The Lookout A Journal of Undergraduate Research At East Carolina University Volume 6, Issue 1
ISSN (Print): 2372-580X ISSN (Online): 2372-5834 Managing Editor: Donna Kain kaind@ecu.edu
Email: lookout@ecu.edu Website: www.ecu.edu/lookout
Copyright 2018 (c) Department of English, East Carolina University
Groups and Contributors
Project Management/ Production Team
Design Team
Elizabeth Johnson
Caroline Montaquila
Adrienne Steel
Kirsten Mackey
Emily Bolton
Ben Triplett
Michelle Powell
Elliot Dolan
Anne Sordillo
Alyssa Sullivan
Beth Martin-Godwin
Dylan Newitt Allen
Communications Team Marissa Bouchard
Social Media Team
Kiara Jenkins
Max Kilgore
Sydney Hunnell
Eliese Ashline
Madison Boone
Jordyn McDonald
Tania Parkins
Gussie Saunders
Zamir Sealy
Kathryn Dawson Caroline Schiess Angel Staton
Editor’s Note: Hello Readers! This is a journal of undergraduate research and creative writing dedicated to showcasing the writing prowess of students from all disciplines at East Carolina University. This journal includes research papers, literary analysis papers, poems and creative writing from various students in different disciplines at East Carolina University. In addition to writings, this issue includes record number of art pieces from students, more than has ever been included in this journal before which is very exciting. As a part of the editorial staff, our roles include designing of the journal and logo, editing each piece submitted, social media/marketing, website design as well as communication from us to the authors who submitted papers. In an effort to showcase all forms of writing and expression, our team changed the lookout from a simple research journal to one that knows no literary or artistic bounds. If this process interests you and you are interested in leaving your mark on the lookout as a student intern, consider taking English 3870 in the fall as it is the class the internship operates out of.
Table of Contents Creative Works And I Ate Every Damn One of Them. .......................................................................................................... 1 Look Around ...................................................................................................................................................... 5 Transformation .................................................................................................................................................. 6 Man In Bloom .................................................................................................................................................... 7 Chrono-logical .................................................................................................................................................... 8 Where’s the Party? ............................................................................................................................................. 9 Vacancy .............................................................................................................................................................10 Cardinal .............................................................................................................................................................11 Here ...................................................................................................................................................................12 Nature’s Poison ................................................................................................................................................15
Research Papers “Hey, Teacher! Leave Them Kids Alone” ...................................................................................................19 Breaking the Chains of Tradition in Bessie Head’s The Lovers ..................................................................37 Gender Roles in Frankenstein: Expectations and Realities of Mother Figures .......................................43 The Influence of Cultural Views on Homosexuality on the Characters in Giovanni’s Room .............49 Paolo Veronese’s The Feast in the House of Levi: Keeping with Decorum .................................................57 The Roles of Social Media in 21st Century Populisms: US Presidential Campaigns .............................65 The Countertop where Sitting Down was Standing Up ............................................................................77
Witches in Media: A Queer Feminist Exploration......................................................................................83 The CSI Effect and The Criminal Justice System .......................................................................................99 Combating 20th Century Terrorism ............................................................................................................ 103 Black Women’s Fight for Survival During Slavery .................................................................................. 111 Translating the Homeric Spirit.................................................................................................................... 121
Creative Works
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And I Ate Every Damn One of Them. John Goodie
B
y the time Private 1st Class Norman
had encountered some anti-Semitism in camp,
Fellman was liberated from the
not much but some, and I feared for what
horrid Nazi slave labor camp in
might happen down the line if somebody got
Berga, Germany, his 6'4" frame had wasted
hungry enough. That was one thought. The
away from 178 to 84 lbs. He had been one of
other thought was I had never been ashamed
352 men separated from the other thousands
of what I am, I was proud of what I am, and I
of American prisoners at Stalag IX, as an
guess I had more guts than brains, but I
American Jew, to be worked and starved to
decided to step forward, not to depend on
death at Berga. The Germans had ordered the
somebody else to hide my secret. As a result,
American commanders to have all the Jews in
we were sent to a restricted segregated
their units turn themselves in to them during
barracks, and in another week or so we found
the next morning roll call after they were
that we were part of a 352-man group, being
captured and driven by cattle car to the camp.
set off for a labor detachment. This group was
During World War II, an American dog tag
made up of Jews and other undesirables,
could indicate only one of three religions
mostly Catholic fellows. At any rate, we wound
through the inclusion of one letter: "P" for
up at this place called Berga Amelster after
Protestant, "C" for Catholic, or "H" for Jewish
another train ride, which equaled the first one.
(from the word, "Hebrew"), or "NO" to
I don't know how long it lasted, probably lasted
indicate no religious preference.
three or four days, five days. As we marched
Fellman said, “The barracks leader met with
down between two of these compounds on
the German commandant and some of the
either side of the road there were these mass of
officers and came back with the message that
humanity, skinny males, females, not kids, I
they knew that there were a percentage of Jews
never saw any kids, but these people, I
in this camp, and they wanted them to step
remember, had the biggest eyes you've ever
forward or else. And they took me aside,
seen in your life. They just looked like their
because I'm Jewish, and told me that they
whole faces were abominated, and they were
would gladly protect me, hide my dog tag. They
silent, quiet, not a word, not a sound spoken as
advised me strongly not to step forward, but I
we—352 Americans marched down. We were
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taken in for our first and only delousing, and
beatings, they put dirt in with the black powder
the place that we were deloused in fits all the
to suppress the explosions or let carts full of
records of what they use when they're
rock they were excavating tip over the side of
preparing for the ovens, jets all around the
the road, over the banks, to thwart the German
room. At that time, we didn't know anything
plans. Simple resistance. Incredible defiance.
about the gas ovens, or there would have been
Merciless beatings. Fellman saw many a man
a little more trepidation about going in there,
beaten to death by an enraged German for
not that we had a choice. But we were
nothing.
deloused, and then we were assigned to
These prisoners were fed a loaf of
barracks, and we had these straw pallets that
black bread per day for four or five guys to
were loaded with lice, so the delousing didn't
share. It was made of oat flour with half the
last very long.”
volume being sawdust. And they were given nasty greasy soups to drink, sometimes called
At the time Fellman was drafted, and his unit had been trained, they were not aware of how bad the hatred and treatment of Jews had taken over Hitler’s Germany. The Germans tried to keep those camps secret. They did a pretty good job of that at Berga, as it went largely unknown during the war until it was almost over.
coffee, sometimes soup. They had no idea what they were made of; sometimes finding a piece of turnip or other root vegetable in the teacolored broth. Fellman said it was nasty, but something. They would be in line for the food with stacks of dead bodies in a pile less than twenty feet away. It was their friends, that they had been talking to the day before or perhaps one of whom they had memorized their family names, so they could find them after the war to
While being worked to death, the three
tell them what happened. Fellman said, “I
hundred fifty-two men chosen for the special
never could tell them how they died. I tried to
detail dug 17 tunnels in the ground for an
make it very dignified. They did not need to
underground
know the details of the suffering.”
ammunitions
factory
the
Germans were planning. They busted rock
The worst part of it was the thirst. They
using black powder sausages strung together
got very little water to drink, so they would eat
that the Germans made them create. After
snow and icicles off buildings, trucks, and
setting them off and exploding them against
trees, then sometimes get slammed with the
walls of rock in caves, they would haul the rock
butt of a German rifle just for that. At times of
up in carts. Sometimes, despite the many Volume 6, Issue 1|2019
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great hunger, they would eat grass if they could
forget
dig to some through the snow or eat bark off
unforgettable,” he added.
the trees. The diarrhea would be green or black. Impossible
conditions.
Slow
starvation.
Unbearable thirst.
the
horrors.
“The
stench
was
When the men of Berga were freed at last by American troops not expecting to see an American Prisoner of War Camp at that location, 100 days after their capture, the US
Norman Fellman had been drafted and
War Crimes investigators were appalled by
assigned to B Company, 275th Regiment of the
their condition. They were wasted to skeletons,
Army's 70th Division. In January in the year
in the fashion of death camp survivors. Ribs
1944, his infantry unit was ambushed by the
protruding. Eyes sunken. Shells of men. After being taken to a hospital, they fed
Germans in France during the Battle of the
them a little bit of liquids at a time until their
Bulge. Fellman said, "... we had scooped out
bodies could adjust to solid foods again. When
holes the best we could in the rock to try to
he was ready, the beautiful young nurse in the
hide, and we were pretty much out of ammo.
clean white dress asked Fellman, "What food
The Germans came around with the flame-
did you think of the most?"
throwing tanks at the base of the hill but had
“I dreamt of eggs,” Fellman replied.
evidently decided to bypass us initially. They
"How do you like them?" the nurse
had gone around us and were cleaning up when
questioned. "Every damn way you can make them,"
they came back to get us." Fellman stated his unit had three
he said.
choices - "we could freeze to death, we could
"So, she brought me a dozen, two over-
starve to death, or we could surrender. So, we
easy, two scrambled, two boiled, two every way
stacked up our weapons.” They ended up being
you could cook them. And I ate every damn
packed in rail cars, “called eight by tens,
one of them," Norman Fellman said, “It was
because they were designed to hold either eight
like the first day of my life.”
horses or forty men. The Germans would pack in 75-90 men. The guys in the middle died of
Private 1st Class Noman Fellman made
suffocation and would be held up dead in the
it home alive. He sat his family down one night
mass,” Fellman related, telling the stories for
soon thereafter and he said, “You can ask me
the first time in forty years or more, afraid
anything you want about my experiences in the
nobody would believe him and trying still to
war. And I will answer you the best I can. But
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then I ask that you never ever mention it
were hardened by Hitler’s ego and extreme
again,” Norman said to his family. And they
“Nationalism” causing them to separate and
followed his wishes. He returned to the
victimize people because of what they believed
University of Virginia where he met his wife
or what they looked like, their last names or
Bunny. Before he married her, he told her the
how they prayed. Let us all hope that
same thing and gave her the opportunity to ask
somehow, we as people can overcome this
him what she wanted about what he
hatred of others in our hearts and learn to be
experienced and saw, and why he had such
at Peace with each other.
excruciating nightmares. She accepted Norman as the good man that he was; she loved him. They married and had a natural child and adopted a set of twins, so they had a big happy family together.
There is so much more to Norman Fellman’s story and life than I could possibly tell here. He did a lot of things for other veterans later in his life and only passed away in 2014 at the age of ninety.
Although I know these things happen, and history is full of torture, slavery, and murder. But it is still very difficult for me that this level of cruelness can exist between men. The collective mentality of the German people, in this case, had hardened around Hitler’s lying words that incited the masses to such brutish group mentality. Their bigotry and cruelty knew no bounds, similar to the slavery practiced by the United States not too many years before this horror. Little by little the hearts of the people, seemingly normal people, Volume 6, Issue 1|2019
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Look Around Lora Sager
“I am a Printmaking undergraduate, and a mother of two, a son and a daughter. Being a full-time student, mother and wife has proven to be an exciting challenge in my life, but overall, I enjoy juggling around everyone's scheduled; there was never a dull moment. I love details, so adding in lots of texture to a print has been loads of fun.�
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Transformation Caroline Montaquila
A metamorphosis Every little death begins Silver ribbons tangled around my fingers Hot breath on my skin I am burned to the ground, I am scattered to the wind I am reborn again and again and again
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Man In Bloom Dylan Newitt Allen
“Dylan Newitt Allen is an English major at ECU. He is from the small town of Erwin, NC, which was formally known as "The Denim Capital of the World." He enjoys writing poetry, visiting historical areas, and he finds comfort in the ocean. He went to Johnston Community College for art and describes his vision as "monochromatic, black and white, yet bursting with life.�
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Chrono-logical Adrienne Steele Beating like a heart, a rhythm based concept It’s as fake as air but as real as breathing Ticking, constricting, convicting It’s squeezing, discerning and I’m yearning, For more. Conceptual non-sense linked to my mortality, But with no morality it tilts its head Tocking, locking as I’m rocking backwards, it’s preened and powdered I’m the coward, I need more. Retrogressive in my actions I look behind me and see it moving forward It’s blind and pays no mind. I wind, reset, and 360 2 times too far and further into where I was before. Ricketing, and clicking, my mind versus time.
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Where’s the Party? Quinn Pagona
“I don't think I ever enjoyed making a finished piece of artwork like I did this one; it's a bit of an epiphany for me. I may be an aspiring tattoo artist, but if this makes me happy too then I'm chasing work as a printmaker as well. It's well worth chasing what makes you happy if you have the privilege to do so!”
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Vacancy Caroline Montaquila A broken home for a body A piece of flesh, rotting Sick and sweet and silent It wastes away The birthplace of new life Is decay
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Cardinal Dylan Newitt Allen
“Dylan Newitt Allen is an English major at ECU. He is from the small town of Erwin, NC, which was formally known as "The Denim Capital of the World." He enjoys writing poetry, visiting historical areas, and he finds comfort in the ocean. He went to Johnston Community College for art and describes his vision as "monochromatic, black and white, yet bursting with life.�
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Here Mary Myers
A
s I sat in the corner on an Urban
not made for a 12 year–old boy, and brush your
Outfitters look–alike sofa that was
hair.”
actually bought at an Ikea store, I
After a twenty minute car ride, not
thought to myself, “Why am I here?” Two
counting the time it took us to stop at the
hours ago, I had been contently reading that
nearest gas station for Rolling Rock bottles and
Fitzgerald novel about rich people, the eyes of
Sour Patch Watermelons, we arrived. “We’re
God, and two eggs. I had a Friends mug filled
here!” she exclaimed with excitement as I gave
to the brim with medium roast coffee the color
her a half smile and an eye roll. I walked in
of a white girl’s foundation and a blanket that
behind her sluggishly like I would if I were
gave me the feeling of being under the covers
walking into a funeral of someone I didn’t
of one of those really fancy hotel beds. To
really know but my mother forced me to
anyone else this may seem like a boring
attend. I could hear the music from outside the
Saturday night, but to me it was normal, almost
front door, something I had heard on the radio
exciting. I was still in my clothes from earlier in
before but would never show up on my iTunes
the day when I was cleaning my house: leggings
playlists. The air inside smelled like burnt
and a Mutant Ninja Turtles t-shirt that I didn’t
popcorn because of the guy taking dab hits in
care about staining. If I had already showered
one of the bedrooms. Nicole grabbed my hand
and slipped into my flannel pajamas I don’t
and pulled me all the way to the kitchen
think I would be in this situation right now.
without stopping. She was heading for the
It was unusual for anyone to come to
cabinets to find a shot glass, I assumed, but the
my house since I live so far away from the city,
entryway was occupied by a small girl doing a
so when my friend Nicole knocked on my door
keg stand with the help of two boys that clearly
I immediately went into emergency mode.
saw the benefits of her getting drunk. We
“What’s wrong?” “Are you okay?” “Are Rory
quickly dodged in between three girls gossiping
and Emily okay?” “Is your dog okay?”
about their so called friend and made our way
“Can you chill the hell out please?” she
to the living room. I saw an empty seat on the
interrupted. “Everything is fine except for your
couch and grabbed it without hesitation. “I’m
boring life. Get up, get dressed into something
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going outside to find Rory.” she yelled over the rap song. “I’ll be here.” I replied, but she was already out of sight.
“No thanks.” I said in a monotoned voice. “Okay, well how about I get to know you then.” he proclaimed with no intentions of
I pulled out my phone and looked over
actually getting to know me, only me getting to
social media outlets for a solid ten minutes.
know him. He went on to tell me about how
When there was no app left to open, I put my
he turned 22 last month, he will graduate this
iPhone away and crossed my arms. No one in
winter with a child psychology degree but
the crowded room seemed to catch my
wants to open a new restaurant, and that he
attention enough for me to want to join in on
deejays for his frat parties sometimes. Matt, as
their conversations. One girl was yelling at
he told me to call him because he doesn’t like
what I assumed to be her boyfriend, claiming
Matthew, went on and on about himself. I
he cheated on her with some blonde. Another
learned that his favorite color is Carolina blue,
girl was taking selfies of herself as her friends
but he didn’t have the grades to get into that
cheered her on in the foreground. Ten feet
particular university, that he took family
from her left, a guy was using a woven basket
vacations to the mountains every year with his
as a bucket to catch his puke because he
father, mother, and three sisters, and that he is
couldn’t handle what was in his cup. No one
a Jets fan. He kept on slurring his words while
seemed to care that he was trashing this piece
talking and I kept on pretending to listen.
of decor which I found disturbing. My view of
“Yeah so that’s about it.” he said after twenty
the kitchen was blurred by two guys racing to
two long minutes of telling me about himself.
see who could chug their liquids the fastest. I
“Cool.” I mumbled with a head nod.
had my money on the one in the green collared
“You seem a little shy.” he stuttered as
shirt, although I also had him pegged as the
he nudged my shoulder with his hand and gave
next to misuse the wicker basket by the
me a wink.
armchair.
“Sorry if I seem uninterested or
“Hey” a low voice said. A guy I didn’t
unimpressed, I just would rather be watching
know had made his way to the couch. Covered
an old 90’s sitcom or talking to my friends
in the beer he told me someone spilt on him
about dreams and global warming and saving
earlier, he smelt like a moldy, old bar. “Can I
the planet. Not really a small talk, smoking,
get you a drink? Or maybe you wanna dance.”
beer bonging kind of girl. I know your
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intentions are good, but honestly I’d rather be
a minute. It was one of those moments that the
somewhere else. I hope you understand.”
whole world is still. Everything had been so
“Then why are you here?” He seemed
chaotic and flustered that it felt good to be still.
to lose interest and told me he was going to get
The air was fresh from the summertime
a drink but never came back.
shower that fell earlier that day and the only
That question wouldn't leave my head.
sounds I could hear were the bullfrogs and
Why am I here? I had let someone convince me
crickets outside my car door. I sat there and
that my life of reading, relaxation, and being
just breathed until I got the energy to walk to
alone was boring and too grandma-like. I
the front door. As the knob turned, the
thought I needed adventure and interactions
brightness and openness of a clean, empty
but God, was I wrong. I decided I liked being
house became clear. It was peacefully tranquil.
a so-called hermit and that I desperately
I walked straight into the bathroom to start a
wanted to go home. I made my way through
shower. With the steam filling up the entire
the clouds of marijuana, groups of girls talking
room, I undressed and washed off the smell of
about their haters, and the sounds of the
alcohol and feeling of regret. After I dried off
Spotify playlist in order to find Nicole in the
I put on the grey flannel pajamas I wished I had
back yard. I pulled the keys out of her black
worn earlier in the night and rolled down my
and purple purse and told her I’d be in the car
bed sheets. I slipped in, pulled out a journal
when she was done. Those 37 minutes waiting
from underneath my pillow, and began to
for her were spent reading the free book I had
write. The entry was not about how I
download onto my phone, lounged in the
desperately felt out of place earlier in the night,
backseat. Countless people had walked past,
but rather how comfortable I was at the
some leaving, some coming, but to my relief
present moment. I reminded myself that right
none had stopped at the car to chat or check
here is where I felt like I belonged the most.
on me. When she finally trotted down the steps
Under blankets watching Netflix with my hair
headed to the car with a guy in hand she looked
up was just as thrilling to me as drinking out of
up and screamed “Oh, yay, you’re still here!” I
solo cups was to those fifty-some people I
could tell she was wasted by her body
interacted with earlier. I finished my entry and
movements alone.
put the journal back. As I laid my head on my
After countless red lights and jokes I
pillow, I thought, “I’m so glad I’m here.”
pretended to laugh at, I was finally home. I pulled up in the driveway and just sat there for
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Nature’s Poison Hunter Davis
“I am a senior at East Carolina University. My majors include art (double concentration of painting and printmaking), psychology, and pre-med. Within my printmaking concentration, I love etching because it allows for such fine detail and precision, which is something I strive for in my art.”
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Research Papers
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“Hey, Teacher! Leave Them Kids Alone”: The Wall Between Education and Intrusion, and Authority Outside the Classroom Dylan Newitt Allen
T
he Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, written by
“educational novel” from German; Bildung,
Scottish novelist Muriel Spark, is
meaning
described by many critics as her best
“novel” (Merriam-Webster 121). In English,
literary work. Published in 1961, the book
this is synonymous to that of a coming-of-age
follows Jean Brodie who, for her time in the
story (e.g., Plath’s The Bell Jar, Brontë’s Jane
early 1930s, was quite the Bohemian amongst
Eyre, etc.), and The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie
her educational co-workers. When Muriel
exemplifies these very elements. This tale of an
Sparks was a child, she spent two years in the
educator in her heyday focuses on the
classroom of Miss Christina Kay; this particular
malleable youth of six adolescent females and,
woman would go on to be the inspiration of
by examining this subject matter, Spark’s work
Spark’s character due to Christina Kay who
hyperbolizes
was “a first-rate teacher who encouraged her
education and intrusion. In chapter two, Miss
students along their chosen paths” (Hager 3).
Brodie states, “I follow my principles of
Nevertheless, Jean Brodie’s methodology in
education and give of my best in my prime”
teaching
her
(Spark 36). She goes into explaining that the
personal romance stories, classical studies, and
word ‘education’ comes from the Latin root e
provocatively touches on the notion of
of ex, which means out, and duco, which
fascism. Given the previous statement, the
translates to “I lead.” Jean Brodie then
question to be asked is, what commentary does
proceeds to elaborate on her personal
the novel postulate on the scholarly tutelage of
philosophy of how teaching is extracting born
Jean Brodie?
talent from a student’s soul. Following this
revolves
primarily
around
To comprehend Spark’s story, it must be
understood
that
the
book
is
a
Bildungsroman, which, literally translates to
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“education,”
the
Roman,
discrepancy
meaning
between
ideology is her disapproval of those who say that education is merely filling a student’s head with information.
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She undermines Miss Mackay by saying
asserting her preferences over the pupil’s
they differ at the root and states the
opinion and she often dismisses what they
headmistress is not a great educator. Of course,
believe. By doing this, it limits the latent
what Jean Brodie is proposing is not a
possibilities growing within the girls that she
ridiculous argument, and there are others who
claims to want to develop. One example of this
would agree. In Betty Hoskin’s Ethics and
is the topic that arises regarding science and art.
Empathy in the Writing Center, Hoskins argues
The instructor says, “Art is greater than
that if campus writing centers are paper-
science. Art comes first, and then science”
centered and not student-centered (e.g.,
(Spark 24). Who is to say one of these girls has
programming
input
a natural calling for biology or chemistry? Does
information), then this resource is nothing but
this not go against the instructor’s own
an assembly line of manufactured reports, thus
reasoning? Another occurrence of her blatant
neglecting potential writers. However, one
contradiction is when she says, “I’m putting
could question if Miss Brodie’s belief system
old heads on your young shoulders” (Sparks 5);
either follows this line or runs parallel to the
however, Brodie then adds, “This is nineteen
concept, because, while she does believe in
thirty-six. The age of chivalry is past” (6). It is
extracting the creative flare in a student, it
evident that the teacher is not sincere about
sometimes seems her intentions are less
either. So, what is her agenda then?
students
student-centered
and
to
more
merely
self-centered.
Arguably, Miss Brodie and her teaching
Unquestionably, Brodie does teach the girls
style is a symbol for fascism. Distinguished by
about a multitude of subjects and art forms; for
tyrannical views, fascism means a strong
instance, in chapter three, the instructor
gubernatorial system where there is no
introduces her pupils to a painting of Dante
tolerance for other beliefs, and it is Jean Brodie
meeting Beatrice, but it is based solely around
who epitomizes the latter. Often, the instructor
her experience and not a set lesson plan.
puts her beliefs over the individual; it is evident
Moreover, she inserts her political beliefs.
that she admires dictators such as Mussolini
Instead of teaching her students about
and desires to manipulate the students. Like
themes in Inferno or examining the political
most dictators, Jean Brodie is charismatic and
history behind the Florentine poet’s epic,
manipulates the emotions of those beneath
Brodie decides to discuss her encounter with a
her. A fine example of verboten views in the
young poet she met in Italy. Also, the teacher
classroom is at the beginning of the story when
often contradicts her own reasoning by
the teacher asks her students, “Who is the
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greatest Italian painter?” To which one girl
It is interesting that Muriel Sparks had
replies, “Leonardo da Vinci, Miss Brodie”
Jean Brodie explain the Latin roots of the word
(Sparks 7). Immediately, Brodie gives her
‘education’
response by pejoratively telling the child that it
Chambers’s Twentieth Century Dictionary, “Duce”
is Giotto. The instructor adds, “He is my
means “leader” in Italian and comes from the
favorite” (8). By only allowing her opinion,
Latin root of “dux.” Furthermore, it is defined
Brodie is seizing power. Her goal is to do more
as “the title assumed by the Italian dictator
than create the crème de la crème, but to
Mussolini” (Geddie 325).
because,
according
to
the
construct replicas of herself and extend her
In chapter two, Miss Brodie and her
prime through the students she claims to be
clan come to the end of the Meadows and
individuals.
clear
notice a group of Girl Guides; their leader
representation of her narcissism in chapter 5
insinuates that they are less than the Brodie set
when the narrator says, “Teddy Lloyd
by saying, “For who like that sort of thing …
continued reproducing Jean Brodie in his
that is the sort of thing they like” (Sparks 31).
paintings” (132). The instructor asks Sandy if
Shortly after, the narrator states, “Miss
Lloyd’s portraits still resemble her and when
Brodie’s disapproval of the Girl Guides had
Stranger responds in the affirmative, Brodie
jealousy in it” (31). Jean Brodie’s distain for the
replies, “Then all is well.” (132).
