The Lookout: A Journal of Undergraduate Research at ECU, Issue 7

A Journal of Undergraduate Research at East Carolina University

Volume 7, Fall 2019

THE

LOOKOUT A Journal of Undergraduate Research at East Carolina University

Volume 7, Issue 1

The Lookout

Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019

Copyright 2019 © Department of English, East Carolina University ISSN (Print): 2372-580X ISSN (Online): 2372-5834 Managing Editor: Suzan Flanagan flanagansu16@ecu.edu Email: lookout@ecu.edu Website: www.ecu.edu/lookout

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Table of Contents Research Works The Greensboro Sit-In: A Pivotal Civil Rights Event in the 1960s

10

The Spartan Way of Life

23

An Analysis of the Causes of World War One and Wilson’s Failures at 31 the Peace Talks and the Treaty of Versailles Rhiannon and Aine: Goddesses of the Ancient Celts

46

Project Managers: Managers, Leaders, or Both?

54

Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard

58

The New Pollution: A Scientific Review of the Effects of Anthropogenic Chemical Contaminants on Several Avian Physiological and Molecular Systems Across Species

63

Can Humans Effectively Collaborate with Robots in the Workplace? 80 Creative Works Among the Roses

85

Wall

92

One More Night

93

Summer Lovin’

97

Petals and Promises

98

Facade

99

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Staff Credits Project Management and Production Chloe Easton Devin Raines Gray Taylor Lily Johnson

Communications Ashley Costa Caitlin Richards Jessica Reed Mansa Charles Miranda Cox Tess Will

Consultant Suzan Flanagan

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Design Gabriella Costilliano Hannah Bolick Jarod Jordan Margaret Rogers Michelle Ramos Rayah Callais Shannon Colson

Web Development and Social Media Adrianne Yacavone Alyssa Lathem Arielle Ricks Hayley Avendutti Matt Giordano Rieneke Ausherman

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Editor’s Note Dear Readers, The Lookout Undergraduate Research Journal is a compilation of the hard work and ingenuity of students of all disciplines here at East Carolina University.

Within this journal, there are both research pieces as well as creative works that display the minds of ECU students. As members of the editorial staff of this journal, we as a class came together to design this publication, to communicate with authors and to edit submissions as we format them into our journal. The editorial staff of the Lookout Journal would like to thank those aforementioned ECU students for their contributions to the publication, as well as the faculty minds behind this semester’s publication. We thank Dr. Flanagan, Dr. Kain, Dr. Bauer, and Angela Kitchin for their assistance and the knowledge that they have provided over the course of this semester. Finally, we would like to thank our readers for taking an interest in this publication, and we hope you enjoy.

Lookout Editorial Staff

Page 7

Research Works Jordan Dudley

Rachel Goodman

Nikkenta Murphy

Alexandria Franklin

Ashley Hunter

Rachel Delaney Kearney

Dylan R. Courtney

Dawn Smith

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The Greensboro Sit-In: A Pivotal Civil Rights Event in the 1960s Rachel Delaney Kearney On February 1, 1960, four freshmen from

civil rights movement that facilitated positive

the North Carolina Agricultural and Technical

changes in the lives of African Americans in

College (A&T), an African American

North Carolina as well as other states.

college in Greensboro, took seats at the F. W. Woolworth lunch counter. Franklin McCain,

Word of the A&T freshmen’s acts made local news on February 3, 1960, when 27 other

Joe McNeill,

A&T students

David Richmond,

took seats at

and Ezell Blair

the Woolworth

were not the first

lunch counter

colored patrons

on Tuesday,

to attempt to

February 2.2 The

receive service

students failed to

at a segregated

receive service

lunch counter and,

once again. When

similar to those before them, were

the Greensboro Lunch Counter Sit-in, Greensboro, NC, 1960. Image from the Library of Congress.

Daily News asked

refused service.1 The four boys did not leave

participants about the sit-in, a student stated

the counter on the principle that, if they can

that they were “prepared to keep coming for

be served at the stand-up snack counter and

two years if we have to.”3 The students were

be rung up for their goods at the register, then

reportedly quiet and orderly while participating

they can take seats and eat as well. The four

in the sit-in, many completing schoolwork

friends remained in their seats until the store

while they waited. The demonstration by

closed, sparking a sit-in movement determined

students, unaffiliated with any civil rights

to persist until it achieved equality. The

organization, quickly received the full support

Greensboro sit-in was a pivotal moment in the

of the North Carolina chapter of the National

Frye Gaillard. The Greensboro Four: Civil Rights Pioneers. (Charlotte, North Carolina: Main Street Rag Publishing Company, 2001), 7.

2.

“Negros Fail to Obtain Service,” Greensboro Daily News, February 3, 1960, sec. B. 1.

3.

Ibid.

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 day, commerce halted within Woolworth’s.6

People (NAACP). The recognition from a

The sit-in remained in the local papers

national organization bolstered support for

with the activism rattling the social order in

the movement and gave the protest additional

Greensboro, North Carolina. By the end of

attention.

the week, the protest gained not only more

The movement steadily grew as more

A&T students, but also participation from

students in the Greensboro area joined in

Woman’s College of the University of North

the fight for equal rights. Unlike other sit-

Carolina (Woman’s College) students and

in crusades that had come before them, the

African American teenagers from Dudley

activism of the “Greensboro Four” stuck in

High School. These white female students

the North Carolina town. The protest once

from Woman’s College stated they felt a

again appeared in the local newspaper, citing

responsibility to come support the fight

that the sit-in had grown to a size of 63

for equal rights.7 The movement had about

participants from both A&T and Greensboro

three hundred members crowded around the

College, a Methodist university in the city.4

Woolworth lunch counter.8 While the activists

The Woolworth waitresses continued to refuse

for change grew, the opposition against them

the African American students service. In

grew as well. White onlookers began to

response to the growing event, the New York

harass the student protestors, yelling racial

spokesmen for the store responded that “it was

slurs and other verbal abuse while they sat at

the company’s policy ‘to abide by the local

the counter. This did not deter the movement

custom.’”5 The company’s statement correlated

or make the participants leave their stools.

with the fact that aspects of Greensboro daily

The civil rights advocates planned to act in

life, such as swimming pools and private

a respectful, orderly way throughout their

businesses, were segregated. By this point in

passive resistance movement despite the

the Greensboro protest, both men and women

actions of their opposition.9 With the growth

participated in the sit-in. With the number of

in numbers, the movement spread to another

African American bodies that filled the lunch

popular Greensboro luncheon counter at the

counter and the aisle behind it on the fourth

S. H. Kress & Co. store.10 As tension rose, the

“Movement by Negros Growing.” Greensboro Daily News, February 4, 1960, sec. B. Ibid.

6.

Ibid.

7.

“Aid Given Negroes’ Protest.” Greensboro Daily News, February 5, 1960, sec. B. 8.

Ibid.

9.

Ibid.

10.

Ibid.

4.

5.

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 not come to a conclusion.14

Quality Restaurants, J. Melville Broughton,

Racial tension peaked on Saturday,

asserted that the store had the right to deny

February 7, when both W. F. Woolworth

service to any patrons in a private business and

and S. H. Kress & Co. closed their doors

advised the stores to complain of trespassing if

due to a bomb threat. An anonymous caller

the activists refused to leave.11 By complaining

reported that a bomb, planted in the basement

of trespassing, the sit-in students ran the risk of

of Woolworth’s, had a set explosion time of

arrest.

1:30 that afternoon.15 Police had the building

The first arrests in relation to the protest

evacuated although the threat turned out to

came on February 5 when three white men

be a hoax. The Kress store closed its doors in

were taken into custody because of their

respect to the safety of their patrons, as well.

actions towards the protestors. One of the men

The bomb threat seemed to come at a time

set fire to an African American’s coat while in

when tensions between the white and black

Woolworth’s.12 In addition to the violent acts,

store-goers had reached an all-time high as

a leader for the Ku Klux Klan, George Dorsett,

taunting, acts of violence, catcalling, and

and an unknown number of other Klansmen,

gang had activity occurred. The closure of

watched over the sit-in in Woolworth’s for the

both stores marked a victory for the African

majority of the day.13 The presence of white

American protestors. In light of the racial

supremacists grew in the stores, attempting to

tension and threat to public safety, the mayor

deter the movement by taking up many seats

of Greensboro released a statement describing

at the lunch counter. The opposition to the

the race relations in Greensboro and urging

movement consisted of white students and

the protestors to consider the effects of their

adults, while the sit-in participants were solely

actions:

students. These students came from multiple colleges, consisting of A&T students, Guilford

From the day it was founded,

College, Bennett College, and Woman’s

Greensboro has been

College. The following night, representatives

singularly blessed with good

from the participating colleges and the affected

municipal leadership. As a

stores met to discuss a plan of action but did

consequence, we have a long

Ibid.

“White Men Arrested at Sitdown.” Greensboro Daily News, February 6, 1960, sec. B. 13.

Ibid.

14.

Ibid.

15.

“A&T Students Call Two-Week Recess in Protest Here.” Greensboro Daily News, February 7, 1960, sec. A. 11.

12.

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history of sound city government

to maintain a calm support

and racial harmony. Sometimes

of their community leaders,

progress is ignored as our

and in return, I pledge to both

attention becomes focused upon

sides the full exercise of all the

temporary problems, and such is

powers of our city government

the case now . . .

in seeking a just and honorable

The present situation threatens

resolution of this problem.16

to impair the goodwill between the white and Negro races which

In response to the mayor’s statement, the

has been exchanged so freely

protesting students met and decided to call a

through the years. The first point

two-week recess in their protests. This recess

I wish to make is that peace

occurred out of respect to public safety and

and good order are essential to

in the hopes that, during the recess, a solution

the personal civil rights of any

could be created between the stores and

citizen, white or colored, and

activists.

peace and good order will be

Although the Greensboro sit-ins came

preserved through our city.

to a halt, a wave of movements began first

Second, I call upon the

across North Carolina and later across the

leadership of the Negro students

country. On Monday following the recess

and the business concerns

at the Greensboro Woolworth store, sit-ins

involved to place public interest

emerged in Durham and Winston-Salem,

above personal considerations,

North Carolina.17 The new movement of

even to the extent of foregoing,

about forty students, both black and white,

for a while, individual rights

first protested in Durham at their local F. W.

and financial interests, if by

Woolworth. Shortly after the sit-in began, the

doing so a peaceful solution can

store received a bomb threat that resulted in its

be evolved which will ultimately

closure. The students, from the North Carolina

satisfy these conflicting factors.

College in Durham and Duke University,

Third, I call upon the citizens

moved their protest to S. H. Kress & Co.,

of Greensboro who are not

which closed upon their arrival.18 The large

directly involved in this situation

group then progressed to the Walgreens drug

Ibid. “Mass Negro Protests Hit Durham, Winston.� Greensboro Daily News, February 9, 1960, sec. A. 18.

Ibid.

16.

17.

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store close by, but the management shut down

possible.21 The protests remained orderly,

the lunch counter before they could begin their

similar to those in Greensboro, but the

sit-in.19

opposition displayed hostility. In Raleigh,

The protests in Winston-Salem began with

those participating in the sit-in were hit with

one man, Carl Mathews, sitting at the lunch

eggs thrown by a group of white high school

counter of S. H. Kress Co. requesting service.20

and college-aged students.22 The Woolworth

He, like others participating in the movement,

lunch counter closed following the incident

experienced denial when requesting food

and when the protestors attempted to stage

service, but eventually received a cup of water.

sit-ins at five other establishments, they all

As he sat at the counter, Mathews was joined

closed. The Charlotte civil rights activists

by six other African American students from

were met with violent threats as well when the

Winston-Salem Teachers College. As the sit-in

Kress store received a bomb threat. Similar to

grew in Winston-Salem, white opposition came

threats before, the bomb was a hoax, but Kress

to wave Confederate flags at the protestors. This and other lunch counters in the Charlotte area event became a common part of the resistance

closed their doors.23 These counters closing

from white North Carolinians. As more African

became common as the protest spread across

Americans arrived, they brought American flags the state. In response to the sit-ins, Raleigh to wave, which became common among equal

Mayor W. G. Enloe issued a statement that

rights activists.

conveyed an attitude of disappointment that

The spread of the sit-ins did not stop there, first hitting Charlotte and Fayetteville at their

the protests were threatening current race relations:

local Woolworth and Kress lunch counters.

