true to her supernatural call, the Church cannot acquiesce newspaper[17] and occasionally returns to New Zealand in War for War, however camouflaged or excused, must to speak on peace issues.[18] always mean the effort of a group of men to achieve their purpose... by inflicting destruction and death on another group of men... it is often difficult to define the boundary 3.6.4 Current status which divides legitimate police action from military action; nevertheless, Christians must try to find that bound- APF currently has more than 1400 members in forty countries[19] who have signed the pledge stating “that our ary and to observe it”.[10] membership of the Christian Church involves the complete repudiation of modern war, pledge ourselves to re3.6.3 Historical opposition to nuclear pro- nounce war and all preparation to wage war, and to work for the construction of Christian peace in the world...”[20] liferation Some prominent members of APF were at the forefront of resistance to nuclear proliferation. "Canon John Collins from St. Paul’s Cathedral was in the forefront of the founding leadership of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). The Revd. Sidney Hinkes was an early Chairman of CND”.[11]
The key beliefs of members of the Fellowship are: • that Jesus’ teaching is incompatible with the waging of war. • that a Christian church should never support or justify war.
Hinkes’ “theology was conservatively Catholic in what he • that our Christian witness should include opposing regarded as essentials, yet his parochial and pastoral practhe waging or justifying of war.[21] tice was radically open, both to the working-class culture and the ethnic diversity of the people in the areas in which Today, pacifism is recognised as a mainstream Anglican he served”.[12] position,[22] though it is not yet a dominant belief of the Hinkes was a leading member of APF during his lifetime, faith. “Numerous bishops have been Counsellors of APF known for leading peace rallies and prayer vigils with his and two, Wilfrid Westall, Bishop of Crediton, and Colin distinctive, large-sized version of the APF’s emblematic Scott, Assistant Bishop in the Diocese of Leicester, have blue and gold cross. He worked with the then-President chaired the Fellowship”.[23] of the Fellowship, Gordon Wilson and APF counsellor Paul Oestreicher on many strident campaigns for peace, The current chairperson of APF as of 2012 is Revd Nathanael Reuss. his motto being “we put the 'fist' into pacifist!"[13] This stance exemplified the proactive peacemaking stance and pacifism of APF and contrasted sharply with any accusations of “passivism.” “To Sidney, peacemaking was anything but passive. His priesthood was a total commitment to the non-violent struggle to implement God’s just and gentle rule. It was tough and demanding, but never embittered”.[14] Frustrated that the Church often saw peace-making as a marginal issue, Hinkes worked to ensure that it came to central prominence due to his diligent work on racerelations as Britain became more ethnically-diverse following the War. Up until his death, he worked for both
3.6.5 Current activities in the United Kingdom APF campaigns prominently at each Lambeth Conference.[24] This activism aims to make the Church uphold Resolution 25 of the 1930 Lambeth Conference[25] and Resolution 5 from the 1978 Lambeth Conference[26] that state that “war as a method of settling international disputes is incompatible with the teaching and example of our Lord Jesus Christ”.[27] This Resolution overrules the older Article 37 of the 39 Articles of Anglican faith,
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which had stated that “It is lawful for Christian men at In 2009, the Fellowship is supporting Red Hand Day, to the commandment of the Magistrate to wear weapons and raise awareness of the plight of child soldiers in African serve in the wars”.[28] Making Bishops take practical steps conflicts.[43][44] to proclaim and uphold this Resolution is a key aim of APF. The 1968 Lambeth Conference saw a victory for conscientious objectors who finally had their rights recognised and upheld by the Church. The use of nuclear and bacteriological weapons was also “emphatically condemned”.[29] “Gordon Wilson of APF was pleased that there were no ‘but’s in the Conference’s anti-war statements”.[30]
3.6.6 New Zealand
APF branches exist in all British Commonwealth countries but the Fellowship is particularly prominent in New Zealand. The New Zealand Chapter was initially established in Christchurch in 1948.[45] The New Zealand Chapter have their own website and newsletter[46] and count a number of local bishops amongst their memberDuring the 1978 Conference, after a pilgrimage to Dick ship. Sheppard’s grave, activists nailed Seven Theses to the door The prominence of the New Zealand branch was helped of Canterbury Cathedral. “The theses reflected the the- significantly by Sidney Hinkes’ pilgrimages to that counological approach of Gordon Wilson for whom Christ’s try during the branch’s formative stages.[47] The New victory of love over violence on the cross was a fun- Zealand Chapter was headed by Professor Margaret damental principle”.[31] This action deliberately echoed Bedggood and Chris Barfoot throughout 2008.[48] The Martin Luther's famous nailing of The Ninety-Five The- previous head of the Chapter in this country had been ses to the church door in Wittenberg. Roger Baker. APF founded the Week of Prayer for World Peace, and continue to have close ties with it, now that it has expanded to become an inter-religious event.[32] APF is also heavily involved in the Greenbelt Festival and White Poppy sales for protesting Remembrance Day, which APF members feel has become to much a celebration of the military.
Bedggood, a Franciscan, is a Professor of Law and was the Chief Commissioner of the New Zealand Human Rights Commission, a member of Amnesty International and a member of the New Zealand Film and Literature Review Board.[49] The Chair of the New Zealand Chapter for 2009 is Dr Jonathan Hartfield.[50]
Songwriter Sue Gilmurray, an APF member, is heavily involved in commemorations surrounding International Conscientious Objectors Day, held annually on May 15 3.6.7 Australia at Tavistock Square in London,[33][34] She is also prominent in protests against the Faslane Naval In contrast to New Zealand, APF have a much more lowBase, at which Trident Nuclear Weapons are situated.[35] key presence in Australia. The most notable member of the organisation in this country was Margaret Holmes, a Gilmurray is one of a number of APF members who lifelong peace activist, prominent in many anti-war orshowed support for the Baptist peace activist and human ganisations, notably the Women’s International League shield, Norman Kember.[36] for Peace and Freedom.[51][52] Author Michelle Cavanagh Several prominent APF members, such as Gilmurray and published a readily-available biography of Holmes in [53] scientist Dr Tony Kempster are also involved in the sec- 2006. Margaret Holmes died on September 10, 2009, [54] ular Movement for the Abolition of War. Kempster at the age of 100. has been a strident opponent of the weapons manufac- For many years, the secretary of APF in Australia was a turer, BAE.[37][38][39][40] Indeed, BAE considered Kemp- priest from Melbourne, the Very Reverend David Thawster such a threat that it infiltrated MAW and stole a mem- ley, a Second World War conscientious objector who was bership database. Legal action against the arms manufac- proactive in promoting the organisation and working on turer was pursued. various committees within the Church and alongside sec[55] APF also supports peace museums with Reverend Clive ular anti-war organisations. Since 2005, the Secretary Barrett being particularly involved in this type of educa- of the Australian Chapter has been the Bishop Philip [56] tion and awareness campaigning.[41] Elnora Ferguson also Huggins, also from Melbourne in Victoria. lead peace education in the British education system. Another member of APF in Australia is young Angli[57] The Fellowship also focuses very much on the promotion can thinker and anti-military activist David Le Sage, of Peace Studies in British schools to counter attempts who has organised fundraisers for African refugees and has been involved in some protest activities in his native by the military to recruit English school students.[42] Tasmania. David Le Sage has written academic research Much time is also spent liaising with bishops and politi- on the pacifist ideology of notable British writers of the cians and promoting the pacifist viewpoint in public fo- 1930s.[58] A published author, from January 2009 he led rum debates and on representational committees. peace education in a teaching role at a private Christian
3.6. ANGLICAN PACIFIST FELLOWSHIP school in Brisbane before going on to work as a head technical writer for one of the world’s leading software companies. Like Bedggood, David Le Sage has worked with Franciscans and Quakers.
3.6.8
Other countries
APF is very much active in a number of African countries and bishops and priests from this part of the world are members of the Fellowship, working to deal directly with conflict situations. An example is Bishop Nelson Onono Onweng of the Diocese of Northern Uganda who has helped to facilitate peace talks with rebel militia leaders and directly faced the problems of dealing with the Lord’s Resistance Army and their kidnapping of youth to pressgang them into becoming child soldiers.[59]
85 problem of Hitler and alternatives to warfare. Pamphlets analyse the Bible in detail, with particular reference to the Sermon on the Mount and the teachings and actions of Jesus Christ to show pacifism as the most Christian response to warfare, such as how Jesus, through disarming Saint Peter in the Garden of Gethsemane, thereby “disarms every soldier”. They also depict the pacifist attitude of believers in the Early Church, prior to Christianity’s acceptance by Constantine.[64][65] Many of these educational pamphlets were written by Derek Savage, a prominent British poet, APF member and Second World War conscientious objector.
One of Savage’s tracts, Pacifism, Church and State, discusses one of the unique problems facing the Anglican Communion. As a State Church in England, the Anglican Church is often seen as part of “The Establishment” and, thus, critiquing Government policy and fully realizing the Pararasan Arulanantham, originally from Sri Lanka, has subversive, radical politics and social message at the heart helped to promote peace in that country.[60] of Jesus’ Gospel can be difficult. The Church can thus be criticised for excessive compliance to the Government and not living up to Christ’s ideals as expressed in the 3.6.9 Work with other groups Sermon on the Mount, in which he criticises the power structures of this world, including the dominant military The American branch of APF is known as the Episcopal and economic force of His own time, the Roman Empire. Peace Fellowship. The Fellowship is a member body of the Peace Education Network,[61] Network of Christian A topic often discussed amongst pacifists is that of how Peace Organisations, War Resisters International and of best they could respond to the emergence of Hitler, usthe International Peace Bureau. Indeed, Roberta Bacic, ing non-violent means. Most APF members feel that the a survivor of the Pinochet regime in Chile and President problem of Hitler could only have been settled earlier of WRI, has worked closely with Fellowship members[62] peacefully prior to 1939, via a more just and equitable Treaty of Versailles and more work to promote a stable and written for the APF newsletter. economic and political situation in the Weimar RepubAPF is also a sister of the Roman Catholic peace organlic, as related in the pamphlet What to Do About Hitler: isation, Pax Christi, with which it has very close ties. A Pacifist Symposium, published in 1989. The pamphlet also notes that whilst the Jews suffered horrific persecution under the Nazis during the 1930s, the Final Solu3.6.10 APF publications and resources tion could only occur under the cloud of wartime activThe Fellowship publishes a newsletter, The Anglican ity. Those who argue against fighting Hitler also note that Peacemaker, which is available online[63] or via mail sub- the bombing of Dresden, Hiroshima and Nagasaki meant scription. Each newsletter explores a specific theme or that the Allies sunk to the level of their opponents, whilst current event and also contains a page depicting art, song a campaign of non-violent resistance to any Nazi regime lyrics and poetry that promote a culture of peace. Book may have been more effective as such an overstretched and film reviews are also featured. The newsletter ex- empire would not be sustainable in the long run. The plores pragmatic, constructive ways of building peace as pamphlet argues that if Germany had been treated with well as exploring the Christian spiritual foundations of greater dignity and been helped to recover more quickly pacifism. It frequently critiques the actions of the military after the 1918 defeat, the conditions that led Hitler to rise and arms manufacturers in many parts of the world whilst to power would not have occurred. Hence the Fellowship exploring the reasons why the military still has such influ- aims to work proactively in the world to determine and ence in society. The role of the media, environment, pol- eliminate causes of warfare before conflict becomes initics and capitalism are explored whilst ways of educating evitable. people about the immorality of military life are also dis- Other notable tracts include: cussed. Promotion of proactive peace-making and analysis of the causes of war and attraction of the military are • Why I am Not a Pacifist: A Pacifist’s Reply, which key aims of the newsletter. addresses some of the key theological and pragmatic APF also publishes a range of leaflets on a variety of topquestions often asked by people hesitant to embrace ics, from traditional Anglican pacifist tracts and an expacifism; planation of the Church’s teachings on pacifism, through • Article XXXVII and War, which discusses the conto articles discussing pragmatic pacifist responses to the
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CHAPTER 3. FELLOWSHIP CONFESSIONALI tentious Article and its bearing on modern Anglican pacifism;
• Gordon Wilson (1927–1995) Former APF Chairman
• Against the Stream,[66] about the life of the German Roman Catholic conscientious objector Franz Jägerstätter, who was executed for refusing to serve in the Nazi army;[67]
• Anglicanism
• The Church and War, a classic 1940 tract by Evelyn Underhill[68]
• Conscientious objector
• Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament • Christian pacifism
• Fellowship of Reconciliation Combined, these texts explore many of the issues surrounding a pacifism and intellectually engage the spiritual and pragmatic consequences of the ideology. In 2000, the Fellowship released a compact disc of music, entitled Finest Hour, featuring music composed by Gilmurray, the renowned Anglican hymn writer Christopher Idle and John Bell of the Iona Community. The songs on the album promote pacifism and Christian fellowship by critiquing a number of issues and themes relating to war, arms manufacturing, American imperialism and corporate capitalism.[69]
• Lambeth Conference • Pacifism • Pacifist organisation • Pax Christi • Peace Activist • Peace Churches • War Resisters’ International
A second recording by Gilmurray, The Way of Peace, was released in 2006 to recognise the United Nations' 3.6.12 References Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and NonViolence for the Children of the World. It was accompa- [1] Anglican Pacifist Fellowship website. nied by a Lenten study book that contains poetry and passages of scripture. This album featured songs critiquing [2] http://www.ppu.org.uk/learn/infodocs/people/pst_dick. html social issues such as the use of child soldiers in African combat zones and the depictions of violence in films and [3] http://www.abolishwar.org.uk/news8.pdf other media products marketed towards children.[70] [4] http://www.peacetaxseven.com/anglican.html
3.6.11
See also
[5] http://www.ppu.org.uk/learn/infodocs/people/pst_vera3. html
• Vera Brittain (1893–1970), English literary figure and APF member.
[6] http://lachlan.bluehaze.com.au/books/fellowship_ march1944/fellowship_march_1944.pdf
• John Collins (1905–1982), Clergyman, APF member, CND co-founder and anti-apartheid activist.
[7] http://www.evelynunderhill.org/her_work/about_her_ life.shtml
• Sidney Hinkes (1925–2006), Priest and APF activist.