Girl Guides is because it is not centered on an
Sparks
illustrates
a
Jean Brodie’s admiration for Mussolini
individual, but more so a group of people with
impacts her teaching; this is clear seeing as a
a shared recreation. Her ideology in that
passage from Benito’s The Doctrine of Fascism
concrete components (i.e., math, science, etc.)
aligns to her philosophy:
are valued less than the students’ natural
Thus many of the practical expressions
abilities within themselves, echoes the same
of Fascism – such as party organization, system
notion as the Italian dictator. Shortly after
of education, discipline – can only be
crossing paths with the Girl Guides, Miss
understood when considered in relation to its
Brodie and her set come across a group of
general attitude toward life. A spiritual attitude
unemployed individuals. Miss Brodie tells her
(3). Fascism sees in the world not only those
girls they are waiting to receive dole and adds,
superficial, material aspects in which man
“You must all pray for the Unemployed, I will
appears as an individual, standing by himself,
write you out this special prayer for them”
self-centered … (Mussolini 2)
(Sparks 39). Of course, she goes on to praise Mussolini by stating the poverty issue in Italy
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has been solved. Sandy is moved by these
a sincere glimpse of compassion is seen when
people who do not have a job and the narrator
Monica Douglass refers to the jobless as “Idle”
says, “She wanted to cry as she always did when
(39) and Brodie corrects the notion of the men
she saw a street singer or beggar” (40); the girl
being lazy by saying, “In England they are
with the small eyes begins to use Mary as a
called the Unemployed” (39). But with this
scapegoat. This is an example of how fascism
said, one could argue Miss Brodie is
can bring out the fears in people and make
responsible for the scapegoating tactics as
them channel that anxiety onto others. For
there are numerous incidents in which Mary is
instance, how Hitler took advantage of
belittled.
people’s anxiety regarding the collapsed
The victimization of Mary Macgregor
German economy by offering them convenient
is seen when the instructor says, “Sandy cannot
scapegoats (i.e., the Jews).
talk to you if you are so stupid and
According to The Familiar Attractions of
disagreeable” (Sparks 28); when Jean Brodie
Fascism in Muriel Spark’s The Prime of Miss Jean
claims that Americans speak nasally and
Brodie, Isobel Murray and Bob Tait say, “Miss
discovers Mary is not familiar with the adverb,
Brodie may be a born Fascist, as Sandy claims,
the teacher states, rather supercilious, “Stupid
but she is an instinctive and a relatively
as ever … Eunice? (47); towards the end of the
uncomprehending one.” They then add that
novel, even after her dismissal from Marcia
the “dedication and discipline, efficiency,
Blaine, the former educator writes in her letter,
elimination
his
“Perhaps Mary had nursed a grievance in her
charisma … [Jean Brodie] … remains blissfully
stupidity of mind” (135). Given the derision of
unaware of the bullying tactics he and his
Mary Macgregor, it is without a doubt Miss
henchmen ruthlessly employed” (qtd. in Suh
Brodie pulled from the fascist handbook and
87); it should also be noted that this moment is
mastered in the art of scapegoating. While the
occurring in the early 1930s before the racial
Mussolini aficionado is contemptible in her
laws hindering Jews was passed in 1938. Ann
desecration of Mary’s character, one must
Ashworth states, “Miss Brodie is culpably
consider the narrator is also guilty of
naïve in admiring Mussolini, but she is unaware
lambasting the school girl and takes the
of the persecutions, the enormity of the
mockery to another level by incorporating
treatment of the Jews, and the price of what
body shaming. The speaker refers to Mary as,
she supposes to be a Utopia that will end
“Lump-like and too stupid to invent something
unemployment” (qtd. in Suh 87). Furthermore,
… too stupid to even tell a lie” (8); the uncalled
of
unemployment,
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for imagery of Macgregor’s body is referenced
be through Sandy, because her non-existent
as, “Lumpy, with merely two eyes, a nose and
eyes, in a figurative sense, cannot see the entire
a mouth like a snowman (10); the narrator
picture; moreover, the last name Stranger could
mocks her knowledge of copulation by stating
represent how this omniscient voice telling the
Mary is, “too stupid to have any sex wits of her
story is, in fact, a stranger observing this literary
own” (52); finally, the person telling the story
world.
says, “Even stupid Mary Macgregor amazed herself” (88).
Peter Robert Brown argues in his narrative theory titled “There's Something about
Since there is enough evidence to
Mary:” Narrative and Ethics in The Prime of Miss
prove the narrator’s guilt, is it safe to conclude
Jean Brodie that Spark’s intent is for readers to
the reader is dealing with a voice that is
consider Mary’s mistreatment by “ironically
unreliable and, because of this, one must
and satirically depicting the activity of narrating
consider if Miss Brodie’s depicted image is
and the often dubious authority on which it
accurate; despite her questionable appeal to
rests” (229), and goes on to add that the
fascism, perhaps Jean Brodie is simply like
Bildungsroman is commenting on the way
everyone else and is merely flawed. In
systematic regulations can “produce and
reference to Yunah Kae’s Sandy’s Narrativization
legitimate malevolent narratives that place
of Miss Brodie and the Narrator’s Collusion: The
limits on how individuals are interpreted”
Prime of Miss Jean Brodie as an Anti-Fascist Text,
(229). This is where things get complicated,
Pullin states:
because the reader must now suspend disbelief
Miss Brodie is instead narrativized
and view The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie in a meta
mainly through Sandy’s gaze, and it is because
sense. On the one hand, it very well might be
the
that the fascist zealot is not as corrupt as the
narrator
perspective
relies and
heavily colludes
on
Sandy’s
with
her
reader is made to believe, or Jean Brodie really
narrativization through narrative techniques
is the epitome of corruption and that the
that Sandy appears as a the “moral reference
narrator, who uses Sandy as a conduit, has been
point for the reader” (qtd. in Kae 114).
tainted by Miss Brodie’s intrusion and fallen
At the very beginning of the novel, the
into the instructor’s cult-like charm. While the
narrator describes Sandy as having, “small,
narrative does seem to harshly agree with Miss
almost
3).
Brodie on Mary being a stupid person, there is
Considering Pullin’s point, it is possible Muriel
a point in the novel where the speaker
Sparks intended for the narrative focal point to
acknowledges the very thing Sandy’s teacher
non-existent,
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eyes”
(Sparks
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claims to be against; at the center of the novel,
Granted, if one is based on the moral standing
the narrator says:
of the narrator, Jean Brodie is not only an
The Kerr sisters took Miss Brodie’s
antagonist to the speaker, but herself. The
intrusion quite meekly, and they were so
woman in her prime is clearly anti-Catholic
unquestioning about any authority which
when she is described by the narrator as
imposed itself upon them was the very reason
thinking that those “who did not want to think
why they also did not hesitate later to answer
for themselves were Roman Catholics” (Sparks
the subsequent questions of Miss Gaunt
90). The narrator’s claim for Brodie’s
(Sparks 92).
disapproval for the Catholic church is proven
Here it is clear that Muriel Sparks is
when she says, “He is a Roman Catholic and I
both commenting on and satirizing the
don’t see how you have to do with a man who
mechanics of narrative structure; the audience,
can’t think for himself” (132). Clearly Jean
like the Kerr sisters, do not challenge Brodie’s
Brodie is an antagonist against Catholicism,
control in the same way that the reader accepts
and there is irony in that the one person she
the notion of a speaker.
bullied was named Mary, which the name of
One question the reader should
Jesus’ mother.
consider is whether Miss Jean Brodie is an
One theme touched on in The Prime of
antagonist or a protagonist. When it comes to
Miss Jean Brodie is religion, specifically
the leader of the Brodie set, it is easy to say she
Calvinism and Catholicism. The novel also
is the antagonist because of her treatment
touches on the idea of atheism as seen on page
towards
single-handedly
36 when the narrator states that Jean Brodie
responsible for the Joyce Emily’s death, and
taught them there are some people who don’t
how
Mackay’s
believe in either God or Allah. However,
conservative belief that education consists of
instead of commenting on if Miss Brodie is a
basic arithmetic and history. But in the
true atheist, Sparks explores the notion that the
perspective of a fascist, Jean Brodie is not only
instructor is suffering from the delusion that
a protagonist, but a champion as well.
she thinks of herself as a god. Near the very
Furthermore, if the teacher truly believes these
end of the book, the teacher christens herself
students have been adulterated with public
as Teddy Lloyd’s muse; this causes Sandy to
school intrusion, then she is also a protagonist
believe that Jean Brodie has arrogantly taken
in that sense; however, according to the
on the title of “the God of Calvin” (Sparks
narrator she has intruded on the Kerr sisters.
129). Furthermore, the Bohemian instructor
she
Mary, rails
being against
Miss
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does acknowledge God on page 90 and the
With the multitude of messages Muriel
audience learns Brodie does not doubt His
Sparks makes in her elegantly written novel, it
presence, but the teacher does feel as if she
is safe to say there are pros and cons in Miss
should not be held to the same moral conduct
Jean Brodie’s teaching style. One example of
as other Christians. As a matter of fact, Sandy
the latter was her own duplicity towards her
feels begins to feel that Miss Brodie “elected
girls which ultimately led to her downfall: One
herself to grace” (116). Brian W. Shaffer’s
of these being that her advocacy for lying to
Reading the Novel In English, 1950-2000, alludes
other teachers. This is evident on page 10 when
to the comparison between the teacher and
Jean Brodie is untruthful in telling Miss Mackay
Christ by saying that Sandy is a “schemer who
that the girls are crying over a history lesson;
becomes Miss Brodie’s Judas” (qtd. in Staffer
after
98); this is primarily due to Miss Stranger’s
commends them on playing along. Because she
betrayal, and it can even be said that Sandy is
taught the girls to be perfidious, the teacher
the
Caesar.
only has herself to blame. Also, she betrayed
Throughout the novel, Jean Brodie tries to
her children by not giving them the proper
figure out who backstabbed her and she never
education the students needed; however, it is
finds out. But was Miss Brodie actually betrayed
debatable that her intentions, while breeching
or did Sandy just put a stop to her?
the bailiwick of self-centeredness, was to bring
Brutus
to
Miss
Brodie’s
the
headmistress
leaves,
Brodie
As previously stated, the teacher set
out who she believed them to be. Of course, it
herself up for her defeat. Miss Stranger says she
was often clouded by narcissism. But Brodie’s
is not interested in the problems of the world,
defense, she did expose them to different types
just “putting a stop to Miss Brodie.” The
of art that other girls at Marcia Blaine never
student’s reasoning for putting her foot down
heard of and showed them an outer world
so the inattentive instructor can no longer do
beyond the classroom. Furthermore, Miss
any damage. If Sandy’s intent was objective was
Brodie did succeed in extending prime and
to betray to Jean Brodie, then why did she stay
immortalizing herself, because even long after
in contact with the teacher post-Marcia Blaine?
her death she is talked about. Even the novel
Her ridiculous claims of betrayal put her
itself ends with the question of where Miss
narcissistic delusions in a perspective, because
Stranger received her literary and political
what did any of the students have to gain by
teachings and Sandy answers, “There was a
reporting her?
Miss Jean Brodie in her prime” (137). The message here is that no matter how great or
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terrible an educator might be, they will leave some sort of impression. Tragically, Miss Brodie left both a mark and a scar.
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Works Cited "Bildungsroman." Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, vol. 11, Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S.A., Merriam-Webster, 2007, p. 121. Brown, Peter Robert. "There's Something about Mary:" Narrative and Ethics in The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie.” Journal of Narrative Theory, Vol. 36, No. 2, 2006, pp. 228-253. Geddie, William. Chambers's Twentieth Century Dictionary. Rev. ed., with supplement. Edinburgh: W. & R. Chambers, 1959, p. 325 Kae, Yunah. "Sandy’s Narrativization of Miss Brodie and the Narrator’s Collusion: The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie as an Anti-Fascist Text Y." S-Space: SNU Open Respository, SNU Open Repository and Archive Seoul National University Library, sspace.snu.ac.kr/bitstream/10371/81470/1/07_Yunah%20Kae.pdf. Mussolini, Benito. "The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism." San Jose State University, SJSU, www.sjsu.edu/people/james.lindahl/courses/Hum2B/s2/Mussolini-on-Doctrine-ofFascism.pdf. Shaffer, Brian W. Reading the Novel in English, 1950-2000. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2006. Spark, Muriel. About the Author. Meet Muriel Spark, by Hal Hager, 2009, pp. 3. Spark, Muriel. The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie. Perennial Classics, 1999.
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The History, Features, and Signers of Black American Sign Language Aliaha Austin Abstract There is a misconception that speakers of spoken and signed dialects that differ from the Standard American English are deemed as ‘less proficient’ or ‘uneducated’. These attitudes, in regards to speakers of a dialect, stem from historical and societal views steeped deep in American history. There are many dialects of American English that include Appalachian English, Chicano English, and Black English (also known as African American English or AAE). As signed languages carry the same function as spoken language, dialects and variation among signers also exists. This paper will focus on one of dialects of American Sign Language (ASL) called Black American Sign Language (Black ASL). The history of deafness in America for white and black people will be examined to show how history, geography, and culture impact language variation. This paper will also address prejudice that may be associated with a dialect of a language and discuss how a variation in a language, whether spoken or signed, does not correlate to a deficit in language competence.
Introduction
S
languages such as French Sign Language,
igned languages are defined as a
Spanish
“system
and
Language, and American Sign Language (ASL).
movements combined with facial
ASL is commonly found in America but is not
expressions and body postures” (Kent, 2003).
English-derived or English-based. Signed
In all languages, spoken and signed, the
languages are governed by the same linguistic
relationship between the sounds or signs of a
rules as spoken languages, but signed languages
language and the meaning associated with them
do not follow the same grammatical rules
are arbitrary. The signs or sounds of a language
leading to different word formations and
do not cause meaning, form, or function but
structures. Language can be used to identify
have meaning assigned to them (Fillmore &
social identity and this, in part, contributes to
Snow, 2000). There are various signed
why there are dialectal differences in language.
of
hand
shapes
Sign
Language,
German
Sign
There is a standard, written form of English, Page | 29
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but there are also many dialects of English like
with them. ASL was created from a
Bahamian English, Chicano English, and
combination of French sign language and the
African American English. A dialect is a variety
students’
of a language based on variance from person
Gallaudet, Gallaudet University was the first
to person, region to region, or culture to
college for the deaf and is the only deaf
culture. Dialects of a language are still rule
university in the world. Over time more
governed and systematic forms of language;
schools were started all around the United
they are not a separate language (Fillmore &
States teaching ASL as the primary language.
Snow, 2000). Just as with spoken languages,
Because deaf people were ostracized in
there are different dialects in each signed
America, they began to form their own
language. The purpose of this paper is to
communities that included deaf churches,
discuss the historical and communal influences
newspapers owned and published by the deaf,
on Black ASL as well as the differences and
and grocery stores. Sign language was the
similarities between spoken and written
primary form of communication for deaf
African American dialects. The differences in
people, but many believed that should not be
Black ASL and Standard ASL will be discussed
the case.
individual
signs.
Named after
by studying the features of Black ASL– location, movement, hand shape, place of articulation, and other non-manual markers– and studying how these differences came about. This paper will also discuss the perception of different dialects of ASL versus Standard ASL and the future of Black ASL.
Oralism Alexander Graham Bell, known for the invention of the telephone, believed that sign language held deaf individuals back from being successful in a hearing world. He and others advocated for ‘oralism’, or learning how to speak and read lips, versus learning how to
History of American Sign Language
sign. Schools around America started to shift
To engage in a conversation about a
from teaching sign-language to focusing
dialect of ASL, the history of deafness in
heavily on teaching deaf children how to speak
America must first be discussed. Thomas
and read lips. This proved, in the long run, to
Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc founded the
be very destructive for many students who
American School for the Deaf in 1817.
were deemed “unsuccessful” in Oralism
Students came from all over to attend the
programs. Oralism programs showed to hinder
school and they brought their way of signing
many students from achieving their fullest
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potential in the schools. Although sign
communities were segregated and, due to this
language has been identified as a legitimate
separation, different signs were formed
language today, it is still a highly controversial
(Higgins, 1987). Black students were exposed
topic in the deaf community. Many feel that
to sign language in the classroom but their
individuals should only sign or only speak.
experiences were different from those of white
Others feel that both oralism and signing are
deaf children because of unequal educational
acceptable forms of communication. People
facilities and lack of access to new information.
who deem ASL as their primary language
Oralism was the next step in deaf education
belong to the ‘Big D’ community while those
and was implemented throughout white
who choose to speak as their main form of
schools; however, it was not extended to the
communication belong to the ‘Little D’
majority of black deaf schools on the same
community (Kent, 2003).
level. This form of discrimination worked in favor for Black deaf students. Although they
Black American Sign Language While white deaf Americans were ostracized from hearing America, black deaf individuals were ostracized from white hearing America, black hearing America, and the white deaf community as well. The National Association of the Deaf (NAD) was founded to advocate for deaf society, however, they prohibited African Americans from joining. There was a fear that black members would keep the NAD from making advances in hearing America. Due to this, the NBDA, or National Black Deaf Advocates, community was formed to cater to the needs of deaf
were in inadequate facilities, they received a better, more understandable education because they were taught in ASL, versus being taught through spoken language (Baynton, 1996). Black students were still not allowed to go into higher education which limited the number of black deaf educators that were qualified to teach in deaf schools. There was a mixture of both black, white, hearing, and deaf educators at black schools and the differences became apparent in the dialectal differences of sign language as well as student’s different experiences in the different schools across the country.
African Americans (McCaskill, Lucas, Bayley, & Hill, 2011). While the first deaf school was
American Sign Language Variation
created in 1817, educational programs for
Social and geographical features cause
black deaf children were not created until the
language variation. Variation that distinguishes
mid-1850s (Stetten, 2014). Schools and
standard ASL and Black ASL occurred due to
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segregated
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and
communities
stated as “Put the shoes on the box.” In ASL,
(McCaskill et al., 2011). One of the most
a signer would say “Shoes, box, put on” (Jay,
noticeable differences is Black ASL signers
2011). While ASL is not English-based, there
seem to be more expressive than standard
are some signed languages that are based on
signers. Black ASL signers use two hands and
American
a larger amount of space when signing. Signers
communication
of Black ASL also repeat words and phrases
Essential English, Signing Exact English, and
more than signers of standard ASL. The use of
Linguistics of Visual English. These systems
voiceless mouthing is less common in Black
are taught to students to encourage better
ASL, and there are also differences in signs
English skills and is preferred amongst
themselves (McCaskill et al., 2011). The word
students who prefer Oralism. ASL is favored
“chicken” in standard ASL is signed with the
amongst students who are culturally deaf,
pointer and thumb coming together at the side
meaning they favor signing over speaking
of the cheek while Black ASL signers sign
(McCaskill et al., 2011). ASL is sometimes seen
chicken with the pointer and thumb coming
as being used by less educated deaf individuals
together at the hips using both hands. While
and this perception amongst deaf individuals
the hand movement and shape are similar, the
has an impact on Black ASL signers. Because
place of articulation and number of hands used
ASL may not be as esteemed as other forms of
is different. Some signs like “flirt” and
signing, individuals who sign Black ASL can be
“pregnant” are completely different when
seen as being less proficient in the language or
comparing the dialects. These differences show
less knowledgeable about what is being signed
that language variation has occurred due to the
because of how it is signed.
English. systems
These include
signed Seeing
difference in communities and societies (Ingram, 2015).
African American English and Black American Sign Language
American Sign Language Syntax
There are many similarities between
ASL is not an English-based language
the spoken and signed dialects of Black
or English-derived language. ASL can be
English. Dr. Joseph Hill, a Professor in the
classified as an Object, Subject, and Verb
Profession of Deafness Programs at the
(OSV) language. The object is identified first,
University of North Carolina Greensboro, and
followed by the subject, and then the verb. For
co-author of book The Hidden Treasure of Black
example, in English, a command would be
ASL: Its History and Structure, says because
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“black deaf people have been exposed to the
older speakers of AAE who “sound more like
same social elements that black hearing people
their regional contexts” (Wolfram and Ward,
enjoy and practice in their communities, it
2006).
makes sense that there are elements of black culture that appear in Black ASL such as religious practice, cooking, humor, musical entertainment, clothing, hairstyles, words and phrases that typically used in the black
Societal Views towards African American English and Black American Sign Language
communities, and protections against racism”
There is an association of the standard
(Stretten, 2014). Facial expressions and the
spoken and signed forms with whiteness. The
repetition of words or phrases while speaking
assumption is that signers and speakers of
are common in Black ASL and Black English.
Standard ASL and English are Caucasian. AAE
Another similarity is the perception of the
has been highly criticized as being “lazy” or
dialects in their perspective settings. Signers
“uneducated” amongst American English
will “code-switch” which has two meanings.
speakers. Black ASL signers face that same
The
the
criticism. In a study found in chapter 4 of the
standard/mainstream way when in formal
book The Hidden Treasure of Black ASL: Its
places but use Black ASL when with friends
History and Structure, signers of Black ASL
and family (Guggenheim, 1993). Speakers of
ranging in different ages were asked questions
AAE often do the same thing and speak one
about their own perception of Black ASL.
way in professional or academic settings and
Many of the older signers said they felt white
another way when around family and friends.
ASL was more advanced because “it was
Code-switching in a signing setting can also
difficult to understand”’ and “cleaner” than
refer to mouthing certain words or phrases
Black ASL (McCaskill et al., 2011).
first
means
they
sign
whilst singing them and then not mouthing other words or phrases. Many young signers of
Conclusion
Black ASL incorporate more words and
American Sign Language has a unique
phrases that were created or started in spoken
lingual history in the United States. Black ASL
AAE (McCaskill et al., 2011). Research has
is particularly unique because of the historical
found that young speakers of AAE are similar.
factors that have affected the dialect. ASL
Young AAE speakers “sound more like their
became standardized after the creation of deaf
transregional urban AAE counterparts” than
schools in America during the early 1800s.
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Education of black deaf students began in the mid-1850s with segregated schools. Different signs came out of geographical and social isolation and through this came new studies to identify different formations of Black ASL when compared to the standard. Black ASL is just one of the many dialects of ASL but it has faced criticism because there are signs and sayings that differ from standard ASL. However, signers of Black ASL are not any less proficient in ASL, any less intelligent, or any less capable than signers of other dialects of ASL. Black ASL is indicative of the culture and community of which the signer grew up and is a form of expression unique to the signer. In recent years, there has been a rise of Black ASL amongst younger African American signers in America. This is due to a better understanding of what proficiency in a language is and an embrace of linguistic individuality amongst signers. Black ASL displays a history of black hearing and deaf communities. Studying the differences in dialects informs individuals of the significance of dialectal variation to the speakers, or signers, of the dialect. It also further supports that differences in languages do not indicate that speakers of a different dialect use a lesser form of communication or are
somehow
less
competent
in
their
knowledge of their native language.
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Works Cited Baynton, D.C. (1996). Forbidden Signs: American Culture and the Campaign Against Sign Language. (pp. 46) Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Printing Press. Guggenheim, L. (1993). Ethnic variation in ASL: The signing of African Americans and how it is influenced by conversational topic. Communication Forum, 2, 51-76. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University. Higgins, P. (1987). Outsiders in a Hearing World: A Sociology of Deafness. (pp. 52) Beverly Hills: Sage. Jay, M. (2011). Don’t Just “Sign”...Communicate!: A Student’s Guide to Mastering ASL Grammar. (pp.90) Judea Media, LLC. Stretten,
A.
(2014).
ASL
and
Black
ASL:
Yes,
There’s
a
Difference.
Retrieved
from
https://splinternews.com/asl-and-black-asl-yes-theres-a-difference-1793840928 McCaskill, C., Lucas, C., Bayley, R., & Hill, J. (2011). The hidden treasure of Black ASL: Its history and structure. (pp. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. Wolfram, W. & Ward, B. (2006). American Voices: How Dialects Differ from Coast to Coast. (pp. 231) Blackwell Publishing. Ingram,
Monique.
(2,
May,
2015).
Black
ASL.
Retrieved
from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FBxF3KGgIl4 Kent, D. (2003). American Sign Language. (pp. 9-25). Franklin Watts, a Division of Scholastic Inc.
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Breaking the Chains of Tradition in Bessie Head’s The Lovers Madison Boone
T
hroughout history, religion has given humans
positivity;
society and geographic area that only worked
however, most religions require a
to separate man and woman, both still find
certain level of obedience from its disciples.
themselves in close quarters from the
This relationship of obedience can be seen in
beginning. The village has strict rules against
many widespread religions. Christians, for
men and woman living together as well as
example, follow the Ten Commandments and
arranged marriages; in most of these tribes the
the word of God; whereas, Muslims only eat
community works to benefit the entire group
certain foods based on their religious
rather than just themselves. Even marriage is
“instructions.” In any respect, this obedience
seen differently among the people of the
causes the individual to feel a part of something
village, “marriage itself seemed to have no
larger
their
significance beyond a union for the production
contribution or sacrifices are important to their
of children” (Rosenberg 424). Despite the
eternal residency. However, some religions
religion pulling them into different directions
require more sacrifices and “rules” than others,
and their parents being completely against this
causing some individuals to break the chains
idea of “free choice,” Keaja and Tselane show
and make choices based on their personal will.
determination and independence in choosing
No short story portrays the battle between
their own future. Although Head writes this
tradition and self-resolve better than Bessie
short story in the genre of fiction, the events
Head’s The Lovers. Head uses the traditional
and traditions apparent throughout this love
beliefs and expectations shared in Southern
affair are factually present in South African
African tribes to exemplify the bravery
history.
through,
hope
the
and
Although Tselane and Keaja lived in a
feeling
that
individuals can show when they choose to
Botswana, like most areas of South
follow their own path as well as the disdain that
Africa, is rich with culture and tradition,
comes from a community of worshippers who
making for a practical, realistic setting for The
act out of obedience.
Lovers. The beliefs of the tribe in Head’s short
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story portray some of the most vital traditions
always come before their own. This gave both
in African tribes; marriage traditions and the
individuals respect for their parents as well as
expectations of women in Southern African
learning how to follow strict orders. One of the
society. According to Moeti, not only do some
largest driving forces behind the village’s
Botswana traditions still involve arranged
obedience is fear; the fear of the crops not
marriages,
a
yielding even the fear of exile. Head states, “If
“premarital council” to prepare the couple for
he broke the taboos at a personal and private
married life and their duties (Moeti, Bakadzi, et
level, death, sickness, and great misfortune
al. 248). Tselane rarely has an independent
would fall upon his family” (Rosenberg 431).
voice throughout the story, reflecting south
This suggests that an individual making any
African culture, her mother and father
choice that goes against the traditional
normally make the decisions around her day-
“guidelines” will face the consequences, on a
to-day life as well as her romantic relationship
communal level, therefore causing all to steer
status. Head even writes that, “There were
from independence for the sake of the entire
many periods in a man’s life when abstinence
community. Tselane and Keaja were both
from sexual relations was required; often this
exposed
abstinence had to be practiced communally”
adolescence, for example, Keaja has formed a
(Rosenberg 431). This aspect shows not only
somewhat open-minded relationship with his
the sacrifice of personal choice by married
father where they are comfortable conversing
couples but also the factor of the importance
about certain things that would be considered
of the village’s well-being over individual
taboo to Tselane’s family. Although Keaja’s
passion. The control of religion not only
family also believes in arranged marriages and
affects the relationship between Keaja and
the other traditional practices, his father
Tselane, but it has affected their everyday life
understands that Keaja is still young and
since childhood in terms of work, pleasure, and
logically realizes that it is safer to be open with
place in the community.
his son. On the other hand, Tselane has been
the
culture
also
requires
to
some
differences
in
their
All disciples of any religion may not
conformed to an example of a daughter by her
share the same relationship with their God, but
father and mother—a young girl that should
all at least share the action of obedience to the
not question the tribe’s beliefs or disobey her
word and commandments of that creator.
parents. Tselane’s personality and place in her
Tselane and Keaja learned from a young age
family relates to the line, “If people felt any
that the ancestors and spirits needs would
personal unhappiness it was smothered and
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subdued and so life for the community
from the line, “He avoided his mother’s baleful
proceeded from day to day in peace and
stare and tight, deprived mouth” (Rosenberg
harmony” (Rosenberg 431). Although tradition
429). Keaja’s mother has become a symbol of
works against Tselane’s free will and romance,
disappointment and the impending future of
Keaja counteracts this by influencing her to
an arranged marriage for him, causing him to
think for herself and to begin making her own
desire a marriage with Tselane instead, in the
decisions.
hopes he will not have to repeat his father’s
From their first meeting in the cave,
demise. Other than his mother becoming an
Tselane finds herself extremely curious of
inclination of the usual banal aspect of
Keaja, viewing him with immediate respect as
traditional life, Head uses many other motifs
stated by, “The young woman looked at his
and devices to help the reader interpret the
face with interest and marveled at the ease and
effects this style of life had on Keaja and
comfort she felt in his presence” (Rosenberg
Tselane.