Just days later, a sit-in began at the Raleigh

by seeking to change a long-

Woolworth location. At this point in the

standing custom in a manner

movement, the Congress of Racial Equality

that is all but destined to

(CORE) sent representatives to North Carolina

fail. We are in sympathy with

to advise the young activists on ways to make

the merchants involved in

their protests as efficient and effective as

that they must, to operate

Ibid.

Ibid.

21.

“N.C. Stores Close Down Counters.” Greensboro Daily News, February 10, 1960, sec. A. 22.

“Negroes Splattered With Eggs As Sitdown Spreads to Raleigh.” Greensboro Daily News, February 11, 1960, sec.

A. 23.

Ibid.

19.

20.

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profitably, follow this custom

New tactics implemented in High Point

over which we have no control

to prevent sit-ins involved the covering or

. . . I sincerely feel that this

complete removal of stools from the counters.

unfortunate situation can be

The lunch counters were used to display

immediately corrected. I realize

merchandise to prevent the protestors from

this must be done on a voluntary

asking for service or using the counter at all.

basis, even perhaps to the

This tactic became useful for managers when

extent of yielding certain sought

the sit-in movement reached Elizabeth City,

facilities in order to continue

North Carolina. Similar to other attempts, the

other more valuable relations

Elizabeth City lunch counters immediately

long enjoyed between all races

closed upon the Elizabeth City State Teachers

in our city.24

College students’ arrival.

On February 12, the Greensboro Daily News

As sit-ins spread across the state, store’s

informed the public that an integration plan had

tactics to deter them did as well. The lunch

been proposed to the F. W. Woolworth company

counters attempted to deter the sit-ins through

from the CORE.25 The plan called for gradual

threats of trespassing charges. CORE and the

but complete integration of the Woolworth

NAACP both continued to pledge their full

lunch counters in North Carolina. C. M.

support to the cause despite the possibility

Purdy, the southeastern regional manager of

of arrest. CORE especially wanted to put

Woolworth, turned down the proposal because

North Carolina laws on trial that stated store

“he didn’t feel it could be of value at this

owners could refuse service to any persons of

time.”26 This plan did not deter the movement in

their choosing.28 The NAACP state president,

the slightest as high school students began sit-

Kelly Alexander, responded to the threat of

ins at Woolworth and McLellan’s, another local

arrest with the supporting statement of: “In

lunch counter, in High Point, North Carolina.27

our opinion they have the moral and humane

This demonstration became known as the first

right to be treated equally in a democratic

sit-in initiated by high school students. Both

society.”29

counters closed immediately upon their arrival.

The following day, on February 13,

Ibid.

“Store Given Integration Proposal.” Greensboro Daily News, February 12, 1960, sec. A. 26.

Ibid.

27.

“Lunch Counter Strikes Spread to High Point.” Greensboro Daily News, February 12, 1960, sec. A. 28.

“Negros’ Protests Still Spreading.” Greensboro Daily News, February 12, 1960, sec. A. 29.

Ibid.

24.

25.

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The Lookout newspapers reported that forty-one African American protestors had been arrested at

Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 desegregation movement.33 The sit-in’s importance received

the Woolworth store in Raleigh’s Cameron

recognition early in the movement when Dr.

Village.30 Cameron Village was a privately

Fredrick D. Patterson released a statement

owned retail complex and the arrests came

in February 1960 in support of the sit-ins.

after the vice president of the property, William

Dr. Patterson, former president of Tuskegee

Worth, requested the individuals to leave the

Institute, said that the protests were inevitable

entire complex.31 The arrests occurred as a

as well as:

matter of public safety, but contrary to this, reports emerged that the college students were

Segregation on the basis of

orderly and many were not demonstrating

race, even without tangible

at the Woolworth store when arrested. It can

inequities, is morally wrong. It

be assumed that these arrests stemmed more

hurts all who are a part of it.

from an attitude of white supremacy rather

For it is a needless and cruel

than respect for the well-being of the public.

affront to the dignity of one

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. responded to the

race and an encouragement to

imprisonments, advising African Americans

arrogance and bigotry in the

not to panic but instead be prepared to fill up

other. Therefore, both races

southern jails to achieve equal rights.32 Despite

suffer . . . I hope that this issue

the large numbered arrest, the movement

will be promptly solved in

continued to grow. By February 14, the sit-

line with the wise suggestions

in protests had reached Durham, Charlotte,

occurring in the Greensboro

Winston-Salem, Fayetteville, Elizabeth City,

daily press. The change in

High Point, and Concord, North Carolina as

relationships called for is a

well as spreading to cities in South Carolina,

small one, that I feel confident

Florida, Tennessee, and Virginia. Picketing

will be accepted by the citizens

protests arose in Harlem, New York, to

of Greensboro if a firm position

support those participating in sit-ins in the

of no discrimination is adopted

South and attempted to bring attention to the

and enforced. If such a decision

“41 Negroes Charged with Trespassing in Raleigh Area.” Greensboro Daily News, February 13, 1960, sec. A. Ibid.

32.

“Negro Told Not to Fear Jail Terms.” Greensboro Daily News, February 17, 1960, sec. A. 33.

“Two More Arrested in Lunch Counter Protest.” Greensboro Daily News, February 14, 1960, sec. A. 30.

31.

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is not forthcoming, then the

of the movement and did not honor its passive

quiet, orderly and dignified

resistance beginnings.

protest that was so wisely and

Finally, as February came to an end,

courageously begun, of course

Mayor George Roach created the Advisory

will be continued and could not

Committee on Community Relations to

be expected to be otherwise . . .

work with student protestors on a solution

I hope that the constructive-

to the segregated lunch counters.35 The

minded citizens of Greensboro

committee’s head, Councilman E. R. Zane,

will offer to the South and the

advocated for the integration of the lunch

nation the example of wisdom

counters and had good relations with the

and decency which many over

student bodies involved. The councilman

the nation—both Negro and

believed Woolworth and other stores involved

white—are hoping for.34

would accept an integration proposal if a majority of the Greensboro population

Support for the movement grew rapidly

supported it.36 Throughout the month of

but despite this, there were still individuals

March, the committee requested that the

actively opposed to the protestors. Among

public send in letters describing their

those against the protest continued to be North

reactions to the possible integration of the

Carolina Attorney General Malcolm Seawell,

lunch counters. The committee received

who advocated for the use of trespassing laws

only 2,063 responses, a disappointment to

to deter the sit-ins. A surge of violent backlash

leader Zane, with 72.8% responding in favor

began to emerge during the movement as well

of equality of service on varying levels and

when fights broke out between whites and

27.2% opposed to service equality.37 Of those

protestors in Virginia and in High Point, North

letters that reported opposition to equality,

Carolina. Violence broke out deeper in the

200 of the 562 responses were duplicates.38

South as well in Alabama and Tennessee as the

The responses were not enough to prove the

movement spread and participants got anxious

opinion of the majority of the Greensboro’s

for results. This violence hindered the progress

population, which created the committee’s

“Sitdowns Are Held Inevitable.” Greensboro Daily News, February 15, 1960, sec. B. “Gains Seen in Settling Race Issue.” Greensboro Daily News, February 27, 1960, sec. B. 36.

Ibid.

37.

Miles Wolff, Lunch at the 5 & 10, Rev. ed. (Chicago, IL: Elephant Paperbacks, 1990), 110.

38.

Ibid.

34.

35.

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first problem. The committee itself could not

counters.42 The protestors received support

agree on their end goals either. The owners of

from local officials, among whom was a

the stores, especially C. L. Harris, the owner of

mayor from Atlanta and Mayor George

Woolworth’s, were opposed to being singled

Roach of Greensboro, urging businesses to

out by this committee and felt no need to be

ease racial tensions.43 Following the failure

catalysts for change.39 Woolworth headquarters

of the committee, Mayor Roach began taking

refused to budge on their policy to comply

an active role in the process of integration

with local customs and the local managers

reaching out to the mayors of Durham and

of both Kress and Woolworth’s rejected the

Charlotte as well as the national leaders of

committee’s integration proposals.40 On March

Woolworth’s and Kress’s.44 He met with store

30, Zane regretfully reported to the involved

managers, leaders of the involved student

student bodies that no solution had been

groups, and the president of A&T in an

reached.41

attempt to form positive relations between all

Despite the failure to negotiate, the students and Councilman Zane felt the committee

involved.45 The students across North Carolina had

helped them to understand the conflict

not given up their fight for equality. From

better and displayed the students’ ability to

April until the summer of 1960, students in

present themselves in a tactful manner. The

Greensboro, as well as other North Carolina

conversation created by the committee’s

cities, continued to attempt sit-ins. After a

discussions branched out to other North

mass arrest in Greensboro of 45 protestors at

Carolina cities affected by the sit-ins. Many

Kress’s lunch counter on April 21, the students

interracial task forces were being created in

transitioned to picketing to avoid arrest.46 The

other communities such as Winston-Salem

picketing outside of Woolworth’s and Kress’s

and Salisbury, North Carolina where the

locations continued for months. Finally, in

racial barrier had been broken when African

June, C. L. Harris of Woolworth’s went to the

Americans were served at local lunch

Advisory Committee on Community Relations

Ibid., 112.

Ibid., 113.

41.

Ibid.

42.

Ibid., 120.

43.

Ibid., 122.

44.

Ibid.

45.

Ibid.

46.

Ibid., 147.

39.

40.

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to seek a solution.47 The negotiations went

The impact of the sit-in on the history of the

on until July, with both Woolworth and Kress

United States has been compared to events

management involved. While working with the

like the Boston Tea Party.53 The revolutionary

committee to decide on integration measures,

action changed race relations, business

Harris reached out to other segregated stores

practices, and activism across America.

as well to attempt to get their participation.

Prior to the fight against segregation, white

He achieved the support of only two other

southerners believed that African Americans

Greensboro stores.48 Despite the apathy from

were content in their place in society. The sit-

other stores, Woolworth’s and Kress’s became

in movement opened many white southerners’

pioneers of integration. On July 25, 1960, three

eyes to the true sentiments of African

African Americans were served at Woolworth’s

Americans. Despite their previous ideas, they

lunch counter.49 The integration of both

realized that African Americans desired the

Greensboro stores went seamlessly.

rights they were entitled to as Americans.

The Greensboro sit-in sparked a mass

Once the sit-in movement began, some

movement throughout the country that

white Americans finally saw the injustice of

revitalized the civil rights movement.

segregation that they previously viewed as

Following the integration of Greensboro’s

just a way of life. This called some to action,

lunch counters, 27 other cities and counties

joining African Americans in their fight

removed lunch counter segregation across the

towards equality as well as challenging other

South. The desegregation occurred without

whites to open their eyes to the discrimination

incident which exemplified the fact that fears

interwoven into long-standing cultural

surrounding integration were fraudulent. With

norms.54 These new sentiments were not only

the great success of the sit-in movement, Civil

expressed by young white Americans, but

Rights activists were encouraged to continue

many white southerners of all ages realized

the fight for equal rights in all aspects of life.

the error of their ways. Although there were

50

51

52

Ibid., 168.

Ibid., 171.

49.

Ibid., 167.

50.

Aldon Morris, “Black Southern Student Sit-In Movement: An Analysis of Internal Organization,” American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 744, DOI: 10.2307/2095077.

51.

“Lunch Counter Pressure Cracks South,” The Chicago Defender, August 20, 1960.

52.

Ibid.

53.

Sally Avery Bermanzohn, Through Survivors’ Eyes: From the Sixties to the Greensboro Massacre, (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2003), 51.

54.

Wolff, 152.

47.

48.

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still many white southerners who stuck by

because of the Greensboro sit-in. Groups

segregation as the only way of southern life, a

such as Martin Luther King Jr.’s southern

great deal of the population’s attitude shifted

Christian Leadership Conference and the

because of the sit-in movement.