[8] http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title= 1234
• Margaret Holmes (1909–2009), Australia’s most prominent APF activist.
[9] http://disseminary.org/hoopoe/pubs/underhill.html
• George Lansbury (1859–1940), Former British Labour Party Leader and APF Chairman
[10] http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title= 1234 [11] http://www.peacetaxseven.com/anglican.html
• Derek Savage (1917–2007), Former APF General [12] http://www.churchtimes.co.uk/content.asp?id=14957 Secretary. • Colin Scott (1933-) Former APF Chairman and Anglican bishop • Dick Sheppard (1880–1937), Anglican priest, pioneer religious broadcaster and founder of the Peace Pledge Union and the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship • Evelyn Underhill (1875–1941), Anglican thinker and APF member.
[13] http://www.churchtimes.co.uk/content.asp?id=14957 [14] http://www.churchtimes.co.uk/content.asp?id=14957 [15] http://www.sussex.ac.uk/press_office/bulletin/15jul05/ article6.shtml [16] http://www.sussex.ac.uk/press_office/bulletin/15jul05/ article6.shtml [17] http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/pauloestreicher
3.6. ANGLICAN PACIFIST FELLOWSHIP
87
[18] http://www.converge.org.nz/pma/pauloes.htm
[44] http://www.redhandday.org/
[19] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/index.php/3/about_us
[45] http://www.converge.org.nz/pma/apf/apfmay07.pdf
[20] http://www.peacetaxseven.com/anglican.html
[46] http://www.converge.org.nz/pma/apf/
[21] http://www.anglicanpeacemaker.org.uk/
[47] http://www.churchtimes.co.uk/content.asp?id=14957
[22] http://www.peacetaxseven.com/anglican.html
[48] http://www.converge.org.nz/pma/apf/contact.htm
[23] http://www.peacetaxseven.com/anglican.html
[49] http://www.humanrights.co.nz/about/bios.html
[24] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/uploads/docs/ 18-The%20Lambeth%20Conference%20-%20Draft% 20Version.pdf
[50] http://www.converge.org.nz/pma/apf/apfjan09.pdf
[25] http://www.lambethconference.org/resolutions/1930/ 1930-25.cfm [26] http://www.lambethconference.org/resolutions/1978/ 1978-5.cfm [27] http://www.lambethconference.org/resolutions/1930/ 1930-25.cfm [28] http://www.eskimo.com/~{}lhowell/bcp1662/articles/ articles.html#37 [29] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/uploads/docs/ 18-The%20Lambeth%20Conference%20-%20Draft% 20Version.pdf [30] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/uploads/docs/ 18-The%20Lambeth%20Conference%20-%20Draft% 20Version.pdf [31] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/uploads/docs/ 18-The%20Lambeth%20Conference%20-%20Draft% 20Version.pdf
[51] http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/PARLMENT/ hansArt.nsf/V3Key/LC20060920045 [52] http://www.greenleft.org.au/2006/679/7796 [53] http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/3638376 [54] http://www.smh.com.au/national/obituaries/ powerful-voice-for-peace-and-freedom-20091002-ggg6. html [55] http://www.peacecourier.com/terrorism.htm [56] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/index.php/7/ worldwide [57] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/uploads/docs/ 9-TAP%20May%2008.pdf [58] http://www.research.utas.edu.au/warp/reports/ individual.htm [59] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/uploads/docs/ 4-TAP%20OCT07.pdf
[32] http://nfpb.gn.apc.org/Prayer/
[60] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/uploads/docs/ 28-TAP%20FEB%202009.pdf
[33] http://www.abolishwar.org.uk/downloads/ SongsForEducation.pdf
[61] http://www.peaceeducation.org.uk/ anglican-pacifist-fellowship
[34] http://www.rrk.freeuk.com/
[62] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/uploads/docs/ 9-TAP%20May%2008.pdf
[35] http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/musicclub/doc_power. shtml
[63] The Anglican Peacemaker
[36] http://www.abolishwar.org.uk/downloads/ SongsForEducation.pdf [37] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/uploads/docs/ 9-TAP%20May%2008.pdf [38] http://www.abolishwar.org.uk/newsletters/news05.pdf
[64] http://books.google.com.au/books?id= DtYVfMkTDs4C&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=dick+ sheppard+anglican+pacifist+fellowship&source=bl& ots=UCmDjj1188&sig=t_x3lNQcq-3oV2zovJ1z7_ FHcPE&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4& ct=result#PPA32,M1
[39] http://www.abolishwar.org.uk/newsletters/news12.pdf
[65] http://www.catholicpeacefellowship.org/nextpage.asp? m=2479
[40] http://www.paxchristi.org.uk/JustPeace/jp254_May_ June06.pdf
[66] http://www.c3.hu/~{}bocs/jager-a.htm
[41] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/uploads/docs/ 23-TAP%20Dec%2008.pdf
[67] http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/224.html [68] http://disseminary.org/hoopoe/pubs/underhill.html
[42] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/uploads/docs/ 23-TAP%20Dec%2008.pdf
[69] http://www.crossrhythms.co.uk/artists/Sue_Gilmurray/ 10892/
[43] http://www.anglicanpacifists.com/index.php?page= news&news_id=25
[70] http://www.paxchristi.org.uk/JustPeace/jp253_ March-April06.pdf
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3.6.13
CHAPTER 3. FELLOWSHIP CONFESSIONALI
External links
• Official site
3.7 Catholic Worker Movement The Catholic Worker Movement is a collection of autonomous[1] communities of Catholics and their associates founded by Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin in 1933. Its aim is to “live in accordance with the justice and charity of Jesus Christ.”[2] One of its guiding principles is hospitality towards those on the margin of society, based on the principles of communitarianism and personalism. To this end, the movement claims over 213 local Catholic Worker communities providing social services.[3] Each house has a different mission, going about the work of social justice in its own way, suited to its local region. Catholic Worker houses are not official organs of the Catholic Church, and their activities, inspired by Day’s example, may be more or less overtly religious in tone and inspiration depending on the particular institution. The movement campaigns for nonviolence and is active in opposing both war and the unequal global distribution of wealth. Dorothy Day also founded The Catholic Worker newspaper, still published by the two Catholic Worker houses in New York City and sold for a penny a copy.
3.7.1
History
The Catholic Worker Movement started with the Catholic Worker newspaper, created by Dorothy Day to advance Catholic social teaching and stake out a neutral, pacifist position in the war-torn 1930s. Day attempted to put her words from the Catholic Worker into action through "houses of hospitality"[4] and then through a series of farms for people to live together communally. The idea of voluntary poverty was advocated for those who volunteered to work at the houses of hospitality.[5] Many people would come to the Catholic Workers for assistance, only to become Workers themselves.[6] Initially, these houses of hospitality had little organization and no requirements for membership.[7] As time passed, however, some basic rules and policies were established.[8] Day appointed the directors of each of the houses, but tried to maintain autonomy in the actual running of the houses. Because of this policy, the houses varied in both size and character: in the 1930s, the St. Louis Workers served 3400 people a day while the Detroit Workers served around 600 a day.[9] The Catholic Worker newspaper spread the idea to other cities in the United States as well as to Canada and the United Kingdom through the reports printed by those who had experienced working in the houses of hospitality.[10] More than 30 independent but affiliated communities had been founded by 1941. Between 1965-
1980 an additional 76 communities were founded with 35 of these still in existence today,[11] such as the “Hippie Kitchen” founded in the back of a van by two Catholic Workers on Skid Row, Los Angeles in the 1970s.[12] Well over 200 communities exist today, including several in Australia, the United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, the Republic of Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, and Sweden.[13] Co-founder Dorothy Day, who died in 1980, is currently under consideration for sainthood by the Catholic Church.[14]
3.7.2 Beliefs of the Catholic Worker “Our rule is the works of mercy,” said Dorothy Day. “It is the way of sacrifice, worship, a sense of reverence.” According to co-founder Peter Maurin, the following are the beliefs of the Catholic Worker:[15] 1. gentle personalism of traditional Catholicism. 2. personal obligation of looking after the needs of our brother. 3. daily practice of the Works of Mercy. 4. Houses of Hospitality for the immediate relief of those who are in need. 5. establishment of Farming Communes where each one works according to his ability and receives according to his need. 6. creating a new society within the shell of the old[16] with the philosophy of the new. The radical philosophy of the group can be described as Christian anarchism.[17][18] Anne Klejment, a history lecturer at the University of St. Thomas, wrote of the movement: The Catholic Worker considered itself a Christian anarchist movement. All authority came from God; and the state, having by choice distanced itself from Christian perfectionism, forfeited its ultimate authority over the citizen... Catholic Worker anarchism followed Christ as a model of nonviolent revolutionary behavior... He respected individual conscience. But he also preached a prophetic message, difficult for many of his contemporaries to embrace.[19] Family involvement in the Catholic Worker movement Families have had a variety of roles in the Catholic Worker movement.[20] Because those donating funds to
3.7. CATHOLIC WORKER MOVEMENT
89
the houses of hospitality were primarily interested in • Peter Maurin, co-founder of the Catholic Worker helping the poor, the higher cost of maintaining a volun• Political Catholicism teer family (as opposed to maintaining an individual vol[21] unteer) conflicted with the wishes of those donating. • Saint Patrick’s Day Four Author Daniel McKanan has suggested that, for a variety of reasons, Dorothy Day's perspective on family • Utah Phillips involvement in the movement was controversial.[22] Despite these elements of conflict, families have participated in the Catholic Worker movement through multiple av- Similar Christian movements enues: some assist the houses of hospitality while oth• Servants to Asia’s Urban Poor ers open up a “Christ room” in their homes for people in [23] need. There are many other opportunities for family • Madonna House Apostolate involvement in the Catholic Worker as well, with some [24] families running their own houses of hospitality. • "New Monasticism" related communities.
3.7.3
See also
• Anabaptism, in particular the emerging peace church movement
• Ammon Hennacy
• Peace Churches
• Ade Bethune
• On the English CW, see: Olivier Rota, From a social question with religious echoes to a religious question with social echoes. The ‘Jewish Question’ and the English Catholic Worker (1939-1948) in Houston Catholic Worker, Vol. XXV n°3, May–June 2005, pp. 4–5.
• Bill Kauffman • Catholic Radical Alliance • Catholic social teaching • Catholic trade unions • The Catholic Worker, a newspaper produced by the Catholic Worker Movement • Christian anarchism • Christian communism • Christian left • Christian libertarianism • Christian socialism • Christian trade unions • Christian views on poverty and wealth • Ciaron O'Reilly
3.7.4 Footnotes [1] Robert Waldrop, “About the Oscar Romero Catholic Worker House,” www.justpeace.org/ Retrieved August 17, 2011. [2] "The Aims and Means of the Catholic Worker" from The Catholic Worker newspaper, May 2002 [3] “Catholic Worker Movement”. Catholicworker.org. 1933-05-01. Retrieved 2011-06-30. [4] Piehl, Mel (1982). Breaking Bread: The Catholic Worker and the Origin of Catholic Radicalism in America. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 96. [5] Piehl, p.98. [6] Piehl, p.107.
• Distributism
[7] Piehl, pp.98-99.
• Friendship House
[8] Piehl, p.106.
• Fritz Eichenberg
[9] Piehl, p.110.
• Geolibertarianism • Georgism • Industrial Workers of the World • James J. Braddock • James Loney • Liberation theology
[10] Piehl, Mel (1982). Breaking Bread: The Catholic worker and the Origin of Catholic Radicalism in America. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 107. [11] Dan McKanan, The Catholic Worker Afhttp://books. ter Dorothy, 2008. Pp 75-76. google.ca/books?id=LalvZo7fx5sC&printsec= frontcover&dq=Catholic+Worker&hl=en&sa= X&ei=kPfGUreNA6nA2AXGoYH4Bw&ved= 0CEIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false
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[12] Streeter, Kurt (2014-04-09). “A couple’s commitment to skid row doesn't waver”. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2014-04-09. [13] Directory of Catholic Worker Communities “List of Catholic Worker Communities” Check |url= value (help). Retrieved 2008-11-30. [14] “Saint Dorothy Day? Controversial, Yes, But Bishops Push for Canonization”. Huffington Post. 2012-11-14. Retrieved 2012-12-26. [15] Maurin, Peter. “What the Catholic Worker Believes”. [16] The concept of “a new society within the shell of the old” appeared in the preamble to the constitution of the IWW, though there not given a religious rationale [17] Cornell, Tom (May 2010). “In Defense of Anarchism”. Catholic Worker. LXXVII (77th Anniversary Issue): 4– 5. [18] Prentiss, Craig R. (2008). Debating God’s Economy: Social Justice in America on the Eve of Vatican II. p. 74. Subsidiarity and its value in promoting the philosophy of personalism was also key to undergirding perhaps the most distinctive element of the CW ideology, its Christian anarchism [19] Klejment, Anne; Patrick Coy (1988). A Revolution of the heart: essays on the Catholic worker. Temple University Press. pp. 293–294. [20] McKanan, Daniel (April 2007). “The Family, the Gospel, and the Catholic Worker”. The Journal of Religion 87 (2). Retrieved 14 October 2014. [21] McKanan, Daniel (March 2007). “Inventing the Catholic Worker Family”. Church History 76 (1): 94. doi:10.1017/s0009640700101428. [22] McKanan, Daniel (March 2007). “Inventing the Catholic Worker Family”. Church History 76 (1). [23] McKanan, Daniel (April 2007). “The Family, the Gospel, and the Catholic Worker”. The Journal of Religion 87 (2): 154. doi:10.1086/510646. Retrieved 14 October 2014. [24] McKanan, Daniel (April 2007). “The Family, the Gospel, and the Catholic Worker”. The Journal of Religion 87 (2): 158. doi:10.1086/510646. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
3.7.5
Sources
• Piehl, Mel. Breaking Bread: The Catholic Worker and the Origin of Catholic Radicalism in America, Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1982
3.7.6
Further reading
• Dorothy Day (1997) Loaves and Fishes: The inspiring story of the Catholic Worker Movement. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1963.