424). This was of huge importance to Tselane’s
The most important symbol that
character throughout the story because of the
surrounded Tselane’s home was Mma-Monosi
simple fact that she never felt completely
because she represented the friendship and
comfortable and open in her own home, due
guidance that was important for Tselane to
to the leadership of her mother and the
experience before acquiring a household of her
unpredictability of her father’s orders. Keaja
own. Even Mma-Monosi quickly terminated
challenges her obedient commitment not only
the discussion of arranged marriage versus true
to her parents but also to her culture as a
love because she too held fear for herself and
whole, causing her to question if these
especially Tselane if anyone were to overhear.
traditions are truly the best for her. Tselane
On the other hand, Keaja’s father represented
quickly
and his
stability and support in his life because Keaja
outspokenness. Hhe seemsed to speak from a
was so distant from his mother, it was
place of deep understanding and logic, which
important for him to have a mentor as well
only helps to fuel their disobedience and self-
rather than someone to simply bark orders.
will. Tselane also causes Keaja to realize things
The illness that Tselane experienced, “I know
about his own life and family., Hhe and his
now what made me feel so ill. I was fighting my
father resent his mother and upon meeting
training” (Rosenberg 433). Her sickness
Tselane he believes that a true love may actually
symbolized the fear she felt for disobeying her
be possible. His resentment becomes obvious
religion
grew
Page | 39
fond of Keaja
as
well
as
her
family.
The
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disappointment, anxiety, and fear of being free
legend that now surrounds the hill causes the
created the derogatory feeling which would
entire village to move away, “The hill from
could be enough to deter an individual from
then
going through with their independent decision.
embodiment of sinister forces which destroy
Making
a
life” (Rosenberg 438). Seeing that Keaja and
community of strictly religious people is
Tselane created life from a disobedient
extremely difficult, and even dangerous at
standpoint, the revenge of the ancestors and
times. The most important motif occurring in
the land took life away from there. Their
the story is pregnancy Tselane and Keaja share
experience
and as the baby continues to grow, so does the
dishonorable and their death is seen as an
yearning for change between the couple. The
example to other tribe members, filling them
baby not only represents the borrowed time
with the same fear Tselane felt and the
the couple has to inform their families, but also
prevention of other generations violating the
a bright future that Keaja and Tselane can
same cultural laws. Lastly, the effect of the
create together.
relationship caused Keaja and Tselane to build
personal
decisions
among
Because of their pronouncement,
onwards
and
became
an
choices
are
unpleasant
seen
as
courage off one another creating an even
“Mother, I am expecting a child by the son of
stronger
bond
through
self-resolve.
Rra-Keaja” their fears were soon proven to be
Unfortunately, this courage cannot compare to
true when the couple was exiled for a period of
the binds the tradition holds over the tribe as a
time so that the village could recuperate after
whole.
this break in tradition. After all, the couple had broken the obedience as well as the honor of both families, but their bravery is to be respected. The death of Keaja and Tselane atop the hill in the Otse village illuminates how the believers usually associate negative things with breaking the rules and positive things with respecting the heritage. Therefore, Keaja and Tselane never stood a chance in most of the people’s eyes because they knew punishment would strike them for disregarding the importance of the village. The death and the
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Works Cited Moeti, Bakadzi, Setlhomo Koloi-Keaikitse, and Hildah L. Mokgolodi. "Married Women’s Lived Experiences on the Value of Traditional Premarital Counseling “Go Laya” on Marital Stability in Botswana." The Family Journal, vol. 25, no. 3, 2017, pp. 247-256. Rosenberg, Donna. World Literature: An Anthropology of Great Short Stories, Drama, and poetry. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Publishing Group, 1992.
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Gender Roles in Frankenstein: Expectations and Realities of Mother Figures Kelsey Burroughs
A
lthough much has been said about
monster’s eyes, but clues in the story do show
the
the
us the dynamism and roundness of their
relationships between women and
character. It may have been Mary Shelley’s
men or mothers and children in Frankenstein,
intention to write women this way. Male
written by Mary Shelley in 1818, it seems as if
readers of the nineteenth century may not have
critics and readers may be stuck in a Freudian
noticed the little details Shelley attributes to
mindset. Freud wrote little on women and
women, but women readers may have.
dismissed them as hysterical. Similarly, women
Essentially, I would like to give Mary Shelley
and mothers serve only as sexual objects for
the benefit of the doubt in this essay. Mother
their sons and husbands in the Oedipus
figures such as Elizabeth, Caroline, “Mother
complex. Thus, it seems fair to say that Freud’s
Nature”, and even Victor’s female guardian
misogynistic view should not be the first choice
angel are held to unrealistic expectations by
of a scholar hoping to analyze gender in
male characters, but they subvert these
Frankenstein. True, there are discrepancies
expectations.
oedipal
nature
of
between the desires of the male characters and
To define these expectations, readers
what female characters actually do, but it is
can look to the views on women (and their
possible that these desires are not sexual.
education) from Shelley’s time: “Fulfillment of
The desires for love, care, or affection
personal needs [was] … of scarcely any
do not necessarily have a deep-seated basis in
consequence at all,” because the beliefs
repressed sexual urges. Men in Frankenstein do
regarding education were still largely rooted in
have certain idealized versions of the women
the last century; the seventeenth century’s
in their lives; however, in the world of the
rationale being that, “a woman’s education
story, these women are real people who do not
must therefore be planned in relation to man ...
perfectly live up to the archetypes they are
To be pleasing in his sight … to make his life
placed in by patriarchal society. Readers mainly
pleasant and happy, these are the duties of
see these women through Victor or the
woman for all times” (Jean Jacques Rousseau
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qtd. in Victorian Women 16)1. Scholar Mary K.
not seem to associate the destructive power of
Patterson Thornburg also explains how
the lightning with Mother Nature, because
differences between expectations and realities
destruction is not a quality of women (women
of women unfolded:
are child-bearers and creators only). He
One must remember that a middle-
considers the forest a place of refuge, beauty
class woman of the early nineteenth century
and serenity. Nature is a provider for him and
performed domestic tasks that, even with the
the monster as well, whose “spirits were
helps of servants, demanded physical strength
elevated by the enchanting appearance of
and resilience … she was also familiar with
nature” (81). Victor and the monster do not see
crude sanitary facilities, with illness and death
that their perspective on Mother Nature is one-
… but the “delicacy” required of the feminine
sided. Even when the monster is “oppressed
woman … is inconsistent with the realities of
by cold” (72), he does not blame nature in the
women’s experience, and these realities were
same way that he exalts her many blessings
conventionally ignored in the fiction of the
upon him. Because Nature is a “mother,” she
period.(30)
fits one narrow definition for these men. That
It is with these ideas in mind that I
narrow definition can be summed up by the
propose that Mary Shelley did not fully ignore
Cult of True Womanhood, which defined the
the realities of her women characters.
lives of privileged white women during the
From the beginning of Shelley’s ghost
nineteenth century but also affected the lives of
story, Mother Nature is touted as a gentle, ever-
all women. The Cult of True Womanhood
present, awe-inspiring nurturer. Walton opens
restricted women’s roles to wife and mother,
his first letter, writing that “a cold northern
and established ideal traits such as “modesty,
breeze [plays] upon my cheeks … and fills me
purity, and domesticity” (Settles, et al 147). In
with delight” as he ventures further and further
addition, there are actual human mothers in the
on his journey (1). Ironically, the cold air is
novel whose characterizations seem to subvert
playful, encouraging, and reminiscent of a
gender stereotypes if readers will take the time
mother’s kiss on the cheek, instead of “biting”
to read closely.
or “disheartening.” Victor is also heavily
The other main mother of the story is
influenced by Mother Nature early on. The
Caroline. What many readers and critics focus
thunderstorm he encounters at age fifteen fills
on in her life is how she fits the “damsel in
him with wonder, “curiosity and delight” (22)
distress”
and changes the course of his studies. He does
Frankenstein “rescues” her after her father’s
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archetype
when
Alphonse
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death. After she is “rescued” she becomes the
important for a women to be beautiful and
quintessential mother, a passive caregiver
complacent. However, as the above examples
whose only purpose is to uplift the men in her
demonstrate, Caroline was much more than
life. What much analysis seems to ignore is how
her beauty.
she works to support herself when her father is
Other women who seem to be
sick. She barely gets by because of the limited
complacent beauties who serve the men in
array of work available to her and her limited
their lives include Elizabeth, the Guardian
time, but she is an independent, single woman
Angel, and even the female monster who is
when readers first meet her. Victor tells us that
never created, only pondered upon and
“Caroline Beaufort possessed a mind of an
discussed. Much like Mother Nature and
uncommon mould, and her courage rose to
Victor’s birth mother, Caroline, these women
support her in her adversity. She procured
are more than they may initially seem. With
plain work...and by various means contrived to
Victor’s unnerving relationship with Elizabeth
earn a pittance,” (15). Being of an “uncommon
aside, it is easy to see what behaviors of hers
mould” (or mold in American English spelling)
are predictably “womanly.” As a child she is
means she is unique and “earning a pittance”
described as “thin and very fair” with “hair [of]
means she earns a wage to take care of herself,
the brightest living gold” and a “face so
which goes to show just how far outside the
expressive of sensibility and sweetness” (17).
ideal of passive femininity she was. Even as a
Later Victor describes her role in the family,
housewife, Caroline spends her time uplifting
exclaiming that, “the saintly soul of Elizabeth
other women whenever possible. For instance,
shone like a shrine-dedicated lamp” and “the
it is her decision to adopt Elizabeth. Not only
sweet glance of her celestial eyes were ever
does this act bring Elizabeth out of a destitute
there to bless and animate us” (19). Even Spark
household, but it lifts some of the burden the
Notes
poor family has as well. Because of Elizabeth’s
Character List as the “[embodiment of] the
good deed, they will have more resources for
novel’s motif of passive women, as she waits
their own children now that they have one less
patiently for Victor’s attention.” This may be
mouth to feed. From Victor’s perspective
superficially accurate, but some of her other
Caroline’s main features or greatest assets are
actions show that she is more than just passive.
her beauty and mild temperament. That’s what
For instance, she stands up for Justine in
nineteenth
would
chapter eight and courageously trusts Victor
probably have noticed, because it was
when he asks her to wait until after their
century
Page | 45
male
readers
summarizes
Elizabeth
on
their
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marriage to learn his secret in chapter twenty-
the accusations against her. That means that it
two (through Victor’s letter, this behavior is
is perfectly plausible that she courageously
framed as “compliance,” but the point I am
took responsibility, knowing that she was
making is that the author’s tone does not
innocent, so that she could restore a sense of
necessarily align with Victor’s throughout the
justice in the community. Perhaps in her mind,
story).
she chose to pay the price because someone The Guardian Angel, who only makes
needed to so and she didn’t want to see
a small appearance, is called a “she” and
someone else suffer wrongly. In other words,
behaves as a divine mother-figure for Victor. It
readers can justly paint Justine as a martyr and
is her job to guide his life toward success, just
Victor a coward and weakling, although those
like any other woman. His failures are seen as
roles would normally be reversed if Justine was
her inability to live up to his expectations.
a “typical” woman.
Instead of being responsible for his own
Next is the case of the woman monster.
actions, he puts the blame for his shortcomings
Despite the fact that she is never created, her
on a woman (the angel) and also allows another
role is largely thought out by Victor and the
woman, Justine, to take the punishment for his
monster alike. To the monster, she will serve as
wrongdoing when she is executed for the
a source of solace and affection. To Victor, she
murder of William (although the monster killed
could be the mother of tiny monster
William, Victor should be the one who takes
abominations. Victor decides that it would be
responsibility for his creation). This behavior is
too much of a risk to make her, because if she
not unusual for a man in the nineteenth century
successfully fills her role as a mother and
(or prior or more recently). In a patriarchal
partner, she will help the monster overpower
society, men are seen as being infallible while
Victor and humankind. She gets no chance at
women (and all minorities) are the cause of all
life (and no voice of her own) because of
problems. Subsequently, critics might argue
Victor’s worries. However, it is interesting to
that Justine and the Guardian Angel are just
think of her as a source of terror for Victor. In
fulfilling their roles as the subservient gender
this way, she holds some power over him and
when they are blamed for a man’s flaws.
she doesn’t even exist. The notion of her is that
However, there is something to be said about
potent. The same can be said about the
their (or at least Justine’s) bravery. Readers do
Guardian Angel; she may not even be real but
not get to see her side of the story, so it is
Victor sees her as having some sort of
difficult to say for certain how Justine handled
influence over his life.
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As has been stated, some may argue
but if we are persistent and trust Shelley as the
that the women of Frankenstein don’t have any
mother of Science Fiction and daughter of a
agency over themselves, and fit the strict
pioneer
expectations set against women in Shelley’s
Wollstonecraft), then we can find the true
time. In some ways, that is true: the women of
treasure: well-rounded women in literature.
for
Women’s
rights
(Mary
Frankenstein definitely aren’t the most fleshedout characters with dynamic and realistic
Notes
personalities and fair treatment as human
Although the Victorian Era did not
beings; however, there are traces of agency and
officially begin until a few years after
realness to each women. Scholar William
Frankenstein was published, the ideas about
Veeder agrees that Shelley does not just “reveal
women expressed in Victorian Women still
will and weakness in woman” and “Frankenstein
accurately represents life for women living in
takes part… in the revolt against authority
the decades of the nineteenth century prior to
which shakes the Romantic period and
Queen Victoria’s reign because the status quo
reverberates throughout Victoria’s reign…”
enforced by her reign was already well-
(159). His argument further supports the ideas
established.
presented in this essay when he says that “our
The language in this essay is not trans-
response should not be criticism for what Mary
inclusive and focuses only on the gender binary
Shelley hid, but wonder at what she dared”
as it was understood in the nineteenth century
(159). This is why I give Mary Shelley the
western world.
benefit of the doubt. She uplifted women characters e within her means as a writer in the early 1800s. She didn’t have to give the characters any traits that subvert patriarchal rules. She could have written them in such as way that there was no room for interpretation about their behavior, and that would have probably been an easier task. Instead, readers today can find these iotas of rebellion in each woman or mother figure. It is as if Shelley has given us a treasure map to follow; it leads to a treasure room full of traps and phony jewels,
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Works Cited Hellerstein, Erna O., et al. Victorian Women. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981. Print Shaw, Susan M. and Janet Lee. Women’s Voices, Feminist Visions: Classic and Contemporary Readings. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012. Print. Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. Ed. Cadence Ward. New York: Dover Publication, 1994. Print. SparkNotes Editors. “SparkNote on Frankenstein.” SparkNotes.com. SparkNotes LLC. 2007. Web. 19 Feb. 2015. Thomburg, Mary K. Patterson. The Monster in the Mirror: Gender and the Sentimental/Gothic Myth in Frankenstein. Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1987. Print. Veeder, William. Mary Shelley and Frankenstein: The Fate of Androgyny. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1986. Print.
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The Influence of Cultural Views on Homosexuality on the Characters in Giovanni’s Room Jordan Crawford
T
he society one belongs to shapes
homosexuality was viewed unfavorably in the
their ideology. A person learns their
1950s. In fact, it was illegal to engage in
values from where they grow up, like
homosexual acts in some parts of the United
what they accept or what they see as taboo.
States until only recently. In 2003, the Supreme
There can be some complications to this. For
Court took on Lawrence v. Texas, and the result
instance, what if someone goes against their
of this case was monumental for homosexual
society’s accepted beliefs? Or what if they go
men and women:
along with what their society sees as taboo? In
In an opinion written by Justice
cases like these, people who partake in
Anthony Kennedy, the Court declared
practices that are contrary to their society’s
that John Geddes Lawrence and
beliefs are often forced into silence, ostracized,
Tyrone
or even punished. This concept is explored in
convicted under Texas's sodomy law
James Baldwin’s Giovanni’s Room. The novel
making consensual same-sex sexual
takes readers to 1950s-era France, where
activity illegal, are no longer sexual
David, an American, falls in
criminals. According to Lawrence,
love with Giovanni, an Italian man. To fully
homosexuals
understand the dynamic of David and
Garner are “entitled to respect for their
Giovanni and their romance, it is important to
private lives.” Therefore, Lawrence
delve into how the societies they belong to or
teaches, the State cannot “demean their
have belonged to would perceive their
existence or control their destiny” by
homosexuality, and how that affects the way
making private homosexual sexual
they perceive their homosexual relationship.
conduct a crime. The Constitution
great
Garner,
like
who
had
Lawrence
been
and
Although the United States has made
affords lesbians and gay men “the full
strides
right to engage in their conduct
Page | 49
in
gay
rights
recently,
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intervention
the
Joey, and eventually acts on them sexually, he
government,” and to engage in that
responds with intense feelings of confusion,
conduct
regret, and shame:
without
of
sacrificing
their
“dignity as free persons.” After
Joey’s body was brown, was
Lawrence, sodomy bans, and not the
sweaty, the most beautiful creation I
lesbians and gay men that they had
had ever seen till then. I would have
previously made outlaws, are “derelicts
touched him to wake him up but
on the waters of the law.” (Spindelman
something stopped me. I was suddenly
1616)
afraid. Perhaps it was because he was
Despite this leap towards gay rights, the fact
so innocent lying there, with such
that laws prohibiting consensual same-sex
perfect trust; perhaps it was because he
sexual contact were declared unconstitutional
was so much smaller than me; my own
as recently as 2003 is quite shocking. The same
body suddenly seemed gross and
can be said about same-sex marriage, which
crushing and the desire which was
was made legal in all fifty states in 2015 with
rising in me seemed monstrous. But,
Obergefell v. Hodges, which “held that the
above all, I was suddenly afraid. It was
marriage bans at issue not only violated the
borne in on me: But Joey is a boy.
Due Process Clause but also violated the Equal
(Baldwin 8-9)
Protection Clause” (Yoshino 148). The recent
The feelings David experiences in this
acceptance of homosexuality by Americans,
scene show how powerful homophobia in
while important for the progression of human
America was at the time. He is filled not only
rights
that
with disgust and confusion because of his
homosexuality was reviled throughout the
actions, but also an intense fear – a fear that
United States’ history.
drives him to abandon Joey the next morning
for
the
future,
indicates
The revulsion that nineteenth century
and worry about what his father would say:
Americans felt toward homosexuals was
“Then I thought of my father, who had no one
staggering.
David’s
in the world but me, my mother having died
American upbringing has an influence on how
when I was little” (Baldwin 9). Here, David is
he perceives his homosexuality. David was
fearing his father’s reaction to his failure to live
raised in a society that did not accept
up to his ideal masculine role. David’s father
homosexuals under any circumstances, so
wishes for David to have a typical American
when he starts to have feelings for his friend,
life; to get married to a woman and have many
In
Giovanni’s
Room,
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children. This wish would be crushed if he
considerable influence over white, middle-class
were to find out about David’s homosexuality.
American women” (Bonaparte 6-7). Like
Fearing his father’s disappointment, David
housewives, David has no job and thus sees
buries his feelings deep within him, keeping
himself as the more effeminate partner, since
them secret and putting up a façade of
he is not the “man of the house.” He takes up
heterosexuality, and love with Hella in order to
housework in order to fulfill his end of the
give his father hope that he will one day achieve
relationship and feel important.
that masculine ideal his father craves for him to accomplish.
Italy is popularized by many forms of media as one of the most LGBTQIA friendly
In addition, when David begins his
places one could be. There is a prevalence of
relationship with Giovanni, David seems to
stories that focus on same-sex relationship in a
follow a traditional housewife role: “In the
positive light that take place in Italy, like the
beginning, I invented myself a kind of pleasure
2007 novel and 2017 film Call Me by Your Name;
in playing the housewife after Giovanni had
however, Italy’s acceptance of homosexuality
gone to work. I threw out the paper, the
may be simply a work of fiction. Italy is the
bottles, the fantastic accumulation of trash; I
only country in the Western world to have a
examined the contents of the innumerable
ban on gay marriage, although the country does
boxes and suitcases and disposed of them. But
recognize civil unions (Lipka). This implies that
I am not a housewife – men never can be
Italy’s past toward homosexuality has not been
housewives” (Baldwin 88). Since David had no
glamorous, especially with the heavy presence
job and stayed at home while Giovanni
of Catholicism throughout the peninsula’s
worked, he assumed the role of a housewife in
history. Italy’s culture is also focused on
order to accommodate Giovanni’s needs.
masculinity, especially when it comes to
David’s acquisition of the housewife role stems
fatherhood:
from the culture of the early-nineteenth
Among some Italian fathers
century America he lived through. The
[the] ranking of responsibilities and
American housewife culture boomed in years
activities remains a main signifier of
following World War II. The continuation of
maleness,
many women’s interest magazines, particularly
illustrate some real-life implications,
Ladies Home Journal, which “occupied an
Italian fathers who actively participate
important place in defining women’s roles in
in everyday childcare have to avail
the
themselves of a language that describes
1950s”
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(Bonaparte
6)
and
“held
of
masculinity…
To
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them as androgynous and emasculated,
job he depended on to keep him away from
as if caring cannot be attributed to
starvation. But this violence is shocking to
fathers. By that logic, providing care
David, like how violent male outbursts are
traditionally associated with women is
shocking to the partners of men that are too
an activity that decreases masculinity
dependent on their masculine identity and feel
and increases femininity. (Magaraggia
the need to lash out with violence when
79-80)
stressed or enraged. This violence could also be
In a sense, there is a prevailing attitude among
the culmination of his many other frustrations
Italian men that implies that they are meant to
in life; his stressful job, his dead child, and his
be devoid of emotion and must forgo
culture’s disapproval of his relationship with
responsibilities that are typically or have
another man. His culture’s denial of same-sex
historically been delegated to women in an
relationships is a key factor in Giovanni’s
effort to ward off femininity. This attitude that
hyper-masculine nature. Despite the shame he
many Italian men hold can lead to disastrous
feels because of it, Giovanni continues his
effects for the people whom they have
sexual and romantic relationship with another
obligations toward.
man. In order to fight the shame, he makes his
Giovanni, the titular character of
homosexual relationship seem as heterosexual
Giovanni’s Room, is also heavily influenced by his
as he possibly can by implementing traditional
society’s culture, particularly the emphasis on
sex roles between him and David. As already
masculinity.
of
discussed, David occupies the role of a
masculinity is susceptibility to outbursts, often
housewife tasked with doing all the housework
violent ones. Giovanni has a violent outburst
throughout the day. On the other side of the
when David returns home to learn that
relationship, Giovanni occupies a traditional
Giovanni has been fired from Guillaume’s bar:
“man’s role.” He takes charge in the
“He turned back into the center of the room
relationship,
and poured himself another cognac. He drank
generalized as being a man’s job, as
it at a breath, then suddenly took his glass and
demonstrated by his initiating of sex when he
hurled it with all his strength against the wall.
first takes David to his room:
One
of
the
extremes
something
that
is
often
It rang briefly and fell in a thousand pieces all
I knew I could not open the
over our bed, all over the floor” (Baldwin 106).
door, I knew it was too late; soon it was
The rage Giovanni feels is not entirely
too late to do anything but moan. He
unwarranted, since he has been fired from the
pulled me against him, putting himself
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into my arms as though he were giving
love, rainbow flags, closets and coming-out
me himself to carry, and slowly pulled
stories” (Provencher 2). This humongous push
me down with him to that bed. With
for gay acceptance led to Paris becoming one
everything in my screaming No! yet the
of the most gay-friendly cities in the world.
sum of me sighed Yes (Baldwin 64).
Anyone who has traveled there can attest to
He is also the only one in the couple with a job,
Paris’ thriving nightlife, complete with a large,
allowing him to fill the role of “breadwinner,”
active LGBTQIA community.
a moniker often delegated to men who has the
Whether
consciously
or
sole job in the family, if one were to subscribe
subconsciously, David and Giovanni of
to traditional sex roles. Also, his previously
Giovanni’s Room moved to France, and
discussed anger issues are strikingly similar to
specifically Paris, in order to escape the
an abusive husband’s, one who shocks his wife
ideologies of their cultures that are dangerous
into submission from fear, or causes his wife to
to their homosexual way of life. In the
leave him from fear (both of which happen to
beginning, it appears David comes to Paris in
Giovanni after his outburst). Giovanni’s
order to escape his homosexuality as shown by
masculinity and self-homophobia is his
his denial to chase after Giovanni with Jacques
ultimate downfall, both of which are caused by
at the first scene in the bar:
the influence of some aspects of his Italian culture.
Well, you may find this hard to believe, but, actually, I’m sort of queer
Unlike the United States and Italy,
for girls myself. If that was his sister
France is one of the leading countries for
looking so good, I’d invite her to have a
LGBTQIA rights in the world. Although, like
drink with us. I don’t spend money on
most countries, they were slow to fully legalize
men (Baldwin 30).
gay marriage in 2013 (The Economist), France
Eventually, however, his true feelings show
is a major proponent for gay rights. This is
through and he submits himself to love with
largely due to increased exposure to the French
Giovanni. In general, the acceptance of
public, like when the “mainstream French
homosexuality in Paris is seen throughout this
cinema… expanded beyond its drag-queen
novel, like with the very existence of
images ‘à la Cage aux folles’ of the 1970s to
Guillaume’s operational gay bar. Guillaume’s
present an increasingly visible cadre of ‘global
bar is packed with gay men openly discussing
gay imagery,’ which includes but is not limited
their sexuality:
to go-go boys, HIV + characters, gay teens in
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There were the usual paunchy,
happen to go against the grain. The United
bespectacled gentlemen with avid,
States’ and Italy’s less-than-favorable views on
sometimes despairing eyes, the usual,
homosexuality greatly impacted how David
knife-blade
and Giovanni view their sexuality and
lean,
tight-trousered
boys… There were, of course les folles,
relationship. Essentially, the result is
self-
always dressed in the most improbable
loathing expressed in different ways. Whether
combinations, screaming like parrots
it be the distribution of heteronormative
the details of their latest love affairs –
gender roles in a homosexual relationship or
their love affairs always seemed to be
the chase for a masculine ideal, the effects of
hilarious. Occasionally one would
negative cultural views on homosexuality can
swoop in, quite late in the evening, to
lead to some drastic consequences for
convey the news that he – but they
homosexual individuals.
always called each other “she” – had just spent the time with a celebrated movie star, or boxer. Then all of the others closed in on this newcomer and they looked like a peacock garden and sounded like a barnyard. (Baldwin 2627) The fact that these men can come into a public place and openly discuss their homosexual exploits with each other, apparently very loudly, shows how different France’s attitude toward homosexuality is compared to the United States and Italy. In David and Giovanni’s home countries, these acts would not be accepted, especially during the 1950s, but Paris is a place where they can be open and free without worrying about persecution. The way a culture views a particular aspect of life has significant influence on its citizens’ views of the world, especially if they
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Works Cited Baldwin, James. Giovanni’s Room. Vintage International, September 2013. Bonaparte, Margaret. "Reexamining the 1950s American Housewife: How Ladies Home Journal Challenged Domestic Expectations During the Postwar Period," 2014. Scripps Senior Theses. 368. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses/368 Lipka, Michael. “Where Europe Stands on Gay Marriage and Civil Unions.” Pew Research Center. June 30, 2017. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/06/30/where-europe-standson-gay-marriage-and-civil-unions/ Magaraggia, Sveva. “Tensions between fatherhood and the social construction of masculinity in Italy.” Current Sociology. Vol 61, Issue 1, pp. 76 – 92. November 21, 2012. http://journals.sagepub.com.jproxy.lib.ecu.edu/doi/10.1177/0011392112464231 Provencher, Denis M.. Queer French : Globalization, Language, and Sexual Citizenship in France, Routledge, 2008. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/eastcarolina/detail.action?docID=438880. Rainbow warriors; gay marriage in france. (2013, Apr 27). The Economist, 407, 50-51. http://search.proquest.com.jproxy.lib.ecu.edu/docview/1346616239?accountid=10639 Spindelman, Marc. “Surviving Lawrence v. Texas.” Michigan Law Review, vol. 102, no. 7, 2004, pp. 1615–1667. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4141915. Yoshino, Kenji. "A New Birth of Freedom?: Obergefell V. Hodges." Harvard Law Review, vol. 129, no. 1, Nov. 2015, pp. 147-179. EBSCOhost, jproxy.lib.ecu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth &AN=110959610&site=ehost-live&scope=site.