Students Nonviolent Coordinating Committee

The attitudes of African Americans were

(SNICK) gained massive support during the

changed with the movement, as well. When

1960s due to youth involvement.56 SNICK

the movement began, many older African

was a direct result of the sit-in movement and

Americans deemed the movement uncalled

continued to be successful throughout the civil

for and unnecessary.55 They, like many white

rights movement. With these organizations,

Americans, thought of segregation as a

the voices of African Americans were finally

necessary pillar of southern life. Their children,

being heard.

however, recognized the injustices within

The sit-in changed life in Greensboro in

society and wanted to pave a way for a better

many other aspects besides simply lunch

life. As the movement became more successful,

counter attendance. By 1970, Greensboro

older African Americans offered their support.

had African Americans in many government

African Americans of all ages participated in

positions, including a legislator, which had

the boycotts of the southern stores where the

not occurred since Reconstruction.57 An

sit-ins occurred. With the participation of all

African American middle class grew in

ages, the sit-in movement grew more effective

the city as well. A decade later, integrated

and the civil rights movement gained more

audiences enjoyed professional basketball and

support.

hockey games, college events, concerts, and

The sit-in movement sparked participation

nightclubs.58 Although not all life and attitudes

in civil rights groups throughout the country.

by the 1970s had changed, the recognition

Groups such as the NAACP and the CORE had

of the injustice that came with segregation

been around for many years before the sit-ins,

became a well-known factor in southern life.

but new groups began to emerge as well. This

The Greensboro sit-in ignited a time of change

emergence of new groups resulted from the

that lasted for decades and helped achieve

large amount of student activism that occurred

equality for African Americans in Greensboro

Ibid., 153.

Ibid., 162.

57.

“Sit-In City Marks Decade of Change,” The New York Times, February 2, 1970.

58.

Ibid.

55.

56.

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The nonviolent, passive resistance used

Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 decades to follow for African Americans across the country. n

during the Greensboro sit-in encouraged other African American activists to follow suit.

Although not all civil rights activists followed a nonviolent path, it received recognition for being a key element during the fight for equality. When analyzing the Greensboro sit-in, the movement received comparison to other successful activists such Gandhi.59 The nonviolent ways of the sit-ins gave the civil rights movement a respected image and

Rachel Delaney Kearney will graduate from East Carolina University in May 2020 with a double major in Secondary Education B.S. and History B.A. She is a member of the Gamma Phi chapter of Alpha Xi Delta and the history honors fraternity Phi Alpha Theta. This research was performed for her graduate level North Carolina history course taken her junior year. Ms. Kearney plans to become a high school history teacher upon graduation.

those participating were admired for their strength. As respect for those involved grew, the movement also gained support which helped more movements toward equality gain momentum.

The Greensboro sit-in which began February 1, 1960 changed the course of the civil rights movement forever. The passive, resistant movement expressed the true feelings of African Americans towards their place in society and the injustices they experienced every day. Although the change did not happen overnight, the Greensboro sit-in led to equality that African Americans had previously never experienced. Without the Greensboro sit-in, the civil rights movement would not have enacted the changes it did in the 1960s as well as the 59.

Wolff, 156.

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Works Cited Primary Chicago Daily Defender, Illinois, 1970.

Greensboro Daily News, North Carolina, 1960.

Los Angeles Times, California, 1970.

New York Times, New York, 1970.

Ronald Martin, Robert Patterson, and Mark Martin stage sit-down strike after being refused service at a F.W. Woolworth luncheon counter, Greensboro, N.C. Greensboro North Carolina, 1960. Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/95512251/.

The Chicago Defender, Illinois, 1960.

Secondary Bermanzohn, Sally Avery. Through Survivors’ Eyes: From the Sixties to the Greensboro Massacre. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2003.

Gaillard, Frye. The Greensboro Four. Charlotte: Main Street Rag Publishing Company, 2001.

Schmidt, Christopher W. “Why the 1960 Lunch Counter Sit-Ins Worked: A Case Study of Law and Social Movement Mobilization.” Indiana Journal of Law and Social Equality 5, no. 2 (May 2017): 281–300.

Morris, Aldon. “Black Southern Student Sit-in Movement: An Analysis of Internal Organization.” American Sociological Review 46, no. 6 (1981): 744–67. DOI: 10.2307/2095077.

North Carolina Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. Black and White Perceptions: Race Relations in Greensboro. North Carolina, 1980.

Wolff, Miles. Lunch At the Five and Ten: The Greensboro Sit-Ins: a Contemporary History. New York: Stein and Day, 1970.

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The Spartan Way of Life Ashley Hunter In pondering ancient Greece, people generally

and unite the community under a strenuous,

think of Athens with awe because of develop-

but unique ideology. Foremost, formal

ments, such as theater and democracy, which

education was absent in Sparta, especially

Athens is given credit for initiating. On the

in contrast to other Greek city-states where

contrary, one may view the Spartans as the

citizens—specifically young males—learned

ruthless warriors portrayed in modern-day

to read and write and master other vital skills

movies since their entire lives revolved around

of their time (Xenophon). Spartan citizens

military training and war. However, it is inap-

could not read or write, but adapted to the

propriate to judge the Spartan way of life on

warrior culture surrounding their everyday

modern terms, and even that of Athens; one

lives through extensive and mandatory

must consider other aspects of Spartan cul-

military training that began at a young age.

ture and social systems because Sparta was a

The integration into their ideology and how

successfully functioning society in its time.

the order was maintained started with their

The Spartan codification and refinement were

education system and is outlined by Xenophon

adequate for their organization because Sparta

in The Constitution (Politeia) of the Spartans.

maintained order, had a well-organized govern-

The critical point that displays the influences

ment, and allowed for the greater significance

of the education system is by the famous

of women within the community compared

Spartan lawmaker Lycurgus. His regulations

to other Greek city-states. Nonetheless, every

on “respect and obedience” that commenced

system has its flaws, and as for Sparta, theirs

for young boys established discipline, loyalty,

happened to contradict modern standards,

and the capacity for boys to sustain themselves

which may cause some biased viewpoints

in harsh conditions on the battlefield. Males

when analyzing their way of life. The way they

were taken from their families around the age

treated the helot population led to unnecessary

of seven to attend a military school and would

internal conflicts.

eventually spend the rest of their lives serving

The first component that positively contributed to Sparta’s success was their ability to preserve order among their citizens

the state.

Lycurgus also reshaped many Spartan customs and behaviors such as marriage

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practices, food obtainability, physical fitness,

that come along with vast prosperity. As a

and wealth (Xenophon). Marriage was highly

result of his transformation of Spartan ways,

endorsed in Sparta, even though men could not

Lycurgus created a well-structured society

live outside of the army camps before the age

in regard to the performance of its citizens,

of thirty. However, the Spartan state viewed

and he was successful in maintaining order

marriage as a way to produce more male

within the different Spartan communities and

offspring who would grow up to serve in the

sustaining military goals.

Spartan army, and the practice of polygamy

The Spartan population lived by strict

was allowed to influence this process. Spartan

guidelines established to limit overall

culture also centered around being physically

inequality and produce disciplined and healthy

fit and healthy, and Lycurgus recognized

citizens who could survive on the battlefield

that too much food and alcohol could have

and benefit the state. All Spartans were on par,

negative impacts on the body (Xenophon).

not only with their actions toward one another,

Food availability was regulated throughout

but also through their access to resources and

the community to prevent overeating and

wealth. Additionally, Lycurgus’ movement

becoming sluggish, and athletic competitions

was a success because the free Spartan people

encouraged exercise that was not limited to the

never revolted against the rigidly enforced

men, but involved women as well. Lycurgus

laws and customs, which means that they

organized the entire monetary system to get rid

trusted in the state’s ideology. Even the helots

of “inequalities and contrasts altogether,” as

only revolted once. Women were willing

illustrated in Plutarch’s account of Lycurgus:

to risk the well-being of their children to support this ideology. With continuing foreign

He declared that all gold and

occupations abroad, the soldiers came in

silver coinage was now invalid,

contact with numerous cultures that could

and decreed that only iron

influence their perception of their own society,

should be used as currency, and

but they remained loyal to the Spartan way

then he assigned a low value to

of life. Sparta’s ability to maintain the social

even great weight and mass of

order and keep the citizens support for these

this.

social principles contributed to its success.

Secondly, the well-established government

Changing the currency system in Sparta eliminated the conflicts and wealth imbalances

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system of Sparta made the city-state prosperous because a smaller government

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structure had less representation in numbers,

remarks that the representation of the elders

but enough for making decisions in the Spartan

in political affairs “provided stability and

interest, and the officials elected were well-

common sense” (Dillon and Garland, 2010).

experienced and spent their lives participating

Granting the elders of the executive council

in military affairs. The government of Sparta is

an equal say-so in state decisions took away

described best this way: “The Spartan political

the possibility of abusing power from the

system had several elements: monarchy (the

kings, which otherwise could have led to

kings), democracy (the ekklesia) and oligarchy

unpredictable outcomes, and would have

(the gerousia)” (Dillon and Garland, 2010).

given more influence to the gerousia and the

The Spartan government was extraordinary

ephors who, through experience, could better

because there was not one king who had full

assess matters of Spartan interest. Sparta

control over all the land, but two kings who

therefore benefited from its political system

were responsible for monitoring one another.

in two primary ways. First, by combining

Moreover, the two kings came from different

three different types of political mechanism

families so one powerful family could not hold

into their political practice, Sparta profited

all the power. Next in overseeing Sparta was

from the advantages each political mechanism

the council of elders, the gerousia, which was

provided. The monarchical portion allowed

made up of 28 elder men, plus the two kings

for a stable and loyal ruling base which

(Thomas, 1974). Once a month, the committee

fit Spartan interest perfectly because of

held an assembly, the ekklesia, that was open to

their involvement in military affairs. The

the public, and was used to discuss and vote on

democratic piece of the government provided

matters concerning the state. In addition to the

the wisdom of experienced voters who made

two kings and the gerousia, there was a board

skillful determinations, were well-informed,

of five ephors who were elected annually by

and limited the powers of the kings. Lastly,

the citizen majority, and each ephor could serve

including oligarchic principles gave authority

only once during his lifetime.

to a smaller, dominant group, the ephors, and

Each legislative branch was important

restricted the government from growing too

and each had a marked effect on internal

broad which could delay governing and create

and external policies, as well as political

internal disputes.

and social affairs. The most influence in the

This system worked for Sparta because

Spartan government lay “with the elders

the delegated authority supported the Spartan

and the ephors” (Thomas, 1974), and Plato

way of life. Preventing younger males from

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serving in political affairs limited the likelihood

Although Sparta had a strong military

of corruption driven by personal profit and

organization, that alone did not justify them

from influencing the outcome of state policies

in distributing their army around the Greek

over time. The elders of the community would

world to act as some global police force in

have undergone the hardship of serving in

every engagement. The Spartan officials

the military and would have had a lifetime of

were right to make decisions that revolved

exposure to the responsibilities of leadership.

around what benefited the state. Subsequently,

Throughout their military careers, they would

the political system in Sparta and the

have faced many obstacles, grown humble,

requirements established for competent

and better understood the value of life out of

participation in the government were an

remembrance of the comrades who once stood

advantage of the Spartan way of life.

beside them in the ranks, but lost their lives

The last pro of the Spartan way of life

in battle. They would have felt every emotion

was the significance women had in society,

known to man and experienced fear in a way

especially compared to the treatment of

that they never knew existed. They would

women in other Greek city-states. In other

have looked at every situation and notion

Greek communities, women did not have

in an entirely different way from the crude

any direct voice in public matters, and their

young man whose self-interest and ego blinds

purpose was to be silent and unopinionated

him from proper reasoning. Moreover, one could make the argument that Sparta’s lack of interest in providing aid to the other Greek states was wrong, but Sparta’s determination to approach external matters with caution and only get involved if it is in the interest of the state is an exceptional foundation for this proper reasoning.