3.7.7 External links • Main website of the Catholic Worker Movement • Catholic Worker communities at DMOZ • Dorothy Day-Catholic Worker Collection at Marquette University • The Way of Love: Dorothy Day and the American Right - by Bill Kauffman, Whole Earth (Summer 2000) • Following Jesus in love and anarchy - The Times, February 29, 2008
Chapter 4
le Chiese per la Pace 4.1 Peace churches Not to be confused with Churches of Peace. Peace churches are Christian churches, groups or communities advocating Christian pacifism or Biblical nonresistance. The term historic peace churches refers specifically only to three church groups among pacifist churches—Church of the Brethren; Religious Society of Friends (Quakers); and Mennonites, including the Amish, Old Order Mennonite, and Conservative Mennonites—and has been used since the first conference of the peace churches in Kansas in 1935.[1][2][3][4][5]
Among all Christian denominations, there have always been groups of members who advocate nonviolence, but certain churches have consistently supported it since their foundation. Besides the three historic peace churches, they include the Amish,[7] Old Order Mennonites, Conservative Mennonites, Hutterites,[8] Old German Baptist Brethren,[9] Old Order River Brethren,[10] the Brethren in Christ,[11][12] and others in the Anabaptist tradition; Doukhobors,[13] Dunkard Brethren,[14][15] Molokans,[16] Bruderhof Communities,[17] Schwenkfelders,[18] Moravians,[19] the Shakers,[20] and even some groups within the Pentecostal movement.[21] The largest Pentecostal church, the Assemblies of God, abandoned pacifism around the time of the Second World War.[22][23] These groups have disagreed, both internally and with each other, about the propriety of avoiding non-combatant military roles, such as unarmed medical personnel, or performing non-battlefield services that assist nations in wartime, such as manufacturing munitions. One position might argue that Jesus would never object to helping people who are suffering, while another might object that doing so contributes indirectly to violence by freeing other people to engage in it.
The definition of “peace churches” is sometimes expanded to include Christadelphians (from 1863) and Molokans (Russian Orthodox “milk-drinkers”), though these did not participate in the conference of the “historic peace churches” in Kansas in 1935.[6] The peace churches agree that Jesus advocated nonviolence. Whether physical force can ever be justified, either in defending oneself or others, remains controversial. Many believers adhere strictly to a moral attitude of nonresistance in the face of violence. But these churches generally do concur that violence on behalf of nations and their governments is At one time, active membership in and acceptance of contrary to Christian morality. the beliefs of one of the peace churches was required for obtaining conscientious objector status in the United States, and hence exemption from military conscription, or for those already in the military, honorable discharge. 4.1.1 History But after a series of court rulings, this requirement was dropped. In the USA, one may now claim conscientious objector status based on a personal belief system that need not be Christian, nor even based on religion.[24]
Peace churches, especially those with sufficient financial and organizational resources, have attempted to heal the ravages of war without favoritism. This has often aroused controversy, as when the Quakers sent large shipments of food and medicine to North Vietnam during the Vietnam War, and to U.S.-embargoed Cuba. The American Friends Service Committee and the Mennonite Central Committee are two charitable denominational agencies set up to provide such healing. The Deserter (1916) by Boardman Robinson.
In the 1980s, the Quakers, Brethren, and Mennonites came together to create Christian Peacemaker Teams, an 91
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international organization that works to reduce violence and systematic injustice in regions of conflict.[25][26] One motive for its foundation may have been to forestall the criticism that peace churches rely on states and their military establishments for protection.
4.1.2
Other Christian pacifist groups
Further information: Christian pacifism
Community of Christ Although non-credal and not explicitly pacifist, the Community of Christ (formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints) is emerging as an international peace church through such ministries as the Community of Christ International Peace Award, the Daily Prayer for Peace, and resources to support conscientious objection to war.[36][37][38] However, in the United States and worldwide, many church members are active in military service and the church provides active duty chaplaincy for outreach and ministry to military personnel.
Christadelphians, 1863 Churches of Christ The Christadelphians are one of only a small number of churches whose identity as a denomination is directly linked to the issue of Christian pacifism.[27] Although the grouping which later took the name “Christadelphian” had largely separated from the Campbellite movement in Scotland and America after 1848, it was conscription in the American Civil War which caused their local church in Ogle County, Illinois to register as conscientious objectors in 1863 under the name “Christadelphians.”[28] When the First World War was imminent Christadelphians in the British Empire took the same stance, though frequently faced military tribunals. During the Second World War Christadelphians were exempted and performed civil work – though some of the small number of Christadelphians in Germany were imprisoned and one executed.[29] The position was maintained through the Korean War, Vietnam War and today.[30][31]
Once containing a relatively large nonviolence faction, Churches of Christ are now more conflicted. Contemporary Churches of Christ, especially those that hold with the teachings of David Lipscomb, tend toward pacifist views.[39] This means that they believe that the use of coercion and/or force may be acceptable for purposes of personal self-defense but that resorting to warfare is not an option open to Christians. Fellowship of Reconciliation
As noted above, there are peace groups within most mainstream Christian denominations. The Fellowship of Reconciliation was set up as an organization to bring together people in these groups and members of the historic peace churches. In some countries, e.g. the United States, it has broadened its scope to include members of other religions or none, and people whose position is not strictly Seventh-day Adventist Church, 1867 for nonviolence. However in other countries (e.g., the United Kingdom) it remains essentially an organization Adventists had sought and obtained exemption as consci- of Christian nonviolence.[40] entious objectors in 1864, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church from 1914 has a long history of noncombatancy service within and outside the military.[32] Though some 4.1.4 See also church members choose combat, the church stands by its official position, which dates to a resolution made in • American Friends Service Committee 1867.[33] • Anglican Pacifist Fellowship Churches of God (7th day)
• Baptist Peace Fellowship of North America • Catholic Worker Movement
The different groups evolving under the name Church of God (7th day) stand opposed to carnal warfare, based on Matthew 26:52; Revelation 13:10; Romans 12:19–21. They believe the weapons of their warfare to not be carnal but spiritual (II Corinthians 10:3–5; Ephesians 6:11– 18).[34][35]
4.1.3
Partially pacifist groups
• Center on Conscience & War • Christian pacifism • Christianity and violence • Civilian-based defense • Civilian Public Service • Conscription
4.1. PEACE CHURCHES • Diane Drufenbrock • Doukhobors • Jewish Peace Fellowship • List of pacifist faiths • List of peace activists • Martin Luther King • Mennonite • Nonconformism • Nonresistance • Nonviolence • Pacifism • Pax Christi • Plain people • Religious Freedom Peace Tax Fund Act
93
[5] G. Kurt Piehler, Sidney Pash The United States and the Second World War: New Perspectives on 2010 p265 “The Selective Service, in collaboration with the historic peace churches, created Civilian Public Service to provide ... In October 1940, to coordinate administration of the CPS camps, the historic peace churches established the NSBRO. " [6] Law review digest 1957 “Among the peace churches may be listed the Mennonite, Brethren, Friends, Christadelphians and Molakans. Other sects having a degree of pacifism in their doctrines include the Seventh Day Adventists, Assemblies of God and Churches of Christ. A more complex situation arises in connection with those registrants who do not base their claims " [7] “The Amish: Massacre at the Amish school in Nickel Mines, PA”. Religioustolerance.org. Retrieved 2010-0502. [8] “Religion”. Hutterites.org. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [9] “Anabaptists Today”. Anabaptistchurch.org. 2007-0620. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [10] “Old Order River Brethren”. Geocities.com. Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
• Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
[11] Wittlinger, Carlton (1978). Quest for Piety and Obedience: The Story of the Brethren in Christ. Evangel Press. ISBN 0-916035-05-0.
• Leo Tolstoy
[12] “Christians & War” (PDF). The Brethren in Christ. Retrieved 2009-06-28.
• John Howard Yoder
[13] “Pacifism and Anastasia’s Doukhobor Village”. Doukhobor.org. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
4.1.5
References
[1] Concise Encyclopedia of Amish, Brethren, Hutterites, and Mennonites p6 Donald B. Kraybill – 2010 “In 1935, BRETHREN, Mennonites, and Quakers met in North Newton, Kansas, for a conference on peace. The term HISTORIC PEACE CHURCHES was developed at this conference in order to distinguish between the groups’ biblically based peaceful ...” [2] The Brethren encyclopedia 1983 p608 “The American Civil War brought the peace churches together in combined appeals to government, both in the North and in ... This conference used the term historic peace churches as more acceptable to Mennonites than the term pacifist churches because the latter connoted theological liberalism. Called without prior agenda, the three-day meeting concluded with " [3] Mark Matthews Smoke jumping on the Western fire line: conscientious objectors p36 – 2006 “CHAPTER TWO The Historic Peace Churches – The three historic peace churches that united to lobby for reforming the treatment of conscientious objectors during World War II shared many religious beliefs, but they also differed in many " [4] Speicher, Sara and Durnbaugh, Donald F. (2003), Ecumenical Dictionary: Historic Peace Churches
[14] “Dunkard Brethren Church”. Dunkard Brethren Church. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [15] Durnbaugh, Donald (1997). Fruit of the Vine: A History of the Brethren. Brethren Press. ISBN 0-87178-003-8. [16] “Molokan and Jumper Home Page”. Molokane.org. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [17] “The Religion Report: 23 March 2005 – Christians and immigration: Bruderhof”. Abc.net.au. 2005-03-23. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [18] “Brethern, Schwenkfelders and Other Plain People”. Horseshoe.cc. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [19] http://www.moravianpeacebuilders.org/ [20] “Essay on Shaker History – Shaker Historic Trail – National Register of Historic Places”. Nps.gov. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [21] “PCPJ – Pentecostals & Charismatics for Peace & Justice”. Pcpf.org. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [22] Alexander, Paul (2009). Peace to War: Shifting Allegiances in the Assemblies of God. Cascadia Publishing House. ISBN 1-931038-58-9. [23] “issue-12-alexander-1”. Quaker.org. Retrieved 2010-0502.
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[24] “Selective Service System: Fast Facts”. Sss.gov. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [25] “About CPT | Christian Peacemaker Teams”. Cpt.org. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [26] “History | Christian Peacemaker Teams”. Cpt.org. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [27] Bryan R. Wilson Sects and Society 1961 [28] Lippey. C. The Christadelphians in North America [29] James Irvin Lichti Houses on the sand?: pacifist denominations in Nazi Germany p65 – 2008 -"Albert Merz was executed in Brandenburg military detention prison on April 3, 1941 " [30] Norris, Alfred. The Gospel and Strife. Birmingham, UK: Christadelphian Magazine and Publishing Association. [31] Watkins, Peter. War and Politics: The Christian’s Duty. Birmingham, UK: Christadelphian Auxiliary Lecturing Society. [32] Historical dictionary of Seventh-Day Adventists Gary Land [33] “Noncombatancy and Conscientious Objection—a Timeline”. Adventist Review. Retrieved 2011-08-20. [34] Doctrinal Points of the Church of God (7th Day) [35] http://www.cog7day.org/about/index.asp?pgID=11 [36] Communication Services of Community of Christ, Independence Mo. “Community of Christ International Peace Award Honor Roll”. Cofchrist.org. Retrieved 2010-0502. [37] Communication Services of Community of Christ, Independence Mo. “Community of Christ International Peace Award Nominations”. Cofchrist.org. Retrieved 2010-0502. [38] http://www.cofchrist.org/peace/statements/ consc-object.asp
• Lederach, John Paul (1999) The Journey Toward Reconciliation. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. ISBN 0-8361-9082-3 • Ruth-Heffelbower, Duane (1991) The Anabaptists Are Back: Making Peace in a Dangerous World. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. ISBN 0-8361-3552-0 • Sider, Ronald (1979) Christ and Violence. Scottdale PA: Herald Press. ISBN 1-57910-656-0 • Sampson, Cynthia (1999) “Religion and Peacebuilding.” In Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques; edited by I. William Zartman, and J. Lewis Rasmussen. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press. • Trocmé, André (1961) Jesus and the Nonviolent Revolution; Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2003. ISBN 1-57075-538-8 • Wink, Walter, ed. (2000) Peace is the Way: Writings on Nonviolence from the Fellowship of Reconciliation. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. ISBN 1-57075315-6 • Van Dyck, Harry R. (1990) Exercise of Conscience: A World War II Objector Remembers. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-584-9 • McGrath, Willam (1980) Why We Are Conscientious Objectors to War. Millersburg, OH: Amish Mennonite Publications. • Horsch, John (1999) The Principle of Nonresistance as Held by the Mennonite Church. Ephrata, PA: Eastern Mennonite Publications. • Brown, Dale (1985) Biblical Pacifism: A Peace Church Perspective. Elgin, IL: Brethren Press. ISBN 0-87178-108-5
[39] “Civil Government”. Mun.ca. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [40] Stan Morris, Naomi Bolderhey, Laura Visser. “International Fellowship of Reconciliation”. Ifor.org. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
4.1.6
Further reading
• Driver, Juan (1970) How Christians Made Peace With War: Early Christian Understandings of War. Scottdale PA: Herald Press. ISBN 0-8361-3461-3 (1999) Radical Faith. Scottdale PA: Herald Press. ISBN 0-9683462-8-6 • Friesen, Duane K. (1986) Christian Peacemaking and International Conflict: A Realist Pacifist Perspective. Scottdale: Herald Press. ISBN 0-83611273-3
4.1.7 External links • Historic Peace Churches in Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia • Who are the Historic Peace Churches (HPC)? (Wayback Machine – original link is dead) • Every Church a Peace Church – organization working to create more peace churches • Writings on Christian Nonresistance and Pacifism from Anabaptist-Mennonite Sources • Pacifism And Biblical Nonresistance • NonResistance.Org • Cascadia Publishing House – Anabaptist-related publisher of Historic Peace Church materials
4.3. MENNONITE CENTRAL COMMITTEE
95
4.2 Friends Committee on National Legislation
ings and Quarterly Meetings), foundations, bequests and endowments.[9]
The Friends Committee on National Legislation (FCNL) is a lobbying organization in the public interest founded in 1943 by members of the Religious Society of Friends. FCNL works for social and economic justice, peace, stewardship of the environment, and good government in the United States.[2]
Positions FCNL’s legislative advocacy is based on their policy statement: The World We Seek[10] which identifies the organization’s policy positions.