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Paolo Veronese’s The Feast in the House of Levi: Keeping with Decorum Bethany W. Martin-Godwin Abstract This paper offers an analysis of Paolo Veronese’s The Feast in the House of Levi and his subsequent appearance before the Inquisition due to this painting. It will include a summary of Paolo Veronese's life, a detailed analysis of the biblical episode and figures within the painting, Veronese's portrayal of sixteenth-century Venetian life within the painting, and an analysis of his trial before the Inquisition along with a brief historical context of the Inquisition. Keywords: Paolo Veronese, The Feast in the House of Levi, Inquisition, Reformation, CounterReformation
Turning Religion into
Paolo Veronese, his work The Feast in the House
Entertainment
of Levi, his trial before the Inquisition, and a
The art of Paolo Veronese is as seductive and haughty as his character and much more intellectual that is admitted.1" Paolo Veronese's
comprehensive discussion of those above.
Life of Paolo Veronese
paintings are huge, theatrical, and vastly
Paolo Veronese was an artist of the late
populated. Depicting allegorical, biblical, or
Italian Renaissance. Born Paolo Caliari in 1528,
historical subjects in splendid color, his art is
he was given the nickname “Veronese” based
inextricably linked to the idea of opulence and
on his birthplace of Verona. He was the son of
splendor in Renaissance Venice. One painting,
sculptor
in particular, The Feast in the House of Levi,
Gabriele Bazaro. Receiving his foundation in
represents these ideals very clearly. This
art from his father, as a young man, he trained
painting, originally called Last Supper, caused
in painting in the workshop of his uncle,
quite a commotion, and even led to the
Antonio Badile. From Badile, Veronese
Inquisition accusing Veronese of heresy and,
derived a sound basic painting technique as
later, capital sin. This paper details the life of
well as a passion for paintings in which people
Page | 57
and
spezapreda,
or
stonecutter,
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and architecture were integrated. Before
Inquisition. Following his appearance in front
Veronese left Verona, it seems probable that
of
he had already fallen in love with his future
continued. He went on to paint other biblical
wife, the daughter of his master there and his
scenes along with multiple secular scenes and
first cousin. His first documented project was
portraits. He even traveled to Rome for a short
the decoration of Villa Soranzo at Treville
time but eventually made his way back to
which has since been destroyed. Veronese
Venice.
the
Inquisition,
Veronese's
success
remained in Verona until around 1552, when
Veronese died on April 19, 1588, from
he left to execute commissions in various
what appears to have been a fever contracted
northern Italian cities, including Mantua,
during a procession. He was buried with great
where he worked on an altarpiece for the
pomp and ceremony in San Sebastiano, the
cathedral along with other artists. In 1553, he
church where he had been the dominant
received the commission at the Venetian Ducal
artistic power for decades, and the focal point
Palace and moved to Venice. This important
of his social and artistic success. The epigraph
commission, also a collaboration, involved
affixed by his brother Benedetto and his
painting the partitioned ceiling of the Sala del
children sealed the family tomb, which had
Consiglio dei Dieci. In 1555, Veronese
been purchased as was customary for the
received the commission to decorate the
wealthy classes to ensure social visibility even
Church of San Sebastiano in Venice. Unlike his
in death. The stone reminds the viewer that
other projects, he worked on the decoration of
within the tomb lies the pictor celeberrimus, or the
the church entirely by himself over the span of
most famous painter.3 His studio was carried
about twenty years. The Church of San
on by his brother and two sons after his death.
Sebastiano later became his final resting place.
He had no significant pupils, but his influence
During the 1560s and 1570s, he produced large
on
allegorical canvases, arguably commissioned
particularly in the 18th century, when he was an
by, or painted for the imperial family in Vienna
inspiration to the masters of the second great
and Prague.2 Veronese's personal life was fairly
flowering of decorative painting in the city.4
Venetian
painting
was
important,
uneventful. He married Elena Badile, the daughter of his former teacher, Antonio Badile, in 1566 and had five sons. In 1573, his painting The Feast in the House of Levi caused his famous appearance in front of the Italian
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Analysis of The Feast in the House of Levi In 1573, Veronese was commissioned by the Convent of Saints Giovanni e Paolo to Page | 58
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paint The Feast in the House of Levi. Originally
of contemporary Venetian costumes, are
called Last Supper, it was to be a replacement
moving, talking, and drinking, as if it were an
for a painting of the same name by Titian,
extravagant party thrown by a wealth host in
destroyed by a fire in 1571.5 The Feast in the
16th century Venice. Veronese incorporates
House of Levi shows a typical Veronese banquet:
the usual noblemen, servants, and onlookers as
colorful, hedonistic, and crowded with guests.
well as turbaned figures, dark-skinned servants,
The venue appears to be more akin to
dogs, a cat, and a dwarf jester with a parrot.
Renaissance architecture than Roman. It is a
Veronese also includes several men dressed as
classical style portico with a real wooden
Protestant German soldiers armed with
cornice as the roof. The cornice is supported
halberds.
by giant painted Corinthian columns framed by
Like Veronese’s other banquets, The
Christian bronzes depicting beautiful angelic
Feast in the House of Levi is a carefully composed
forms. The columns create the look of a
mise en scene, which sets a serious religious
triptych filled at the sides with balustrades in
event in a modern context. Although the work
the foreground and architecture in the distance.
was intended to be a scene from the last supper
Directly in the center is a haloed Christ dressed
Christ has with his Apostles, its new identity -
in a shimmering light pink robe of the Biblical
a supper at which Christ sits down with
fashion. Christ is flanked by St. Peter to his
sinners- fits perfectly with the decadence and
right and the youthful St. John to his left. He is
sumptuous materialism on display. It gives
framed by the red attire worn by his host and
Veronese maximum scope to show off his
disciples. St. Peter divides the paschal lamb
luminous Renaissance color palette, to breathe
while Christ turns to St. John as if leaning in to
life into the monumental forms of the High
hear him speak. Judas, shrouded in shadow as
Renaissance. Although the composition is
was common in paintings of a Last Supper,
studded with symbolism, one cannot help
turns away as his attention is drawn towards a
feeling that its real point was to showcase the
dog by a servant. The dog is staring at a cat
pomp and grandeur of the Venetian Republic.6
under the table that appears to be rolling a bone around. Christ, Peter, and John's heads
Veronese’s Interrogation by the
are seen against the sky whereas the guests are
Inquisition
all seen against hazy architecture resembling Venice in the background. All around, a mass of animated figures, dressed in an assortment
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The display of luxury in Veronese's sacred scenes caused quite a commotion. On July 18, 1573, he was called before the Holy Volume 6, Issue 1|2019
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Tribunal of the Inquisition on the charges of
names of which he borrowed.9 When asked, he
heresy, or an opinion contrary to orthodox
would call himself simply a painter of figures
religious doctrine. The source of irritation
and not a painter of biblical episodes. Upon
stemmed from Veronese crowding the scene
questioning, Veronese did admit that it was
with such irreverent figures as a jester with a
inappropriate to include jesters, drunkards,
parrot and a servant with a nosebleed. The root
Germans, dwarfs, and similar vulgarities in a
of the trouble with the Inquisition was the
Last Supper.10 He defended himself against
group of detested German soldiers and the
accusations of having inserted these heretical
difficulty in guessing which of the three
figures by appealing to the artistic license and
recorded Feasts the picture intended to
the need to fill up the spaces in the vast canvas
capture.7 The Inquisition felt as though
that would otherwise be left empty because so
Veronese, with his addition of so many
few figures were specifically mentioned by the
heretical figures, had not treated the subject
Gospels,
matter with the proper respect. Initially,
depicted. He argued the presence of German
Veronese feigned ignorance as to why he was
soldiers and the servants were to add
brought before a tribunal. He had been given
adornment. He also argued that "we painters
the command to change the dog in the
use the same license employed by poets and
foreground into the figure of Mary Magdalene,
madmen and I represented those halberdiers
thus implicitly converting the picture into the
because it seemed proper to me that the rich
episode where Christ encounters a repentant
and magnificent master of the house would
prostitute while feasting in the house of a
have such servants.11� Veronese continued to
Pharisee. Veronese stated, "I would have
defend his painting by stating he had only
happily done this and anything else for my and
followed what others, better than him, had
the sake of the painting, except that I did not
done. In saying this, he was referring to
believe that the figure of the Magdalene would
Michelangelo’s Last Judgement. Michelangelo’s
look good there.8"
painting depicts the figures of Christ, his
whichever
episode
was
being
Veronese intended the title of the
Mother, St. John and St. Peter, and the court of
painting be Last Supper due to it replacing the
heaven, all nude, including the Virgin Mary, in
painting of the same name. He gave to many of
various attitudes not inspired by decorum. The
his paintings scriptural titles, but he certainly
judges defended Michelangelo against this false
never allowed himself to be troubled with the
statement saying that in a painting of the Last
spiritual significance of the incidents, the
Judgement there was no reason to paint clothes.12
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Most figures were nude, but the figure of the
of disillusionment and cynicism. He is
Virgin Mary was clothed as it would have been
described as a pious man but seeing a few of
sacrilege to depict her unclothed. Veronese
the figures he includes in his paintings, one
assured them he had no intention of heresy or
knows that piety did not fully extend to his
offending decorum. They gave Veronese three
paintings. His subject matter may have been
months to make changes in the painting at his
biblical, but the figures surrounding his subject
own expense, but he instead resorted to the
are the average citizens of Venice and not only
expedient
Christ and his Apostles.
of
simply
re-baptizing
it.
Henceforth, it would go under the title The
The way Veronese infuses the wealth
Feast in the House of Levi, the episode where a
and grandeur of Renaissance Venice is also
wealthy man in the company of publicans and
flawless especially with The Feast in the House of
tax
collectors
entertained
Christ.13
The
Levi. Venice, at the time, traded across the
Convent of Saints Giovanni e Paolo who had
Mediterranean East and West, as well as North
commissioned this work found no fault in the
towards Germany. Venice was an economic
painting,14 but due to the political climate of
intersection. There was a sense of enormous
Venice at the time nothing could be done to
wealth and privilege. He seems to want to draw
prevent the trial from taking place. With the
attention to the hypocrisy of modern society.
change of the title, Veronese was acquitted.
The wealthy, and, specifically, the Church were
This acquittal was largely due to the Inquisition
so concerned with the way they were viewed so
having never acquired in Venice the terrible
they would commission these grand pieces.
power it exercised elsewhere.
Commissioning these paintings was a way of telling the citizens of Venice they were pious as
Discussion
well as rich. It was also a way to turn the public
Paolo Veronese is considered one of
eye back to the Church and away from the
the best artists of sixteenth-century Venice.
corruption within it. Veronese was painting
The amount of detail he packs into his vast
during the period known as the Reformation
paintings is astounding. Looking at detailed
and
images of The Feast in the House of Levi one can
Reformation, or Protestant Reformation, was a
see that the same amount of time was taken for
breaking away from the Catholic Church and
each figure. None of the figures are hazy or
the absolute power it held over the region.
rushed. They all have the same precise quality.
There were people, especially in Northern
One can see, as well, that Veronese had a sense
Europe that were beginning to question the
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the
Counter-Reformation.
The
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church and its authority. Commissions like this one played a significant role in the Counter-
Conclusion
Reformation. These were an attempt by the
Veronese’s use of huge canvases and
Catholic Church to re-energize itself to deal
dynamic color palette placed him among the
with some of the corruption that had weakened
ranks of the greatest Venetian artists of the
it and to forcefully, push forward Catholicism.
High Renaissance. A majority of commissions
One can also see the impact of the
during the Renaissance were episodes from the
Reformation on Veronese's trial by the
Bible. Veronese found a way to depict a biblical
Inquisition. The Inquisition was formed by the
scene as well as the wealth that surrounded him
Catholic Church to combat Protestantism, but
in sixteenth-century Venice. Even though it
due to the political climate of Venice at the
caused him to be brought before the judges of
time, the Inquisition did not have much power.
the Italian Inquisition, wealth and grandeur
During Veronese's trial, all the judges could do
were a recurring theme in many of his
was threaten him with charges of heresy. This
paintings. He portrayed a sacred scene amid a
lack of power is likely the reason he was able to
contemporary crowd. For centuries, many
get away with only changing the name of the
artists have found a source of inspiration in the
painting. The only consequences of his trial
richness
were a vast popularity and the increase in
Veronese's work.
and
inexhaustible
variety
of
demand for his work.
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Endnotes 1. Orliac, A., Chamot, M., & Gloeckner, A. (1940). Veronese. London: Hyperion. Pg. 6 2. Salomon, Xavier. “Paolo Veronese (Paolo Caliari) (1528–1588).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vero/hd_vero.htm (November 2011) 3. Zamperini, A., & Crerar-Bromelow, G. (2014). Paolo Veronese. London: Thames & Hudson. Pg. 326 4. Chilvers, I.Veronese, Paolo. In The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists.: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 27 Nov. 2017, from http://www.oxfordreference.com.jproxy.lib.ecu.edu/view/10.1093/acref/9780191782763.001.0 001/acref-9780191782763-e-2550. 5. Ibid 6. Cocke, R., & Veronese, V. (2001). Paolo Veronese: piety and display in an age of religious reform. Aldershot, Hants., England: Ashgate. Pgs. 177-179. “The Feast in the House of Levi”, (n.d.) Encyclopedia of Art. Retrieved from http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/famouspaintings/feast-in-the-house-of-levi.htm 7.
“Feast in the House of Levi”, Haldane MacFall, A History of Painting. (1911). Pgs. 199-201. Retrieved from http://www.law.harvard.edu/faculty/martin/art_law/feast_in_the_house_of_levi.htm
8. Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, "Transcript of the trial of Veronese," in Smarthistory, August 9, 2015, accessed November 27, 2017, https://smarthistory.org/transcript-of-the-trialof-veronese/. 9. D'Anvers, N. (1904). Paolo Veronese. London: G. Newnes, limited. Pg. xiii
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10. Campbell, S. J., & Cole, M. W. (2012). Italian Renaissance art. New York, New York: Thames & Hudson Inc. Pg. 562 11. Ibid 12. Ibid 13. Ibid 14. Ibid
Other Sources Paolo Veronese. (2017). In EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica. Retrieved from http://academic.eb.com.jproxy.lib.ecu.edu/levels/collegiate/article/Paolo-Veronese/75138 Archer, Madeline Cirillo. (2005). Paolo Veronese. In C. Moose (Ed.), Great Lives from History: Renaissance & Early Modern Era, 1454-1600. Hackensack: Salem. Retrieved from https://online-salempress-com.jproxy.lib.ecu.edu
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The Roles of Social Media in 21st Century Populisms: US Presidential Campaigns George J. Hendrix Abstract Through the review of literature on populism, traditional and social media, and presidential campaigning in the United States, this article constructs a new view on the relationship between these three topics in the 21st century. Because the trends of online activity, on the part of both the citizen and the candidate, impact social media users’ self-informing and political engagement, the process of selecting a new US president has become more susceptible to various populist practices in this century than before. Key concepts include defining populism and its place within campaigning and media; presenting social media as a political tool and a dynamic personalized informer; and analyzing the US presidential elections since 2008.
Introduction
C
further
proposes
whether
instances
of
are
populism may have a unique propensity to
characterized by their relationship
garner undue support and success in this
with social media. Since the early to
century, in part as a result of developing trends
ontemporary
politics
mid-20th century, technological advancements
among the usage of social media.
in media have been harnessed by various
Through the analyses of Mazzoleni,
politicians to their advantage. More recently, a
Stewart, and Horsfield’s descriptions of
partisan mass media and now the introduction
populist movements and Cass Sunstein’s ideas
of social networking applications have become
on the “personalization” of social medias, I
the standard, all of which create a political
infer that yes, this may be the case. Mazzoleni,
spectacle to be consumed. I discuss how this
Stewart, and Horsfield’s work was written
(social) media spectacle relates to populism in
before the age of social media and the current
the 21st century, specifically to the “Trump
political climate, but by transferring their
phenomenon” in a context of its own relation
concepts onto the use of the internet in
to the Obama campaigns. This discussion
politics, rather than (or in addition to)
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traditional media, the contemporary age of
that articulates a chain of equivalence around
mobilization can be understood. Taking from
an empty signifier and defined by an
Jody Baumgartner, Stephen Farnsworth, and
antagonistic frontier.” Cas Mudde further
others’ publications, explanations of the
explains this definition as moral politics, the
methodologies from the past three US
“pure people” versus the “corrupt elite.” It is a
presidential campaigns serve to reinforce this
movement that forms its identity through
premise of social media as a necessary, or at the
passion, utilizing a charismatic leader who links
least relevant, component of 21st century
very different demands as a simple fix through
populisms.
the will of the people and who creates the recognition of a common enemy or enemies
Defining Populism and Its Relation to Media To start, populism as a term is often misused or abused and may be difficult to be confined to an explicit definition. No consistent attributable ideology exists; from the end of WWII towards the turn of the century, populist movements around the globe have gradually moved from left- to right-wing positions, with some even claiming to be neither (Mazzoleni, Stewart, and Horsfield 4). Themes of opportunism or demagogy have been proposed as defining features as well, however this is not over-encompassing and could apply to various political campaigns instead. Attempts to define populism have rather taken a discursive route, focusing on passions and morality, antagonisms and empty signifiers (Mudde 5-6). An initial definition of this discourse is taken from Ernesto Laclau’s On Populist Reason,
(5-6). Now, for the intents and purposes of my paper, I focus solely on populism in the 21st century (within the US political theatre). By this time, populist movements definitely adhere to the above definitions. They also begin to be associated with right-wing positions and are undoubtedly characterized by a “media factor,” as maintained by Betz and Immerfall, 1998. Still not yet in the age of social media, the decades
around
the
turn-of-the-century
contain a conservative-reactionary force that was distinguished from the fascist right and had especially “media-genic personal qualities.” These qualities are “… highly emotional, slogan-based,
tabloid
style
language,
combining verbal radicalism and symbolic politics with the tools of contemporary political marketing to disseminate their ideas among the electorate” (qtd. in Mazzoleni, Stewart, and Horsfield 3-5).
2005. Laclau claims “Populism is a discourse Volume 6, Issue 1|2019
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Further,
this
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media
attribute
of
condemning, is not important, for the public
populism describes how the movements are
becomes familiarized with the populist rhetoric
given their momentum through intense
regardless. In an air of boredom with the status
coverage by what has become a sensationalized
quo politics, the novelty and drama of the
mass media. The populist leaders have become
populist is once again sensationalized to
irresistible to journalists due to their novelty
normalcy and legitimacy. The third phase, the
and dramatic flair. Various strategies the
established phase, occurs after this legitimacy is
populists use to acquire and maintain media
achieved and the media begins to downplay the
attention, whether intentional or not, are
significance of a candidate and views him as
covered by Mazzoleni, Stewart, and Horsfield,
not a threat. Finally, if applicable, is the decline
and while written before the age of Trump, the
phase, which would be the loss of coverage for
parallels are uncanny. They detail identification
the individual and party (219-24).
as a media “underdog,” usage of unmediated
The pattern for populist movements is
forms of communication such as frequent
established and with the integration of social
intense rallies (or today the additional use of
media into campaigning, a new era must be
social media), and attacks on the media itself.
understood. The desires of eligible voters can
In addition, media outlets often focus on the
now be appealed to directly without the
“personalization” frame of issues, especially
traditional middle-man of radio, TV, and
various behavioral or spoken gaffes by populist
written press. Also, the ground-laying phase
leaders (230).
from before can now be produced from both
Mazzoleni, Stewart, and Horsfield
the tools of social media and the users
outline four phases of the media’s relationship
themselves. Populism has quickly entered a
with populist forces. First is the ground-laying
new age and my thoughts are that social media
step, which is the indirect increase of society’s
will begin and continue to produce populist
sense of psychological insecurities. Negative
movements and better enable their success
public opinions are exacerbated through the
compared to earlier in the century before social
sensationalizing of stories for a profit; this
media.
allows for a populist movement to take advantage of the people’s fears. Next is the
Defining Social Media and
insurgent phase, when a populist candidate
“Personalization”
starts to be given immense free coverage. The tone of the coverage, whether sympathetic or
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Now that the use of populism is explained, the role of social media is next. More
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specifically,
the
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sociological
phenomena
any hosting service that allows opinion to be
stemming from the usage of social media is
formed and shared, information to be spread,
detailed through the spreading of information
and audiences to be reached. An explanation is
and forming of opinions. Could a possible
needed as to why these new information tools
uniqueness borne to 21st century instances of
could have (or have had) a skewing effect on
populisms be correlated to a “breeding
democratic participation regarding ideological
ground” for populist movements among social
positioning and self-informing.
media and similar platforms? Ideas including
In this new millennium, previous
group polarizations, “cyber” cascades, online
sociological patterns may have precedent but
ideological targeting, and the force of false or
as society reforms, so must the methods of
misleading information could be associated
acquiring and giving knowledge and power. In
with methods to power plausibly utilized by a
the past, one’s architecture of control over
new contemporary populist incarnation.
forming a worldview was based in a public
Overall, being that this century has so far
been
characterized
as
operating
physical
sphere.
presuppositions
One and
encounter
of
biases
course
had
but
would
opposing
views
fundamentally around the use of the internet,
nonetheless
my discussion of social media will refer to
regularly among that which was sought out
various online platforms and the traffic therein.
(Sunstein 1-6). This was due in part to the
Search engines, media and news platforms, etc.
unique passage of information solely through
may be mentioned, but for this paper I cover
reputable and/or established general-interest
the “social media” tools that accrue the
intermediaries – newspapers, magazines, TV,
persistent attention of many.
This “social
and radio broadcasters. These third parties
media” refers to “Internet-based platforms
have been subdued by the special-interest
that allow the creation and exchange of user-
intermediaries of private social networking
generated content, usually using either mobile
applications, the “social media” (18-20). So
or web-based technologies”, as defined by
now the traditional news mediums are often
Helen Margetts et al in Political Turbulence: How
accessed through another online medium; this
Social Media Shape Collective Action. It would
online medium being both curtailed by the
especially incorporate major platforms such as
respective owners and administrators but also
Facebook and Twitter, but also Instagram and
through the “personalization” of the user
Snapchat, and to an extent sites like YouTube,
himself.
blogs, and forums. In essence, I am referring to
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To
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explain
this
medium
Facebook (from the same poll, 67% of US
“personalization,” I introduce the idea of the
adults use Facebook, so possibly 44% of the
“DailyMe,” as used by Cass Sunstein in his
population is using Facebook explicitly for this
#Republic.
purpose) (126). This shift from direct access
Through the active sorting and
segregation of posts by the user himself and the
of
built-in algorithm of the platform to adjust the
personalized special-interest screens could be
feed according to the user’s behaviors, this user
claimed
effectively has created an echo chamber of self-
polarization and informational isolation among
confirming
participating parties.
and
targeted
information,
general-interest
removing many opposing posts that one could otherwise encounter.
to
be
intermediaries producing
to
ideological
Now, supposing the above claim to be
In addition to the
true, my proposition is one of whether this
influence users themselves have, is the ability
effect could relate to a rise of populist
to be ideologically targeted in this domain. As
tendencies. For if a polarized group discussing
previously mentioned, the built-in algorithms
in an echo chamber could cause a tide of
monitor the “clicking behavior” of users in
misinformation or emotional unrest with just
order to select posts more likely to be
enough influence to upset a status quo, it could
interacted with and make new suggestions in a
be
similar fashion. Along those lines, with targeted
propagandized post circulating in a certain
articles of information can come targeted
network managing to gain momentum through
political advertisements. The online medium,
an informational cascade, without need for
the “DailyMe,” we create for ourselves should
verification by exposed consumers, could
be quite capable of presenting to a certain
completely change the political atmosphere
ideologically
a
among a group. Allcott and Gentzkow detail
compatible message from a political figure or
four potential social costs of the consumption
organization.
of
aligned
individual
with
a
this
step.
A
false,
misinformation.
misleading,
First
or
mistaken
Also from #Republic, according to a
consumers would fare for the worse due to
2016 poll by the Pew Research Center,
having less-accurate beliefs. Moreover, these
consumption of current events, politics, etc.
less-accurate beliefs may “…reduce positive
has been relocating to this personalized online
social externalities, undermining the ability of
sphere for a significant percentage of the
the democratic process to elect high-quality
population: with 59% of US adults getting this
candidates.”
information from Twitter and 66% from
misleading news pieces could cause consumers
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In addition, these false or
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to become even more skeptical of legitimate
To explain this qualitative shift in social
sources, blurring the lines between the real and
media usage, I take from Jody C. Baumgartner
the fake. Later on, these social results may
and Terri L. Towner’s The Internet and the 2016
initiate lacks of demand on the consumer’s part
Presidential Campaign, 2017. In this, the use of
and initiative of an established source’s part for
social
reporting that is unbiased, accurate, and
conceptualized along a continuum of user
reliable. These costs could only perpetuate the
threshold levels (156). These levels being: 1)
tendencies of polarization and psychological
information seeking (low threshold); 2)
malaise and uncertainty, plausible ingredients
interactive expression (medium threshold); and
for a populist catch-hold.