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and to tend only to household tasks (Dillon

do so, women had to be well-educated in the

and Garland, 2010). However, women were

ideology. Giving more rights to women was

quite the opposite in Sparta and had far more

a favorable outcome for Sparta because the

rights and responsibilities compared to other

men’s involvement in the military and policies

Greek women of that time. The role of women

eliminated them from the workforce and the

in Sparta was beneficial because the women

economy in Sparta, and allowed women the

provided an active overseer of the men’s

right to own property and administer business

families and property while they were attending

which reinforced an orderly economic

to military or political circumstances, and

system. As a military-centered society,

giving more freedom to women helped the

Sparta needed every man to be engaged with

society uphold the robust state ideology. The

military training and daily operations. Thus,

reforms of Lycurgus recognized the importance

handing the responsibility of property to

that women played in the community, in the

women not only helped this arrangement, but

reproduction of Spartan babies, and in their

also promoted healthy lifestyles. Allowing

households. He imposed physical exercise on

more liberties in marriage and child-rearing

young women to build their strength so the

norms was a major factor in maintaining the

women would produce many strong children

number of men. Sparta’s treatment of women

that would grow up to make well-built Spartan

helped to preserve their culture and ideology

soldiers.

which influenced their prosperity because—

Women even competed in athletic events,

by handling business in the household and

and some went on to win Olympic games in

community—the women freed the men for

chariot racing (Dillon and Garland, 2010).

service to the state.

Also, physical fitness would help provide

Among the positive features of the Spartan

women with the strength to face the difficulties

political system and cultural standards, there

of childbirth (Plutarch) and motherhood.

were also negative aspects of the Spartan way

Spartan women were to be tough, sharp-witted,

of life that hindered them in their success.

and direct so they could operate the business

The conduct towards the helot population

in the homeland while men were playing their

in Sparta gave rise to avoidable rebellions

part in state and military affairs. When the men

and additional issues between the helots

deployed for months and years at a time, the

and the Spartans. The helots were “property

Spartan women had to manage the resources,

of the Spartan state” (Talbert, 1989), and

properties, and occupations at home, and to

since the Spartan men attended to their

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military careers and the women managed

a test conducted in the belief

the business affairs, the helots were used for

that the ones who showed most

the manual labor throughout the community.

spirit and came forward first

The helots became useful to the state after

to claim their freedom would

they were subjugated by the Spartans in the

be the ones most likely to turn

conquering of Messenia and were required to

against Sparta. So about 2,000

work the fields and perform other duties that

were selected, who put on

the Spartans did not care to do. The Spartans

garlands and went round the

ensured the helot population was healthy and

temples under the impression

physically capable of carrying out their role,

that they were being freed.

but made sure the helots remained controlled

Soon afterwards, however, the

and fearful. To do so, groups, known as the

Spartans did away with them,

Krypteia, were instituted to terrify the helots by

and no one ever knew exact-

randomly massacring some of them in hopes

ly how each one of them was

of preventing them from revolting (Dillon and

killed.

Garland, 2010). According to Richard Talbert, the helot population outnumbered that of

If accounts such as this are true, this

the Spartans, attaining between 170,000 and

sort of arrangement against the helots was

224,000, while the Spartan male headcount was

unnecessary because, up to this point, the

around 8,000. Also, an abundance of helots

helots were devoted to the Spartan cause

regularly fought for the Spartan army, but the

since they willingly served in life-threatening

Spartans would implement traps that would set

conditions with the Spartan army. On that

the helot soldiers up for failure. Talbert presents

assumption, if the helots wanted to turn

one example:

against the Spartans, they would have coordinated that opposition by then, and

They announced that the helots

with the declining population of the Spartan

should choose out of their own

males, it would have been more beneficial

number those who claimed to

for Sparta to grant the helots their freedom.

have done the best service to

Talbert claims that the treatment of the helot

Sparta on campaign, implying

people and the rebellions that rose from it

that they would be given their

was inconsiderable in regard to the basis

freedom. This was, however,

of Sparta’s “downfall� (Talbert, 1989).

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Rewarding the helots with independence

through regulations and standards that created

for their loyalty to the state would limit

a sense of pride to be a Spartan and focused

unnecessary conflict and allow for the number

on matters that the community rather than

of soldiers to increase. However, these revolts,

the individual could profit from. On the other

although minor, consistently kept the Spartans

hand, one should not entirely romanticize

paranoid when they could have been focusing

Sparta’s way of life because—as with any

on foreign affairs and building their declining

system—this constitution had its flaws as

Spartan male population.

well. Spartans were always overly suspicious

In conclusion, Sparta’s philosophy and

and fearful of the helot revolts, which to some

goals do not fall in with modern-day goals

extent took Sparta’s focus off other significant

and are viewed today as abusive toward their

matters, but this distraction was preventable

people, but this notion is quite the opposite

if only the Spartans had issued freedom to the

of what the Spartans thought. For their time,

helots for their devotion to the army. Overall,

Sparta’s political system and cultural practices

this ruthless society of professional soldiers

are well demonstrated in its citizens’ loyalty

has inspired and sparked the imagination of

and willingness to support a firm sociocultural

many throughout history, and it continues to

foundation. The mixed constitution of a

impact contemporary thought through their

democratic, monarchical, and oligarchic

unusual way of life. n

governmental elements allowed for a better systematic decision-making process as a system of checks and balances of each branch of officials and prevented the government from growing too complex which leads to the possibility of widespread corruption. Also, Sparta’s potential to put aside the common ancient viewpoints on the responsibility of

Ashley Hunter is a student-veteran at East Carolina University. Before attending ECU she served four years in the Army, where she was stationed at Fort Bragg and deployed eight months to Kuwait.

After serving, she decided to continue her education and is currently triple majoring in Anthropology, Classical Civilizations, and History.

women and adapt to a more resourceful way for their women to act within their community was the best course of action for Sparta’s overall objectives. Although Sparta’s dealings with the helots and other Greeks were not always appropriate, Sparta served its citizens well

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Works Cited Dillon, Matthew, and Lynda Garland. Ancient Greece: Social and Historical Documents From Archaic Times to the Death of Alexander the Great. 3rd ed. London: Routledge, 2010.

Plutarch. Life of Lycurgus. pp. 3–38.

Richard J. A. Talbert. “The Role of the Helots in the Class Struggle at Sparta.” Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte, vol. 38, no. 1, 1989, pp. 22–40. JSTOR, www.jstor. org/stable/4436088.

Thomas, C. G. “On the Role of the Spartan Kings.” Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte, vol. 23, no. 3, 1974, pp. 257–270. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4435402.

Xenophon. The Constitution (Politeia) of the Spartans. pp. 75–92.

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An Analysis of the Causes of World War One and Wilson’s Failures at the Peace Talks and the Treaty of Versailles Dylan R. Courtney Following the end of World War I, Allied

was considered a powder keg that could go

victors met to set peace terms after defeating

off at any time. Countries were strengthening

the Central Powers, and signed a treaty in

their militaries and imposing an imperialistic

Versailles, France to officially end the First

rule on smaller nations. Nationalism from

World War. President Woodrow Wilson

various countries was one of the main causes

represented America at the peace talks. Wilson

of this powder keg. Serbia had a longstanding

wanted to create a League of Nations that

unstable relationship with Austria-Hungary.

would globalize the world and a treaty that

The heir to the Austrian-Hungarian throne,

would provide lasting peace. Despite there

Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was visiting

being delegates from many countries who

Bosnia, a former Serbian province annexed by

wished to participate, the main countries were

Austria in 1908, on June 28, 1914. Ferdinand

“The Big Four” Allied powers: America,

and his wife were murdered by Gavrilo

Britain, France, and Italy. Wilson failed to

Princip, a Bosnian member of the Black Hand,

convince other members of the Big Four to

a Serbian terrorist group. This lit the powder

base the Treaty of Versailles on the Fourteen

keg in Europe.

Points, which was his blueprint for world

Despite Ferdinand not being viewed in

peace which he laid out in an address to

good favor by his government, the Austro-

congress on his conditions for peace on

Hungarian Empire took this opportunity to

January 8, 1918. He was also unable to

settle their score with Serbia. After waiting

encourage enough public support in America

three weeks, they issued an unrealistic

to join his League of Nations, outlined in his

ultimatum to Serbia. The Serbian government

fourteenth point.

would have to accept an Austro-Hungarian

In order to understand Wilson’s goals and

inquiry into the assassination despite its own

the state of the world at the time of the peace

internal investigation, and would also have to

talks, it is important to examine the events

get rid of anti-Austrian propaganda. Finally,

that led to World War I, and the actions of

the Serbian government would have to take

Germany and America during the war. Europe

steps to eliminate anti-Austrian terrorist

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organizations, such as the Black Hand, within

response to what was considered a threatening

its borders. A reply was expected within two

and impulsive action. Days later, Germany

days. On July 28 1914, M.N. Pashitch, the

also declared war on France as a result of

Serbian Prime Minister, received a telegram

their Russian alliance and invaded Belgium.

from Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Count

Their ally Britain proceeded to declare war on

Leopold von Berchtold that Austria-Hungary

Germany on August 4, 1914. The convoluted

considered themselves at war with Serbia.

European alliances resulted in the outbreak of

Many of the nations that would become the Allied powers realized that the demands

the war.

Wilson became president when he defeated

from the ultimatum were unfair and that

Theodore Roosevelt in the 1912 United States

Austria-Hungary and their German allies

Election, nearly two years before the start

were likely seeking a cause for war. Various

of World War I. He was the first Democratic

foreign secretaries and prime ministers noted

president elected since Grover Cleveland

their opinions on the ultimatum. Sir Edward

in 1892. This would have a large impact on

Grey, the British Secretary of State for Foreign

his American support during the Paris Peace

Affairs, noted in an official statement that

Talks of 1919, as Republicans held a majority

the Serbian reply was already extremely

in the Senate. At first, Wilson advocated for

humiliating and found Austria-Hungary’s

neutrality on part of the United States. In

reaction disappointing. Jules Cambon, the

his address to Congress Wilson encouraged

French Ambassador to Germany, shared

American citizens to be “neutral in fact, as

a similar opinion. Henry Morgenthau, the

well as name, [and to] be impartial in thought,

United States Ambassador to Austria, stated

as well as action” in regard to supporting

that he believed that Germany and Austria-

nations in the war due to their national

Hungary were already planning a war and the

heritage or other reasons. The main reason for

assassination was an excuse to start it.

Wilson’s neutrality was to protect international

Following this declaration of war, the alliances in Europe proved to be the main cause

trading rights.

While the United States had declared

because it was fought on such a large scale and

neutrality, Germany realized that it would still

between so many countries. Serbia requested

have to fight a war on two fronts: France in

help from their Russian allies, which mobilized

the west and Russia in the east. Germany had

its army and navy on July 31, 1914. The next

to determine a way to quickly defeat France

day, Germany declared war on Russia in

so it could focus on Russia’s vast supply of

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The Lookout troops. A German Field Marshall and Chief of the Imperial German General Staff named

Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 States into the war.

Germany attempted to justify its attacks

Alfred von Schlieffen developed the Schlieffen

on Belgium in a letter written to Wilson by

Plan. Schlieffen accurately assumed that Russia

the Kaiser. The Kaiser accused the Belgian

would take six weeks or longer to effectively

government of encouraging their civilian

mobilize its forces. He, therefore, planned

population to take part in guerilla warfare

to go on the offensive and focus troops on a

using dumdum bullets. These bullets

quick defeat of France, leaving enough in East

caused terrible wounds and were banned

Prussia to hold off the early Russian forces

by international law. He also accused the

during its mobilization. Germany wanted the

citizens of attacking hospitals with wounded

Dutch to remain neutral for as long as possible

soldiers. This letter was likely seen as a way

and discounted an invasion through southern

for Germany to justify its harsh treatment of

Switzerland. This is the reason Germany

Belgium during the invasion.

invaded France through Belgium, which brought Britain into the war.

Germany thought this plan would be

In 1915, Germany began aerial bombing Britain to weaken the morale of the nation.