Like other Quaker groups, FCNL’s General Committee FCNL has a General Committee of about 220 Quakers comes to unity on policy and priorities.` from across the United States. FCNL advocates on several issues that are extensions of the Quaker testimonies of peace, equality, simplicity, and integrity.[3]
4.2.3 References
FCNL is a member of Win Without War and Alliance for Peacebuilding, among other working groups and coalitions.
[1] Friends Committee on National Legislation [2] http://fum.org/stories-faith-peacemaking
4.2.1
Mission
The organization’s mission statement[4] has been in use since 1977 “as a guidance for considering Quaker stances on national legislation":[5] We seek a world free of war and the threat of war We seek a society with equity and justice for all We seek a community where every person’s potential may be fulfilled We seek an earth restored.
4.2.2
Organization
Establishment
[3] http://esr.earlham.edu/support/comprehensive-case/ the-vine/the-quaker-testimonies [4] The complete mission statement can be found on FCNL’s website. [5] Abbott, Margery Post (2014). A Theological Perspective on Quaker Lobbying (PDF). FCNL Education Fund. p. 27. [6] Wilson, E. Raymond (1976). Thus Far on My Journey. Richmond, Indiana: Friends United Press. pp. 150–155. [7] Snyder, Edward F.; Cooper, Wilmer A.; Klineberg, Stephen L.; Volk, Joe; Reeves, Don (1994). Mullen, Tom, ed. Witness in Washington: 50 Years of Friendly Persuasion. Richmond, Indiana: Friends United Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-944350-34-8. [8] http://projects.pewforum.org/religious-advocacy/ friends-committee-on-national-legislation/
FCNL was established on June 12–13, 1943 in Richmond, Indiana by Quakers from 15 yearly meetings.[6] [9] “Our Finances”. FCNL. Retrieved 5 October 2015. It was preceded by the Friends War Problems Committee, a three-year temporary lobbying organization against [10] http://fcnl.org/about/govern/policy/ universal conscription.[7] Funding
4.2.4 External links
• FCNL - website. Two separate organizations comprise FCNL: the FCNL Education Fund and the Friends Committee on National Legislation. The Education Fund is a 501(c)(3) non-profit which does not engage in lobbying, and donations to it 4.3 Mennonite Central Committee are tax deductible. The Friends Committee on National Legislation is a 501(c)(4) civic organization which lobbies Mennonite Central Committee (MCC) is a relief, serCongress.[8] vice, and peace agency representing fifteen Mennonite, The majority of FCNL’s budget comes from individual Brethren in Christ and Amish bodies in North America. donations. FCNL is also supported by contributions from The U.S. headquarters are in Akron, Pennsylvania, the Quaker Meetings and churches (including Yearly Meet- Canadian in Winnipeg, Manitoba.
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4.3.1
History
Founded in Chicago, Illinois, MCC held its first meeting on September 27, 1920.[3] Its original goal was to provide food for Mennonites starving in Ukraine. MCC soon realized that it could not help only their Mennonite brothers and sisters and began to help anyone in need. MCC (Canada) was founded in 1963.
plight succeeded in uniting various branches of Mennonites to form Mennonite Central Committee in an effort to aid these Russian Mennonites. P. C. Hiebert of the Mennonite Brethren Church initially chaired the organization, with secretary Levi Mumaw of the (Old) Mennonite Church and attorney Maxwell Kratz of the General Conference Mennonite Church. Other Mennonite conferences joined later. The new organization planned to provide aid to Ukraine via existing Mennonite relief work in Istanbul. The Istanbul group, mainly Goshen College graduates, produced three volunteers, who at great risk entered Ukraine during the ongoing Russian Civil War. They arrived in the Mennonite village of Halbstadt just as General Wrangel of the White Army was retreating. Two of the volunteers withdrew with the Wrangel army, while Clayton Kratz, who remained in Halbstadt (Molotschna) as the Red Army overran the village, was never heard from again. A year passed before official permission was received from the Soviet government to do relief work among the villages of Ukraine. Kitchens provided 25,000 people a day with rations over a period of three years beginning in 1922, with a peak of 40,000 servings during August of that year. Fifty Fordson tractor and plow combinations were sent to Mennonite villages to replace horses that had been stolen and confiscated during the war. This relief effort cost $1.2 million.[6]
Voluntary service
1941-1947: administration of Civilian Public Service (CPS) as part of National Service Board for Religious Objectors.
As Civilian Public Service started to wind down in 1946, MCC began exploring a peace-time service program that would continue the types of projects performed by CPS. The new program, Voluntary Service, had several aims.[7] It would provide young people with a way to voluntarily perform Christian service for up to a year as a means of testifying more widely to the gospel and its way of love and nonresistance. Projects were to help alleviate human need in a culturally sensitive manner. The program would operate as an internship in Christian service, developing the workers’ service motivation, witness and religious conviction. It would provide Mennonite young people with an opportunity to express appreciation for the material blessings, religious and other national liberties and to contribute to the well-being of the nation. Finally, it was hoped that some individuals would decide to devote their careers to full-time ministry or missionary service.
1950s: administration of 1-W service, the replacement of CPS, for draftees classified as conscientious objectors.
The first Voluntary Service unit started during the summer of 1946 in association with the CPS unit at Gulfport, Mississippi .
Mennonite Civilian Public Service worker Harry Lantz distributes rat poison for typhus control in Gulfport, Mississippi.
The initial work of MCC focused on:[4] 1920-1925: famine work in Ukraine. 1925-1930: inactive 1930-1937: colonization of Russian Mennonite and Bruderhof refugees[5] in Paraguay and Brazil. 1939-present: relief work; initially in Poland, then (1940) England and France.
Famine in Ukraine
4.3.2 Activities
Mennonites of Molotschna sent a commission to North America in the summer of 1920 to alert American Men- MCC was an early proponent of fair trade through its Ten nonites of the dire conditions of war-torn Ukraine. Their Thousand Villages program.
4.3. MENNONITE CENTRAL COMMITTEE
97 tice Network of the Mennonite Church and other activities, MCS was discontinued in 2004. But the Peace Office of MCC continues to advocate peace interests broadly in the US and in MCC programming abroad. Internationally, MCC partners with local organizations to reduce violence in the aftermath of conflict or war.
Akron, Pennsylvania, headquarters, August 1982.
Perhaps one of MCC’s more controversial activities is in advocating military exemption or alternative service for conscientious objectors in times of war. MCC runs a “conscientious objector registry” in Canada, taking statements from Canadians in the hope that they will be recognized by the Canadian government should the government restart drafting citizens into the military.
Funds for MCC’s worldwide relief and service projects are raised through independent Mennonite relief sales. Around 45 sales are held throughout the United States and 4.3.3 Affiliated organizations Canada, raising US$5 million annually.[8] Many of these sales feature quilts handmade by Mennonite and Amish • Beachy Amish Mennonite Churches volunteers, auctions, artwork, crafted woodwork, home• http://www.canadianbic.ca BIC Canada made foods, antiques, crafts, plants, children’s activities, and musical programs. Most of the goods and labor are • Brethren in Christ Church donated, and 78.2% of the funds raised go directly into the field. • Conservative Mennonite Conference MCC focuses its development efforts in areas such as • Mennonite Church Canada health, education, peace and justice, and fair trade. It responds to disaster situations, as well as focusing its efforts • Mennonite Church USA on the longer-term issues of economic and social policy. • Mennonite Disaster Service MCC maintains offices in both Washington, D.C.,[9] [10] and Ottawa to advocate to the American and Cana• U.S. Conference of Mennonite Brethren Churches dian federal governments, respectively. As of 2015, Ewuare Osayande served as the group’s Anti-Oppression Coordinator.[11] 4.3.4 See also • More-with-Less Cookbook Peacemaking MCC also takes an active role in advocating for peace both in North America and around the world, seeking “to be a witness against forces that contribute to poverty, injustice and violence.”[12] In North America, MCC established the Mennonite Conciliation Service (MCS) in 1979 to encourage Mennonites and others to actively pursue peaceful resolution of conflicts. MCS was a pioneer in the burgeoning field of conflict resolution in the 1980s and director Ronald S. Kraybill led early mediation workshops in Northern Ireland which eventually led to the establishment of the Northern Ireland Mediation Network. John Paul Lederach took over MCS in 1989 when Kraybill moved on to South Africa, and in the years following, MCC moved active peace building into the forefront of its work abroad.
4.3.5 Notes [1] Mennonite Central Committee U.S. and Subsidiaries Years Ended March 31, 2014 and 2013 [2] Financial Statements of Mennonite Church Canada, Year ended March 31, 2014 [3] Gingerich p. 16. [4] Gingerich p. 17. [5] Christensen & Levinson, Karen & David. Encyclopedia of community: from the village to the virtual world, Volume 3. Sage Publications. Retrieved 2011-04-28. [6] Smith, p. 320. [7] MCC Headquarters Letter, No. 90, November 1946 as quoted by Haury pp. 13-14.
Responding in part to the establishment of active Mennonite-led peace centers that had emerged in the 80s and 90s, such as the Conflict Transformation Program [8] at Eastern Mennonite University, the Lombard Mennon- [9] ite Peace Center in Lombard, Illinois, a group of peace builders at Fresno Pacific University, the Peace and Jus- [10]
http://mcc.org/about/annualreport MCC Washington Office MCC Ottawa Office
98
CHAPTER 4. LE CHIESE PER LA PACE
[11] Herholz, Quinci. “BLACK AND WHITE MENNONITES IN ST. LOUIS WORK TOGETHER FOR RACIAL JUSTICE” (14 April 2015). St. Louis PostDisbatch. Retrieved 19 September 2015. [12] Integrating peacemaking into relief, development and service Archived March 21, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
4.3.6
References
• Gingerich, Melvin (1949), Service for Peace, A History of Mennonite Civilian Public Service, Mennonite Central Committee. • Haury, David A. (1979), The Quiet Demonstration: The Mennonite Mission in Gulfport, Mississippi, Faith and Life Press. • Smith, C. Henry (1981). Smith’s Story of the Mennonites. Revised and expanded by Cornelius Krahn. Newton, Kansas: Faith and Life Press. pp. 316– 320. ISBN 0-87303-069-9.
4.3.7
External links
• Official Web Site • Mennonite Central Committee in Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online
Chapter 5
Attivisti per la Pace 5.1 List of peace activists
• N • O
See also: Anti-war movement and Peace movement
• P This list of peace activists includes people who have proactively advocated diplomatic, philosophical, and non-military resolution of major territorial or ideological disputes through nonviolent means and methods. Peace activists usually work with others in the overall anti-war and peace movements to focus the world’s attention on the irrationality of violent conflicts, decisions, and actions. They thus initiate and facilitate wide public dialogues intended to nonviolently alter long-standing societal agreements directly relating to, and held in place by, the various irrational, violent, habitual, and historically fearful thought-processes residing at the core of these conflicts, with the intention of peacefully ending the conflicts themselves.