3) campaign engagement (high threshold). The
media
during
campaigns
is
general trend has been from a high threshold
Analyzing US Presidential
in 2008, to a medium threshold in 2012, and
Campaigns Incorporating Social
finally a low threshold in 2016. Through a combination of lessening enthusiasm for
Media The
respective
campaign
methodologies from the 2016 US presidential election should be viewed in a context of constructed reaction and result from the 2008 and 2012 presidential campaigns. So as these two prior election seasons, 2016 saw social media as an additional requisite for reaching the electorate. However, while social media maintained, perhaps even increased, its quantitative presence, the quality of and manner of participation in its political usage undoubtedly had undergone a negative shift. Since 2008, the efforts by President Obama, and his opponents during his tenure, to shape this qualitative aspect of social media in politics laid the groundwork for President Trump’s online success, in turn setting a new precedent for future populist politics. Volume 6, Issue 1|2019
candidates and the candidates themselves exerting greater control over narrative and online voter engagement, the dynamic of popular mobilization on social media is a shift from active discourse to passive consumption of political information (157, 172). To quote Baumgartner, “[in 2008] voters actively engaged social media outside the context of formal campaign and party organizations.” They created their own content promoting a candidate to be shared and gathered campaign involvement from friends through their own social networks. Entering 2012, the public displayed less innovation and engagement on social media while the campaigns
increasingly
developed
new
strategies to exert greater control over narrative and voters’ online engagement. Essentially,
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social media had become “a new form of
The brevity feature of the 2016 US
passing entertainment.” By the 2016 campaign,
presidential election is not new, starting even
candidates were prone to "[flood] the social
before the Obama campaigns. Due to the
media zone with their own content, eclipsing
twenty-four/seven mass media news cycles,
the ability of voter-generated material to gain
brief sound bites became the more familiar
traction.” Campaigns would “…actively seek
presentations of politicians. Now, with the
to coordinate social media users' political
introduction of social media, especially twitter,
engagement through their organizations rather
compact messaging became an important
than having users take the initiative, as
political tool in and of itself. Twitter allows for,
occurred in 2008.” All the while “…voters
not exhaustively, brief campaign or poll
were less likely to create and disseminate their
updates, re-tweetable slogans such as “Hope
own material as they were more inclined to
and Change” or “Make America Great Again”,
monitor social media without comment or to
and especially recently, rapid-fire insults and
respond to material posted by campaign and
attacks that can help shape public opinion and
media elites” (153-55, 172).
policy (Farnsworth 7). These simple and often-
This rising passivity in conjunction
times emotional messages effortlessly grab the
the
political
attention of an easily distracted populous due
traditional
to their entertainment value. Campaign tweets
mediums to the personalized online could be
themselves also become news in mass media,
interpreted as detrimentally affecting eligible
again
voters’ political information efficacy, which is
narrative.
with
recent
information
allocation
gathering
from
of
“…the extent to which individuals believe they have
the
necessary
candidates
shape
public
An unfortunate tendency of a tweet’s
to
brevity is the ease of turning negative. The
meaningfully engage in political participation”
“rapid-fire insults” mentioned before are
(Schill et al. 109). This ties in with Allcott and
evidenced by President Trump’s use of twitter
Gentzkow’s premise of social costs of
as a bully-pulpit. Outside the deliberate
misinformation. In addition, the brevity,
cynicism from candidates is also evident
negativity, personal or character focus, and
among online users themselves, especially in
“going public” aspects of the most recent
ideologically isolated rooms. An example:
social media campaign use are exploitative of
[A] study of 39 million political comments on
this political information efficacy, all serving as
Reddit from January 2015 to January 2017
archetypal methods of a populist environment.
found that an increasing number of offensive
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information
helping
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posts that focused on political content
tournament picks. For more policy specific
appeared leading up to the 2016 election, a
exercises, the Obama campaigns were keen on
trend not seen in nonpolitical posts from the
reaching out to the public to explain policy
same period. Those offensive posts… were
challenges
also more popular on the site (as measured by
additional use of YouTube videos and online
up-votes minus down-votes by those reacting
peer-to-peer
communication
to the posts) than comments that were not
emphasizing
Obama's
deemed offensive. … Rewarded behavior is
(Farnsworth 6).
and
initiatives
through efforts,
personal
the all
qualities
repeated behavior, and so the forwarding of
In comparison, the Trump campaign
nasty comments online should lead to even
especially focused on signs of adoration,
more such commentary on social media.
combining images of rallying supporters (and
(Farnsworth 135-36)
hyperbolic rhetoric to over quantify the extent
Recall
Mazzoleni,
and
of this) and for example, an image of President
Horsfield’s first step of populist mobilization,
Trump addressing a joint session of Congress,
the “indirect increase of society’s sense of
with Vice President Pence and House Speaker
psychological
political
Ryan standing and applauding the new
cynicism and character negativity online which
president, on his White House page once in
caught and flourished among the right during
office (Farnsworth 131-33). In addition, his
Obama's campaigns and tenure possibly
colloquial social media messages left voters
enabled this practice under Trump towards a
with the impression that he was speaking
conservative populist electoral success.
directly to them. Moreover, candidate Trump
insecurities”;
Stewart,
the
Maintaining a positive personality and
would “go public”, a two-step plan involving
character appearance is also an important tool
generating controversy and then attacking
in
President
journalists, the media as a whole, and fact
Obama utilized social media to this end to
checkers, cementing a personification as the
project himself as both the messenger calling
only one who could be trusted (Baumgartner
for 'hope and change' and the personification
200).
contemporary
campaigning.
of that mantra. He would regularly post
In summary of these social media
instances of his appearance on non-politically
techniques, "… posts were 'social-media-genic'
oriented programs showcasing a friendly and
and designed to be shared, clicked, and
empathetic demeanor or even a “regular-ness”
commented upon” (Schill 21). Through brevity
such as showcasing his college basketball
and a focus on the personal, populist
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candidates
easily
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provide
the
passing
and individual politicians now gain or lose
entertainment needed to gather a following in
favor through his or her online performance.
today’s political arena. Further, incivility and
The developing self-categorizing and passive-
the enablement of passivity online proved to be
consumptive trends in the online sphere are
a successful method for right-wing populism
significantly affecting the way eligible voters
whereas active engagement is more effective
prepare themselves to enact a properly
for those leaning left. These propositions were
informed participation in elections. From the
given credence in a research study by Jacob
Obama campaigns a decade ago to now the
Groshek and Karolina Koc-Michalska, 2017, in
surprise Trump election results, the political
“Helping populism win? Social media use, filter
spectacle on social media is undoubtedly a
bubbles, and support for populist presidential
powerful force in modern day populisms.
candidates in the 2016 US election campaign.”
Concluding Remarks Finally, the conjunction of social media and politics may have completely redefined the role of the citizen. During these past, and probable future, instances of contemporary populisms, political information has been commodified by social media. In other words, populism and social media now creates politics to be consumed. The reach of the political sphere has been expanded by social media to define a person’s subjectivity. This political subjectivity is becoming a commodity through the consumption of yourself by oneself online – the endpoint of the “DailyMe.” The majority of people’s opinions were kept to themselves before but are now shown externally through “likes” and sharing of posts. Modern
political
parties
sustain
their
followings online through the use of hashtags
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Works Cited Allcott, Hunt, and Matthew Gentzkow. "Social media and fake news in the 2016 election." Journal of Economic Perspectives 31.2 (2017): 211-36. Web. 16 April 2018. Baumgartner, Jody C., and Terri L. Towner. The Internet and the 2016 Presidential Campaign. Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc, Lanham, Maryland, 2017. Farnsworth, Stephen J., 1961. Presidential Communication and Character: White House News Management from Clinton and Cable to Twitter and Trump. Routledge, New York, NY, 2018. Gottfried, Jeffrey, and Elisa Shearer. 2016. “News Use across Social Media Platforms 2016.” Pew Research Center, May 26. http://www.journalism.org/2016/05/26/news-use-across-socialmedia-platforms-2016. Web. 21 Sept. 2018. Groshek, Jacob, and Karolina Koc-Michalska. "Helping populism win? Social media use, filter bubbles, and support for populist presidential candidates in the 2016 US election campaign." Information, Communication & Society 20.9 (2017): 1389-1407. Web. 21 Sept. 2018. Harcourt, Bernard E. Exposed: Desire and Disobedience in the Digital Age. Cambridge; London: Harvard University Press, 2015. Margetts, Helen, et al. Political Turbulence: How Social Media Shape Collective Action. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016. Mazzoleni, Gianpietro, Julianne Stewart, and Bruce Horsfield, eds. The Media and Neo-Populism: A Contemporary Comparative Analysis. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2003. Print. Praeger Ser. in Pol. Comm. Mudde, Cas, and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser, eds. Populism in Europe and the Americas: Threat or Corrective for Democracy? Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 2012. Richardson, Glenn W., ed. Social Media and Politics: A New Way to Participate in the Political Process. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2017. Schill, Daniel J., and John A. Hendricks. The Presidency and Social Media: Discourse, Disruption, and Digital Democracy in the 2016 Presidential Election. Routledge, New York, NY, 2018.
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Sunstein, Cass R. #Republic: Divided Democracy in the Age of Social Media. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017.
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The Countertop where Sitting Down was Standing Up Zak Kelly
T
he Greensboro sit in, as it has come
a bowling alley in the back. Today, it has been
to be known, was a protest by
bought and converted to a museum to
African American students of The
commemorate the actions which took place
North Carolina Agricultural and Technical
there on February 1, 1960 (Rothstein). Opened
College to be served in a “whites only” section
in 1929, the Woolworth’s lunch counter served
of Woolworth’s Diner. This protest played a
hungry patrons in downtown Greensboro at
significant role in gaining equality for all those
132 S. Elm St (Greensboro Public Library).
in the United States, showing how a movement
At this point in time in North Carolina,
to better the nation can start in a seemingly
Jim Crow laws were still in full effect,
routine place, such as a diner. Throughout the
segregating the counters between “whites
years, the actions taken at Woolworth’s have
only” sections and “colored sections.” This
gone down in history as a pivotal event in the
segregation had been in effect in North
Civil Rights Movement. Viewpoints on the
Carolina for as long as the establishment had
significance of this event will be scattered due
been opened. Jim Crow laws, named after
to different cultural and societal differences but
minstrel songs, refer to statutes not enacted by
the main takeaway is that the actions taken by
Southern state legislation, but implied by local
the participants of the Greensboro sit in have
customs to create racial separation where races
shaped where the United States is in terms of
were mixed (Wadelington). Jim Crow laws in
race relations. With the context of where race
the South engaged in the practice of actively
relations were in 1960’s America, it is amazing
segregating minorities in a slew of ways, from
to think that such an influential event towards
separating water fountains, to confining
combating oppression happened at a simple
African Americans to the upper decks during
diner countertop in North Carolina.
movies. They also confined African Americans
The “F.W. Woolworth Co. Diner” was a two-
to often dirtier and cramped countertops at
story structure complete with an area for eating
dining establishments, communicating their
and conversing with fellow patrons along with
place in a “white society” (Wadelington).
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Imagine having to enter establishments
charge (Hale). The next day they would show
through the back door and having to wait for
up with more colleagues, who would eventually
white patrons to be serviced first, just to
end up sitting in shifts so other protestors
receive subpar treatment.
This regulation
could sleep or go to class (Hale). Since the
through adherence to historical customs of the
“laws” were not actual legislation, nothing
area related being of color to being a second-
could be done to arrest the protestors. Gaining
class citizen.
local media attention, by the fifth of February
The seemingly normal countertop
about three hundred students accompanied the
that was used in the Woolworth’s Diner,
four attempting to receive service at the
separated into white and colored sections, was
“whites only” section (history.com). Gaining
the epicenter for civil protest felt throughout
national media attention at this point, copy-cat
the country. On February 1, 1960, four African
protests sprang up across the country to
American students from The North Carolina
combat the Jim Crow laws, spreading to fifty-
Agricultural and Technical College entered the
five
diner
(history.com).
at
4:30
p.m.
(history.com).
The
cities
in
thirteen
different
states
“Greensboro Four,” as they came to be
The spread began in North Carolina,
known, were Ezell Blair Jr., David Richmond,
with similar protests springing up in Winston-
Franklin
McNeil
Salem, Raleigh, Durham, and Charlotte (Hale).
(history.com). Influenced by Ghandi and the
Eventually this would branch out to different
Freedom Riders, they sat at the “whites only”
cities in different states including Lexington,
section of the diner and asked to be served a
Kentucky, Richmond, Virginia, and Nashville,
cup of coffee. After being denied service, the
Tennessee. While at the countertop, white
four were told to leave and give up their seats
customers began to get heated and would make
for white customers. They did not cooperate
obscene gestures to the peaceful protestors,
and politely refused to give up their seats until
even spitting on them and pouring food and
they were served. Authorities were called but
drink on them. This shows the acceptance of
were unable to arrest the four, who remained
racism in Civil Rights era North Carolina. The
in the seats until the diner closed (history.com).
disrespect needed to spit on someone or pour
They sat quietly as not to disturb the
beverages on their heads requires a fervent
peace, had money present to pay to avoid
belief that your ideals are more important than
loitering, and when the establishment was set
another
to close, they left as to avoid a trespassing
impressive though, was the ability of the
McCain
and
Joseph
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person’s
comfort.
What
was
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protestors to hold back on verbal and physical
questions about why they are not treated
altercation, using silence as a weapon for
equally, it creates a panic by the predominant
change.
demographic to stick to historical values. A profound impact the events at
Unfortunately, at this time, historical values
Woolworth’s had on a national scale was the
had created harmful stereotypes, bred of hate
formation
Nonviolent
and bigotry. Challenging the status quo in any
Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in April of
culture will often be faced with backlash from
1960 (history.com). Using the momentum of
those who believe traditionalist ideals.
of
the
Student
the sit in movement, the SNCC would go on to
peacefully
protest
racial
Simply looking at the artifact in
inequality
question, the segregated counter top, shows
throughout the country, organizing freedom
how these biases created an oppressive culture,
rides and rallies, even coordinating the historic,
which extended to many businesses.
“March on Washington,” where Martin Luther
Though segregation would not be
King Jr. gave his famous, “I Have a Dream,”
abolished until 1964, the Woolworth’s diners
speech (history.com). This committee would
would be completely integrated on July 26,
work alongside the National Association for
1960 (Hale). This meant that sections of the
the
People,
diner would not be off limits to anyone due to
(NAACP) to push for the passage of the Civil
race, which challenged the implied cultural
Rights Act of 1964. This shows how the
rules. This angered many whites who were
movement in Greensboro had a profound
brought up in a society where segregation was
impact in creating organization for national
acceptable. Violence towards the protestors
reform. It is amazing to think that the
would be commonplace, usually ending in
simplistic behavior of sitting at the counter of
pushes and verbal abuse. The protestors would
a diner in Greensboro could gain such
go on to persevere through the beratement and
attention. The protest lead to the formation of
would ultimately provide a decisive victory in
organizations that would eventually contribute
the name of civil rights.
Advancement
of
Colored
to disbanding racial segregation.
The
powerful
symbol
of
the
Seeing the reaction not only in North
desegregated counter top shows many things.
Carolina but in the whole United States shows
It shows how when nonviolent protest clashes
how controversial the idea of an integrated was
with an oppressive culture, it can create
at the time. When a “secondary citizen” tries to
contradictions in biased laws. For instance,
go against societal norms and begins asking
Woolworth’s diner would go on to stray away
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from Jim Crow laws to stay in business.
for different races. It should be inherently
Secondly, the symbol of the counter would be
understood that this movement was the ability
a starting point for focus on change to better
of an oppressed people to see something
abide by the promises of the constitution,
wrong with their country and having the
where all people are created equal. In a way, the
bravery and drive to seek change. The image of
actions that occurred at that counter had an
the counter with the context added provides a
impact on how America would view the term
distinct lesson to be learned, that what was
equality for the next fifty years.
happening in the United States at this time in
The power of the images of the counter
history was unbecoming of a free nation.
at the diner would spark media coverage, which
Coupled with the image, this story should
truly provided the backbone of the movement.
continue to be taught to show the evolution of
Images of civil unrest in response to the sit in
equality in our nation.
caused rights for African Americans to be seen in a new light. For years, African Americans lived in a society where cultural differences superseded individual equality but now seeing colored men and women in a “whites only” area gave the nation a wake-up call. It showed that colored individuals were tired of being treated as an inferior race. Sympathetic television coverage would give the protestors a
Fig. 1 The Greensboro Four sit at “whites only” section of Woolworths Diner (Edwards)
resource to get their vision of an equal America
Since Woolworth’s closing in 1993, the
out to the national public. In turn, this would
counter was seen as a significant historical
spark debate and cause controversial issues to
artifact that should be preserved and put on
be analyzed, paralleling the abolition of slavery.
display to show its context and tell a story.
One thing that should be addressed is the
After trying to obtain the artifact, it was
symbolism of the artifact. It shows the true
eventually donated by Woolworth in 1993 to
reason history is important. When we learn of
the Civil Rights Movement wing in the
different events in the past, we judge these
National Museum of American History in
occurrences with precedence to influence
Washington D.C. (americanhistory.edu). It is
future decisions. Imagine if Jim Crow laws
only a small section of the diner with four silver
were still in effect, causing crippling conditions
stools, two of which have a salmon seat and
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two that have green seats. Though it is only a
The picture posted above is projected on a
small section, it delivers the message and is
screen behind the counter and gives a sense
presented in a thought provoking manner.
that you’re looking through time. It definitely
I chose this artifact because I am
was a great experience. Not only is it displayed
passionate about history and was raised in a
in the Nation’s capital, but the original diner
household that humbled me. My parents
has been converted into a museum as well. It
taught me that other people have had it worse
goes to show how important this event was in
off than me, sometimes simply because they
the fact that it is immortalized throughout the
were African American. My family went on a
country.
trip to Washington D.C. a few years ago, where
This artifact is more than just an object.
my dad took me to the National Museum of
It is a piece of American history that is a
American History. I remember walking
symbol of attrition for equality that has shaped
through the doors of the marble entrance and
the United States to what it is today. The
seeing an array of historical artifacts, each of
actions of the Greensboro Four and all those
which had a story pertaining to the progression
that protested at Woolworth’s diner show the
of our country. After touring around for a
amazing ability of the citizens of our country to
while, my dad took me to the Civil Rights wing
actively pursue change, seeking equality and
where we came across the section of the diner.
justice through analyzing the constitution. The
My father has always been fervent in teaching
symbolism transcends that of bigotry and spite,
me about the history of civil rights and has told
using peace and nonviolence to overcome
me many stories, both personal to his life and
traditional
more intrinsic in a national spotlight. I
separation. The beauty of this protest is that an
remember as a little kid seeing old pictures of
oppressed people were able to stand up for
my three-year-old dad and the rest of his family
their rights by taking a seat.
customs
of
discriminatory
on the mall of Washington D.C. at the famous “I Have a Dream” speech by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. In person, the countertop exhibit in the museum pays tribute to the brave young men and women with different quotes posted around it and a plaque describing what happened, providing background information.
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Works Cited Edwards, Owen. “Courage at the Greensboro Lunch Counter.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 1 Feb. 2010, www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/courage-at-thegreensboro-lunch-counter-4507661/. “Greensboro Library, NC.” 132 S. Elm Street F.W. Woolworth Building | Greensboro Library, NC, library.greensboro-nc.gov/research/north-carolina-collection/historical-walking-tour/132-selm-street-f-w-woolworth-building. “Greensboro Lunch Counter.” National Museum of American History, 5 July 2017, americanhistory.si.edu/exhibitions/greensboro-lunch-counter. Hale, Jordan. “The Greensboro Sit-Ins.” North Carolina History, nchistory.web.unc.edu/thegreensboro-sit-ins/. History.com Staff. “Greensboro Sit-In.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 2010, www.history.com/topics/black-history/the-greensboro-sit-in. Rothstein, Edward. “In Greensboro, N.C., From Lunch Counter to Revolution.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 31 Jan. 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/02/01/arts/design/01museum.html. Wadelington, Flora. “Segregation.” Segregation | NCpedia, www.ncpedia.org/history/20thCentury/segregation-1920s.
Issue #|2019
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Witches in Media: A Queer Feminist Exploration Kaitlyn Gael Ricks Abstract This paper is an addendum to the podcast “Witches” from Legendary: A Folklore Podcast. In the podcast, Kaitlyn Gael Ricks and Mads Whitmarsh-Jones explore legends, visual media depictions, and the intersection between witches and the queer community. “Witches in Media: A Queer Feminist Exploration” takes the podcast a step further, offering a broader scope of the intersection between witches and introduces queer theory by emphasizing the stereotypes of witches and how performance of power and belief as a witch is demonized by society in much the same way as the performance of gender and sexuality. “Double, double toil and trouble;
However, witches in contemporary media can
Fire burn and cauldron bubble.”
fit solidly into two camps: the bewitching
William Shakespeare, Macbeth
young woman-bursting with sex appeal and desired because of the good she does; and the
William Shakespeare introduced the
evil sorceress, who can be either beautiful and
Weird Sisters in Macbeth, but he was not the
young or hideous and old, but is always
first to capitalize on the concept of witches or
involved with evil. Throughout my podcast,
witchcraft. Witches are one of the most iconic
“Witches” from Legendary: A Folklore Podcast, I
characters throughout folklore and they exist in
emphasized folklore, particularly the urban
tales around the world. The witch is a common
legend of the Blair Witch and other media
monster in horror movies and supernatural
depictions of witches in film. But in this paper
shows, though not all depictions of witches are
further exploration into stereotypes of witches
monstrous. Witches tend to get a bad rap in
in popular culture is needed. My exploration of
most stories, typically depicted as women living
witches in the podcast is colored by my
outside of society. Witches are often described
interview with Mads Whitmarsh-Jones, a local
as someone to fear and respect, lest they find
Washington witch, who self-identifies as a
out and curse you for your impudence.
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witch and a member of the queer community1.
“performance” of self. This affiliation
The podcast offers a small snapshot of the
to the larger communal body requires,
overall interview process but does not
intrinsically, that woman sacrifice an
showcase the extensive exploration of witches
innate sense of self or part of self to
and queer theory that Mads and I explored.
concede to the dominant normative
This paper intends to offer a broader scope of
discourse. (Santos xiii)
the intersection between witches and queer
It
theory, primarily emphasizing the stereotypes
heteronormativity,
of witches and how performance of power and
constructions of what “woman” means
belief as a witch is demonized by society in
that are important. These norms are
much the same way as performance of gender
reinforced throughout media and
and sexuality have been.
“what emerges is a dominant tendency
I set out to discover what media
of
the
is
patriarchy, and
demonizing
of
social
female
implies when it frames witches within a binary,
empowerment and agency by the
particularly media’s emphasis on women as
dominant
witches. However, in my exploration I
essentially
encountered my real source of concern-why are
monstrosity is buried within cultural
witches usually women in media? This question
constructs” (Santos xxii).
brings me to the intersection of witches in
Given the feminist lens necessary to
folklore and queer theory framed within a
analyze witches, I will be bringing queer theory
feminist lens. In the podcast I quote the
and feminism together by utilizing a queer
following:
feminism, as detailed in Feminism is Queer: The
(male) means
culture,” that,
which “female
The female ontological self
Intimate Connection Between Queer and Feminist
exists within systems of power (e.g.,
Theory by Mimi Marinucci. Marinucci describes
patriarchal, heterosexual, etc.) and is
queer feminism as “The application of queer
judged and classified within these
notions of gender, sex, and sexuality to the
external systems and perception is
subject matter of feminist theory, and the
central when it comes to woman’s
simultaneous application of feminist notions of
Note: Mads Whitmarsh-Jones uses the pronouns they, them, their and prefers to be referenced by name as Mads. Their name and
pronouns will be honored accordingly in this paper.
1
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gender, sex, and sexuality to the subject matter
depictions as rather limiting and offensive.
of queer theory” (Marinucci 105). She goes on
Characters
to explain that the word ‘queer’ is often
essentialized in such a way. So, if these two
conflated with sex and sexuality, but “queer
depictions are limiting and offensive, why then
theory is a way of understanding not just sex
are some of these representations so relatable
and sexuality but also gender. Specifically,
and
queer theory avoids the binary and hierarchical
interpretations of witches in media represent
reasoning
these
women trying to throw off the shackles of
concepts” (Marinucci 105). Marinucci also
societal pressure. In this way, these characters
explains that queer theory and feminist theory
often explore sexuality (either as an identity, or
typically analyze gender, sex, and sexuality.
in a pleasure-seeking capacity), confront power
Even if done so in different ways, there is a
dynamics and the inequality between genders
relationship between the two theories; “There
within
is thus an implicit connection between queer
stereotypical heteronormative behavior and
theory and feminist theory, and queer
social constructs in favor of a more authentic
feminism makes this connection more explicit”
lived
(Marinucci 105). A queer feminist reading will
witchcraft and engaging in supernatural power.
allow for the intersection between the obvious
Furthermore, negative or evil representations
binary that the concept of “witch” forces, and
of witches in media have often been an attempt
the way in which media representations,
to suppress or demonize women within
particularly as stereotypes, essentialize and
society. This is due to socio-cultural fears of
villainize women.
female sexuality, reproductive power, and is a
usually
associated
with
Media representation of witches is of special interest to me as a feminist for rather obvious
reasons—witches
are
powerful
of
iconic?
power
I
society,
should
theorize
and
experience—all
that
actively
while
not
be
certain
subvert
practicing
means to uphold patriarchal social hierarchies.
1. What’s a Witch?
women who are often demonized for their
“ARE YOU A WITCH OR NOT?”
power. As mentioned at the start of the
J.K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the
podcast, I consume a lot of witch-related
Sorcerer’s Stone
media, and as such, I wondered what is the impact of their depiction as either the hag or
The exploration of witches and
the buxom beauty and why does media rely so
witchcraft requires some definition. To define
heavily on such representations? I view both
someone as a witch requires an understanding
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of where witchcraft comes from. So, looking
anyone practicing and following this system of
toward faith systems and definitions of
belief, or even using this system to structure
witchcraft is essential. Mads defined witchcraft
one’s practice of witchcraft, can cause ire and
in the podcast as, “the action of asserting your
condemnation from a society that doesn’t find
will on the universe to effect a change”
these practices palatable. Christine Hoff
(“Witches” 20:17-20:23). They also explained
Kraemer in her essay “Gender and Sexuality in
that witches believe in many things. A witch’s
Contemporary Paganism” explains that Pagans
faith and/or belief system can range from
are diverse in their practices and beliefs, but
Pagan, Wiccan, Christian, Atheist, Jewish,
many
Buddhist, Agnostic, and more. Witchcraft is
themselves with the term “Pagan” as they
not defined by the belief system (or lack
believe definitions are at odds with their
thereof) of the user, though it can be
personal spirituality. There is a great deal of
influenced or shaped. Ultimately, if you want
diversity within Paganism but despite this
to determine whether someone is a witch or
diversity there are certain common attitudes,
not, you’ll have to ask. That being said, “Wicca
beliefs, and practices. Kraemer notes that
is a Pagan witchcraft tradition” (Lutwyche). By
“gender and sexuality are central theological
definition, all Wiccans are witches, though it is
issues for many contemporary Pagans; in fact,
important to note that not all witches follow
many Pagans came to the movement due to
Wicca. Witches can follow any faith system (or
issues with gender or sexuality in the religions
none at all), though most seem to fall under or
of their birth or in the wider culture” (391).
within the Pagan umbrella. The term Pagan has a long history of meaning, which has changed several times. Prior to the neo-pagan movement, Pagan “was used to describe the polytheistic […] preChristian folk religions of Europe and the Middle East” and “as an insult and a catch-all term for those who did not follow the three main Abrahamic faiths […] throughout the medieval and renaissance periods” (Lutwyche). Given that Paganism has been used as an insult and catch-all term, it’s not hard to believe that
Volume 6, Issue 1|2019
practitioners
still
resist
defining
Issues with gender or sexuality are common themes for those struggling to deal with non-normative or deviant expressions, particularly when society, culture, and/or religion have proscriptive definitions of “right” versus “wrong.” As such, it is no shock that Berger, Leach, and Shaffer found that “as of 2003,
28.3%
of
the
American
Pagan
community self-identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual – a percentage far higher than the population at large” (qtd. in Kraemer 397). From this snapshot alone, the intersection of Page | 86
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queer theory and witchcraft is rife with
inaccuracy is covered briefly in the podcast, but
possibility, simply due to the desire to throw
I will expand upon this issue. Women are not
off the constraints of the dominant discourse.
the only individuals who identify as witches or practice witchcraft. The name “witch” is not
2. Breaking Binaries
necessarily a gendered term, despite the
“This was dangerous talk—in these
assertion of works of fantasy throughout
enlightened times,
popular media. However, it is important to
a wise woman would never be too
analyze the binary position the term “witch”
clever.
has been saddled with. In media, a witch
The accusation of witchcraft had rid
connotes several different things, but mostly it
many men of an ugly wife
relies on stereotypes—signs and symbols
and yet more women of an
which serve to define a person (usually a
attractive rival.”
woman) as a witch. Cristina Santos writes in
Joss Alexander, Tainted Innocence
Unbecoming Female Monsters: Witches, Vampires, and Virgins that women are labeled and
Dominant discourse is the word of the day when it comes to witches. Witches by
signified as monstrous whenever they refuse to bend to the will of the dominant discourse:
definition live outside of dominant society,
The same can be said when
simply by utilizing and accessing powers which
investigating the factors affecting a
move beyond what is perceived as possible,
monstrous
rational, or acceptable. Even those who believe
woman is not born monstrous but is
in power beyond the physical have historically
constructed as such. These causes can
condemned use of this power and has led to
come in the shape of institutionalized
the death of thousands of people accused of
ideologies and values just as much as
witchcraft
noninstitutionalized modes of social,
throughout
history.