At first, British citizens had remained largely

highly effective and the war would be over by

unaffected by the war, but now, World War

Christmas of 1914. Germany was malicious in

I would be considered a total war with non-

its attack on Belgium and the French. Kaiser

combatants being killed. The main targets

Wilhelm II, leader of Germany, in a letter

were industrial cities, army camps, and

to Emperor Franz-Josef, leader of Austria-

munitions factories. David Kirkwood, a trade

Hungary, stated that “everything must be put to

union leader, was in Edinburgh, Scotland in

fire and blood [and] throats of men and women,

1916 during a Zeppelin air raid. He described

children and the aged must be cut and not a tree

the explosion as terrible, causing the ground to

nor a house left standing. � He believed these

shake.

methods would allow the war to be over within

Germany also attempted to impose a

months, while benevolent methods would

submarine blockage on Great Britain. This

draw it on for years. The plan was a close

was the first of many examples of unrestricted

failure due to the difficulties Germany had

submarine warfare by Germany during the

with resupplying its troops. These ideals were

course of the war. On February 4, 1915, Chief

likely the source of later British propaganda

of Marine Staff Hugo von Pohl declared a

that regarded Germany to encourage the United

naval blockade of Great Britain. It stated

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that the waters in areas including Britain and

commit its resources to help wage war on

Ireland were to be considered a war zone

the Central Powers. Italy officially joined the

and every enemy vessel in the region would

war on May 22, 1915. This Treaty would be

be destroyed. Neutral ships entering the war

a major topic of discussion during the later

zone could also be damaged according to the

Peace Talks.

conditions of the blockade.

Upon protests from the United States, which

Following the Treaty of London, Germany continued to participate in unrestricted

had a commercial interest in Great Britain by

submarine warfare. On May 7, 1915, the

sea, Kaiser Wilhelm II withdrew the blockade.

RMS Lusitania, a British passenger ship

Wilson still maintained a neutral stance but

holding over a hundred Americans, was sunk

warned the German government that the United

by a German U-Boat. Wilson responded with

States government would not tolerate the

various protests to the German government,

sinking of neutral ships owned by the United

by pointing out three other incidents of the

States. This was not supported by German

unrestricted sinking of ships which led to the

Admiral and Naval Minister Alfred von Tirpitz.

death of American citizens. He first requested

Tirpitz viewed the decision to blockade Great

that the German government discontinue

Britain as premature ,but believed that, since

unrestricted submarine warfare because it was

the decision had already been made, the

difficult to save the innocent people on the

German government should not back out on

ships. Wilson then stated that he believed the

it, saying they were “acting on a program of

acts committed by the German submarines

big words and little deeds. ” Unlike Tirpitz,

were due to misinterpretation of orders and

Prince Bernhard von Bulow, a former German

that the issue could be resolved due to the

Chancellor, fully supported the blockade.

“special ties of friendship” between Germany

The Allies began attempting to convince the Italian government to enter the war on

and the United States.

Germany officially responded to the

their side. Italy demanded several territories to

protests in a note written by German Foreign

be given following the war, including Trent,

Minister Gottlieb von Jagow on May 28,

Southern Tyrol, Istria, Gorizia and, Dalmatia.

1915. He noted that the sinking, especially

Following negotiations, a secret treaty called

the deaths that followed, was unfortunate,

the Treaty of London was passed on April

but he argued that it was necessary. Jagow

26, 1915. Territorial gains after the war were

claimed that the German government had

established and Italy would be required to

information that the Lusitania was carrying

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war munitions to Britain, making it a legitimate

protests from the United States, Mexico’s

target. In response, Wilson warned the

President Venustiano Carranza agreed to deal

German government that despite this, future

with Villa, but insisted that the United States

infringements on American sea rights would be

not interfere.

considered deliberately unfriendly.

Despite Wilson’s warning, Germany again

The United States soon lost patience with Carranza and dispatched troops in pursuit of

continued to commit unrestricted submarine

Villa. The troops successfully defeated large

warfare, resulting in merchant vessels being

numbers of Villa’s followers, but often came

sunk without warning if its purpose was trading

into armed conflict with regular Mexican

with the Allies. After initially denying blame,

soldiers. Wilson called upon the National

the German government admitted to sinking

Guard to deal with the situation as the United

the Sussex, another British passenger ship

States was at threat to go to war with Mexico.

carrying American citizens, in the English

Carranza backed down and released American

Channel. Wilson issued an ultimatum, stating

troops that were captured. He also issued an

that the United States would no longer tolerate

apology and suggested a conference to prevent

the continuation of unrestricted warfare. If

future issues.

Germany would not agree to stop, America

Likely in an attempt to capitalize on the

would reluctantly sever all diplomatic

unstable relations between Mexico and the

relationships with Germany. Wilson reiterated

United States, German Foreign Minister

these points and informed the United States

Arthur Zimmermann sent a telegram

Congress the following day. Germany agreed

to Heinrich von Eckhardt, the German

that merchant vessels would not be sunk

Ambassador to Mexico, offering United States

without proper warning and without saving all

territory to Mexico in exchange for Mexican

possible human lives unless the ship attempted

support in the war:

to escape or offer resistance.

During the war, America faced trouble from

On the first of February we

prominent Mexican leader Pancho Villa who

intend to begin submarine

was initiating raids into the United States. It

warfare unrestricted. In spite

was reported by United States General John

of this, it is our intention to

J. Pershing that on January 11 1916, Villa

endeavor to keep neutral the

launched a raid into the State of Chihuahua,

United States of America.

killing nineteen American citizens. Following

If this attempt is not

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019

successful, we propose an

warfare unrestricted. In spite

alliance on the following basis

of this, it is our intention to

with Mexico: That we shall

endeavor to keep neutral the

make war together and together

United States of America.

make peace. We shall give

If this attempt is not successful,

general financial support, and

we propose an alliance on the

it is understood that Mexico is

following basis with Mexico:

to reconquer the lost territory

That we shall make war

in New Mexico, Texas, and

together and together make

Arizona. The details are left to

peace. We shall give general

you for settlement. . . .

financial support, and it is

You are instructed to inform

understood that Mexico is to

the President of Mexico of the

reconquer the lost territory

above in the greatest confidence

in New Mexico, Texas, and

as soon as it is certain that

Arizona. The details are left to

there will be an outbreak of

you for settlement. . . .

war with the United States and

You are instructed to inform

suggest that the President of

the President of Mexico of

Mexico, on his own initiative,

the above in the greatest

should communicate with Japan

confidence as soon as it is

suggesting adherence at once to

certain that there will be

this plan; at the same time, offer

an outbreak of war with the

to mediate between Germany

United States and suggest

and Japan.

that the President of Mexico,

Please call to the attention

on his own initiative, should

of the President of Mexico that

communicate with Japan

the employment of ruthless

suggesting adherence at once

submarine warfare now

to this plan; at the same time,

promises to compel England to

offer to mediate between

make peace in a few months.

Germany and Japan.

On the first of February we intend to begin submarine

Page 36

Please call to the attention of the President of Mexico

The Lookout that the employment of ruthless

Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 Following the declaration of war, Wilson

submarine warfare now

began preparing the American public for

promises to compel England to

war. In a proclamation calling for American

make peace in a few months.

citizens to do their part by rallying national support for the declaration of war against

Zimmerman confirmed the authenticity

Germany, Wilson noted the importance of

of the telegram in a speech given on March

the home-front and American contributions

29, 1917. He argued that there was nothing

such as buying war bonds, working in

wrong with seeking an alliance in the event

munitions factories, and producing extra

that the United States decided to open

food. The United States Congress approved

hostilities towards Germany. By confirming

conscription on May 18, 1917. Ten days later,

the authenticity of the document however, he

Wilson formally implemented the policy and

only increased American anger towards the

men between the ages of 21 and 30 were

telegram, many of which had originally been

required to register for military service. It

skeptical.

was predicted that this conscription could

Germany desired to keep the United States

have resulted in civil disturbance, but it was

neutral when it resumed its unrestricted

received calmly and with approval. Although

submarine warfare. On January 31, 1917,

considered a pacifist, prominent United

Germany officially notified the United States

States trade union leader Samuel Gompers

that it would resume the policy of unrestricted

recognized the advantage the war would

submarine warfare. This policy effectively set a

have on labor and supported the conscription.

blockade on the Allies that would be applied to

Gompers was helpful in encouraging domestic

both belligerent and neutral ships. As a result,

support for the war effort after hostilities were

the United States decided to cut off diplomatic

declared. William Howard Taft, a former

ties with Germany and officially declared war

American President, showed enormous

on April 6, 1917. Both France and Britain

support for Wilson and the war. A speech

were excited to have the United States enter

given at Union College created a rallying call

the war. French Prime Minister, Alexandre

for American support regarding the war effort.

Ribot, extended his gratitude while noting the

He noted that, while sacrifices would be made,

strong, longstanding ties of friendship between

Germany made a great mistake by forcing the

America and France and the bond formed

United States to enter the war.

between the two during the Revolutionary War.

In order to continue to ensure public

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019

support for the war, the United States passed

were to weaken Germany as much as possible.

the Espionage Act on June 15, 1917. This

This was likely because France incurred the

act made it a crime for anyone to mail or

most casualties of the Allies during the war

print information encouraging opposition or

due to its close proximity to Germany. Most

disagreement towards the American war effort

of the war was fought on the Western Front to

or to promote its enemies. Eugene V. Debs

the east of France.

was actually accused of espionage and sent to

David Lloyd George, the British Prime

prison where he ran for president as a social

Minister who would represent Britain during

candidate in 1920.

the negotiation, also made his opening address

When the United States entered the war

on January 18, 1919. He saw Germany as

on the side of the Allied powers in 1917,

a possible valuable trading partner in the

Russia dropped out. This was primarily due

future and therefore did not desire to punish

to the Bolshevik Revolution, an overthrow of

Germany like France.

the Russian government by Vladimir Lenin.

Wilson, would represent America during

Russia officially signed an armistice with

the negotiations, had already made his

Germany on December 16, 1917. The Treaty

position clear about a year before the peace

of Brest-Litovsk was signed between Russia

talks when he stated his Fourteen Points in

and Germany on March 3, 1918. This would

a speech to Congress on January 8, 1918.

outline the terms of the armistice between their

These points, which were supported by

countries.

Germany, included freedom of the seas, open

World War I came to an end on November

diplomacy, the reduction of armaments, self-

11, 1918, when Germany officially signed

determination among the alien peoples of

an armistice agreement. Following the end

the German and Turkish empires, and, most

of the war, Paris was unanimously chosen by

importantly for Wilson, his fourteenth point:

the Allies as the location for the peace talks.

XIV. A general association of nations must

French president Raymond Poincare officially

be formed under specific covenants for the

welcomed delegates from various countries on

purpose of affording mutual guarantees of

January 18, 1919.

political independence and territorial integrity

Georges Clemenceau, the French Prime Minister who would represent France during

to great and small states alike.

Wilson was unable to convince the other

the negotiations, made his opening address on

members of the Big Four to form the treaty

January 18, 1919. His goals at the peace talks

based on his Fourteen Points. The other

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members resented Wilson because he did little

the United States in further international

to recognize previous territorial agreements,

affairs. Wilson also lacked support from

such as the Treaty of London. They considered

the Irish-American population who felt he

Wilson cocky and overconfident. Clemenceau

spent too much time advancing his agenda

stated that talking to Wilson was like talking to

at Versailles and not enough helping the

“Jesus Christ.”

interests of minorities in America, such as the

Overall, the final treaty, signed at the Palace of Versailles in France on June 28, 1919, did

Irish Question.

Wilson spent the last year of his life

not include most of Wilson’s Fourteen Points.

touring the country advocating for the League

It instead created harsh punishments towards

of Nations, but the United States never joined

Germany, such as blame for the war, loss of

due to Senate and public opposition. The

territory, and military and financial provisions.

League did, however, set the precursor for the

This harsh treatment of Germany was later

United Nations. In the end, Wilson succeeded

one of the main causes of World War II. The

in attempting to make the world a better

final treaty included Wilson’s main goal at the

place, but he greatly mishandled convincing

peace talks, his League of Nations. However,

everyone else that his plans were the best

Wilson failed to gain enough support at home

course of action for the world. ■

from both the Republican dominated Congress and the public for the United States to join it.

He created this resentment by not bringing any prominent Republican officials to the Peace Talks. Wilson believed it was the responsibility of the Executive Branch to negotiate the Treaty.

Democratic Wilson was already facing an uphill battle when he returned home to convince the United States to join the League of Nations, as Republicans held a majority in the Congress. His main opposition was Senate

Dylan Courtney grew up in Weaverville, North Carolina and currently resides in Greenville, North Carolina. He is a senior at East Carolina University pursuing a BS in History Education and a BA in History. His research interests include American involvement in World War I and Spanish exploration of North America during the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. When he graduates, he plans to teach high school social studies. In his free time, he enjoys reading, hiking, and traveling as much as possible.