• Q
Contents
• Z
• R • S • T • U • V • W • X • Y
• See also
• Top
• References
• A • B
5.1.1 A
• C
• Jane Addams (1860–1935) – American, national chairman Woman’s Peace Party, president Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom
• D • E
• Eqbal Ahmad (1933/34–1999) – Pakistani political scientist, activist
• F • G
• Martti Ahtisaari (born 1937) – former president of Finland, active in conflict resolution
• H
• Tadatoshi Akiba (born 1942) - Japanese pacifist and anti-nuclear weapons advocate, former mayor of Hiroshima
• I • J
• Widad Akrawi (born 1969) – Danish-Kurdish peace advocate, organizer
• K • L
• Stew Albert (1939–2006) – anti-Vietnam war activist, organizer
• M 99
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CHAPTER 5. ATTIVISTI PER LA PACE
5.1.2 B
Vittorio Arrigoni
• Ghassan Andoni (born 1956) – Palestinian physicist, James Bevel Christian, advocate of non-violent resistance • Annot (1894-1981) – German artist, anti-war and anti-nuclear activist • José Argüelles (1939–2011) – New Age author • Suzanne Arms (born 1945) – anti-Vietnam war activist, draft counselor • Klas Pontus Arnoldson (1844–1916) – Swedish pacifist, Nobel peace laureate, founder of the Swedish Peace and Arbitration Society • Émile Arnaud (1864–1921) – French peace campaigner, coined the word “Pacifism” • Vittorio Arrigoni (1975–2011) – Italian reporter, anti-war activist • Arik Ascherman (born 1959) – Israeli-American rabbi and defender of Palestinian human rights. • Pat Arrowsmith (born 1930) – British author and peace campaigner • Uri Avnery (born 1923) – Israeli writer and founder of Gush Shalom • Ali Abu Awwad (born 1972) – Palestinian peace activist from Beit Ummar, founder of al-Tariq (“the way”)
• Joan Baez (born 1941) – prominent American antiwar protester, inspirational singer • Emily Greene Balch (1867–1961) – American, a leader of Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom • Ernesto Balducci (1922–1992) – Italian priest • Archibald Baxter (1881–1970) – New Zealand pacifist, socialist, and anti-war activist • Harry Belafonte (born 1927) – American anti-war protester, performer • Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo (born 1948) – East Timorese bishop, Nobel peace laureate • Medea Benjamin (born 1952) – co-founder Code Pink, author, organizer • Meg Beresford (born 1937) – British activist, European Nuclear Disarmament movement • Daniel Berrigan (born 1921) – prominent antiVietnam war protester • Philip Berrigan (1923–2002) – prominent antiVietnam war protester
5.1. LIST OF PEACE ACTIVISTS • James Bevel (1936–2008) – prominent American anti-Vietnam war leader, organizer • Vinoba Bhave (1895–1982) – Indian, Gandhian, teacher, author, organizer • Janet Bloomfield (1953–2007) – peace and disarmament campaigner, chair of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament • Vera Brittain (1893–1970) – British writer, pacifist • José Brocca (1891-1950) - Spanish activist, international delegate War Resisters International, organiser of relief efforts during Spanish Civil War
101 • Pierre Cérésole (1879–1945) - Swiss engineer, founder of Service Civil International (SCI) or International Voluntary Service for Peace (IVSP) • Cesar Chavez (1927-1993) - American farm worker, labor leader and civil rights activist • Noam Chomsky (born 1928) - American linguist, philosopher, and activist • Ramsey Clark (born 1927) – American anti-war and anti-nuclear lawyer, activist • Helena Cobban (born 1952) – British peace activist, journalist, author
• Hugh Brock (1914 - 1985) - lifelong British pacifist and editor of Peace News between 1955 and 1964
• William Sloane Coffin (1924–2006) – American cleric, anti-war activist
• Elihu Burritt (1810–1879) – American diplomat, social activist
• James Colaianni (born 1922) – author, publisher, first anti-Napalm organizer
return to table of contents
5.1.3
C
• Judy Collins (born 1939) – inspirational American anti-war singer/songwriter, protester • Alex Comfort (1920-2000) – British pacifist and conscientious objector and author of The Joy of Sex • Tom Cornell – American anti-war activist, initiated first anti-Vietnam War protest • Jeremy Corbyn (born 1949) – British politician, socialist, long-time anti-war, anti-imperialism and anti-racism campaigner • Rachel Corrie (1979–2003) – American activist for Palestinian human rights[1][2] • David Cortright – American anti-nuclear weapon leader • Norman Cousins (1915–1990) – journalist, author, organizer, initiator
Helen Caldicott
• Frances Crowe (born 1919) – anti-war and antinuclear power, draft counselor return to table of contents
• Helen Caldicott (born 1938) – physician, antinuclear activist, revived Physicians for Social Responsibility, campaigner against the dangers of ra- 5.1.4 D diation • Rennie Davis (born 1941) – American anti-Vietnam • Hélder Câmara (1909–1999) – Brazilian archwar leader, organizer bishop, advocate of liberation theology, opponent of • Dorothy Day (1897–1980) – American journalmilitary dictatorship ist, social activist, and co-founder of the Catholic • Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919) – American indusWorker trialist and founder of the Carnegie Endowment for • Fran De'Ath (born 1949) - One of the first full-time International Peace members of the Greenham Common peace camp • Jimmy Carter (born 1924) – American negotiator • David Dellinger (1915–2004) – American pacifist, and former US President, organizer, international organizer, prominent anti-war leader conflict resolution
102
CHAPTER 5. ATTIVISTI PER LA PACE • Élie Ducommun (1833–1906) – Nobel Peace Prize laureate • Mel Duncan(born 1950) – founding Executive Director of Nonviolent Peaceforce return to table of contents
5.1.5 E • Shirin Ebadi (born 1947) – Iranian lawyer, human rights activist, Nobel peace laureate • Albert Einstein (1879-1955) – Scientist, Nobel Prize laureate in physics • Daniel Ellsberg (born 1931) – American anti-war whistleblower, protester • James Gareth Endicott (1898–1993) – initiator, organizer, protester • Jodie Evans (born 1954) – co-founder Code Pink, initiator, organizer, filmmaker return to table of contents
Dorothy Day
5.1.6 F • Michael Ferber (born 1944) - author, professor, anti-war activist • Jane Fonda (born 1937) – American anti-war protester, actress • Jim Forest (born 1941) – author, international secretary of the Orthodox Peace Fellowship • Tom Fox (1951–2006) – American Quaker • Comfort Freeman – Liberian anti-war activist
David Dellinger
• Lanza del Vasto (1901-1981) - Catholic philosopher, poet, artist, and nonviolent activist
• Alfred Fried (1864–1921) – co-founder German peace movement, called for world peace organization • Diana Francis (born 1944) - former president of the International Fellowship of Reconciliation return to table of contents
• Michael Denborough AM (1929-2014) - Australian medical researcher who founded the Nuclear Disar- 5.1.7 G mament Party • Arun Gandhi (born 1934) – Indian, organizer, edu• Alma Dolens (1876–?) – Italian pacifist and suffragcator, grandson of Mohandas ist • Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948) – Indian, writer, • Phil Donahue - Former talk show host, former teleorganizer, protester, lawyer, inspiration to movevision host ment leaders
5.1. LIST OF PEACE ACTIVISTS
103
• Leymah Gbowee (born 1972) - organizer of women’s peace movement in Liberia, awarded 2011 Nobel Peace Prize
• Otto Hahn (1879–1968) – German chemist, discoverer of nuclear fission, Nobel Laureate, pacifist, antinuclear weapons and testing advocate
• Everett Gendler (born 1928) - Conservative rabbi, peace activist, writer
• Jeff Halper (born 1946) – American anthropologist and Israeli peace activist, founder of the Israeli Committee Against House Demolitions
• Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997) – American anti-war protester, writer • Arthur Gish (1939–2010) – American public speaker and peace activist • Danny Glover (born 1946) – American actor and anti-war activist • Emma Goldman (1869–1940) – Russian/American activist imprisoned in the U.S. for opposition to World War I • Amy Goodman (born 1957) - journalist, host of Democracy Now! • Paul Goodman (1911-1972) - writer, psychotherapist, social critic, anarchist philosopher and public intellectual
• Judith Hand (born 1940) – biologist, pioneer of peace ethology • Thích Nhất Hạnh (born 1926) – Vietnamese monk, pacifist and advocate of nonviolence • G. Simon Harak (born 1948) – American professor of theology, peace activist • Keir Hardie (1856–1915) – Scottish socialist, cofounder of Independent Labour Party and Labour Party • Václav Havel (1936–2011) – Czech nonviolent writer, poet, and politician
• Mikhail Gorbachev (born 1931) – Russian antinuclear activist during and after Soviet presidency
• Brian Haw (1949–2011) – British activist, initiated and long time participant of the Parliament Square Peace Campaign
• Wavy Gravy (born 1936) - American entertainer and activist for peace
• Wilson A. Head (1914–1993) can/Canadian sociologist, activist
• Dick Gregory (born 1932) – American comedian, anti-war protester
• Abraham Joshua Heschel (1907-1972) – rabbi, professor at Jewish Theological Seminary, civil rights and peace activist
• Woody Guthrie (1912–1967) – American anti-war protester and musician, inspiration • Tenzin Gyatso (born 1935) – current Dalai Lama, peace advocate return to table of contents
5.1.8
H
–
Ameri-
• Sidney Hinkes (1925–2006) – pacifist, priest in the Church of England • Emily Hobhouse (1860–1926) – British welfare campaigner • Abbie Hoffman (1936–1989) – American antiVietnam war leader, co-founder of Yippies • Margaret Holmes, AM, (1909–2009) – Australian activist during the Vietnam War, member Anglican Pacifist Fellowship • Julia Ward Howe (1819–1910) – writer, advocate, organizer • Emrys Hughes (1894-1969) – Welsh socialist member of the British Parliament, where he was an outspoken pacifist • Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) – anti-war and anticonflict writer
Brian Haw
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CHAPTER 5. ATTIVISTI PER LA PACE
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
Daisaku Ikeda
5.1.9
I
• Daisaku Ikeda – Buddhist leader, writer, president of Soka Gakkai International, and founder of multiple educational and peace research institutions. • Khawaja Zafar Iqbal – journalist, peace activist and researcher based in Kashmir return to table of contents
5.1.10
J
• Jean Jaurès (1859-1914) – French anti-war activist, socialist leader • John Paul II – Polish Catholic Pope, inspiration, advocate • Helen John – One of the first full-time members of Martin Luther King, Jr. the Greenham Common peace camp return to table of contents
5.1.11
K
• Kathy Kelly (born 1952) – American peace and antiwar activist, arrested over 60 times during protests. Member and organizer of international peace teams.
• Tawakkol Karman (born 1979) – Yemini journalist, politician and human rights activist. Shared 2011 Nobel Peace prize.
• Bruce Kent (born 1929) - Former Catholic priest. Prominent anti-nuclear campaigner with the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) and president of the International Peace Bureau
• Helen Keller (1880–1968) – deafblind writer, speech “Strike Against The War” Carnegie Hall, New York 1916
• Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1890–1988) – Pashtun independence activist, spiritual and political leader, lifelong pacifist
5.1. LIST OF PEACE ACTIVISTS
105
• Steve Killelea – initiated Global Peace Index and Institute for Economics and Peace • Adam Kokesh (born 1982) – American activist, Iraq Veterans Against the War • Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968) – prominent American anti-Vietnam war protester, speaker, inspiration • Ron Kovic (born 1946) – American Vietnam war veteran, war protestor • Paul Krassner (born 1932) – American antiVietnam war organizer, writer, Yippie co-founder return to table of contents
5.1.12
L John Lennon
Henri La Fontaine
• Henri La Fontaine (1854–1943) – initiator, orgaBertie Lewis nizer, Nobel Peace Prize winner • William Ladd (1778–1841) – early American activist, initiator, first president of the American Peace Society • Bernard Lafayette (born 1940) – American organizer, educator, initiator • Grigoris Lambrakis (1912–1963) – Greek athlete, physician, politician, activist
• George Lansbury (1859–1940) – politician, campaigner for social justice, women’s rights and world disarmament • André Larivière (born 1948) – ecologist and antinuclear activist • Bryan Law (1954–2013) – Australian non-violent
106
CHAPTER 5. ATTIVISTI PER LA PACE activist.
• John Lennon (1940–1980) – singer/songwriter, anti-war protestor
British
• Sidney Lens (1912–1986) – American anti-Vietnam war leader • Bertie Lewis (1920–2010) – RAF airman who went on to become a U.K. peace campaigner
• Norman Mailer (1923–2007) – American anti-war writer, war protestor • Nelson Mandela (1918–2013) – South African statesman, leader in anti-apartheid movement and post-apartheid reconciliation, founder of The Elders, inspiration • Mairead Maguire (born 1944) – Northern Ireland peace movement, Nobel peace laureate
• Thomas Lewis (1940–2008) – American artist, antiwar activist with (Baltimore Four and Catonsville Nine)
• Bob Marley (1945–1981) – Jamaican, inspirational anti-war singer/songwriter, inspiration
• James Loney (born 1964) – peace worker, kidnap victim
• Colman McCarthy (born 1938) - American journalist, teacher, lecturer, pacifist, progressive, anarchist, and long-time peace activist
• Staughton Lynd (born 1929) – American antiVietnam war leader • Bradford Lyttle (born 1927) – prominent American pacifist, writer, presidential candidate, and organizer with the Committee for Non-Violent Action return to table of contents
5.1.13
M
• Eugene McCarthy (1916–2005) – U.S. presidential candidate, ran on an anti-Vietnam war agenda • John McConnell (1915–2012) – founder Earth Day, and U.N peace proclamation • George McGovern (1922–2012) – U.S. Senator, presidential candidate, anti-Vietnam war agenda • Keith McHenry (born 1957) – co-founder of Food Not Bombs • David McTaggart (1932–2001) – Canadian antinuclear testing activist, co-founder Greenpeace International • Rigoberta Menchú (born 1959) – Guatemalan indigenous rights, anti-war, co-founder Nobel Women’s Initiative • Chico Mendes (1944–1988) – Brazilian environmentalist and human rights advocate of peasants and indigenous peoples • Thomas Merton (1915-1968) – monk and poet, inspirational writer, philosopher • Kizito Mihigo (Born in 1981) - Rwandan Christian singer, genocide survivor, dedicated to Forgiveness, Peace and Reconciliation after the 1994 genocide • Barry Mitcalfe (1930–1986) – a leader of the New Zealand movement against the Vietnam War and the New Zealand anti-nuclear movement • Sybil Morrison (1893-1984) – British pacifist active in the Peace Pledge Union
Rigoberta Menchú
• Wangari Maathai (1940–2011) – Kenyan environmental activist, Nobel peace laureate
• Alaa Murabit (born 1989) – Libyan Canadian physician and human rights advocate for inclusive peace and security • John Middleton Murry (1889-1957) – British author, sponsor of the Peace Pledge Union, and editor of Peace News from 1940 to 1946
5.1. LIST OF PEACE ACTIVISTS
107
• A. J. Muste (1885–1967) – American pacifist, organizer, anti-Vietnam War leader return to table of contents
5.1.14
N
• Abie Nathan (1927–2008) – Israeli humanitarian, founded Voice of Peace radio,[3] met with all sides of a conflict • Ezra Nawi (born 1952) – Israeli human rights activist and pacifist • Paul Newman – American anti-war protestor, inspiration • Martin Niemöller (1892–1984) – Anti-Nazi Lutheran pastor, imprisoned in Sachsenhausen and Dachau, vocal pacifist and campaigner for disarmament • Georg Friedrich Nicolai (1874–1964) – German professor, famous for the book “The Biology of War” • Philip Noel-Baker (1889–1982) – Nobel peace laureate, Olympic silver medallist, active campaigner Peace Pilgrim for disarmament • Sari Nusseibeh (born 1949) – Palestinian activist return to table of contents
5.1.15
O
• Phil Ochs (1940–1976) – American anti-Vietnam war singer/songwriter, initiated protest events • Paul Oestreicher (born 1931) – Canon emeritus of Coventry Cathedral, Christian pacifist, active in post-war reconciliation • Yoko Ono (born 1933) – Japanese anti-Vietnam war campaigner in America and Europe • Carl von Ossietzky (1889–1938) – German pacifist, Nobel peace laureate, opponent of Nazi rearmament • Laurence Overmire (born 1957) – poet, author, theorist return to table of contents
5.1.16 P • Olof Palme (1927–1986) – Swedish prime minister, diplomat • Frédéric Passy (1822-1912) - French economist, peace activist and joint winner (together with Henry Dunant) of the first Nobel Peace Prize (1901) • Linus Pauling (1901–1994) – American antinuclear testing advocate and leader • Miko Peled (born 1961) – Israeli peace activist, author of the book The General’s Son: Journey of an Israeli in Palestine • Concepcion Picciotto (born 1945?) – anti-nuclear and anti-war protestor, White House Peace Vigil • Peace Pilgrim (1908–1981) – walked the highways and streets of America promoting peace • Lindis Percy (born 1941) - nurse, midwife, pacifist, founder of the Campaign for the Accountability of American Bases (CAAB) • Joseph Polowsky (1916-1983) - American GI, advocate of better relations between the U.S. and Soviet Union between 1955 and 1983.
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CHAPTER 5. ATTIVISTI PER LA PACE • Marcus Raskin (born 1934) – American social critic, opponent of the Vietnam war and the draft
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5.1.17
• Dahlia Ravikovitch (1936–2005) – Israeli poet and peace activist
Q
• Ludwig Quidde (1858–1941) – German pacifist, Nobel peace laureate
• Henry Richard (1812–1888) – Welsh minister known as “the Apostle of Peace” / “Apostol Heddwch”, was secretary of the Peace Society for forty years (1848–84).