Beyond
female
metaphysical power lies an exploration of
cultural,
patriarchal power and heteronormativity.
expression, to name a few, that define
Witches are generally described as women in
a “norm” to which women are
media and historically, have been documented
expected to adhere as members of their
as women. However, demographics for
larger community. […] What happens
witches are extremely varied and are not at all
to women when they are not willing to
accurately depicted in popular media. The
compromise their authenticity and
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religious
“anatomy”—
and
political
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uniqueness
in
order
to
affiliate
an action. Witches are queer, and by that, I
themselves with this collectivized
mean they queer things. By refusing to
gender-based
uniformity
and
conform, a witch challenges the idea of
sociocultural
organization
that
essential
identities,
resist
conventional
demands from woman a subjugation of
categorization, and question prevailing binaries
not only the self but also of individual
and stereotypes—in short, witches queer
power and agency? What happens
themselves (Barker and Scheele 7, 10, 13-16).
when woman does not “perform” for the comfort level of those around her
3. Showcasing Sexuality,
but rather for own authenticity?
Stereotypes, and Subversion
(Santos xiii). Santos’ point holds true when compared to the way witches have been labeled and structured both in media and throughout history. As Mads noted in the podcast, women living in liminal spaces, such as the Blair Witch, Baba Yaga, and any other female characters living on the outskirts of society, but still within its confines, are vilified for their differences (“Witches” 26:50-30:30). As such, women who loved
women,
women
who
practiced
spirituality or folk medicine (i.e., witchcraft) in defiance of the dominant religion, and women who refused to conform and marry—or better yet, left their spouses—are all women who must be demonized for their choices. I’d argue that a witch, by this definition, is simply a woman
queering
her
lived
experience.
However, such could be said of any witch of any identity or sexuality. Any reading of witches as female should thus be replaced by the term queer, not only as an identity, but primarily as
Volume 6, Issue 1|2019
“Most books on witchcraft will tell you that witches work naked. This is because most books on witchcraft were written by men.” Neil Gaiman and Terry Pratchett, Good Omens The buxom beauty can be a positive or negative type of witch, depending on how she is defined. In the introduction of Unbecoming Female Monsters: Witches, Vampires, and Virgins, Figure 1.1 details archetypal monstrous representations of women. The crone, the witch, and the hag are defined as ugly, old, and overly intelligent women. This description fits well with most negative or evil depictions of witches. In the figure, beautiful, young, and expressive women are sirens or mermaids, while sexually powerful or promiscuous women are vampires, succubi, whores, and prostitutes (Santos xvii). Following the figure, Santos explains that “each of these women are
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‘archetypal’ insofar as they are recurring images
stereotypes have bled into other media
that are encountered throughout history;
versions of witches over time.
examples of this can be found in our earliest
It is interesting how Santos frames
oral traditions and mythologies” (Santos xvii).
various monstrous women as the crone, the
Stereotypical physical attributes of witches
witch, and the hag, because popular media has
range from good to bad depictions. A good
taken to incorporating young, beautiful,
witch is a conventionally attractive, slim, and
sexually powerful or promiscuous women as
delicately featured woman with an alluring, but
witches, who can be either good or bad. For
demure kind of beauty. A bad (evil or even just
example, in the TV series Charmed, the three
mischievous) witch is a haggard, sallow, and
Halliwell sisters are all fashionable, sexy, and
elderly witch with moles, crooked and/or
are designed to represent and capture an
missing teeth, and often a hunched or bowed
audience of modern women in their early teens
body.
several
to thirties. Despite the attention paid to their
members of a coven, all of whom are in their
sexuality and physical attractiveness, the
20s, for her article “What Pop Culture Gets
charmed ones aren’t big-breasted bimbos
Right and Wrong About Witches, According to
bouncing
a Real Coven.” The girls were asked to describe
admittedly, production does play up their
witches in media and “historically, they pointed
assets through wardrobe). These women are
out, representations have fallen into two basic
good witches who use their powers together,
categories: the ugly decrepit hag and the young
known as the power of three, to fight evil and
hypersexualized woman who exists for male
keep good in the world. Each sister is
consumption” (Shapiro). The girls identified
intelligent and capable in her own way and
two of the most iconic witches from popular
viewers are shown time and again that these
culture: “Probably one of the most popular
women are more than eye candy—they’re
early witches would be the Wicked Witch of
heroes. Throughout the series viewers watch
the West,” said Haleigh. “She’s very ugly
these women go through difficult work
especially in comparison to her sister, Glinda
experiences, both due to their constant demon
the Good Witch, who is very innocent and
fighting and their position as women in a
beautiful.” The witches from The Wizard of Oz
workplace.
are easily identifiable as good and evil based off
stratification of the sexes within society and the
of their physical appearance. These visual
sisters’
Lila
Shapiro
interviewed
around
on
Charmed
attempts
to
screen
(though
showcases not
only
the thwart
supernatural evil, but to subvert patriarchal
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control. The witches also question the Elders
hypersexualized, but I’d argue that they’re
and their “Whitelighters,” who act as a kind of
simply showcasing a healthy sexuality, one
guardian angel order, which in its own way is
which shouldn’t be disgraced or condemned,
responsible for controlling the actions and
simply because it’s exuberant and talked about
choices of the sisters. Time and again, the
without shame. In this way, the show subverts
sisters question the power “Whitelighters”
traditional expectations for female sexuality.
hold and rail against being controlled or handled.
Cristina Santos argues in Unbecoming Female Monsters that “women who chose to
In
Lila
her
rebel against the acquiescent and desexualized
exploration begins by asking the coven to name
role society has proscribed for them are
their favorite witches in media. Charmed is
promptly labeled as deviant” (Santos xvi). As
identified as a “very formative” representation
such, the Halliwell sisters as unashamed,
for Haleigh, who says “’Alyssa Milano’s
sexually active women are deviant by default.
character Phoebe was definitely the one who I
But to further their deviance is the fact that
gravitated towards, because she was the
each sister engages in sex and/or romantic
troublemaker, she didn’t do things by the book,
relationships
and she was also a little slutty.’ The girls all
morally
laughed. ‘Actually, she was really slutty,’
youngest) beds and weds a demon; Piper (the
Haleigh conceded” (Shapiro). Haleigh is not
middle
wrong—Phoebe was a sexually adventurous
“Whitelighter” against the Elders orders; Prue
individual for much of the series, seeking
(the eldest) undergoes an accidental magic
pleasure without hesitation—though I’d argue
mishap and is temporarily reassigned as a male,
that “slut” is an unnecessary pejorative which
and nearly beds a succubus; and Paige (the
vilifies female sexuality and plays its own role
youngest half-sister who comes into her
in the way women have historically been
powers after Prue’s death) dates and beds a
slandered and labeled “witch.” Regardless,
‘dark’ magic junkie. Every sister has had
Phoebe is not alone in this behavior, as every
relationships (romantic and sexual) with
Halliwell sister seeks out sex and romance in
dubious men, but it is the subtle way Charmed
their own way. Emphasis is placed on romantic
frames these moments that sets it apart. In all
entanglements, one-night encounters, and
moments of weakness, the sisters band
various other moments of female sexuality.
together and remind each other that their
Many
mistakes do not define their person. Their
have
Shapiro’s
read
these
article,
sisters
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as
with
“questionable”
ambiguous) sister)
beds
men. and
Phoebe weds
(read: (the her
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choices to trust and love are acts of power and
the Sanderson sisters and uses her physical
a sign of their good nature, not a sign of
appearance and flirtatious personality to play
weakness or powerlessness. This is an
with men, and it is implied, to use them for
important distinction because most other
sexual gratification. Her overt physical beauty
examples of female sexuality, particularly with
aside, Sarah is an airhead, embodying the
powerful women such as witches, it is expected
“dumb blonde” stereotype to a T. Sarah’s
that they “know better” and “do better” than
greatest power derives from her ability to
any other average person betrayed by someone
enchant
they trusted.
numbers of them—through song. This is a
and
lure
children—even
great
Beyond their sexuality, the Halliwell
powerful talent because the three sisters can
sisters dominate the screen as woman warriors
capture children and steal their youth and
by fighting demons and questioning the social
vitality.
order of the material realm and that of the
The other two sisters are equally
Elders. They do not conform or bend to the
stereotypical in their presentation; the middle
will of others, but instead choose to forge their
sister Mary Sanderson is a large, plump woman,
own path. Ultimately, the Halliwell sisters are
who is quick to please her elder, more
engaging and relatable because their appeal is
intelligent sister Winifred Sanderson. Mary is
equally split between their goodness and their
the most conventional looking sister, as she is
attractiveness.
plump, dark haired and rather non-descript.
Like Charmed, Disney’s cult classic from
She neither draws the eye for her shocking
1993, Hocus Pocus, showcases its own power of
beauty or alarming looks. Some of her power
three. The film follows three villainous sister
comes from her keen sense of smell and she
witches
different
can track children with it; a special skill which
stereotypes and presentations of witches.
can be related to a blood hound or a truffle pig
There is Sarah Jessica Parker’s character, Sarah
(something her size seems to suggest). She is
Sanderson, the youngest sister who plays up
smarter than Sarah and is a far more competent
her good looks and siren-like voice. She is a
witch, but she is far too submissive and
hypersexualized character, and easily the most
obsequious to be a leader. That role falls to
conventionally attractive sister of the three,
Winifred, the eldest sister. Winifred, played by
with long blonde hair, pale skin, and fashion
Bette Midler, is the brains of the operation.
that purposefully shows off her cleavage and
Described as a hag and setting the film’s events
legs. Sarah is the most risqué dresser amongst
into motion, Winifred is a cruel, vain, and
who
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extremely intelligent witch, capable of keeping
darkness embraced her, and she willingly went
her two airhead sisters under control while
where she felt desired.
seeking her desires and practicing dark magic. She is the least attractive witch of them all, with
4. Good vs. Evil; Right vs. Wrong
exaggerated features such as wild red hair, buck
(?)
teeth, claw-like fingernails, and an eyebrow-less face. She is a startling creature to behold and her inherent meanness is codified by her appearance. Each sister represents a very obvious physical stereotype. These stereotypes are of great
importance,
because
“monstrous
perception of women is esoteric in that it is both the virgin/angel and the whore; the “airhead” and the “excessively intelligent”; it is the lack of and the excess of; but all determined by binary
oppositions
based
on
gendered
difference and deviance from a socioculturally proscribed norm” (Santos xvi-xvii). Essentially, no matter how these characters were to present themselves or perform within society, it is the “excess of” their performance which marks them as witches. Winifred is incredibly vain and reacts violently when mocked for her appearance. The backstory behind her decision to sell her soul, gain dark magic powers, and turn to stealing life essence from children is never shown in the film; however, one could wager that perhaps her desire for power is rooted in her insecurities and experience as a liminal figure in society—perhaps it wasn’t so much that she sought out darkness, but that
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“What if evil doesn’t really exist? What if evil is something dreamed up by man, and there is nothing to struggle against except our own limitations? The constant battle between our will, our desires, and our choices?” Libba Bray, Rebel Angels Witches have a long history, both through fictional folktales and in a non-fiction reality. People throughout history have been accused of witchcraft for various reasons, most of which are hinged on culture and society. However, despite the sociocultural setting, most of it boils down to one thing—fear (Santos 91). Linda McGuire explains: . . . in 1484, Pope Innocent VIII issued a papal bull declaring the existence of a new enemy who become known as witches. A mere two years later, the monks Kramer and Sprenger, in their work entitled the Malleus Maleficarum
(The
Hammer
of
Witches), in no uncertain terms gave the witch the form of a woman and soon the image of a witch became that
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of an old and threatening woman. (qtd.
women have taken the brunt of the accusations
in Santos 91)
and repercussions. This is entirely due to the
Witch-hunts ravaged through Europe
inequality within society, which generally puts
and early America, the most well-known case
men above women as far as trustworthiness,
being the horrible treatment of those tried for
protection under the law, and standards of
witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts. The witch
behavior. Men are simply afforded more
was labeled the enemy and by correlation,
leeway than women within society.
women were further marginalized and curtailed
During witch-hunts, standards for right
within society. In Lewd Women and Wicked
vs. wrong were conflated with good vs. evil,
Witches, Marianne Hester argues that:
and depictions of witches have followed suit.
Relying
social
The Sanderson sisters in Hocus Pocus are an
construction of sexuality in terms of
excellent example of witches being conflated
women’s inferiority, the witch trials
with Satanism (a concept which is woefully
were part of the ongoing attempt by
misunderstood
men to maintain their power over
Shapiro’s interview, one of the witches, Brielle,
women.
and
says that the Sanderson sisters are “’fun and
feminist
whimsical, but the one thing that really
thinking to show how witches—almost
bothered me was the idea that there’s a devil
exclusively women—can be seen as
behind a coven of witches and it’s got to be
victims of the oppression of a male-
some type of masculine evil presence. I mean,
dominated society. (Hester i)
that trope – it’s old and boring, and it’s just not
She also notes that the majority of
true. We’re so incredibly far removed from
people accused, prosecuted, imprisoned, and
that’” (Shapiro). Another witch, Yema Rose
executed due to a witchcraft conviction were
replies, “the idea that we’re dependent on the
women. In addition, they “tended to be a
patriarchy,’ to which Haleigh chimes in,
particular group of women: age, marital status,
“’Witches as just a servant for a man, doing a
kin relation to other ‘witches’, economic status,
man’s bidding…’” (Shapiro). The idea that
liaison with the Devil and sexual ‘deviance’ all
women are evil because and for men is yet
being important factors” (Hester 3). Despite
another controlling mechanism from society,
men having historically and currently practiced
which implies that even in their subversive
witchcraft and identified as witches (or various
behavior as witches, women can be controlled
develops
The
on
book
the
reviews
revolutionary
and
misrepresented).
In
permutations/gendered terms for the word),
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by men and therefore held under the thumb of
5. Queer(ing) Witches: A
the patriarchy.
(Non)Fictional Feminism
Granted, assuming a witch is evil in reality is a ridiculous assertion. Witches both historically and currently are peaceful and are generally practicing “alternative” methods of existence, one which is usually grounded in nature. Mads explains in the podcast that witchcraft is all about intent and will being projected. The Hollywoodized hocus pocus we run across on screen is hardly realistic. That being said, witches being conflated with Satanism is a significant problem, but they have also been believed to be “the scapegoat for natural disaster, failing crops, illness and other unexplainable evils, but there is also the idea of the female witch as doubly guilty because she is both a bad woman and evil” (Santos 139). Ultimately, good vs. evil is an effective framing technique for media, but it is an unrealistic and stereotypical depiction of a witch—one which has no basis in reality. These stereotypes have been conflated by religious extremism, which led to the witch-hunts from history, and have resulted in witches throughout popular media taking on the burden of centuries of religious hysteria.
“The first time I called myself a ‘Witch’ was the most magical moment of my life.” Margot Adler, Drawing Down the Moon When I set out to research witches, I was particularly interested in the intersection between witches and the queer community. A great number of people I know who are practicing witches identify somewhere within the queer community, and as such I’ve wondered if there is something about witchcraft
that
is
inherently
alluring.
Interestingly, there are very few canonically queer identifying witches in media. The witches from Shapiro’s interview identified two specific instances, Willow and Tara from Buffy the Vampire Slayer, who meet in college and fall in love. Much of their magic is connected to their emotional bond and serves as a plot point during several episodes and leads to one of the “big bad” moments in the series. The second was Lafayette from True Blood. Interestingly, both series are mainly about vampires, but feature queer witches. Lafayette is of particular interest because as Haleigh notes in the interview, “’You don’t see male witches that frequently, so it was pretty cool that he was not only a male witch, but also a person of color and openly queer. That’s a rarity’” (Santos).
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The rareness of a male witch in media
being represented. Witches in media are
is something to stress because as Mads told us,
stereotypically women, but Donovan’s piece
people of all genders practice witchcraft. In
demonstrates that gender has little to do with
Moira Donovan’s article “How Witchcraft is
the practice or performance of witchcraft. In
Empowering Queer and Trans Young People”,
her closing paragraph, Donovan makes an
she interviews several individuals who identify
interesting claim:
as queer and who practice witchcraft. She
In Medieval Europe, the idea
asserts that “witchcraft is seeing a resurgence
of the witch was used as a weapon
among queer-identified young people seeking a
against the marginalized people, and
powerful identity that celebrates the freedom
the person most likely to be accused of
to choose who you are” (Donovan). This
witchcraft was the old crone at the edge
assertion aligns well with what Mads said
of the village.
during the podcast interview. Though of
But those roles have been
course, being a witch does not necessarily
reversed, and what was once used as a
mean being queer, it does as Mads put it,
weapon against marginalized people is
require
(12:10-12:12).
now working to defend them. Witches
Donovan’s interview with Gaudet details their
might still be on the edge, but they’re
feeling that “the capacity for witchcraft to
claiming that place for themselves, and
accommodate
of
drawing power from an identity that
gender is what makes it appealing to a new
celebrates defiance while embracing
generation of witches,” while her interview
difference. After all, what is being a
with Jared Russell emphasizes that “dressing as
witch if not owning the right to be
a witch helps him find strength in the spiritual
yourself? (Donovan)
side of witchcraft—which he says includes
Donovan’s assertion is compelling for
spells, celebrating eight annual equinoxes, and
many reasons but is of special interest here
devising his own witchcraft tradition—and in
because it sees witchcraft in such a positive
challenging dominant expectations of gender”
light—one that defies typical representations
(Donovan). Her interview focuses primarily on
of witchcraft in media. This is overwhelmingly
individuals assigned male at birth, who
fraught with judgement and panic over right vs.
perform gender outside of stereotypical binary
wrong/good vs. evil.
being
“woke”
alternative
expressions
gender expression. This is a compelling
Queer witches in media may be few
interview simply due to the demographics
and far between, but queer witches in actuality
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are abundant. Folktales, legends, and visual
Section Quotes:
media that depict witches as women are prolific and admittedly successful, because they emphasize power in ways that fulfill and reinforce the gender binary, heteronormativity, and the patriarchy. Witches certainly seem to be yet another byproduct of the male/female binary, where anyone who doesn’t necessarily fit the ideal framework for gender expression
Shakespeare, William. Macbeth.
Edited
by
Stephen Orgel, Penguin Books, 2016. Rowling, J. K. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. Scholastic, 1997. Alexander, Joss. Tainted Innocence. Carina Press, 2012.
and/or gendered behavior is marginalized and
Pratchett, Terry, and Neil Gaiman. Good Omens:
liminal—in other words, a witch. However,
The Nice and Accurate Prophecies of Agnes
research and my interview with Mads implies
Nutter, Witch. Gollancz, 2015.
otherwise. In fact, it proves that the practice of witchcraft counters all stereotypes and symbols
Bray, Libba. Rebel Angels. Ember, 2012.
subverts
Adler, Margot. Drawing Down the Moon: Witches,
expectations, and defies categorization. I began
Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other
my podcast and paper with Shakespeare’s
Pagans in America. Penguin Books,
Weird Sisters poem. Allow me to end in much
2006.
of
witches
and
witchcraft,
the same way, but with one small change: Double, double toil and trouble; Fire burn and cauldron bubble. Subvert the “normal” and move beyond Gendered binaries are just overdone.
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Works Cited Barker, Meg-John, and Julia Scheele. Queer: A Graphic History. Icon, 2016. Donovan, Moira. “How Witchcraft Is Empowering Queer and Trans Young People.” Vice, Vice Media LLC, 14 Aug. 2015, www.vice.com/en_us/article/zngyv9/queer-trans-people-takeaim-at-the-patriarchy-through-witchcraft. Hester, Marianne, 1955. Lewd Women and Wicked Witches: A Study of the Dynamics of Male Domination. Routledge, London; New York, 1992. Lutwyche, Jayne. “Pagan Beliefs: Nature, Druids and Witches.” BBC News, BBC, 14 Dec. 2012, www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/20693321. Marinucci, Mimi. Feminism is Queer: The Intimate Connection between Queer and Feminist Theory. Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai. McGuire, Linda. “From Greek Myth to Medieval Witches: Infertile Women as Monstrous and Evil.” Monsters and the Monstrous 6th Global Conference, September 22– 24, 2008. Web. Kraemer, Christine H. "Gender and Sexuality in Contemporary Paganism." Religion Compass, vol. 6, no. 8, 2012, pp. 390-401. Ricks, Kaitlyn Gael, and Mads Whitmarsh-Jones. “Witches.” Legendary: A Folklore Podcast, 24 Apr. 2018, www.dropbox.com/s/hdw79x5hcjey1nv/WitchesPodcast.mp3?dl=0. Santos, Cristina, 1972. Unbecoming Female Monsters: Witches, Vampires, and Virgins. Lexington Books, Lanham, 2017. Shapiro, Lila. “What Pop Culture Gets Right and Wrong About Witches, According to a Real Coven.” Vulture, New York Media LLC, 31 Oct. 2017, www.vulture.com/2017/10/popculture-witchcraft-coven-roundtable.html.
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The CSI Effect and The Criminal Justice System Jamira Simmons
P
eople’s perception on how police
strongly than those who do not watch Crime
officers, detectives, and lawyers work
Shows as much, or do not like them at all.
in the criminal justice field is that
every day is an exciting, successful day at work,
Review of Literature
and that every case is effectively solved in one
The CSI Effect is believed to be
day (Robert, 2017). The public gets this
tremendously affecting innocent individuals,
impression from television shows that are
who are still fighting for their innocence, which
based on actors portraying detectives, forensic
is morally wrong (The CSI effect, 2010).
technicians, and lab technicians that help solve
Roberts (2017), expresses in his research that
criminal cases, which is called the CSI Effect.
experts stress that members of the jury may
According to Robbers (2008), a criminologist,
free guilty defendants because of the lack of
the CSI Effect is “the phenomenon in which
evidence that the prosecution fails to present.
jurors hold unrealistic expectations of forensic
In the media, there are stories where jurors
evidence and investigation techniques and have
specifically demand more forensic evidence.
an increased interest in the discipline of
This affects trials by limiting the chance of the
forensic science.” Even in the courtroom, the
prosecution even trying to build a case through
jurors are letting television cloud their
the evidence and witnesses. Many attorneys,
judgment about how and what evidence should
judges, and journalists have complained about
be presented at a trial. This data is very helpful
the effect of the CSI Effect, and how television
for lawyers, judges, and others in the criminal
is making jurors state to the judge that the
justice field that works with or in the
prosecution is not doing their job correctly
courtroom.
(Shelton, 2008). This is causing the trials to last
This article examines whether the
longer than normal.
people who love and consistently watch Crime
The CSI executive producer explains that they
Shows like CSI, let it affect their view on the
think that the audience knows that the things
Criminal Justice system. Sometimes, more
on the show are unrealistic. They feel as if they
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are not to blame for how the audience
Finally, 6.90% said they did not know what
interprets the show (Rath,2011). Although
they would expect of the prosecution. There
there are negative effects, there are also some
was some type of a relationship between
good effects out of this. Although the CSI
people who watch crime shows a lot or most
Effect is putting more pressure on the
of the time and getting the CSI Effect.
prosecution, it is also recruiting more people in the criminal justice field than ever before (Ericksen, 2017).
Discussion My rationale was supported in that people who binge watch crime shows or like
Methods
them a lot, do tend to get the CSI Effect of
To execute my research, I created an
expecting too much from the prosecution in
online survey consisting of 8 questions, and
the courtroom. However, there were eight
distributed it to 29 college students enrolled in
respondents who did not really watch crime
English 2201, and to 11 students that are
shows, but still developed the CSI Effect. This
members of a social, civic, and service Greek
could suggest that the CSI Effect could come
organizations on the campus of East Carolina
from not just crime shows, but from various
University. The questions were designed to get
shows that may have involved a courtroom or
a measure of college students’ perception of
trial episode. The most reasonable explanation
how the criminal justice system works, and
for my findings are that for the people who do
what they would expect from the prosecution
or have watched crime television shows, have
and defense if they were to serve jury duty,
learned about the process of a courtroom
based on what they see from television.
through television show and have or will develop some type of CSI Effect regarding to
Results
jury duty. It may not be extreme; however, the
In my results I found that 51.72% of
crime television shows or reality shows has
respondents said that if they were on jury duty,
made some type of impact on their judgement
they
the
of the criminal justice system. My findings were
prosecution to present a lot of evidence.
not consistent to other researchers on this
34.48% said they would expect some evidence,
matter, because of the limitations that I had.
but would like the prosecution to have good
My research only lasted two weeks, but my
witnesses more than anything. 6.90% said they
findings do indicate that there needs to be
would just listen and go with their gut feeling.
further investigations.
would
automatically
expect
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that this is fictional, and it does not always
Conclusion
reflect reality. Now that technology has
In conclusion, "The more sophisticated
evolved, social media and internet users have
technological devices that jurors had, the
many things to read and watch, and often the
higher their expectations for the prosecutors to
information is filled with false accusations and
present evidence," (Rath,2011). The more
content. So, based off my research I conclude
crime shows jurors watch, such as CSI, the
that the people who love and consistently
more they may confuse actualities with fiction
watch crime shows like CSI, let it affect their
within a courtroom and the criminal justice
view on the Criminal Justice system more
system. The reality is that it is important that
strongly than those who do not watch crime
television shows try to remind their viewers
shows as much, or do not like them at all.
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Works Cited Ericksen, Kristina. “Rasmussen College.” Rasmussen College - Regionally Accredited College Online and on Campus, 25 Jan. 2017, www.rasmussen.edu/degrees/justicestudies/blog/ways-csi-effect-is-altering-our-courtrooms/. Rath, Arun. “Is The 'CSI Effect' Influencing Courtrooms?” NPR, NPR, 5 Feb. 2011, www.npr.org/2011/02/06/133497696/is-the-csi-effect-influencing-courtrooms. Robbers, M. L. (2008). Blinded by Science: The Social Construction of Reality in Forensic Television Shows and its Effect on Criminal Jury Trials. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 19(1), 84-102. doi:10.1177/0887403407305982 Roberts, Michael. "How the CSI Effect Influences American Jurors." The Balance. October 06, 2017. Accessed March 12, 2018. https://www.thebalance.com/csi-effect-1669447 Shelton, Donald E. “The 'CSI Effect': Does It Really Exist?” National Institute of Justice, 17 Mar. 2008, www.nij.gov/journals/259/Pages/csi-effect.aspx “The "CSI effect".” The Economist, The Economist Newspaper, 24 Apr. 2010, www.economist.com/node/15949089.