Majority Leader Henry Cabot Lodge. Lodge made a speech on August 12, 1919, in which he advocated against American participation in the League because it would unnecessarily involve

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Endnotes 1 Norman A. Graebner and Edward M. Bennett, The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 58.

2 Woodrow Wilson, “Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Conditions of Peace” (speech, Congress, Washington, DC, January 8, 1918), http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65405 (accessed December 4, 2015).

3 Bennet, 5.

4 Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ministerial Council Meeting, Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia (July 23, 1914), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/austrianultimatum.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

5 Leopold von Berchtold to M. N. Pashitch, July 28, 1914, telegram, http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/ autrohungariandeclarationofwar_serbia.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

6 Charles F. Horne, Source Records of The Great War, vol. 1 (National Alumni, 1923), 321.

7 Ibid., 297.

8 Alexander Karađorđević to Tsar Nicholas II, July 24, 1914, telegram, http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/serbianappealforhelp.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

9 Horne, vol.2, 1.

10 Composition of Congress, by Political Party, 1855–2017, Office of the Clerk of the House of Representatives (New York, NY: Pearson Education, 2012) http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0774721. html (accessed December 4, 2015).

11 Woodrow Wilson, “President Wilson’s Address to Congress on Neutrality” (speech, Congress, Washington, DC, August 19, 1914), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usneutrality.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

12 Alfred Count von Schlieffen, “The Schlieffen Plan” (speech, 1905), http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc. org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=1404 (accessed December 4, 2015).

13 Kaiser Wilhelm II to Emperor Franz-Josef, April, 1914, letter, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/ wilhelm_germanrule.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

14 Ibid.

15 Kaiser Wilhelm II to Woodrow Wilson, September 7, 1914, telegram, http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/kaiserdumdumbullets.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

16 David Kirkwood, My Life of Revolt (London: George G Harrap & Co, 1935), 201.

17 Horne, vol.3, 55.

18 Ibid., 56.

19 Ibid., 52.

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20 Ibid., 52.

21 Allied Powers, Treaty of London, London, England, April 26, 1915.

22 William Jennings Bryant to German Government, May 13, 1915, letter, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/bryanlusitaniaprotest.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

23 Gottlieb von Jagow to United States Government, May 28, 1915, letter, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/lusitania_germanresponse.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

24 Woodrow Wilson to German Government, July 21, 1915, letter, http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/lusitania3rdprotest.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

25 Woodrow Wilson to German Government, April 18, 1916, letter, http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/uboat1916_usultimatum.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

26 Woodrow Wilson, “Speech to Congress Regarding Unrestricted U-Boat Warfare” (speech, Congress, Washington, DC, April 19, 1916), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/uboat1916 uboat1916_ wilsonspeeech.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

27 Gottlieb von Jagow to United States Government, May 4, 1916, letter, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/uboat1916_jagowresponse.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

28 Horne, vol.4, 274-280.

29 Venustiano Carranza to United States Government, May 22, 1916, letter, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/mexico_carranza.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

30 Robert Lansing to Venustiano Carranza, June 20, 1916, letter, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/ mexico_lansing.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

31 Venustiano Carranza to United States Government, June 20, 1916, letter, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/mexico_lansing.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

32 Arthur Zimmermann to Heinrich von Eckardt, January 19, 1917, telegram, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/zimmermann.htm (accessed December 6, 2015).

33 Arthur Zimmerman, “The Zimmerman Telegram” (speech, March 29, 1917), http://www. firstworldwar.com/source/zimmermann_speech.htm (accessed December 6, 2015).

34 Count Johann von Bernstorff to Robert Lansing, January 31, 1917, letter http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/uboat_bernstorff.htm, (accessed December 6, 2015).

35 Woodrow Wilson, “Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Declaration of War on Germany” (speech, Congress, Washington, DC, April 2, 1917), http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index. php?pid=65405 (accessed December 6, 2015).

36 Alexander Ribot, “Address to the French Senate on America’s Entry into the War” (speech, Senate, Paris, France, April, 1917), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usawar_ribot.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

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37 Woodrow Wilson, “Do Your Bit for America” (speech, White House, Washington, DC, April 15, 1917), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/doyourbit.htm (accessed December 6, 2015).

38 Woodrow Wilson, “Proclamation Establishing Conscription” (speech, White House, Washington, DC, May 28, 1917), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usconscription_wilson.htm (accessed December 6, 2015).

39 Samuel Gompers, “United States Conscription Policy” (speech, May, 1917), http://www. firstworldwar.com/source/usconscription_gompers.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

40 William Howard Taft, “America’s Decision to go to War” (speech, Union College, Schenectady, New York, June 13, 1917), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/taftonwar.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

41 U.S. Congress, Espionage Act (Washington, DC, June 15, 1917), http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/espionageact.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

42 Horne, vol.5, 25.

43 “Armistice Signed, End Of The War!,” New York Times, November 11, 1918, http://www.nytimes. com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1111.html (accessed October 15, 2015).

44 Raymond Poincare, “Raymond Poincare’s Welcoming Address,” speech, peace delegates, Paris, France, January 18,1919, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_poincare.htm (accessed October 15, 2015).

45 Georges Clemenceau, “Georges Clemenceau’s Welcoming Address,” speech, peace delegates, Paris, France, January 18, 1919, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_clemenceau.htm (accessed October 15, 2015).

46 David Lloyd George, “David Lloyd George’s Welcoming Address,” speech, peace delegates, Paris, France, January 18, 1919, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_lloydgeorge.htm (accessed October 15, 2015).

47 Woodrow Wilson, “Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Conditions of Peace” (speech, Congress, Washington, DC, January 8, 1918), http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65405 (accessed December 4, 2015).

48 Bennett, 40.

49 Allied Powers, Treaty of Versailles, (Versailles, France, 28 June 1919), articles 231–247.

50 Ibid., articles 1-26.

51 Bennet, 37.

52 Henry Cabot Lodge, “Address Woodrow Wilson on the League of Nations” (speech, Washington, DC, August 12, 1919), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/lodge_leagueofnations.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

53 John B. Duff, “The Versailles Treaty and the Irish Americans,” The Journal of American History 55, no.3 (1968).

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Works Cited Allied Powers. Treaty of London. London, England, April 26, 1915.

Allied Powers. Treaty of Versailles. (Versailles, France, 28 June 1919), “Armistice Signed, End Of The War!,” New York Times, November 11, 1918 http://www. nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1111.html (accessed October 15, 2015).

Austro-Hungarian Empire. Ministerial Council Meeting. Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia. July 23, 1914. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/austrianultimatum.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

Berchtold, Leopold von. Leopold von Berchtold to M.N. Pashitch, July 28, 1914. Telegram. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/austrianultimatum.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

Bernstorff, Count Johann von. Count Johann von Bernstorff to Robert Lansing, January 31, 1917.

Letter. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/uboat_bernstorff.htm, (accessed December 6, 2015).

Bryant, William Jennings. William Jennings Bryant to German Government, May 13, 1915.

Letter. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/bryanlusitaniaprotest.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

Carranaza, Venustiano. Venustiano Carranaza to United States Government, June 20, 1916. Letter. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/mexico_lansing.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

Carranaza, Venustiano. Venustiano Carranaza to United States Government, May 22, 1916. Letter. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/mexico_carranza.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

Clemenceau, Georges. Georges Clemenceau’s Welcoming Address. Speech, peace delegates, Paris, France, January 18, 1919. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_ clemenceau.htm (accessed October 15, 2015).

Composition of Congress, by Political Party 1855–2017. Table. Office of the Clerk of the House of Representatives. New York, NY: Pearson Education, 2012.

Duff, John B. “The Versailles Treaty and the Irish-Americans.” The Journal of American History 55, no. 3 (1968): 582-598.

George, David Lloyd. David Lloyd George’s Welcoming Address. Speech, peace delegates, Paris, France, January 18, 1919. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_lloydgeorge. htm (accessed October 15, 2015).

Gompers, Samuel. United States Conscription Policy. Speech, May, 1917. http://www.

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firstworldwar.com/source/usconscription_gompers.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

Graebner, Norman A., and Edward M. Bennett. The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Jagow, Gottlieb von. Gottlieb von Jagow to United States Government, May 4, 1916. Letter. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/uboat1916_jagowresponse.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

Jagow, Gottlieb von. Gottlieb von Jagow to United States Government, May 28, 1915. Letter. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/lusitania_germanresponse.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

Karađorđević, Alexander. Alexander Karađorđević to Tsar Nicholas II, July 24, 1914. Telegram. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/serbianappealforhelp.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

Kirkwood, David. My Life in Revolt. London: George G Harrap & Co, 1935.

Lansing, Robert. Robert Lansing to Venustiano Carranza, June 20, 1916. Letter. http://www. firstworldwar.com/source/mexico_lansing.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

Lodge, Henry Cabot. Address to Woodrow Wilson on the League of Nations. Speech, Washington, DC, August 12, 1919. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/lodge_ leagueofnations.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

Poincare, Raymond. “Raymond Poincare’s Welcoming Address.” Speech, Peace Delegates, Versailles, France, 18 January 1919. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_ poincare.htm (accessed October 15, 2015).

Ribot, Alexander. Address to the French Senate on America’s Entry into the War. Speech, French Senete, Paris, France, April 1917. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usawar_ribot.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

Schlieffen, Alfred Count von. The Schlieffen Plan. Speech, 1905. http://germanhistorydocs.ghidc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=1404 (accessed December 4, 2015).

Source Records of The Great War. Edited by Charles F. Horne. 7 vols. National Alumni, 1923.

Taft, William Howard. America’s Decision to go to War. Speech, Union College, Schenectady, New York, June 13, 1917. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/taftonwar.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

U.S. Congress. Espionage Act., Washington, DC, June 15, 1917. http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/espionageact.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

Wilhelm, Kaiser. Kaiser Wilhelm II to Emperor Franz-Josef, April, 1914. Letter. http://www.

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firstworldwar.com/source/wilhelm_germanrule.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

Wilhelm, Kaiser. Kaiser Wilhelm II to Woodrow Wilson, September 7, 1914. Telegram. http:// www.firstworldwar.com/source/kaiserdumdumbullets.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

Wilson, Woodrow. Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Conditions of Peace. Speech, Congress, Washington, DC, January 8, 1918. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index. php?pid=65405 (accessed December 4, 2015).

Wilson, Woodrow. Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Declaration of War on Germany.

Speech, Congress. Washington, DC, April 2, 1917. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index. php?pid=65405 (accessed December 6, 2015).

Wilson, Woodrow. Do Your Bit for America. Speech, White House, Washington DC, April 15, 1917. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/doyourbit.htm (accessed December 6, 2015).

Wilson, Woodrow. President Wilson’s Address to Congress on Neutrality. Speech, Congress, Washington, DC, August, 19, 1914. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usneutrality.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

Wilson, Woodrow. Proclamation Establishing Conscription. Speech, White House, Washignton DC, May 28, 1917. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usconscription_wilson.htm (accessed December 6, 2015).

Wilson, Woodrow. Speech to Congress Regarding Unrestricted U-Boat Warfare. Speech, Congress, Washington, DC, April 19, 1916. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/uboat1916_ wilsonspeeech.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

Wilson, Woodrow. Woodrow Wilson to German Government, April 18, 1916. Letter. http://www. firstworldwar.com/source/uboat1916_usultimatum.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

Wilson, Woodrow. Woodrow Wilson to German Government, July 21, 1915. Letter. http://www. firstworldwar.com/source/lusitania3rdprotest.htm (accessed December 5, 2015).

Zimmermann, Arthur. Arthur Zimmerman to Heinrich von Eckardt, January 19, 1917. Telegram. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/zimmermann.htm (accessed December 6, 2015).

Zimmerman, Arthur. The Zimmermann Telegram. Speech, March 29, 1917. http://www. firstworldwar.com/source/zimmermann_speech.htm (accessed December 6, 2015).