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5.1.18
• Lewis Fry Richardson (1881–1953) – mathematician, physicist, pacifist, pioneer of modern mathematical techniques of weather forecasting and their application to studying the causes of war and how to prevent them
R
• Adi Roche, (born 1955) chief executive of the charity Chernobyl Children International
Arundhati Roy
• • Jim Radford - British Social, Political and Peace activist, Britain’s youngest D-Day veteran, folk singer and co-organiser of the first Aldermaston March in 1958. • Abdullah Abu Rahmah – Palestinian peace activist. • José Ramos-Horta (born 1949) – Head of the United Nations Integrated Peacebuilding Office in GuineaBissau, Nobel peace laureate
Nicholas Roerich
Nicholas Roerich - Russian visionary artist and mystic, creator of the Roerich Pact and Nobel Peace Prize candidate. • Romain Rolland (1866–1944) - French dramatist, novelist, essayist, anti-war activist • Óscar Romero (1917-1980) – Venerable Archbishop of San Salvador
• Michael Randle (born 1933) – British peace activist and co-organiser of the first Aldermaston March
• Marshall Rosenberg (1934–2015) — Creator of nonviolent communication theory
• Jeannette Rankin (1880–1973) – first woman elected to the U.S. Congress, lifelong pacifist
• Elisabeth Rotten (1882-1964) – German-born Swiss peace activist and education reformer
5.1. LIST OF PEACE ACTIVISTS • Arundhati Roy (born 1961) – Indian writer, social critic and peace activist • Jerry Rubin (1938–1994) – American anti-Vietnam war leader, co-founder of the Yippies • Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) – philosopher, logician, mathematician, outspoken advocate of nuclear disarmament return to table of contents
5.1.19
S
109 • Jonathan Schell (1943–2014) – American writer and campaigner against nuclear weapons, antiwar activist • Sophie Scholl (1921–1943) – Christian pacifist, active in the White Rose non-violent resistance movement in Nazi Germany • Albert Schweitzer (1875–1965) – German/French activist against nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon testing whose speeches were published as Peace or Atomic War. Co-founder of The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy • Molly Scott Cato (born 1963) – green economist, Green Party politician, pacifist and anti-nuclear campaigner • Pete Seeger (1919–2014) – anti-war protestor, inspirational singer/songwriter • Jeff Sharlet (1942–1969) – anti-Vietnam war soldier, journalist • Gene Sharp (born 1928) – founder of the Albert Einstein Institution, writer on nonviolent resistance • Cindy Sheehan (born 1957) – American anti-Iraq and anti-Afghanistan war leader • Martin Sheen (born 1940) – anti-war and antinuclear bomb protestor, inspirational American actor • Nancy Shelley OAM (died 2010) – Quaker who represented the Australian peace movement at the UN in 1982. • Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822) – writer, poet, nonviolent philosopher and inspiration • Dick Sheppard (1880–1937) – Anglican priest, Christian pacifist, started the Peace Pledge Union
Cindy Sheehan
• David Dean Shulman (born 1949) – Indologist, defender of Palestinian human rights.
• Carl Sagan (1934–1996) - opposed escalation of the nuclear arms race
• Toma Sik (1939–2004) – Hungarian-Israeli peace activist
• Mohamed Sahnoun (born 1931) - Algerian diplomat, peace activist, UN envoy to Somalia and to the Great Lakes region of Africa
• Jeanmarie Simpson (born 1959) – American feminist, peace activist
• Andrei Sakharov (1921-1989) – Nuclear physicist, human rights activist and pacifist.
• Ramjee Singh (born 1927) – Indian activist, philosopher and Gandhian
• Ed Sanders (born 1939) – American poet, organizer, singer, co-founder of anti-war band The Fugs
• Ellen Johnson Sirleaf (born 1938) – President of Liberia, shared 2011 Nobel Peace Prize with Tawakkol Karman and Leymah Gbowee in recognition of “their non-violent struggle for the safety of women and for women’s rights to full participation in peace-building work.”
• Mark Satin (born 1946) – anti-war proponent, draftresistance organizer, writer, philosopher
• Samantha Smith (1972–1985) – young advocate of peace between Soviets and Americans
• Bernie Sanders (born 1941) – U.S. Presidential candidate, peace activist, and democratic socialist.
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CHAPTER 5. ATTIVISTI PER LA PACE
• Myrtle Solomon (1921-1987) – British General Secretary of the Peace Pledge Union and Chair of War Resisters International • Cornelio Sommaruga (born 1932) - Swiss diplomat, president of the ICRC (1987 to 1999), founding President of Initiatives of Change International • Donald Soper (1903-1998) - British Methodist minister, president of the Fellowship of Reconciliation and active in the CND • Benjamin Spock (1903–1998) – anti-Vietnam war protester, writer, inspiration
• Desmond Tutu (born 1931) – South African cleric, initiator, anti-apartheid, inspiration return to table of contents
5.1.21 U • Evelyn Underhill (1875–1941) – English AngloCatholic writer and pacifist return to table of contents
• Cat Stevens (born 1948) – British singer-songwriter, 5.1.22 convert to Islam, and humanitarian • Bertha von Suttner (1843–1914) – Czech-Austrian pacifist, first woman Nobel peace laureate return to table of contents
5.1.20
T
V
• Jo Vallentine (born 1946) – Australian politician and peace activist • Mordechai Vanunu (born 1954) – Israeli whistleblower • Lanza del Vasto (1901–1981) – Gandhian, philosopher, poet, nonviolent activist
• Kathleen Tacchi-Morris (1899–1993) – founder of Women for World Disarmament
• Stellan Vinthagen (born 1964) Swedish anti-war and nonviolent resistance scholar-activist
• Tank Man – Stood in front of tank during 1989 China protest
• Kurt Vonnegut (1922–2007) – American anti-war and anti-nuclear writer and protestor
• Eve Tetaz (born 1931) – retired teacher, peace and justice activist
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• Thomas (1947–2009) – initiated, long-time participant, White House peace vigil 5.1.23
W
• Ellen Thomas (born 1947) – long-time participant, White House peace vigil • Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) – American writer, philosopher, inspiration to movement leaders • Sybil Thorndike (1882-1976) – British actress and pacifist. Member of the Peace Pledge Union who gave readings for its benefit • Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) – Russian writer on nonviolence, inspiration to Gandhi, Bevel, and other movement leaders • André Trocmé (1901–1971), with his wife Magda (1901–1996) – Protestant pacifist pastor, saved many Jews in Vichy France • Benjamin Franklin Trueblood (1847–1916) – 19th century writer, editor, organizer, initiator • Barbara Grace Tucker – Australian born peace activist, long time participant of the Parliament Square Peace Campaign
Jody Williams
• John Wallach (1943–2002) – journalist, founder of Seeds of Peace • Alyn Ware (born 1962) – New Zealand peace educator and campaigner, global coordinator for Parliamentarians for Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament since 2002
5.1. LIST OF PEACE ACTIVISTS
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• Owen Wilkes (1940–2005) – New Zealand peace researcher and activist • Jody Williams (born 1950) – American antilandmine advocate and organizer, Nobel peace laureate • Brian Willson (born 1941) – American veteran, peace activist and lawyer • Lawrence S. Wittner (born 1941) – peace historian, researcher, and movement activist • Walter Wolfgang (born 1923) – German-born British activist return to table of contents
5.1.24
• List of anti-war organizations • List of anti-war songs • List of books with anti-war themes • List of civil rights leaders • List of peace prizes • List of plays with anti-war themes • Nobel Peace Prize laureates • Non-interventionism • Nonviolent resistance • Nuclear disarmament
Y
• Peter Yarrow (born 1938) – singer/songwriter, anti-war activist
• Gandhi Peace Prize
• Otto Hahn Peace Medal American
• Open Christmas Letter
• Adam Yauch (1964–2012) – Musician, Buddhist, advocate for peace
• Pacifism
• Neil Young (born 1945) – singer/songwriter, antiwar advocate, other causes
• Peace
• Edip Yüksel (born 1957) – Kurdish-TurkishAmerican lawyer/author, Islamic peace proponent return to table of contents
• Parliament Square Peace Campaign
• Peace and conflict studies • Peace churches • Peace movement • Teach-in
5.1.25
Z
• Alfred-Maurice de Zayas (born 1947) – historian, lawyer in international law and human rights, vociferous critic of military interventions and the use of torture
• War resister • War Resisters League • White House Peace Vigil • World peace
• Howard Zinn (1922–2010) – historian, writer, peace advocate 5.1.27 return to table of contents
5.1.26
See also
• Anti-nuclear protests • Anti-war movement • Bed-In • Die-in • Direct action • Environmentalist • Gandhi Peace Award
References
[1] “American peace activist killed by army bulldozer in Rafah”. Haaretz. 17 March 2003. Retrieved 6 July 2014. [2] “Profile: Rachel Corrie”. BBC News. 28 August 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2014. [3] “Israeli peace pioneer Abie Nathan dies aged 81”. Haaretz. The Associated Press. 28 August 2008. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
Chapter 6
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Laczko, Jengod, Itai, Seglea, Hadal, Hcheney, Smjg, Andycjp, Rhobite, Viriditas, Darwinek, Mark K. Jensen, Robinbirk, Joe Decker, Koavf, Nightngle, Wavelength, Nirvana2013, PanchoS, SmackBot, Jeremyw, Yaf, Mitchumch, John, Robofish, JHunterJ, Anger22, Donalds, Bellerophon5685, Hebrides, Prof75, JustAGal, Nick Number, Locospotter, Rubyji, Vernon39, Dwalls, Mind meal, Davidwr, Nicklse, Mcintireallen, JL-Bot, Randy Kryn, Fellowship Editor, Niceguyedc, Laetoli, XLinkBot, Fisher, Frank, Don Argus jr, Lightbot, Yobot, Wilsonchas, Carrite, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Redrose64, Sara.koopman, Jbetzzall, Titoarlo1, Pietspad and Anonymous: 25 • Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Siegmund-Schultze?oldid=714765620 Contributors: Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, SmackBot, Hmains, GoodDay, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Neddyseagoon, Peter Horn, Locospotter, Waacstats, EyeSerene, Addbot, Yobot, RjwilmsiBot, SporkBot, Balteine, Frietjes, Marcocapelle, VIAFbot, OccultZone, KasparBot, Ulrich von Metz and Anonymous: 2 • Henry Hodgkin Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Hodgkin?oldid=708632441 Contributors: Bgwhite, Smallbones, Leyo, Yobot, Pensées de Pascal, BG19bot, Celestinesucess and Anonymous: 1 • Jane Addams Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Addams?oldid=717951680 Contributors: Mav, Danny, Shsilver, William Avery, Isis~enwiki, Olivier, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Cprompt, Gdarin, Paul A, Ellywa, Stan Shebs, Kingturtle, StefanS, Jiang, David Newton, SatyrTN, Freechild, Itai, Nv8200pa, Stormie, Dpbsmith, Jhobson1, Dimadick, Paul W, Bearcat, AlexPlank, Adamahill, Postdlf, UtherSRG, Modeha, Fuelbottle, Centrx, Giftlite, Jacoplane, Imma, Drunkasian, Everyking, Wouterhagens, Curps, Dflock, Guanaco, JoeHine, Tagishsimon, Stevietheman, Pgan002, Quadell, Antandrus, Piotrus, Bcampbell, Kaldari, PDH, Ruzulo, DragonflySixtyseven, Borameer, Ary29, Anirvan, Kelson, Ukexpat, Trevor MacInnis, Lucidish, D6, Haiduc, Jrp, Larrybob, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Dave souza, Antaeus Feldspar, Bender235, Thebrid, CanisRufus, Szyslak, Mwanner, Aude, Art LaPella, Orlady, Bobo192, Circeus, Func, Shenme, Nk, Darwinek, Anna nym, Alansohn, Sheehan, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Zsero, Wtmitchell, Bbsrock, KingTT, RainbowOfLight, Djsasso, Tintin1107, Stemonitis, Woohookitty, Rocastelo, Robert K S, EnSamulili, JeremyA, Cbustapeck, Damicatz, Emerson7, Kbdank71, Mana Excalibur, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Lars T., Seidenstud, Koavf, Jake Wartenberg, MZMcBride, Ccson, DoubleBlue, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Hego5069, Wragge, FlaBot, Burnunit, GünniX, Nivix, RexNL, Gurch, Pevernagie, Maltmomma, BradBeattie, King of Hearts, Chobot, Bgwhite, Dj Capricorn, Banaticus, YurikBot, Sceptre, NTBot~enwiki, RussBot, FrenchIsAwesome, Rakkar, Anonymous editor, Yllosubmarine, Yamara, Stephenb, RicDod, Pseudomonas, Lilath, Grafen, AKeen, Jaxl, Kvn8907, ImGz, Rjensen, Matticus78, Jk1lee, Aldux, RL0919, Syrthiss, DeadEyeArrow, TransUtopian, Johndburger, 2over0, Imaninjapirate, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, JuJube, Lontjr, Acer, Kestenbaum, Danny-w, Contaldo80, Rathfelder, Katieh5584, Jonathan.s.kt, Kranar drogin, Biggal6, Melystu, DVD R W, Entheta, SmackBot, Deborah909, David Kernow, Fdt, Clpo13, Lakhim, Xaosflux, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jprg1966, Sjoschko, Droll, RayAYang, JoeBlogsDord, Josteinn, Colonies Chris, Dual Freq, Darth Panda, Espoirpaz, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, Tamfang, Sahmeditor, Chlewbot, Lantrix, Rrburke, GRuban, JesseRafe, Addshore, MrRadioGuy, Bigturtle, Makemi, SteveHopson, DanQuigley, Risker, Kukini, Qmwne235, SashatoBot, Futurechromex3x, Lambiam, Missamo80, Mukadderat, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Avitya, Bagel7, Gobonobo, RootBeerKisses, Dumelow, Ocatecir, IronGargoyle, PseudoSudo, Werdan7, Booksworm, Noleander, Hu12, Theone00, Newone, Nfutvol, RekishiEJ, MikeHobday, Dev920, JForget, Tiggergrrl, Joey80, CmdrObot, Makeemlighter, Drinibot, Neelix, Ken Gallager, Owen2510, Slazenger, Peteturtle, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Treybien, Bellerophon5685, MWaller, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Prof75, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, TonyTheTiger, Marek69, Missvain, Neil916, James086, Big Bird, Rhudson, X96lee15, Escarbot, Slovaklass, Viper323, Hmrox, Rlitwin, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Bobalini, Seaphoto, Mary Mark Ockerbloom, Jj137, NSH001, Farosdaughter, Zigzig20s, AZylman, Pixelface, Nleamy, Kariteh, Sluzzelin, Boytinck, Dsp13, Fragilityfemme, Andonic, PhilKnight, Rothorpe, Krguest, .anacondabot, SiobhanHansa, Moni3, Magioladitis, Xtremeblur, Czar1991, VoABot II, Espensj, Appraiser,
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6.1. TEXT