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Combating 20th Century Terrorism in Balance with Civil Liberties, Human Security, and Radicalization Savanah Stevenson Abstract In today’s society, terrorism remains a worldwide discussion. The decisions and outcomes of ways to combat terrorism affect the lives of hundreds of thousands of people and in many ways that exceed just a safety perspective. The purpose of this analysis is the explore the topic of terrorism. The following will be analyzed with regard to the combatting of terrorism: the definition of terrorism and a brief history, theories, specifically human security, realism, and liberalism, the problems that occur with regard to combatting terrorism and lastly substitutes to these issues. The end state of this analysis will leave the reader with an improved understanding of terrorism and how/why civil liberties are threatened in some cases. The knowledge found in this analysis will extend the horizon of citizens who oppose operations that jeopardize their liberties in order to keep this nation protected and out of reach of terrorists and their acts of terror.
T
errorism has become a tireless issue
people.
The
recognized
definition
of
in today’s global society; however, it
terrorism is the “illegitimate or extra-normal
is not a fresh aspect of the world or
use of violence against noncombatants to
domestic affairs. Acts of terrorism have been
achieve political ends” (Bongar, 2007). History
happening since 1917 when a bombing in
has shown that terrorism can undermine
Wisconsin killed nine police officers. This
governments, spread disharmony in civil
event foreshadowed events, such as, the
society, weaken economic growth and stability,
Munich Massacre committed by the Palestinian
reverse and demoralize social development,
terrorist group, known as Black September.
and threaten peace and security.
This event resulted in the death of nine Israeli
Approaches to combat terrorism range
Olympic athletes and the Al-Qaeda terrorist
from securitization at a tactical level to public
attacks on September 11, 2001 that killed 2,996
policy resulting from strategic political agendas
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and the practices of deradicalization. The
of 1995 and the 9/11 attacks on the United
focus of this essay is to explore who and what
States. There are many ways terrorists attain
suffers from acts of terrorism, how we can
their goals such as bombing, bioterrorism,
protect and defend those affected attain a
kidnapping, assassination (Methods of Attack,
balance between freedom while combating
2016). The various reactions to domestic or
terrorism, security that does not immensely
international/global
alter our way of life, and the practices of
overreaction, acceptable and under reaction.
radicalization and deradicalization. Being able
An overreaction would be mass executions
to
while
and/or the imposing of Martial Law. An
committing to respecting civil liberties and
acceptable response would be widespread
remaining loyal to the values instilled in the
searches for terrorists and/or temporary
United States can be security beneficial (Dragu,
withdrawal of civil liberties. Moreover, of the
2016). If we fail to reach this balance of civil
three, under reaction is the main reason for the
liberty and guaranteed safety from terrorism,
failure
those committing acts of terrorism will achieve
reactions include, but are not limited to, no
their goal of essentially changing our way of
effort to discourage terrorists and no
life.
development of resources dedicated to combat
successfully
combat
terrorism
of
terrorism
combating
terrorism.
include
These
terrorism. Under reaction creates complacency,
Definition of Terrorism Terrorism
is
an
fosters the idea that acts of terrorism cannot illegal
and
indiscriminate act of violence. The goals of
be stopped, and permits the terrorists to achieve their objectives.
terrorism are multi-faceted and involve influencing political, religious, or ideological
Causes of Terrorism
centers of authority. According to The Strategies
Being able to identify the causes of
of Terrorism, there are five pressing goals of
terrorism is the leading factor behind being
terrorists. These goals are regime change,
able to combat terrorism. Among the reasons
territorial change, policy change, social control,
terrorism occurs, it happens from economic,
and status quo maintenance (Kydd and Walter,
political, and social factors. Out of the three
2006). Acts of terrorism can have domestic or
factors, economically driven terrorism occurs
international influences. Well-known examples
the most. Citizens who live in poverty are dealt
of
terrorist
with hardships that may not be addressed.
incidents include the Oklahoma City Bombing
These citizens are deprived of the resources
domestic
and
international
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that they are entitled to which leads to acts of terrorism against those
them
Terrorism is seen to be a process and
(Newman, 2006). Those affected by socio-
not an event (El-Said, 2015). Radicalization is
economic
by
the process in which an individual, usually
modernization (Krieger and Meierrieks, 2011).
young, is introduced to a belief that moves
Those who are affected negatively by
from moderate mainstream to extreme. This
modernization appeal to terrorists as they now
process is the transformation of
have motive and reason to commit acts of
attitudes, and perceptions leading to the
violence. From a political standpoint, weak and
adoption of an extremist ideology (Malthaner,
unstable governments have a negative impact
2017). During this process, people often share
on the citizens. The abusing of human rights is
the same background. This includes but is not
a direct reflection of the government’s
limited
proceedings on how they see fit to combat
environment, sharing lifestyle values, having
terrorism. Terrorist organizations are able to
similar criminal records and more. As stated in
recruit the citizens who are not given a basic
the journal On the Radicalization Process,
standard of living from the government. Most
brainwashing is also a form of radicalization.
times, this is driven by citizens attempting to
This process often leads to terrorism because a
right the wrongs of the government. Lastly, the
person’s mind is cleared of previous beliefs and
social impact of terrorism is on a wide
filled with set beliefs of the terrorist group
spectrum. There are citizens who are not
(Leistedt, 2016). An example of this regards
provided with the right resources to obtain
the prosecution and sentencing of Charles
educations which can lead to unemployment
Manson. Charles Manson was a man who
and potentially face poverty. Amongst these
brainwashed his followers, mostly women, into
factors, a common trend is grievances. The
going on a killing spree for the race war in the
citizens who partake in terrorism are genuinely
late 1960s. Manson told these women all the
angry and feel wronged. Seeking for the
right things to make them believe the crimes of
wrongs to be right, these citizens turn to those
murder were right and had to be done, much
who are likeminded and have experienced
like
instances of faulty treatment.
contributing factor to radicalization is the role
changes
are
depriving
Radicalization
impacted
to
how
growing
a
up
terrorist
in
would.
the
aims,
same
Another
of media. Media, in some instances, can promote
social
stereotypes,
instigate
aggression, and contribute to the developing
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of
young
people
www.ecu.edu/lookout
New
war. The strategic answer is to pressure
technologies of the 20th century allow terrorists
governments that actively help or inactively
to commercialize their beliefs through the
tolerate terrorist organizations to follow
internet (Leistedt, 2016). These new forms of
actions that hinder terrorist groups from
technology can be used to commit acts of
operating in their sovereign areas through
terror,
cyberterrorism.
force. The goal is to extinguish terrorist
Cyberterrorism can be the destruction of
organizations before they commit terrorist acts
communication lines and/or the hacking into
endangering innocent civilians.
known
psychologically.
as
systems to obtain intel to further contribute to
In contrast, the legal response views
their future attacks. Radicalization is the driving
terrorism as a criminal act and relies on the
force behind the participation in terrorism.
international and domestic law to arrest and try
Without this process, the extremists would
terrorists in a criminal arrangement. The
become lone wolves and may diminish their
difference between the two is one concentrates
extremist views to a more moderate level.
on reducing the potential that terrorists will lead to more victims, and the other on
Theories on Combating Domestic Terrorism When deliberating ways to combat domestic terrorism, there is a level of apprehension taken into account. Something taken into consideration about combating terrorism is whether or not an attack will occur again (Dragu, 2016). While considering ways to combat terrorism, politicians are constantly considering their own reputations at stake as they do not want to be blamed for future attacks. This kind of approach from politicians makes it easy for them to overlook the obstruction of civil liberties. Two main responses to terrorism are military action and legal method. The military
leveraging the law to defend the rights of people. Of the two, the military response allows the theory of human security to run its course. The goal of human security is to protect the well-being of
persons and
communities so that they can live free from terror, free and free to live in dignity (Human Security, 2011). This theory is the fundamental concept behind combating terrorism. The security of humans is seen on a universal spectrum as intimidations extend beyond international boundaries around the world. The uniting belief of global security is that every country has a duty to make every effort to guarantee the safety and security of its citizens.
response perceives terrorist attacks as acts of Volume 6, Issue 1|2019
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According
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to
Partners
for
A common apprehension that arises
Peacebuilding Policy: Human Security, there
with regard to combating terrorism is that civil
are five principles of human security. Human
liberties, once disconnected, are often very
security is people-centered, comprehensive,
hard to fully reinstate. Civil liberties are
multi-sectoral,
and
personal guarantees and freedoms that the
prevention-oriented (Human Security, 2011).
government cannot modify without the
In contrast to national security, the actors
agreement of the citizenry. Since the 9/11
involved are at various community levels
attacks, there has been a progressive loss of
including government, civil society, business,
civil liberties to sustain efforts to combat
academic, religious, media, and other actors
terrorism. For example, the Patriot Act of 2001
(Human Security, 2011). Another theory to
was created to intercept, detect, and obstruct
combat terrorism is realism. The realism
terrorism (Preserving Life & Liberty, n.d.).
theory approach argues that states will always
This act allowed the United States government
decide the option that reduces their costs and
to more easily acquire warrants to investigate
increases their benefits. In relation to
cases
terrorism, a contemplative idea is that a realist
activities. Many argue that expanding the legal
believes in independence. In an unsafe world,
explanation to the use of wiretapping and
such as one with active terrorist organizations;
other forms of electronic surveillance to
to be independent could leave a state
oversee the general public is an invasion of a
susceptible to the terrorist organizations and
citizen's constitutional right of
terrorist attacks. Realists understand that there
Additionally, The Homeland Security Act of
is no ordinary harmony in the world and that
2002 was passed to enact new laws to prevent
the only just war is one that encourages the
terrorist attacks in the United States, reduce the
national interest. These theories have some
vulnerability of the United States to terrorism,
similarities and differences, but both structure
and minimize damage and assist in recovery for
the idea of terrorism. Furthermore, these
terrorist attacks that occur in the United States
theories present challenges to disputing
(Homeland Security Act, Patriot Act, Freedom
terrorism as well.
of Information Act, and HIM, 2010). These
context-specific,
of
alleged
terrorist
plots
and
privacy.
two acts have set the conditions for the
Obstruction
with
Domestic Terrorism
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Combating
emergence of a “police state”. This “police state” is motivated by the government socially, economically, and politically. Securing the
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nation has succeeded the rights granted to
form of deradicalization is realizing that what
individual citizens by the Constitution. The
you are doing is wrong in regard to your beliefs.
nation thrives off of the civil liberties granted
Here arises a moral argument against the
to the citizens of the United States by the
wrongdoing of violent attacks.
Constitution and many of these liberties are disregarded or restricted in favor of public safety.
Alternatives to Combating Domestic Terrorism An alternative to combating terrorism would
Deradicalization
be the practice of liberalism. Liberalism pushes
As stated before, terrorism is a process
to establish values of order, liberty, justice, and
and can be reversed (El-Said, 2015). It is argued
toleration into international relations. The
that radicalization and deradicalization do not
main decision behind liberalism is compromise
differ that much. They are both the process of
and cooperation. As stated in UNSW Law
altering and instilling an idea upon a person.
Journal: Balancing Liberties Against National
The difference is the kind of idea that is being
Security, civil liberties and security cannot be
instilled. In efforts of deradicalization, there is
balanced against each other (Michaelsen). With
the restoration of a lesser commitment to a
this being established, an idea of democratic
focal, ideological goal (Kruglanski, et al, 2014).
peace is recommended. Democratic peace
This kind of reduced commitment leads to a
states that democratic nations are unlikely to go
reduction in violence. In a particular situation,
to
a former major lieutenant in the Abu Sayyaf
democracies are unique (Muscato, n.d.).
war
against
one
another
because
Group (ASG), a violent jihadist group in the southern Philippines, deradicalized and further worked
with
governmental
authorities
(Kruglanski, et al, 2014). This man became unaffected by the routine terror attacks this group would seek on innocent civilians. He also began missing the finer things in life, such as, his family and professional activities. Similarly, individuals have simply lost interest in the radical behavior and long for the life they used to have and/or wish to have. Another
Volume 6, Issue 1|2019
Conclusion The history of terrorism dates back to before our era but it is still an important issue. With the help of citizens understanding the significance of human security leads to a nonviolent country. The theories; realism and human security shape the result of the understanding and combating of terrorism. Although civil liberties and security cannot be
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balanced without forfeiting portions of each,
diminishing of rights permitted to the citizens
liberalism is an approach that can ease the
of the United States.
Works Cited Bongar, B. M. (2007). Psychology of Terrorism. Oxford Univeristy Press. El-Said, H. (2015). New approaches to countering terrorism: Designing and evaluating counter radicalization and de-radicalization programs. New York;Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire;: Palgrave Macmillan. Dragu, T. (2016). The moral hazard of terrorism prevention. The Journal of Politics, 79(1), 223-236. 10.1086/687589 Homeland Security Act, Patriot Act, Freedom of Information Act, and HIM. (2010, November). Retrieved November 27, 2017, from AHIMA: http://bok.ahima.org/doc?oid=106172#.WhyN4rSpn58 Human Security. (2011, November 4). Retrieved November 27, 2017, from 3P Human Security: http://3phumansecurity.org/site/component/content/article/34-projects/94-what-ishuman-security Krieger, T., & Meierrieks, D. (2011). What causes terrorism? Public Choice, 147(1/2), 3-27. 10.1007/s11127-010-9601-1 Kruglanski, Arie W, et al. (2014). “The Psychology of Radicalization and Deradicalization: How Significance Quest Impacts Violent Extremism.” Political Psychology, vol. 35, 2014, pp. 69–93., doi:10.1111/pops.12163. Kydd, A. H., & Walter, B. F. (2006). The strategies of terrorism. International Security, 31(1), 49-80. 10.1162/isec.2006.31.1.49 Leistedt, S. J. (2016). On the radicalization process. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 61(6), 1588-1591. 10.1111/1556-4029.13170 Malthaner, S. (2017). Radicalization: The evolution of an analytical paradigm. Archives Européennes De Sociologie, 58(3), 369. 10.1017/S0003975617000182
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Methods of Attack. (2016). Retrieved November 24, 2017, from US Legal: https://homelandsecurity.uslegal.com/terrorism/methods-of-attack/ Michaelsen, Christopher. "Balancing Civil Liberties Agaisnt National Security? Critique Of Counterterrorism Rhetoric." UNSW Law Journal, vol. 29. Muscato, C. (n.d.). Democratic Peace Theory: Definition & Overview. Retrieved November 20, 2017, from Study.com: http://study.com/academy/lesson/democratic-peace-theory-definitionoverview.html Newman, Edward. (2006) "Exploring the "Root Causes" of Terrorism." Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, vol. 29, no. 8, pp. 749-772., doi: 10.1080/10576100704069 Preserving Life & Liberty. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2018, from Department of Justice: https://www.justice.gov/archive/ll/highlights.htm
Issue #|2019
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Black Women’s Fight for Survival During Slavery Chloe Thompson
M
ost of the narrative around
treated as such, thus impacting their lives
slavery in the United States and
differently. Female slaves were not given as
West Indies centers around the
much physically demanding jobs as their male
experiences of Black men, and their stories of
counterparts; they were in the kitchen, caring
survival and resistance; the most famous one
for the master’s children, cropping, and also
being the revolt led by Nat Turner in Virginia.
having to care for their own children and
During slavery, female slaves fought to survive
community all at the same time. Their skin tone
and resisted not only their master but the
was also a factor in the type of work they did.
institution of slavery as well. They were not as
Light-skinned female slaves had less physically
docile or inactive as stories make them seem.
demanding jobs, often working in the house or
They did what they could in ways people don't
being caregivers, while dark-skinned women
know about. Not only did they fight but they
worked in the fields (Keith and Herring).
still lived their lives any way they could. In
Women played a significant role in how the
these stories about Black women from this
plantation functioned. Within their own
time, they asserted autonomy and agency,
communities, they were leaders and nurturers.
which is often erased from their stories. When
The physical and psychological damage they
it comes to the slave stories that revolve
had to endure because they were women and
around women, they typically just talk about
the role they played forced them to be strong
the woman’s life in relation to family and rape,
for their family and community. They endured
but their lives were much more than that.
rape, physical abuse, and the breaking up of
How did Black women exist and resist
their families, which they had no way around.
the institution of slavery and patriarchy in a
When their families were broken up, they were
time when they had no rights as a woman or
expected to continue working while knowing
even as a human? During slavery, both
they may never see their husbands, children,
enslaved black men and women did not have
mothers, or fathers again. America practiced
agency or rights. They were property and
chattel slavery which encouraged rape and
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abuse of women. In chattel slavery, the title of
plays a huge role in deciding on if you will be
slave is passed down by the mother so when
seen as feminine because of how others are
female slaves were raped by their master, they
socialized. If a woman does not have the
were not only required to continue working but
qualities that society deems as feminine, i.e.
in many cases forced to birth their rapist’s child
long hair, light skin, petite, fragile, then she will
which provided more free labor for the master.
not be treated as such. Women who are
Under slavery, capitalism and patriarchy were
deemed as feminine are afforded certain help
working hand-in-hand, “… a slave-owner just
and the benefit of the doubt in many situations
as naturally put his bondwomen to work
than women who are perceived as masculine.
chopping cotton as washing, ironing, or
Women who are deemed feminine are allowed
cooking. Furthermore, in seeking to maximize
to be emotional, docile, weak, pretty, and soft.
the productivity of his entire labor force while
On the other hand, those who possess
reserving certain domestic task for women
masculine traits are not afforded any of those
exclusively” (Jones). Physical labor didn’t start
things. They are not allowed to be emotional
when they were teenagers or young adults, it
and must be strong, brave, hard, and rough.
started early and resulted in girls younger than
Slavery in the West Indies can help further
ten years old working. Hannah Davidson
explain what was happening during the
spoke about her time as a slave and how she
discussion for who should be feminine. A
was forced to care for her master’s children
woman’s race and class played a significant part
when she was just eight years old (Jones). The
in whether or not she would be afforded the
gender of people had a big influence on the
feminine identity. “Elite white females in slave
plantation and the outside world. The strict
society sought to exclude, on the basis of race,
gender roles the early Americans enforced
black and brown females from membership of
created the social norms about how women
the ideological institutions of womanhood and
should be.
femininity- and, by extension, access to socially
When people think about women, they think of femininity as a defining aspect to what
empowering designations such as ‘lady’ and ‘miss’” (Beckles).
a woman is. Femininity is how women choose
Mrs. Carmichael, a white woman who
to express and present themselves to society,
lived in Trinidad during the 1820s, wrote about
and it says a lot about them as a person, but
Black women being, “masculine, brutish and
their expression isn’t the only thing that defines
lacking
whether a woman is feminine or not. Society
Blackness and black features were looked at as
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feminine
sensitivities”
(Beckles).
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being aggressive, violent, and ugly because of
This belief about black women became
anti-blackness. The conception of race as a
a social norm that has been hard to break even
means to divide and defend colonization and
though it’s been centuries since the 1800s. In
slavery has deemed blackness to be inferior,
present-day society, black women are still being
essentially savage-like in comparison to
faced with comments about their appearance
whiteness. Which is why they needed to be
while being denied their femininity and
saved from themselves and taught how to be
womanhood. This would explain why even
“civilized”. Masters would strip their slaves of
today Black women are painted as “aggressive”
their real names, give them European Christian
in the media, and why Serena Williams is called
names, and forced them to practice Christianity
a “brute” by publications and compared to a
rather than their native religion. This explains
horse by the LA Times. A New York Times
why Mrs. Carmichael can believe that Black
article even described, Viola Davis as being
women are, “masculine, brutish…” since that
“less classically beautiful” (Duggan). The fact
is what blackness was deemed to be. The
that black female celebrities are facing this begs
exclusion of Black women from being
the question what kind of treatment are
feminine had serious social implications
average black women facing? They do not have
because if people believed them to be
the resources to be as outspoken as celebrities.
masculine they were treated as such. Black
On online forums like Twitter and YouTube,
women were Black enough to be a slave,
people still feel the need to comment on black
because blackness was deemed bad and ugly,
women’s existence; from their appearance to
but not woman enough to be afforded
their opinions and many face constant online
femininity. Thus, since Black women are not
harassment. A study by Pew Research found
feminine or ladylike then the things they faced
that 1 in 4 Black Americans face online
under those institutions was deemed fine
harassment because people are targeting them
because they essentially were not womanly in
for being black (Duggan). The idea that black
the same way white women were. They did not
women are not feminine and denying them
matter and were subjected to things that a
womanhood has been used to defend how they
white lady would never be subjected to. Since
are being treated. Often times, black women
Black women were not deemed feminine they
were stereotyped as being the Jezebel, a woman
were not treated with the same care or dignity
who seduces and lures men, a whore. This
that was given to White women.
stereotype caused them to be fetishized, hypersexualized, and raped by white men
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(Ferris State University). Under patriarchy, a
tactic. At the end of the video, “Fictional
whore is not a feminine woman deserving of
Tubman uses the slave’s master’s sexual desire
respect because she is sexual, thus she deserves
for her to negotiate emancipation for herself
to be mistreated.
and others. She purposefully enters into a
Although femininity and womanhood are not the only defining things in the human
sexual micro-economy to secure freedom” (Lindsay).
female experience. A woman’s sexuality is
The history of slavery is wrenched in
another major component in a woman’s life.
darkness; so much of it centers around how
“Sexuality”
person’s
people suffered under the institution and not
orientation, but also how they chose to express
how many found ways to resist or use it to
themselves sexually, is something that black
survive under it. Harriet Tubman is looked up
women have been expressing since the
as a hero in American history, so the idea of
beginning of time. Black women are sexual
her being a sexual being is too uncomfortable
beings with their own sexuality. Their sexual
for people to fathom. Sexual violence at the
agency and reproductive rights are almost not
hands of slave-owners to their female slaves
even touched in discussions about black
was a reality and there is no denying it; however
women during slavery. This is a complex and
stories about sexual violence are slightly one-
uncomfortable discussion about the “role sex,
sided. In some cases, Black women may have
sexuality, sexual economies, and sexual
used sex to gain more agency and freedom. In
violence” during slavery. In 2013, a video
the famous case about, Mary Price, a slave
posted on All Def Digital YouTube channel
from the West Indies who tried to use her
shared a video titled, “The Harriet Tubman Sex
sexual relationship with Captain Abbot to earn
Tape,” and was a satirical video portraying
money and buy her freedom, she entered
Harriet Tubman as being a sexual aggressor,
sexual relationships with another free man in
using sex and blackmail to free the slaves. The
hopes of becoming free in the end (Smith).
video faced quick backlash resulting in Russell
Unfortunately for her, the relationships did not
Simmons the President of All Def Digital, to
end in her favor and she was still enslaved. It
take the video down from the YouTube
took her to showing her body to abolitionist in
Channel and issue an apology statement within
London to prove that she was being harmed
24 hours. What many critics left out from their
for her to actually gain freedom.
being
defined
as
analysis is the possibility of black women using
Another example of Black women
sex for not only liberation, but also as a survival
using their sexual relationships with white men
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is the case of Phibbah. Thomas Thistlewood,
family, they were still expected to reproduce.
who owned Phibbah, often raped his slaves but
They were not getting in relationships with
gave money to women who didn’t fight back
these men to start a family and settle down
and she used that to her advantage (The Diary
though, they were getting in relationships to
of Thomas Thistlewood). Phibbah used her
gain freedom and resources.
sexual relationship with her master, Thomas
In another case of Black women
Thistlewood, to not only alleviate her life but
asserting their agency that might be hard for
also the life of her son, who he was the father
people to grasp is free women petitioning to
of. Being in a sexual relationship with
become slaves. Since freedom is what most
Thistlewood allowed her to live in the main
Black women were searching for, becoming
house and receive education for her and her
enslaved is pretty absurd. Why would a person
son, as well as money. The use of sex work as
want to become a slave, especially if they’ve
survival helped Black women to gain freedom
been free? In many cases free Black women
was actually so common that in the U.K. they
petitioned to be enslaved to white men. There
tried to raise the price of buying your freedom
are inadequate amount of stories but some
(Smith). Women who had sexual relations with
cases seemed to deal with women not wanting
their owner had more access and freedom,
to leave the state they were in or because they
whether it be living in the big house, receiving
were possibly in a relationship with the person
gifts, or just having a higher status among other
they petitioned for. In many cases the women
slaves. These women were being exploited at
had children, they were over the age of
the hands of white men but in the end that very
eighteen and in their prime childbearing years,
exploitation helped them gained freedom.
and also the men they petitioned for had no
Women are not supposed to be sexual,
history of owning slaves. In Texas, a free
especially not having multiple sex partners and
woman named Ann Jackson petitioned herself
having sex out of wedlock. They also are not
to become a slave to W.C. Lewis in 1858
supposed to use their bodies for sex either
(West). In Wake County, North Carolina,
unless it is for reproductive purposes.
Elizabeth Chavers who was twenty-six years
Patriarchy teaches girls that their goal should
old petitioned for her and her child to be
be to find a man and start a family, where for
enslaved by Benjamin Graham, a thirty-four-
them that wasn’t the case. Although female
year-old who was unmarried and never owned
slaves were not afforded the full opportunity of
slaves. Documents about Chavers list her as
settling down because the possibility of broken
being from a “mulatto” household, while
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Graham did not have a job listed and lived with
knew and had a relationship with it shielded
another family (West). This would suggest that
them from having to fend on their own.
Graham was possibly poor and because of that
Interracial marriages were also illegal at that
interacted with people of color more often. In
time, this allowed for them to stay close as a
Mississippi, Ann Archie, aged twenty-two,
family and hide under the radar. The use of sex
petitioned to for her and her child to be
work allowed them to accumulate money to
enslaved by Andrew Caldwell, “whom your
buy their freedom or to receive access to things
petitioner has long been acquainted and whom
because of close relationships with white men.
she would prefer to live together with her
There were many forms of resistance
offspring as slaves” (West). In another case,
done by women during this time to rebel
Lavinia Napper petitioned to be enslaved by
against not only the institution of slavery but
Edwin Smith in 1858, then in 1860 under
patriarchal views on how a woman and mother
records, he is listed as having one slave, a black
should behave. Autonomy over a person's
female aged nineteen, which is believed to be
reproduction is something one might hear
her. In New Orleans in 1859, Elizabeth Jones
about now when dealing with debates over
traveled to Louisiana, where laws restricted her
abortion but might not expect to hear when
from staying. In order to stay in New Orleans,
talking about slaves or women during the
being a slave was her only way, so Jones
Antebellum period. Many people might not
petitioned to become John Musselman’s slave.
know that infanticide was used as a tool of
There is no history on their relationship (West).
resistance. A trial that shook the country was
Discussions about Black Americans
the trial of Margaret Garner, who nearly
and slavery often leave out small parts and are
decapitated
not always genuine. There were Black people
(Weisenburger). Garner and her family were in
who did own slaves, but that doesn’t mean they
the process of running away to Ohio but were
participated in the capitalistic aspect. In many
caught by their owner. After realizing that they
cases, free Black people owned their husbands,
had been caught, Garner grabbed a knife and
wives, and children to keep their family close.
killed her daughter, while crying she said, “she
These women did what they had to do to,
would rather see her children dead than return
whether that be sex work or going into slavery
to slavery” (Weisenburger). Women had their
as a mean of survival. It was their way of
altruistic motives to save their children from
protecting themselves and their offspring. By
having to live in the horrible conditions they
petitioning to be enslaved with a man they
had to endure. Infanticide was their way of
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her
two-year-old
child
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fighting back against slavery by not providing
The last kind of acts of resistance was
more bodies to be used. Under patriarchy,
the group organized and orchestrated events
woman and mothers are not supposed to do
like slave revolts and the Underground
such a thing, they are supposed to care, raise
Railroad. Black women were participating in
and nurture them. But how can a mother care
everyday acts of resistance such as feeding
for her children if she is living under the
runaways, refusing to work and even delaying
conditions of slavery? How is she able to raise
their work (Schwarz). These acts may seem
and nurture them in that kind of environment?
simple but in the big picture they were really
Saving their children might not have been their
monumental. Sheltering and feeding runaway
only reason either, under slavery women had
slaves was a crime, but that didn’t stop them.
no rights to their children, at any moment they
Refusing to work or even delaying work was
could be taken and sold to someone else, killing
huge. Refusing work was disrupting their
them could have been a way for them to
owner’s means of income and profit. These are
control the fate of their child. Another reason
all very dangerous acts of resistance that could
for them killing their offspring may have been
have gotten them killed or beaten. Harriet
rooted in revenge. In the case of rape at the
Tubman, known for leading slaves to freedom
hands of their owner or being forced to breed
as the conductor of the Underground Railroad,
with other slaves, killing was a way for them to
was “Moses” for her people. Between 1850 to
stick it to their owner, that they will not be
1860 she made 19 trips to and from Canada
forced to do anything and will assert their
leading
autonomy. Asserting their autonomy was bold
(“Underground Railroad”).
over
300
people
to
freedom
not only as a woman but especially as a slave.