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Rhiannon and Aine: Goddesses of the Ancient Celts Alexandra Franklin Introduction In comparison with many other cultures, the

being the goddess of magick, fertility, rebirth,

ancient Celts had their own pantheon of god-

wisdom, beauty, poetry, and artistic inspiration

desses and gods and, like these other cultures,

as well as the wind, gates, horseshoes, and

the Celtic deities regularly intermingled with

the number seven (Goddess Rhiannon). Her

the human race. While having the fallible

“themes” include leadership, communication,

tendencies of both their contemporaries and

movement, rest, and ghosts (Shaw). Despite

the human race, the Celtic deities possessed

Rhiannon’s association with fertility, she is

a wide range of powers from the realistic to

also worshipped as a goddess of the Other-

the fantastical and also regularly intermingled

world, a goddess of death, and a “bringer of

with an array of fantastical creatures, such as

dreams (Shaw).” The name Rhiannon means

faeries. Historical texts and archaeological

“Night Queen” and, like many other Celtic

evidence has provided us with a knowledge of

deities, it is thought that Rhiannon may be re-

these deities as well as evidence of their wor-

constructed from another, much older goddess

ship - a worship that is slowly being revived

by the name of Rigantona (Shaw). As a god-

in our modern world through the emergence

dess, she is believed to be a merge between the

of Wicca and other spiritual practices. Of all

Gaulish horse goddess Epona, the Irish horse

the deities, both god and goddess, in the Celtic

goddess Macha, and Matrona, the great mother

pantheon, Rhiannon and Aine are two of the

(Goddess Rhiannon). Rhiannon is described

most well-known, the former known as “The

as a beautiful young woman in a golden dress

Night Queen” and the latter considered to be

who rides upon a pale white horse with a calm

“The Queen of Faeries.”

expression upon her face. The white mare that she rides upon and its swift capacity is

Who was Rhiannon?

believed to represent her as a lunar goddess

The Celtic goddess Rhiannon was born during

(Rhiannon). She is often surrounded by ani-

the first rise of the moon and is predominantly

mals, particularly songbirds whose music can

worshipped as the goddess of the moon and the

awaken spirits and put mortals into a deep

queen of night (Shaw). She is also hailed as

sleep (Rhiannon). The main source of informa-

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tion on Rhiannon is an ancient Welsh folklore

finally stop after hearing the prince’s appeals

entitled The Mabinogion compiled by Lady

to her (Shaw). She begins to “rebuke him for

Charlotte Guest. Rhiannon is featured within

not considering this course of action before”

both the first branch and the third branch of The

and then explains to him that she has come

Mabinogion (Shaw).

to marry him, for she does not love the man that she is currently betrothed to, Gwawl ap

Rhiannon in the First Branch of The Mabinogion

Clud (Shaw). Pwyll happily agrees to marry Rhiannon and the two eventually wed.

During their wedding feast that is being

The Mabinogion is a collection of prose and

held at her father’s court, an unknown man

folk stories from Wales that was passed down

appears and asks the prince to grant him a

orally from one generation to the next until all

request. Foolishly, Pwyll agrees to grant the

the stories were compiled together and written

man’s request without first asking what it is

down in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries

(Shaw). The man then removes his disguise

(Shaw). In it, Rhiannon is not portrayed as a

and reveals himself to be Gwawl and that

goddess but as a mortal woman. In the first

he has come to take back Rhiannon. Rhian-

branch of The Mabinogion, Rhiannon appears

non once again chastises Pwyll for acting

for the first time at Gorsedd Arberth, which

before thinking and then comes up with a

is an “ancestral mound” close to the court of

clever plan. She tells Gwawl that marrying

Dyfed (Shaw). The ancestral mound is magical

Pwyll was a mistake and that she accepts his

and Pwyll, the Prince of Dyfed, has accepted

marriage offer (Shaw). During the wedding

its traditional, magical challenge of showing

feast of Rhiannon and Gwawl, Pwyll’s

a marvel or dealing out blows. Shortly after,

men are stationed outside in the orchard

Rhiannon appears from the mound as its prom-

while Pwyll, dressed as a beggar, enters the

ised marvel (Shaw). The prince notices how

hall with a small bag for food. However,

beautiful she is and soon realizes how quick

the bag is magical and can never be fully

her horse is once she begins galloping away.

filled (Shaw). While Gwawl is leaning into

Pwyll sends his best horsemen after her and

the bag in order to fill it with food, Pwyll

for two days they try to catch up with Rhian-

captures Gwawl and traps him in the bag.

non and her horse but fail (Shaw). On the third

The prince’s men immediately rush into

day, Pwyll decides that he will try to catch her

the hall from the orchard and begin kicking

himself but he also fails. Rhiannon decides to

and punching the bag that Gwawl is in. In

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order to save his life, Gwawl agrees to com-

advice of his advisors, decides to make her do

pletely relinquish Rhiannon to the prince and

penance instead. While Rhiannon still main-

any feelings of revenge he might have towards

tains her status as a queen, she is forced to sit

them (Shaw). Rhiannon and Pwyll marry once

at the gates of the palace near the stables every

more to ensure its

day and tell travelers and

officiality and then

passersby her story. She

they ride off togeth-

must also carry people on

er back to Dyfed,

her back wherever they

where Rhiannon

might need to go if they

is crowned Queen.

ask her to do so, though

After two years

few allow this (Shaw).

of barrenness and

Meanwhile, Rhiannon

mounting pressure

and Pwyll’s baby is

from the kingdom

discovered by Teyrnon,

for an heir, Rhian-

a horse lord of Gwent-

non finally gives

Is-Coed located in south-

birth to their first

eastern Wales. He and

child, a son, in the

his wife take in the child

third year of their

and name him Gwri Wallt

marriage. That very

Euryn, a name meaning

night, the newborn

“Gwri of the Golden

is kidnapped from

Hair,” which pays hom-

his nursery and from

age to the baby having a

the six, sleepy maids

The Penance of Rhiannon

full head of hair that was

who were charged with his care (Shaw). The

as yellow as gold (Shaw). The boy grows at

maids, terrified of being blamed for the baby’s

a “superhuman pace” and soon Gwri begins

disappearance and the death penalty they might

to show physical features that are similar to

receive, kill a puppy and rubs its blood all over

the physical attributes of the king (Shaw).

Rhiannon’s sleeping face. In the morning, the

Teyrnon, who was once a courtier in Pwyll’s

maids accuse Rhiannon of “infanticide and

court, recognizes the boy’s resemblance to the

cannibalism (Shaw).” The king is urged to set

king and, being a virtuous and honorable man,

his wife aside but Pwyll refuses and, taking the

returns the boy to Dyfed and to his mother and

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father, Rhiannon and Pwyll. His parents rejoice

the use of the land of Dyfed, although Pryderi

at their son’s return and Rhiannon formally

will maintain his sovereignty (Rhiannon).

renames her son Pryderi. The name was chosen

Pryderi also manages to arrange a marriage

in the traditional way through the use of the

between the widowed Rhiannon and Manawy-

mother’s first direct words to him which, in this

dan, who share mutual respect and affection

case, was a wordplay on the words ‘delivered,’

for one another. After a dramatic episode

‘care,’ ‘worry,’ and ‘loss (Shaw).’ Eventual-

of disaster befalls them and their land, later

ly, Pwyll dies and the crown of Dyfed passes

revealed to be the work of Gwawl, Rhiannon’s

to Pryderi. Soon after inheriting the throne,

rejected suitor, as a form of revenge against

Pryderi marries Cygfa of Gloucester and, in the

her, the family is reunited and peace and sta-

process, annexes the seven “cantrefs of Mor-

bility return to the land of Dyfed (Rhiannon).

gannwg” to his kingdom (Shaw).

Modern Day Worship of Rhiannon Rhiannon in the Third Branch of The

The goddess Rhiannon continues to be wor-

Mabinogion

shipped in Britain in the modern age (Goddess

Fastforwarding through the second branch to

Rhiannon). On a Berkshire hillside, the annual

the third branch of The Mabinogion, Pryderi is

Festival of the White Horse is held in honor

in the midst of returning from the “disastrous

of both this ancient, galloping steed and its as-

Irish wars” as one of only seven survivors

sociation with Rhiannon. Many festival-goers

(Rhiannon). Another survivor among the seven

will wear white or silver in order to generate

is Manawydan, a good friend to Pryderi and an

Rhiannon’s blessings through the lunar colors’

heir to the throne of England, a throne that was

vibrations. The significance of Rhiannon upon

recently vacated due to the death of the king,

her white mare symbolizes perseverance and

Bran the Blessed, in the Irish wars (Rhiannon).

moving forward with a pure (thus, the sig-

Pryderi and Manawydan are on their way to

nificance of the color white) and clear mind,

London to bury the king’s head as a way of

leaving one’s past behind them (Goddess

symbolizing Britain’s protection from invasion

Rhiannon). Today, Rhiannon is still called

when news comes that Manawydan’s nephew,

upon to develop one’s patience, overcome

Caswallon, has usurped the English throne.

one’s enemies, to help in the interpretation of

Weary from war, Manawydan decides against

dream work, and in moon and magick rituals

making war to reclaim his rights. In a generous

that continue to be practiced. The goddess also

gesture to his friend, Pryderi offers Manawydan

has associations with many animals, plants,

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and gems including puppies, dragons, hum-

Who was Aine?

mingbirds, badgers, jasmine, rosemary, leeks,

Aine is the Celtic goddess of love, wealth,

pansies, daffodils, narcissus, gold, silver, moon-

sovereignty, luck, magick, summer, earth,

stone, amethyst, crystal, and turquoise to name

nature, and agriculture and is in charge of pro-

a few. One of her most important symbols is

tecting livestock, cattle, and crops (Klimczak).

the apple, which represents her association with

She is also associated with the sun and moon,

abundance and fertility (Goddess Rhiannon). In

the element air, the direction southwest,

Romano-British times, plants/herbs and gems

and a sacred herb of the Druids known as

that symbolized the worship of Rhiannon were

Meadowsweet. She is described as being the

incorporated into jewelry and household decor

Queen of the Faeries and a Lady of the Lake

as talismans, in hopes that the goddess would

(Klimczak). The name Aine (On-Ya) is be-

bestow blessings, special gifts, and protection

lieved to mean “brightness, radiance, or glory

upon those who worshipped her (Goddess Rhi-

(Shaw).” Aine is also one of the goddesses

annon). Of course, these items were also used

in the Triple Goddess Triad (Klimczak). She

in the pagan rituals that honored her. Rhiannon

is considered to be a sensitive goddess with

represents the element of earth and the best day

a joyful personality. At times, she is known

to worship her is on a Monday. In this modern

to transform into a red mare known as “Lair

age, her only required offering is music (God-

Derg” in order to “walk amongst her people”

dess Rhiannon). Today, Pagans and Wiccans

and aide them when needed (Shaw). Along

gather annually on March 4th to celebrate the

with the red mare, her sacred animals include

Feast of Rhiannon. However, there are also

swans and rabbits and she is particularly

alternatives to this date as she could also be

associated with the Irish southwestern prov-

worshipped on April 8th, the day of the moon

ince of Munster, specifically County Limerick

that honors all moon goddesses, and June 23rd,

(Shaw).

the day of the fairy goddesses (Rhiannon). A well-known prayer/affirmation to the goddess

Aine in Ancient Irish Myth, Legend, and

goes as follows: “Great Goddess, help me re-

Folklore

member that times of sorrow are opportunities

Aine is an unusual goddess in the way myths,

for the greatest growth. Rhiannon, I affirm that

legends, and folklore portray her. Instead of

I have the courage to overcome my doubts and

being portrayed as a powerful goddess who

fears (Goddess Rhiannon).”

is in control, she is depicted as being raped and murdered, as well as facing other difficult

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obstacles (Klimczak). In the ancient Celtic

manages to bite his ear off, which would lead

world, especially during times of war, women

to his new nickname, One-Eared Aulom.

had to face similar cruelties, particularly sexual

According to ancient Irish law, a king’s

assault/abuse, and it is believed that the obsta-

appearance had to be perfect and complete.

cles that Aine faced were meant to reflect the

Otherwise, they would lose power (Klimczak).

struggles of ordinary Celtic women. This is one

Thus, Ailill loses his authority and Aine

of the main reasons why the worship of Aine

becomes associated with sovereignty, granting

was so popular (Klimczak).

power to those who are good and removing

According to Celtic legend, Aine is the

power from those who abuse it (Klimczak).

daughter of Eogabail, a member of the

Unfortunately, Aine does not win in the end.

legendary Tuatha De Danann (Shaw). She has

After losing his kingdom, an enraged Ailill

two sisters, Fenne and Grianne, and together

thrusts his spear into Aine and she dies shortly

they make up the Triple Goddess Triad. It is

afterwards (Shaw). Despite the portrayal of

believed that Aine represents the light half of

Aine’s death in various myths and legends, she

the year while her sister Grianne represents

is still an immortal goddess in the pantheon of

the dark half of the year (Shaw). There are

ancient Celtic deities. Interestingly, there are

other sources that state that she also has a third

other myths and legends where Aine is not the

sister, the goddess Brigid (Klimczak). She is

victim but the perpetrator. In one such legend,

also recognized as the “wife of the sea god

Aine is forced to marry a man named Geroid

Manannan Mac Lir - a deity who was very

Iarla against her will (Shaw). The marriage

important to Celtic warriors (Klimczak).”

does not last long, though, because she soon

However, she was also known to have many

uses her powers to transform him into a goose

human lovers, both good and bad, and bore

and then kills him. Despite the fact that there

many children, creating a magical faerie-human

are many variations to this legend, one aspect

race and making her Queen of the Faeries

remains consistent - the union of Aine and

(Shaw). Her association with sovereignty

Geroid produces a magical son known as The

comes from a legend that involves one of these

Magician. Some have asserted that this son

bad human “lovers,” a king of Munster named

was Merlin himself (Shaw).