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S., Johanna Russ, Lindenhurst Liberty, BenStein69, Crunkus, ArmbrustBot, Theniallmc1, Monktrane1, Commons sibi, DDear99, KyleLandas, Jb423, Jacedc, Jwcorpening, Jaredzimmerman (WMF), Mandruss, Jeffersonassbang02, Shearflyer, .InfiniteHiveMind., Kbabej, SNUGGUMS, Kernosky, Jumplike23, Aragorn69, SpanishChapters, Stamptrader, GPRamirez5, Marchoctober, Laurenthian, Sunnya343, Redleaffalling, Whomyl, Monkbot, Architect2014, Trackteur, Thinkersocial2014, Kinfoll1993, Goweegie2, Themagicpebble, SoldierBoy77, Nnsm2, Omio Asad, Izkala, RoaringFlamer41, Toniorocks240, DylanScott089, LucasSalusky, Grammarian3.14159265359, Goppyfish, KasparBot, MB298, DavidIvar, Srednuas Lenoroc, SilverSurfingSerpent, CatKaiser, Philosi4, Haxxorsid, Barbara (WVS), Pokeuser212121, Subzerochill98, Smcoblentz, Billclarkok, Kevinmuniz115, BlackAmerican, Granville Anderson and Anonymous: 2030 • Albert Lutuli Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Lutuli?oldid=712495669 Contributors: Robert Merkel, Skysmith, Docu, Kaihsu, John K, EdH, Bearcat, Timrollpickering, Wizzy, Elf-friend, DO'Neil, OwenBlacker, Jcw69, D6, Noisy, Rich Farmbrough, AlanBarrett, Bender235, Ranveig, Alansohn, Cromwellt, Wadems, Y0u, Spartacus007, Bluemoose, Toussaint, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Joonasl, YurikBot, Ilovebagels123, Klazuka, BOT-Superzerocool, Homagetocatalonia, Theda, LeonardoRob0t, Sjharte, SmackBot, David Le Page, Larre~enwiki, Sgt Pinback, Tsca.bot, Zaian, Grover cleveland, Savidan, Suidafrikaan, Tim bates, The Man in Question, Dl2000, DabMachine, Simon12, JMK, JForget, Joey80, Dynzmoar, Drinibot, Cydebot, Mind flux, PKT, Thijs!bot, Faigl.ladislav, E. 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Kegg, CJLL Wright, YurikBot, NTBot~enwiki, Splash, Argentino, Nirvana2013, Brz7, Kaliz, Josteinn, Colonies Chris, Savidan, Weregerbil, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, John, Irn, Joey80, Drinibot, Cydebot, Prof75, WiZaRd SaiLoR, Thijs!bot, MainlyTwelve, Zigzig20s, Magioladitis, KConWiki, Cgingold, Ermanon, CommonsDelinker, Fconaway, LordAnubisBOT, Jcsten, VolkovBot, Broadbot, SieBot, Æthelwold, Ale2007, Rédacteur Tibet, Jageshwar, Joao Xavier, Alexbot, L.tak, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Coldsweetvengance, OttRider, Kman543210, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Sherlock4000, JackieBot, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Aquila89, GrouchoBot, FrescoBot, Jauhienij, TobeBot, 777sms, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, ShinRa.Electic.Power.Company, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, HMSSolent, BG19bot, Claquerat, Ginés90, Cyberbot II, Ducknish, Giulianicole, VIAFbot, PrensaPerezEsquivel, Killuminator, KasparBot and Anonymous: 43 • Buddhist Peace Fellowship Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_Peace_Fellowship?oldid=679757665 Contributors: Cihan, Rich Farmbrough, Giraffedata, Ogress, Curious1i, Rjwilmsi, Smithfarm, Nightngle, Arthur Rubin, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Alexander Gieg, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Alaibot, Magioladitis, Presearch, Cgingold, Johnpacklambert, Mind meal, TXiKiBoT, Patdreams, Hoogstra, JL-Bot, Randy Kryn, Solar-Wind, Doprendek, Webbbbbbber, Spinoff, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Yobot, Citation bot, Omnipaedista, Surv1v4l1st, Trappist the monk, John of Reading, SporkBot, Helpsome, Helpful Pixie Bot, Marcocapelle, Monkbot, Dawnmarissa, Dharmalion76 and Anonymous: 7 • Methodist Peace Fellowship Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist_Peace_Fellowship?oldid=712912423 Contributors: RussBot, Nirvana2013, Bluebot, Paulleake, Geoffrey Gibson, Benjiboi, Prof75, Johnpacklambert, Pastordavid, TreasuryTag, JL-Bot, Dawynn, Lightbot, JoanAroma and Anonymous: 1 • Presbyterian Peace Fellowship Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_Peace_Fellowship?oldid=694719122 Contributors: Woohookitty, BD2412, JonHarder, Alaibot, Leolaursen, Sarita86, Davidwr, 718 Bot, Watermandan, Dewritech, Will Beback Auto, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Mbleonar, Jfhutson and Anonymous: 2 • Lutheran Peace Fellowship Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran_Peace_Fellowship?oldid=674935774 Contributors: KitHutch, Chris the speller, Julius Sahara, Windjade, Awonder, Ggersmehl, AnomieBOT, Mean as custard, ChrisGualtieri, Ulrich von Metz and Anonymous: 1 • Episcopal Peace Fellowship Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episcopal_Peace_Fellowship?oldid=675093956 Contributors: Michel.SLM, Tb, Nirvana2013, SmackBot, Johnpacklambert, Laetoli, Yobot, Zekekiri, Joerom5883, Ulrich von Metz and Anonymous: 2 • Anglican Pacifist Fellowship Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Pacifist_Fellowship?oldid=678586872 Contributors: Edward, Andycjp, Viriditas, Angr, Joe Decker, RussBot, Nirvana2013, SmackBot, Hmains, DuncanHill, Vernon39, Djr13, TreasuryTag, StAnselm, Anglicanus, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Feline Hymnic, Phlar, Tassedethe, Yobot, Astatine-210, Scatcat2009, RenamedUser01302013, Poshseagull, Graham11, Ulrich von Metz and Anonymous: 17 • Catholic Worker Movement Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Worker_Movement?oldid=710433342 Contributors: ClaudeMuncey, Shii, Lquilter, Delirium, JASpencer, Harris7, Pwd~enwiki, Tb, Bhuston, Gidonb, BozMo, Jossi, Mennonot, Mwanner, Art LaPella, Erauch, Stesmo, Lectonar, Grenavitar, Woohookitty, MamaGeek, Jergen, KHM03, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Lugnad, The wub, SchuminWeb, NekoDaemon, Windharp, Emerymat, Borgx, RussBot, Briaboru, Pigman, Fcendejas, Thane, Nirvana2013, Formeruser-82, Johndburger, Contaldo80, SmackBot, Benedett, Ghosts&empties, Scaife, Fuhghettaboutit, Black Butterfly, Kismetmagic, Andrew c, Cast, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Robofish, Accurizer, Rkmlai, BillFlis, WGee, Jpdowning, Hyphen5, Pseudo-Richard, Cydebot, Clayoquot, Red Director, Hayesstw, Pustelnik, Silentsoliloquy, Fluxbot, Conman3000, Ummridiculous, Michig, Jpeaceokc, Magioladitis, Commanderrobot, Washburn1906, Anne-by-the-gate, Credidimus, Nickolaspiersol, DDayPMaurin, Nvader90, Robert520, Pidwick, Runkelp, Jc3schmi, Squinky too, DragonBot, Belchfire, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Misterx2000, Fishstilldie, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Carrite, Beansandveggies, Hamamelis, Helrond, Surv1v4l1st, Josinj, Oliv Rota, RjwilmsiBot, Giffordhousecw, Pjposullivan, Djembayz, Frietjes, Mannanan51, Helpful Pixie Bot, Heyoldblue, BG19bot, MPSchneiderLC, Monkbot, Je.est.un.autre, ClareCat21 and Anonymous: 87 • Peace churches Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_churches?oldid=710730308 Contributors: AdamRetchless, Kaihsu, Warofdreams, Seglea, SchmuckyTheCat, Ericspenguin, Aetheling, Seano1, Unfree, Crculver, DocWatson42, Zigger, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, Matthead, Flow~enwiki, Rlquall, Gary D, Neutrality, Mennonot, MDCore, Bender235, Ntennis, Mrzaius, Woohookitty, Logophile, Kibrock, Zach Alexander, Wachholder0, Koavf, SchuminWeb, Cfs-news, Pigman, Nirvana2013, Daanschr, Nikkimaria, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Sam steiner, Rlevse, JonHarder, Stevenmitchell, Mlomize, Khazar, The Giant Puffin, Josh a brewer, NetBMC, Casper Gutman, CmdrObot, Glenn4pr, Cydebot, Hebrides, Benjiboi, Prof75, Arb, Wombdpsw, Kennard2, Colin MacLaurin, Ingolfson, Jogle, Theroadislong, Magnatious, West6557, DougArcher, LordAnubisBOT, Paxcoder, Formerly the IP-Address 24.22.227.53, Ptolemy Caesarion, Randy Kryn, Covertlaw, FredGP, Ridge Runner, PixelBot, Grisunge, E.Meany, JoyUnspeakable, DumZiBoT, Spriggett, Addbot, Mwltruffaut, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Tryptofish, JoanAroma, Jmarchn, Xqbot, Wayne Roberson, Austin, Texas, Surv1v4l1st, SNPB~enwiki, R0osboz1, Kleger, Einie101, In ictu oculi, Helpful Pixie Bot, PaulEmileAnders, Jeremy112233, Mogism, BenHochstedler, Winterfriend and Anonymous: 57 • Friends Committee on National Legislation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends_Committee_on_National_Legislation? oldid=704972772 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Agtx, Maximus Rex, Thue, Alan Liefting, Jayjg, Clawed, Ahc, Woohookitty, Logophile, Zach Alexander, SmackBot, AnonUser, Bluebot, Robofish, AliciaMcBride, Richhoncho, AntiVandalBot, XyBot, Easchiff, Magioladitis, RES~enwiki, MHM55, TreasuryTag, Fredsmith2, 718 Bot, John Nevard, Mhockey, AnomieBOT, Plot Spoiler, FrescoBot, BG19bot, GabeIglesia, Christineletts and Anonymous: 16
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• Mennonite Central Committee Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mennonite_Central_Committee?oldid=714017535 Contributors: Karen Johnson, SimonP, DJ Clayworth, Topbanana, Pollinator, Rlvaughn, Bearcat, Mennonot, Qutezuce, Sluj, Reidhoch, Revived, Allen3, Ketiltrout, Krash, Wavelength, Stephen Day, Nirvana2013, N0lqu, Gadget850, SmackBot, Pwt898, Schmiteye, Sam steiner, TheGerm, JonHarder, DDima, Sxeptomaniac, Iridescent, Cydebot, Rawgreenbean, Nc11, Prof75, WinBot, Rentaferret, FisherQueen, Bissinger, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Anietor, John Carter, Kastrel, Aspects, Hellosandimas, Solar-Wind, Rockfang, 718 Bot, Boyd Reimer, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Superspoof, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Winterst, Trappist the monk, Reaper Eternal, Mcccanada1, Menno Simons, ClueBot NG, Graham11, CitationCleanerBot, MrsSimons, Cyberbot II, Ducknish, Dexbot, BenHochstedler, Knope7 and Anonymous: 22 • List of peace activists Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_peace_activists?oldid=716374979 Contributors: Zanimum, Yann, Glenn, Kierant, Francs2000, Pingveno, JackofOz, Pengo, MathKnight, Andycjp, Deantregenza, Rgdboer, Brainy J, Grutness, Arthena, Mace, Ringbang, Walshga, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Grammarbot, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, Kember, Gwernol, NawlinWiki, Nirvana2013, Badagnani, Bobak, Naught101, SmackBot, Davewild, Srkris, Gilliam, Mirokado, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jprg1966, Afasmit, Bazonka, Mister Jinxy, Dumelow, Ckatz, Josiewarvelle, Iridescent, Kendroche, Cydebot, Adrian Glamorgan, DumbBOT, Nishidani, Id447, AntiVandalBot, Carolmooredc, Mary Mark Ockerbloom, NSH001, Locospotter, Ekabhishek, Scanlan, Matzuyagi, Cgingold, Stagophile, Flexdream, Centpacrr, Ravichandar84, Mange01, Steven Kovax, Arms & Hearts, DadaNeem, KylieTastic, Bonadea, Johnfos, Station1, TXiKiBoT, Rajanbawa, HowardMorland, Figuera, Randy Kryn, Leahtwosaints, GorillaWarfare, Excirial, Res05e, Chimino, Mountdrayton, Addbot, Talpone~enwiki, Mksaelens, Gizziiusa, דוד שי, Gworp, Recambo51, Gowser, Orange gravity, Pensées de Pascal, Erik9bot, NSH002, Roundtheworld, A. Gorilla, Fat&Happy, Junned1098, NimbusWeb, Sara.koopman, Sinexcite, Tbhotch, Goodyes~enwiki, EmausBot, Trilliumz, Dewritech, Howan, NealeFamily, RenamedUser01302013, Javadsydney, Glaw99, GrindtXX, Bushmillsmccallan, Tableclothes, Johncarmanmiami, Schleppnik, Zuky79, ClueBot NG, Karthickalan, KarenJohnsonKJPR, Liamceltic1888, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Leafglimmer, Frze, M.Satria Wirayudha, Pamoramic, Harizotoh9, محمد بوعلام عصامي, Fbell74, Loriendrew, Aamir mri, F111ECM, J.M.Jox, BenHochstedler, Malerooster, IPhonak, Alehaberkon, Editorial2014, StefanosMondelos, Neils73, Sam Sailor, SnowWhite N, Chacelí, Jora8488, BoguszeQ, No longer a penguin, Bittenfig, SantiLak, Alyaspk, Eileenmsmall, Elemential1, Courageofconscience, Abbi Dale, Mr Potto, Kibehochurch, Katsheron, PurpleAiko, AprilBP, Imabbas, Dharmalion76, Charlotte135, Songsong1986, RuBen Llinas, Lekker12, Facttrue, Lokeshpant.7, Meganboat and Anonymous: 141
6.2 Images • File:'Today_capitalism_has_outlived_its_usefulness’_MLK.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/ %27Today_capitalism_has_outlived_its_usefulness%27_MLK.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: 'Today capitalism has outlived its usefulness’ MLK Original artist: Liz Mc • File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:55075_Albert_Lutuli.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/55075_Albert_Lutuli.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: DigitaltMuseum: Folkets Hus, interiør, møte med sør-afri... ID: OB.Ø61/4753 Original artist: Leif Ørnelund • File:Addams.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0d/Jane_Addams_quote_on_the_wall_%28American_ Adventure_in_the_World_Showcase%2C_Epcot_2007%29.jpg License: PD Contributors: Own work Original artist: Neelix (talk) (Uploads) • File:Adolfo-Pérez-Esquivel-wsf-2003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Adolfo-P%C3% A9rez-Esquivel-wsf-2003.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 br Contributors: http://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/sites/_agenciabrasil/files/ gallery_assist/3/gallery_assist639165/3fde22714e210.jpg Original artist: Marcello Casal Jr. / Agência Brasil • File:Adolfo_Pérez_Esquivel_1983.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Adolfo_P%C3%A9rez_ Esquivel_1983.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 nl Contributors: [1] Dutch National Archives, The Hague, Fotocollectie Algemeen Nederlands Persbureau (ANeFo), 1945-1989, Nummer toegang 2.24.01.05 Bestanddeelnummer 932-4904 Original artist: Antonisse, Marcel / Anefo • File:Albert_Lutuli_(458603639).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Albert_Lutuli_%28458603639% 29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Albert Lutuli Original artist: Erik Stattin • File:Ambox_contradict.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Ambox_contradict.svg License: Public domain Contributors: self-made using Image:Emblem-contradict.svg Original artist: penubag, Rugby471 • File:AmericaAfrica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/AmericaAfrica.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Created using Image:Flag of the UNIA.svg and Image:Map of USA without state names.svg. Original artist: Created by Edward Deutsch (Jndrline) • File:Arundhati_Roy_W.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Arundhati_Roy_W.jpg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Augustus Binu/ facebook • File:AtlantaPhoenix.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/AtlantaPhoenix.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: IMG_9745 Original artist: dbking • File:Atlanta_Trip_130.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Atlanta_Trip_130.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marylandstater • File:Brian_Haw_sits_quietly.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Brian_Haw_sits_quietly.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Brian Haw sits quietly Original artist: Southbanksteve from London, UK • File:Butch_Lewis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Butch_Lewis.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rizlazu • File:CPS141ratpoison.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/CPS141ratpoison.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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• File:Carl_Spitzweg_021-detail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Carl_Spitzweg_021-detail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Diese Datei: File:Carl Spitzweg 021.jpg Original artist: Carl Spitzweg • File:Christian_cross.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Christian_cross.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Boris23 (talk · contribs) • File:Christian_handshake.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Christian_handshake.svg License: CC BY 1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alekjds • File:Cindy_Sheehan_at_White_House.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Cindy_Sheehan_at_ White_House.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. SchuminWeb assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington,_D.C._(Dr._Martin_Luther_King,_Jr._and_Mathew_Ahmann_in_a_crowd.)_ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Civil_Rights_March_on_ -_NARA_-_542015_-_Restoration.jpg Source: Washington%2C_D.C._%28Dr._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._and_Mathew_Ahmann_in_a_crowd.%29_-_NARA_-_542015_-_ Restoration.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original artist: Rowland Scherman; restored by Adam Cuerden • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:DaisakuIkedaTokyoMay2010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/DaisakuIkedaTokyoMay2010. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rukomii • File:David_Dellinger_mug_shot.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/David_Dellinger_mug_shot.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.thesmokinggun.com/mugshots/celebrity/historical/david-dellinger Original artist: Federal Bureau of Prisons • File:Dexter_Avenue_Baptist.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: self-made, scan of original photograph. Original artist: Altairisfar • File:Dorothy_Day_1916.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Dorothy_Day_1916.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.corbisimages.com/stock-photo/rights-managed/BE064360/dorothy-day?popup=1 Original artist: Unknown photographer • File:DrHelenCaldicott.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/DrHelenCaldicott.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SayCheeeeeese • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg Source: svg License: Public domain Contributors:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.