Slavery was not black-and-white; there
They weren't allowed to make decisions about
were gray areas that make the discussion of
themselves or children; they didn't have a
history even more complex, as it requires
choice. These women endured things that
context for certain issues. From an outside
women in the present could not even imagine,
perspective, people might think that slaves did
so their reasons for killing their child are their
not fight back. They were enslaved for so long
reasons. It would be disingenuous to judge
and seemed to be living relatively simply
them and their actions considering no one
because stories about slave revolts are often
from the present lived their life and saw what
erased from history. In reality, there were many
they went through.
slave revolts and slaves, particularly female slaves, existed and lived in their own ways.
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They fought back in ways that they could,
to find any kind of freedom. Freedom wasn’t
engaging in sex work to save money, requesting
just about being legally free, but even rising
to be slaves to protect themselves and children,
above their status as a slave. They defined their
and even killing their children for altruistic or
freedom, by doing what they needed to do in
egotistic reasons. In every instance of
their situation.
resistance, these women were risking their lives
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Works Cited Beckles, Hilary McD. "Historicizing Slavery in West Indian Feminism." Feminist Review 59 (1998): 34-56. Http://www.jstor.org/stable/1395722. Web. Callahan, Yesha. "Viola Davis Responds to Being Called 'Less Classically Beautiful': 'You Define You'." The Grapevine. September 26, 2014. Accessed November 20, 2017. https://thegrapevine.theroot.com/viola-davis-responds-to-being-called-lessclassically1790885743. Duggan, Maeve “1 in 4 black Americans have faced online harassment because of their race” Pew Research. July 25, 1971. Accessed November 13, 2018. The Diary of Thomas Thistlewood Ferris State University. “The Jezebel Stereotype” Accessed November 13, 2018. https://ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/jezebel/index.htm Gayle T. Tate (1993) Political Consciousness and Resistance Among Black Antebellum Women,Thompson 12 Women & Politics, 13:1, 67-89, DOI: 10.1300/J014v13n01_04 Jensen, Loucynda. "Searching the Silence: Finding Black Women’s Resistance to Slavery in Antebellum U.S. History." McNair Scholars Online Journal 2, no. 1 (2006): 135-61. doi:10.15760/mcnair.2006.135 https://muse.jhu.edu/ (accessed October 17, 2017) Jones, Jacquline. "My Mother Was Much of a Woman": Black Women, Work, and the Family under Slavery."" Feminist Studies 8.2 (1982): 235-69.10.2307/3177562. Web. 20 Sept. 2017. Keith, V., & Herring, C. (1991). Skin Tone and Stratification in the Black Community.
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American Journal of Sociology, 97(3), 760-778. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2781783 "LA Times Gets Dragged For Comparing Serena Williams to a Horse." BET.com. December 15, 2015. Accessed November 27, 2017. https://www.bet.com/news/sports/2015/12/15/sports-illustrated-drawsbacklashforserena-williams.html?cid=pinterest Smith, Katrina Songanett. In search of something akin to freedom: black women, slavery, and power. Master's thesis, Florida State University, 2007. Tallahassee, 2007. Schwarz, Joel. "Everyday resistance to slavery far more common than believed, historian says."UW News. November 22, 2004. Accessed November 30, 2017. http://www.washington.edu/news/2004/11/22/everyday-resistance-to-slaveryfarmorecommon-than-believed-historian-says/. Treva B. Lindsey and Jessica Marie Johnson. "Searching for Climax: Black Erotic Lives in Slavery and Freedom." Meridians: feminism, race, transnationalism 12, no. 2 (2014): 169-195. "Underground Railroad." Accessed December 18, 2017. Weisenburger, Steven. Modern Medea: a family story of slavery and child-murder from the Old South. New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 1999 West, Emily. Family or Freedom: People of Color in the Antebellum South. New Directions in Southern History. University Press of Kentucky, 2012.
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Translating the Homeric Spirit: The Iliad through Victorianism and Postmodernism in Tennyson and Lombardo’s Translations Garrett Yarbrough
J
ust as themes of war, anger, societal
on the scientific world by the Industrial
station, and reconciliation have remained
Revolution’s peak between 1820 and 1840
timeless since Homer’s Iliad in Archaic
(Rahn 2011). Their questioning of the natural
Greece, so too has the relevance of the Iliad
and societal tradition blurred the border
adapted with each period. The morality of its
between the Romantic period and twentieth
narrative and from its alterations as an oral
century, spurring the Modernist movement
poem from an archaic language becomes
that lashed out at austerity following the
interpretive when translated into English and
Victorians, the Postmodernists responding
has allowed for vastly different perspectives of
identically to Modernism’s formalism. This
the Iliad depending on which period it was
created overlap between the influences that
translated during (Green 2012). By comparing
affected
Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poetic translations
translations. As such, the commonalities
and Stanley Lombardo’s oral performance, the
between
contrasting conventions can illustrate how the
philosophies form the backbone of their
climate of both literary movements affected
similar opinion on Homeric translation, yet
the translations and their stances on Iliadic
their stylistic differences are defined by their
themes like war and heroism.
respective cultural periods.
Tennyson Tennyson
and and
Lombardo’s Lombardo’s
The Victorian literary movement took
Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poetic style
place during Queen Victoria’s reign in Britain;
exemplified the intermediary aspect of the
(1837-1901) however, the Victorian era’s
Victorian period. Much of his early inspiration
themes were transitionary in that it was torn
came from Romantic figures like Keats, who
between the natural world influences of the
also inspired the Victorian flair for Greek
Romantic movement that characterized the
classicism (Hebron 2014). Romanticism’s
early nineteenth century and the shifting focus
Greek fixation permeated much of Tennyson’s
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poetry, influencing him as child when “Pope’s
although Postmodernism opposes Modernism
Homer’s Iliad became a favourite of mine and
through
I wrote hundreds and hundreds of lines in the
defying storytelling, and extensive usage of
regular Popeian metre, nay even could
metafiction
improvise them” (Pearsall 2008, p.129).
interpretation (Lewis 2002). Postmodernism
Throughout the nineteenth century, classical
relies on the understanding of its own period
translators rejected translations that did not
and literary themes leading up to itself,
adhere to the literalness that the epic’s original
encouraging active reading through these
voice called for, Tennyson being the outlier for
themes. This results in heavy influence building
“taking a view” with his blank verse
from previous periods, creating a cumulative
translations of the Iliad (Reynolds 2011, p.212-
relevancy in Lombardo’s Iliad.
increasing for
intertextuality, ironic
and
genresymbolic
213). It is evident Tennyson’s aim by
Dr. Stanley Lombardo was first
translating selections of the Iliad was to relate
exposed to classical literature through the same
the Iliad to his own period by using Victorian
Romantic era writers as Tennyson—Keats,
blank verse to preserve Homeric romanticism
Coleridge, and Wordsworth—as stepping
in a changing world. Lombardo’s translation
stones to interpreting the original Greek texts
shares this motive, substituting Postmodern
(Leddy 2003). Lombardo has frequently cited
conventions instead.
Ezra Pound’s view of cultural translation being
Stanley Lombardo’s 1997 translation of
a driving force in his own portrayal of Homer
the Iliad similarly drew inspiration from the
in the form of colloquial American English and
literary movement that preceded him—the
oral
Modern period’s Ezra Pound. As an imagist
performing his translation, Lombardo says that
and poet, Pound shared Modernist sentiments
he would match the rhythm of the natural
that broke from Realism’s strict formalism and
speaking voice approach, “very definitely from
used symbolism and classical allusions as
Pound” (Leddy 2003). Both Tennyson and
Tennyson did to exhibit a higher level of
Lombardo place themselves firmly in Pope’s
contemporary consciousness in Pound’s motto
“modernist” camp of translation since they
“Make it new” (Childs 2008, p.4). Postmodern
both accommodate the Iliad narrative for their
literature continues Modernism’s breakaway
own eras by “writing for poets,” according to
from Realism and runs with several Modernist
Lombardo (Leddy 2003), translating Homer’s
themes, such as allusive writing, experimental
soul how “perhaps none but a poet could do
storytelling,
it,” said Tennyson (Pearsall 2008, p.152). They
and
fragmented
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narration,
performance
of
the
Iliad.
While
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both strive to capture the elusive spirit of the
poetry created Arnold’s “noble” reading of the
author over a precise transliteration, as poets
Iliad.
first and translators second.
Despite
straying
significantly
from
the
Mid-nineteenth century critic and
language of epic poetry to colloquial American
translator Matthew Arnold described the four
vernacular, Lombardo approached Arnold’s
traits of a prime Homeric translation “rapidity,
tenets more scientifically than Tennyson. He
plainness, directness, and nobility” (Verity
broke
2012). Arnold himself opted to sacrifice
hexameter, noticing the Greek’s dactylic verses
“nobility” by keeping true to Homer’s
were analogous to anapestic tetrameter in
original’s hexameter. Archaic hexameter is
modern English (Leddy 2003). Lombardo
unnatural for English and results in obtuse
asserts that natural speech in English is
verses attempting to match Homer’s intended
anapestic
lyricism but lose the spirit of the original. Here,
translation returned to Homer’s intended form
language becomes the main difference between
as oral presentation would be closer in English
Tennyson
translations.
in some ways than poetic renditions: “I think
Tennyson did not see any merit in sticking to
of the line as an American line of poetry, based
“barbarous hexameters.” He said the strained
on...breath. The rhythm is not simply the
efforts of translators like Arnold showed that
phrasing and the colometry and the line
“their failure have [sic.] gone far to prove the
endings, the rhythm is based on...strongly
impossibility of the task,” instead finding the
rhythmic natural speech” (Leddy 2003).
missing “beauty of poetic diction and feeling”
Both Tennyson and Lombardo wanted to
in blank verse (Tennyson 1897, p.15).
capture the impact that the Iliad’s delivery had
Tennyson’s two notable translations from the
on the reader, but by adhering to the relevant
Iliad, “Achilles Over the Trench,” and
conventions of their time. Tennyson wished to
“Specimen of a Translation of the Iliad in
capture the classical imagery and atmosphere
Blank Verse,” are written in Tennyson’s
through his blank verse poetry. Lombardo
Victorian blank in order to convey the
wanted to capture a snappier cinematic Homer
grandeur of Homer’s epic scenes. Although he
and could do so through blunt vernacular—
did not keep to Victorianism’s rigid adherence
language more relevant to the Postmodern
to formalism, Tennyson illustrated that
reader than Tennyson’s that catered to an elitist
translating the narrative to contemporary
audience. Tennyson’s Victorian style allowed
and
Lombardo’s
down
the
rather
rhythm
than
of
iambic,
Homer’s
and
his
him to capture the nobility of Homer more
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than Lombardo’s Postmodern rendition while
Wince with pain. (Lombardo 1997,
staying direct, but Lombardo stayed truer to
Book XVIII Lines 231-238)
the rapidity, plainness, and directness while going for a different kind of poetry. By
Lombardo’s language is colloquial,
comparing their corresponding texts, a sense of
direct, and plain like Postmodern poetry tends
the
cultural
to be while Tennyson’s is truly Victorian as the
principles
entire poem is one romanticized and winding
Victorian
differences
and
regarding
Postmodern Arnold’s
becomes apparent. Tennyson translated Book XVIII lines
stanza: For like the clear voice when a trumpet
198-247 in the Iliad into his “experiment”
shrills,
“Achilles Over the Trench,” in which Achilles
Blown by the fierce beleaguerers of a
is granted armor by Iris and his voice alone
town,
causes chaos and twelve deaths among the
So rang the clear voice of Æakidês;
Trojans so that Patroclus’ body could be
And when the brazen cry of Æakidês
reclaimed. Lombardo breaks this passage up
Was heard among the Trojans, all their
into a series of digestible stanzas according to
hearts
event and speech, like modern poetry is cleanly
Were troubled... (Tennyson 1880,
organized.
p.179-181)
He yelled, and behind him Pallas Athena
Lombardo’s
Homeric
monologues
Amplified his voice, and shock waves
take precedence over the scene in order to
Reverberated through the Trojan
characterize its characters, bringing the
ranks.
audience closer to the narrative. Tennyson does not include any dialogue, but rather
You have heard the piercing sound of
explains the effect that the character’s ethos
horns
has on the scene, giving the reader a sense of
When squadrons come to destroy a
the epic battle. This difference is evident when
city.
contrasting
Victorian
and
Postmodern
sensibilities. Tennyson omitted the context for The Greek's voice was like that,
Achilles receiving the armor from Iris, which
Speaking bronze that made each
Lombardo provided:
Trojan heart
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And Achilles, the great runner:
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the conventions of their times carry the “How can I go to war? They have my
narrative in different directions through
armor.
language. Tennyson’s Achilles is a Victorian
And my mother told me not to arm
legend, his ethos speaks for himself. In the
myself
Postmodern
Until with my own eyes I see her come
antagonists are blurred, and characters become
back
more
With fine weapons from Hephaestus.”
Lombardo’s
(Lombardo 1997, Book XVIII Lines
humility and is more relatable. The Victorian
199-202)
translation does not provide the reader a
period,
fallible
in
protagonists their
Achilles
and
righteousness.
succeeds
through
chance to question its characters, but the Tennyson omits the dialogue because direct
romanticism of its scenes supports their power,
speech from a hero like Achilles would
i.e., the twelve Trojans that died from their fear
undermine the ethos that his words hold.
of Achilles’ voice (Tennyson 1880, p.181)
Achilles complaining of his would not appeal
(Lombardo 1997, Book XVIII Lines 246-247).
to the fearless warrior the Victorians would
Without
want. Lombardo’s version shows that Achilles
characterization and resonance with the reader
needs help since he is only human, and
relies on Victorian reverence of classic ethos.
Postmodern readers would find it noble that
Lombardo’s Achilles is simply a man in
even the most courageous hero acknowledges
leadership, and his direct words and actions
they need the support of others. But by
delivered
with
including the Homeric elements, similes like
eliminates
the
Achilles’
Achilles.
“piercing
horn”-like
speech
dialogue,
Tennyson’s
Postmodern imagery
that
Achilles’
minimalism generalizes
(Lombardo, Book XVIII Line 234), the
This begs the question if Lombardo’s
dramatic monologues, and epithets like
Postmodern translation can create the impact
“Achilles, the great runner,” Lombardo is
of epic poetry that the spirit of Homer’s carried
closer to translating Homer according to
and Tennyson’s embodied. Upon inspecting
Arnold,
of
characterization, the Iliad’s staple similes and
Tennyson’s language in order to connect with
imagery surrounding battle come to the
the characters as people over myth.
forefront. To capture the essence of the Iliad’s
but
sacrifices
the
nobility
Both Tennyson and Lombardo say the
characters, Tennyson has a heavier focus on
same things in the translation superficially, but
imagery while Lombardo uses his colloquial
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language to focus on Homeric elements like
p.120). Tennyson does not characterize Hector
monologue:
more
than
this,
which
is
far
less
We'll not let them board their ships at
characterization than the divine presence he
ease
gave Achilles in “Achilles Over the Trench.”
Or without a fight. Let them each have
Tennyson does not emphasize the narrative,
a wound
but rather the tone and image of the moment.
From an arrow or spear to brood over
Tennyson further deviates from Homeric
at home,
intent after omitting monologues and epithets
A going-away present as they jump on
and deprives Hector of character. Hector’s
their ships,
ethos clearly lacks the “brazen cry” and
And a lesson to others not to make war
“boundless panic” inspired by Achilles’ speech
on Troy
in the prior poem (Tennyson 1880, p.180). As
Heralds should proclaim throughout
these are the only two translations of
the city
Tennyson’s Iliad, it feels that Tennyson’s focus
That boys and greybeards bivouac
was always on the imagery that the scene
tonight
provided so the reader could imbibe in Homer
All around the city on our god-built
than contemplate Homer’s text.
walls. (Lombardo 1997, Book VIII Lines 522-529)
Lombardo adheres to Homer more than Tennyson does in his passage and gives the reader a better sense of the narrative
I wish I were as sure
through
Of immortality and eternal youth
characterization. Lombardo does not use any
And honor like Apollo's and Pallas
Homeric metaphor here, but instead lets
Athena's
Hector speak for himself through monologue.
As I am that this is a black day for the
He is not “roaring” like Tennyson’s Hector, he
Greeks." (Lombardo 1997, Book VIII
is more pensive but hopeful for victory out of
Lines 548-551).
necessity; they are protecting their “god-built”
A pillar of characterization in Homer’
homes, the “boys and greybeards” (Lombardo,
original was the extensive use of metaphor and
Book VII Lines 538-539) alike fighting to expel
simile, yet Tennyson’s only instance in his
the Greeks from Troy rather than a desire for
“Specimen” poem was “So Hector said, and
glory. Postmodern literature utilizes morally
sea-like roar’d his host” (Tennyson 1865,
gray characters and dilemmas (Lewis 2002), so
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Lombardo’s
approach
to
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Lombardo’s translation considers Hector’s
century in rhythm as Tennyson’s translation of
side, voicing concern for what he was fighting
the passage is:
for: “I wish I were as sure/Of immortality and eternal youth/And honor like Apollo’s and
As when in heaven the stars about the
Pallas Athena’s/As I am that this is a black day
moon
for the Greeks” (Lombardo, Book VII Lines
Look beautiful, when all the winds are
548-551). Hector is holding out hope for his
laid,
men yet he knows they are on the wrong side
And every height comes out, and
of divine favor, but they have no other choice
jutting peak
but to fight.
And valley, and the immeasurable
Tennyson uses solely imagery to carry
heavens
the scene rather than any exposition, but he
Break open to their highest, and all the
does use simile and metaphor to characterize
stars
Achilles and Hector with these images.
Shine, and the Shepherd gladdens in
However, Lombardo does translate some of
his heart: (Tennyson 1865, p.120-121)
the spirit of Homer’s epic language by italicizing the longer similes that he said
The difference in imagery can be attributed
“develop a poetic life of their own”
significantly to the literary conventions of the
(SeniorLearn 2004):
translators’ respective periods. The imagery
Stars: crowds of them in the sky, sharp
Tennyson employs is clearly Victorian when it
In the moonglow when the windfalls
comes to the sense of industrial progress
And all the cliffs and hills and peaks
according to the natural world, and his
Stand out and the air shears down
naturalistic emphasis. Much of the imagery in
From heaven, and all the stars are
his “Specimen” translation revolves around the
visible
landscape’s elements, like the “blazing” fires,
And the watching shepherd smiles.
how the “winds are laid,” the “immeasurable
(Lombardo 1997, Book VIII, Lines
heavens,” the “jutting peak/And valley,” and
565-570)
how the “towers of Troy,/A thousand on the plain” juxtapose human interaction with the
Lombardo’s approach to Homeric imagery is not as verbose and nineteenth-
landscape (Tennyson 1865, p.120-121). Instead, reminiscent
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Lombardo’s of
imagery
Modernism’s
is
imagist
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movement, focusing on singular moments to
iconic [moment] in American culture that
express the essence of a scene (Davidson 1997,
resonate[s]
p.11-13). Lombardo’s text comes off as
(SeniorLearn 2004). When comparing themes
cinematic, being in the present tense and
of war, heroism, and suffering to Tennyson’s
stating the sight with active verbs like the air
generation, the Victorians were going into a
that “shears down” and the “crowds” of stars
newborn globalized world without knowing
“sharp” in the sky (Lombardo 1997, Book VIII
the tragedy of modern total warfare. They
Lines 565-570). Tennyson’s blank verse
looked to Homer’s classic heroes for proof that
abstractly describes this beauty through
war hardly changed and their future nobility
Victorian conventions, using the past-tense
was certain.
deeply
with
the
subject”
with many commas and direct narration rather
Tennyson’s poems focus on the
than Lombardo’s visual approach. Tennyson’s
prominent figures like Achilles and Hector,
imagery centers on the ineffability of the
always referring to the soldiers as “they” or the
beauty in the “immeasurable heavens” that
number of them, like the twelve that died from
“open to their highest” while the shepherd
Achilles’ chaos or the fifty that either just “sat”
“gladdens in his heart” (Tennyson 1865, p.120-
or “cheered,” (Tennyson 1865, p.120-121)
121). With Ezra Pound’s significant influence
never personalized actions. While Tennyson
on Lombardo’s writing and the advent of film,
keeps the ranks vague, Lombardo’s Hector
cinematic/imagist influences on Homeric
addresses them as “Trojans, Dardanians, and
imagery would be relevant for a Postmodern
allies,” with lives outside of war when he says
audience,
celestial
“For tonight, we will take care of ourselves”
mysticism. Victorians were just emerging into
(Lines 509, 538), a fraternity recognized in
industrialized science, and scientific inquiry
modern war that Tennyson neglects since wars
into distant space would enrapture them more
before the Victorians were fought by numbers.
than readers decades after the moon landing.
Tennyson’s comfort in the glorification of
unlike
Tennyson’s
For readers in 1997, themes in war
traditional warfare and elite leadership is
stories carry different tones than those from
understandable since during his lifetime,
1865-1880. When viewing the Iliad in hindsight
Britain was the greatest military power in the
of twentieth century warfare, Lombardo said
world and was “a great source of pride for its
“The vision of the gods, the sublimity of the
people” (Internet 2). Consequently, Britain was
universe, the tragic nature of human suffering
also the least militarized, with a standing army
is what I'm thinking of...representing [an]
smaller and less influential to the public than
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those of France, Prussia, Austria, or Russia. So,
prestige of war experienced by the Greeks and
at the advent of modern warfare, this
Victorians shifted to conversations of suffering
conception was shattered by the shocking
following the World Wars, nuclear paranoia,
defeat at Crimea and in the Boer Wars.
and the disillusioned Vietnam-era, which
In his two translations, Tennyson
Lombardo experienced being born in 1943. In
hardly mentions the emotions of the soldiers
Postmodernism, consideration of damage to
or their hardships, except for the “dread” the
the human psyche over the glory that lured
Trojans experienced “knowing the griefs at
young men to war replaced Victorian ideals of
hand” against the divinely-empowered Achilles
phalanx prestige in Homer’s time (Dickson
(Tennyson 1880, p.180), and the “glorying”
2004).
Hector’s men enjoyed at “bridge of war.” (Tennyson
1865,
p.120.
Lombardo
describes
“boys
language, narrative and thematic focus between
and
Victorian and Postmodern conventions is clear
greybeards” (Lines 528-529) guarding the
when looking back at the treatment of
Trojan
to protect their homes.
Homeric simile in Tennyson’s “Specimen of a
Lombardo makes it a point to emphasize the
Translation of the Iliad in Blank Verse,”
soldiers’ feelings surrounding the themes of
“Achilles Over the Trench,” and Lombardo’s
heroism and wartime suffering present in
corresponding
Homer’s Iliad. Tennyson romanticizes these
translations are winded and naturalistic—
elements, describing how the Trojans and
relevant for Victorians—but by utilizing the
horses “sat fifty in the blaze of the burning
Postmodern conventions of non-traditional
fire/...stood/Hard by their chariots, waiting
narration, a malleable definition of genre, and
for the dawn” (Tennyson 1865, p.120-121).
humanistic values, Lombardo redefined the
This difference in periodic conventions is
Iliad’s narrative and thematic relevance. He
present in the Trojans’ reactions to Achilles in
kept the text intact according to the elements
battle. The Trojans in Tennyson’s poem were
of Homeric oral tradition without completely
“troubled” and “sheer-astounded” (Tennyson
sacrificing the Greek spirit by trading
1880, p.180), but the Trojans in Lombardo’s
Tennyson’s flowery Victorian poetry for
passage had “eyes wide with fear,/And their
character-driven poignancy—better suited for
drivers went numb when they saw/The fire
a Postmodern audience.
beach
the
Contrastingly,
The main ideological differences of
passages.
Tennyson’s
above Achilles’ head” (Lombardo 1997, Book XVIII Lines 240-241). The romanticized
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Works Cited Primary Sources Homer and Stanley Lombardo. 1997. Iliad. Indianapolis: Hackett. Tennyson, Alfred Lord. 1880. “Achilles Over the Trench.” In Ballads and Other Poems. London: C.K. Paul, 179-181. Tennyson, Alfred Lord. 1865. “Specimen of a Translation of the Iliad in Blank Verse.” In Enoch Arden, &c. Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 120-121.
Secondary Sources Childs, P. 2008. Modernism. London: Routledge. Davidson, M. 1997. Ghostlier Demarcations: Modern Poetry and the Material Word. Oakland: University of California Press. Dickson, K. 2004. “War in (Another) New Context: Postmodernism.” The Journal of Conflict Studies 24. https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/jcs/article/view/203/360. Consulted 29.3.18. Green, P. 2012. “Homer Now.” The New Republic. https://newrepublic.com/article/103920/homer-the-iliad-translations. Consulted 29.3.18. Hebron, S. 2014. “The Romantics and Classical Greece.” The British Library. https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics-and-classical-greece. Consulted 29.3.18. Internet 1. “Victorian Literature.” The Literature Network. http://www.onlineliterature.com/periods/victorian.php. Consulted 29.3.18. Leddy, M and Lombardo, S. 2003. Jacket Magazine 21. http://jacketmagazine.com/21/leddy-lombiv.html. Consulted 29.3.18. Lewis, B. 2002. Postmodernism and Literature: The Routledge Companion to Postmodernism. New York: Routledge.
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Pearsall, C. 2008. Tennyson’s Rapture: Transformation in the Victorian Dramatic Monologue. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rahn, J. 2011. “Victorians: War.” English Heritage Press Office. http://www.englishheritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/victorian/war/. Consulted 29.3.18. Reynolds, M. 2011. The Poetry of Translation: From Chaucer & Petrarch to Homer & Logue. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Suzuki, R. 1996. “Translation in the 1790's: a Means of Creating a Like Existence and/or Restoring the Original.” Romanticism on the Net 2. https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/ron/1996n2-ron414/005718ar/. Consulted 29.3.18. Tennyson, H. 1897. Alfred Lord Tennyson; a Memoir by his Son. New York: The Macmillan Company. Verity, A. 2012. “Who Needs Another Translation of Homer’s Iliad?” Oxford University Press’s Academic Insights for the Thinking World. https://blog.oup.com/2012/11/who-needsanother-translation-of-homers-iliad/. Consulted 29.3.18.
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