• File:Coat of arms Holy See.svg Original artist: Cronholm144 created this image using a file by User:Hautala - File:Emblem of Vatican City State.svg, who had created his file using PD art from Open Clip Art Library and uploaded on 13 July 2006. User talk:F l a n k e r uploaded this version on 19 January 2007. • File:Firma_pérez_esquivel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Firma_p%C3%A9rez_esquivel.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ginés90 • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:FriedrichSiegmundSchultze.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/FriedrichSiegmundSchultze.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Site FoR-UK [1] Original artist: unknown (upload MHM-com 16:27, 9 November 2007 (UTC)) • File:Gloriole_blur.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Gloriole_blur.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Eubulides • File:HenriLaFontaine.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/HenriLaFontaine.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:HenryHodgkin2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/HenryHodgkin2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Ormerod Greenwood, Whispers of truth, York, Eng., William Sessions Limited, 1978, facing p. 137. Original artist: unknown (upload MHM-com 20:00, 11 November 2007 (UTC)) • File:Huwaida_and_Mairead_on_Spirit_of_Humanity.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Huwaida_ and_Mairead_on_Spirit_of_Humanity.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Huwaida and Mairead Original artist: Free Gaza movement • File:I've_Been_To_The_Mountaintop.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ea/I%27ve_Been_To_The_ Mountaintop.ogg License: Fair use Contributors: http://www.scribd.com/doc/25247401/Dr-Martin-Luther-King-Jr-Interactive-Bio-and-Mp3-Downloads-Lectures-Sermons-Speeches-and-Quotes Original artist: Martin Luther King, Jr. • File:I_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/61/I_Have_A_Dream_sample.ogg License: Fair use Contributors: https://archive.org/details/MLKDream Original artist: ? • File:Jane_Addams.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Jane_Addams.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss141.html Original artist: Cox
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• File:Jane_Addams_1940_Issue-10c.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Jane_Addams_1940_ Issue-10c.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US Post Office Original artist: US Post Office • File:Jane_Addams_and_Miss_Elizabeth_Burke.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Jane_Addams_ and_Miss_Elizabeth_Burke.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Chicago Daily News • File:Jane_Addams_in_a_car.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Jane_Addams_in_a_car.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Chicago Daily News • File:Jane_Addams_profile.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Jane_Addams_profile.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3a13016. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Moffett • File:Jane_Addams_signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Jane_Addams_signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Jane Addams Project Original artist: Jane Addams Created in vector format by Scewing
• File:JodyWilliams1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/JodyWilliams1.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Terryballard • File:JohnLennonpeace.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/JohnLennonpeace.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Photo by Roy Kerwood. Previously uploaded to en: with same image name May 11 2006. Original artist: Roy Kerwood • File:John_Wesley_clipped.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/John_Wesley_clipped.png License: Public domain Contributors: From Utopia Portrait Gallery [1], “A selection of portraits of historical figures from the University of Texas Libraries. The images in this collection are in the public domain. You do not need to ask for permission to use these images.” Original source: Hundred Greatest Men, The. New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1885. Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:KellyIngramMLKStatue.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/KellyIngramMLKStatue.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: self-made) Original artist: Kinu Panda (w:User:Kinu) • File:Khan_Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Khan_Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: British India Original artist: British India • File:Logo_for_FCNL.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c9/Logo_for_FCNL.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: FCNL supplied the logo Original artist: ? • File:Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act,_July_2,_1964.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ a9/Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://photolab.lbjlib. utexas.edu/detail.asp?id=18031 Original artist: Cecil Stoughton, White House Press Office (WHPO) • File:MCC-hq.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/MCC-hq.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: User JonHarder Original artist: Jon Harder • File:MLKStreet.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/MLKStreet.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Valley2city • File:MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/MLK_and_ Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3d01847. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Marion S. Trikosko, U.S. News & World Report Magazine • File:MLK_mugshot_birmingham.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4e/MLK_mugshot_birmingham.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: Original publication: ciculated to news media in April 1963 Immediate source: http://photos.nola.com/tpphotos/2013/04/martin_luther_king_mugshot_apr.html Original artist: Birmingham AL police dept (Life time: NA) • File:Mairead_Corrigan_reunited_with_her_husband.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Mairead_ Corrigan_reunited_with_her_husband.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Mairead and her husband reunited Original artist: Free Gaza movement • File:March_on_Washington_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/March_on_Washington_edit. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID ppmsca.03130. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Photo by Warren K. Leffler • File:Martin_Luther_King,_Jr..jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr..jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://nobelprize.org/ Original artist: Nobel Foundation • File:Martin_Luther_King,_Jr._and_Lyndon_Johnson_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/ Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._and_Lyndon_Johnson_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum. Image Serial Number: A2134-2A. http://photolab.lbjlib.utexas.edu/detail.asp?id=18256 Original artist: Yoichi Okamoto
6.2. IMAGES
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• File:Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Martin_ Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC Identifier (National Archives Identifier) 542069. Original artist: Unknown? • File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial,_San_Francisco.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/ Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial%2C_San_Francisco.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Caroline Culler (User:Wgreaves) • File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Coretta_Scott_King_Tomb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/ Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Coretta_Scott_King_Tomb.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Simon J. Kurtz • File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_ NYWTS.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3c26559. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Dick DeMarsico, World Telegram staff photographer • File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Signature2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Martin_Luther_King_ Jr_Signature2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Traced in Adobe Illustrator from http://www.signature.calligraphy-mvk.ru/images/ stories/spiritualLiders/martin_luther_king_sign.jpg Original artist: Martin Luther King, Jr. • File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_St_Paul_Campus_U_MN.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/ 2d/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_St_Paul_Campus_U_MN.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/ minnesotahistoricalsociety/5355384180/sizes/o/in/photostream/ Original artist: Minnesota Historical Society • File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_with_medallion_NYWTS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Martin_ Luther_King_Jr_with_medallion_NYWTS.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3c26558. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Phil Stanziola, NYWT&S staff photographer • File:Martin_Luther_King_memorial_Westminster_Abbey.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/ Martin_Luther_King_memorial_Westminster_Abbey.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nadiastrid • File:Martin_Luther_King_was_shot_here_Small_Web_view.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/ Martin_Luther_King_was_shot_here_Small_Web_view.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Bobjagendorf assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Mlk-uncovered-letter.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/ Mlk-uncovered-letter.png License: Public domain Contributors: https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2014/11/ fbis-suicide-letter-dr-martin-luther-king-jr-and-dangers-unchecked-surveillance Original artist: FBI • File:N_Roerich.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/N_Roerich.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Международный Центр Рерихов Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Nuvola_LGBT_flag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Nuvola_LGBT_flag.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Adapted from: Nuvola_Ugandan_flag.svg using colors from Gay_flag.svg Original artist: Nuvola_Ugandan_flag.svg: Antigoni • File:Nuvola_apps_arts.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Nuvola_apps_arts.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Image:Nuvola apps arts.png Original artist: Manco Capac • File:P_christianity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/P_christianity.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:P_vip.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Peace_Pilgrim-1980-Hawaii.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Peace_Pilgrim-1980-Hawaii.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Wouterhagens using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Benick at English Wikipedia • File:Peace_sign.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Peace_sign.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Schuminweb at English Wikipedia • File:Photograph_of_White_House_Meeting_with_Civil_Rights_Leaders._June_22,_1963_-_NARA_-_194190_(no_border).tif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Photograph_of_White_House_Meeting_with_Civil_Rights_Leaders. _June_22%2C_1963_-_NARA_-_194190_%28no_border%29.tif License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original artist: Department of the Interior. National Park Service(II). Region VI, National Capital Region. (1916 - 1933), Photographer • File:PresbyPeaceFellowLogo.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ef/PresbyPeaceFellowLogo.png License: Fair use Contributors: The logo is from the http://presbypeacefellowship.org website. http://presbypeacefellowship.org/files/images/ppf_logo_2008_web3_blue. png Original artist: ? • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007
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CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
• File:Rev.Jim_Bevel_003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Rev.Jim_Bevel_003.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Wikipedia:Contact us/Photo submission Original artist: D. Waldt • File:Rigoberta_Menchu_2009_cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Rigoberta_Menchu_ 2009_cropped.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: File:Rigoberta Menchu 2009.jpg Original artist: Surizar, cropped by Jen • File:Rosa_Parks_(detail).tiff Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Rosa_Parks_%28detail%29.tiff License: Public domain Contributors: USIA / National Archives and Records Administration Records of the U.S. Information Agency Record Group 306 Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Selma_to_Montgomery_Marches_protesters.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Selma_to_ Montgomery_Marches_protesters.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Peter Pettus • File:Smiling_Sun_English_Language.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Smiling_Sun_English_ Language.svg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Smiling_Sun_-_English.jpg Original artist: Anne Lund • File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:The_Deserter.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/The_Deserter.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Masses by John Simkin Original artist: Boardman Robinson • File:Vista_Login_Manager_Cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Vista_Login_Manager_ Cropped.svg License: GPL Contributors: Image:Vista-Login Manager2.png, from [1] Original artist: Sa-Ki at DeviantArt, traced by User:Stannered • File:VittorioArrigoni.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/VittorioArrigoni.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: http://www.cjournal.info/2011/04/18/remembering-vittorio-arrigoni/ Original artist: ? • File:Wikidata-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
6.3 Content license • Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0