Ailill Aulom (Klimczak). Ailill is described as being “driven by his sexual desires, instead of

Modern Day Worship of Aine

learning the true meaning of love (Klimczak).”

With the increasing popularity of Wicca, the

He rapes Aine but, during the rape, Aine

worship of ancient Celtic deities is emerg-

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ing yet again and becoming more widespread

mates (Klimczak).” A celebration of Aine is

(Klimczak). Consequently, with the renewed

held every year on August 1st (Klimczak).

emergence of the worship of Celtic deities, the

Aine is celebrated on this day because this is

cult of Aine is also expanding. The cult is main-

the day that she sat in her birthing chair and

ly centered in and around Limerick, Ireland but

gave birth to a sheave of wheat (Shaw). Aine

is gradually spreading as Wicca becomes more

is also celebrated in the midsummer, usually

popular and widespread (Klimczak). According

on June 23, when people honor her and her

to tradition, Aine, along with her two sisters,

sacred fire (Shaw). Men will gather at the

is believed to live in a sidhe, an underground

top of Cnoc Aine, her sacred hill located in

mound where the faerie goddesses live. It is

Limerick that was once the most powerful,

only during a full moon that they will come out

royal ceremonial centre in Munster, and, with

to ride horses and play in Lough Gur, a lake

lit torches, will run down the hill through their

in County Limerick dedicated to Aine (Shaw).

fields and herds of cattle, asking for Aine’s

Lough Gur is dedicated to Aine due to her as-

blessings for an abundant harvest (Shaw).

sociation with water and healing. It is said that, during a full moon known as All Heal Night,

Conclusion

people were brought to this enchanted lake to

While Rhiannon and Aine are quite different

be healed. If they did not recover, Aine would

from one another in many respects, the former

sing to them and comfort them as they died

representing the moon and night and the latter

and passed from this world to the Otherworld

representing summer and brightness, they also

(Shaw). Archaeological evidence of hut circles

share many similarities, such as their mutu-

and offerings have been discovered in the vicin-

al affinity for magick, their association with

ity surrounding the lake, leading many archae-

fertility, and their dramatic experiences with

ologists to believe that worship of Aine may

mortal men. They gave hope to women who

go back as far as our early Neolithic ancestors

lived during a time when being a woman was

(Shaw).

brutal and survival uncertain. Their influence

Aine’s powers are both realistic and

on the history and culture of the Celtic peo-

fantastical and she can be invoked for “love

ple can be gauged by their continued worship

spells, fertility, faerie magick, abundance,

in the modern era and the power that they

prosperity, punishing love crimes, keeping

have managed to maintain over the centuries,

magickal vows, releasing faeries, bearing

despite the introduction of Christianity. Just

magickal children, and leaving unsuitable

as Aine inspired the name of Ireland (Shaw),

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known for its pious, Christian population, so too do the ancient Celtic goddesses continue to hide in plain sight, maintaining the same constant vigil over their land and people that they have held for centuries. n Alexandria Nora Franklin is a senior at East Carolina University majoring in cultural anthropology and religious studies with minors in history and gender studies.

She is a member of four honor societies including Phi Kappa Phi National Honor Society and Omicron Delta Kappa Leadership Honor Society. She was born and raised in the Appalachian Mountains of N.C. but plans to move to the United Kingdom within the next two years, where she plans to attend graduate school and make it her home. She aspires to work for a non-profit that combats human trafficking and travel the globe.

Works Cited Klimczak, Natalia. “Aine: A Radiant Celtic Goddess of Love, Summer, and Sovereignty.”

Ancient Origins, November 28, 2016. Web. Shaw, Judith. “Aine: Summer Goddess of Love, Light, and Fertility.” Feminism and Religion, July 31, 2013. Web. Shaw, Judith. “Rhiannon: Goddess of Birds and Horses.” Feminism and Religion, March 13, 2013. Web. “Goddess Rhiannon.” Journeying to the Goddess, September 18, 2012. Web. “Rhiannon: Celtic Goddess of Inspiration and the Moon.” Crystal Wind, December 3, 2010. Web.

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Project Managers: Managers, Leaders, or Both?

Nikkenta Murphy One hears the term leadership in a wide vari-

style continuously. By becoming familiar with

ety of industries. Leadership comes in many

both management and leadership qualities,

different sizes and shapes. Leadership is nec-

it will allow the project manager to gain the

essary for all environments, especially project

trust and respect from the team members and

management (PM). Leadership is described

stakeholders while consistently increasing the

by the Project Management Institute (PMI) as:

probability for project success.

“an essential element of organizational proj-

Project managers should build a dedicated

ect management maturity� (PMI, 2018). Key

toolbox to utilize during a project. The

skills that leaders bring to the table are ability

toolbox should embody both skill sets of

to motivate and inspire, build teams, negotiate,

management and leadership. Some of the

communicate effectively, actively listen, and

attributes indicative of leaders are thinking

influence (Kumar, 2009). A common falla-

innovatively, seeking challenges, motivating

cy among many industries is that in order to

and inspiring team members, and providing

be successful in management, you must be a

focus on the company mission and goals.

great leader. I have known many managers

Leaders often have a wide area of influence.

who were effective in management yet did not

The skill sets of managers are administering,

possess effective leadership qualities. Without

seeking opportunities to maintain the status

great leadership qualities, project managers

quo, thinking from a short-term perspective,

struggle to accomplish project goals. Project

controlling, and providing focus on the

managers have limited authoritative power.

company mission and goals. Managers tend to

So, to get work done, project managers have

have little influence (Kumar, 2009).

to motivate and influence their subordinates. It

While some of these skills appear to be

is crucial for the team and stakeholders to trust

negative, there are benefits from considering

and respect the project manager. Through the

things in a short-term perspective. Project

development of strong leadership skills, proj-

managers may benefit from adopting

ect managers can influence team members to

qualities from both leaders and managers.

accomplish project goals. The goal is to grow

They will have the flexibility to utilize the

and master a great management and leadership

best option in a situation and applying the

Page 54

The Lookout choice as applicable. It could be detrimental

Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 Rachael Burch, Appeals Nurse Consultant

to the project for a project manager not to

for Aetna Insurance, is a recent graduate of the

understand the basic principles of leadership.

BB&T Leadership Institute. She is a certified

For example, I once was a part of a project

BB&T Emerging Leader. She believes a good

team where the project manager did not

leader embodies skills such as interpersonal

include the team in the budget. Each unit

communication, open-mindedness, a firm

proceeded with the understanding that they

yet compassionate leadership style, and

could meet their goals with an unlimited

maintaining a hands-on approach. The role

budget. The project costs were over budget,

that leadership plays in a successful project

and the project manager brought it to the

is the project manager’s ability to lead while

team’s attention. Had costs been discussed in

keeping the project organized. Leaders select

the planning phase, they would not have been

the best people for the best roles to increase

over budget. Having a thorough understanding

the chances of being a successful project.

of the leadership principles, specifically

Burch says, “the willingness to serve from the

effective communication will allow for a more

bottom up is what creates a service culture of

significant impact on the team, stakeholders,

excellence. Leaders lead by example!” (R. E.

and project success.

Burch, personal communication, 2018).

Three people were selected from three

Dana White has been in a leadership

different industries and asked a set of questions

role for twenty years at Quality Labs

to identify the skills/characteristics of a good

Engineering Management for Siemens

leader: What defines leadership? What role

Energy. She believes leadership is defined

does leadership play in project success?

as mentorship. Leaders should be willing to

Finally, what are the responsibilities of a leader

learn, great listeners, and action oriented.

in creating a service culture of excellence?

The role leadership plays in project success

The service culture of excellence allows the

is providing execution to the project actions.

project manager to focus on quality customer

The execution phase in the project life cycle

satisfaction and end service provided. These

can make or break project success. A team

three questions helped define a few of the key

can have a good business case and the best

components regarding leadership. The goal

plan for the project, yet if there is no action

was to show how people believe leadership is

or execution, the project will fail. The role

important in project management regardless of

of a leader in creating a service culture of

the industry.

excellence is to promote excellent quality and

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integrity. White says, “the absence of quality

performance, cultivating learning, and

and integrity in providing excellent service

ensuring the results (Juli, 2011). These key

leaves a void that cannot be filled” (D. D.

principles can serve as a simple guide for

White, personal communication, 2018).

the project manager to gain and maintain

Keith Burch, Project Manager at

successful leadership skills. The PM industry

Containment Control Incorporated (CCI), has

organizes leadership tools in the pyramid

been in the environmental science industry for

or matrix format to teach these skill sets to

over thirty years. According to Burch, the key

project managers.

leadership skills are for leaders to be decisive

The Project Leadership Matrix is a four-

while being inclusive towards the ideas of

category cube matrix that teaches reactive and

others, empathetic of each member’s situation,

proactive skills. The proactive phases focus

and communicating clear direction. The leader

on the project’s strategic vision while the

must have honesty, integrity, and must provide

reactive focus on immediate issues (Madsen,

feedback (positive or negative) to the team

2018).

that will promote reassurance to the members.

This matrix allows users to focus on people

Financial accountability also plays a critical

and inspiring engagement in the Reactive

role in project success. Having a clear and

and Proactive: People Leadership phase. The

open communication plan that is effectively

authority-based task focus engages during the

communicated to the team, customer, and

Reactive and Proactive: Task Management

stakeholders is the main objective. Burch

phase. Applying these tools to everyday

gives three easy points to creating a service culture of excellence. The leader must accept responsibility, communicate the excellence plan, and lead by example.

Burch says, “always communicate the financial objectives, goals, and budgets to all that are involved” (J. K. Burch, Personal Communication, 2018).

The Project Leadership Pyramid illustrates the principles of leadership.

The five categories are building the vision, nurturing collaboration, promoting

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practice in a project will separate the leaders

managers that are experiencing problems

from managers.

with the stakeholders or team members lack

The common belief that project managers

leadership skills. It is unlikely that a project

only need good management skills is long

manager is struggling if proper leadership

gone. In any industry of project managers,

practices are applied. Project managers must

successful projects are determined by

adopt a style that requires a unique approach

successful leaders. Leadership development

using foundational leadership and good

is a necessity for every project manager. The

management practices based on each

industry does not focus enough on leadership or

situation. ■

the role leadership plays in a project’s success or failure. Often, we hear project managers complain that they have no authority and are unable to get work done. In reality, project

Works Cited Burch, J.K. (2018, November 16). Personal Interview.

Burch, R.E. (2018, November 12). Personal Interview.

Juli, T. (2011). The five team leadership principles for project success. Paper presented at PMI® Global Congress 2011—North America, Dallas, TX. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.

Kumar, V. S. (2009). Essential leadership skills for project managers. Paper presented at PMI® Global Congress 2009—North America, Orlando, FL. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.

Madsen, S. (2016). Project Manager. What Kind of Leader Are You? Use the Project Leadership Matrix to Find Out. Retrieved from https://www.projectmanager.com/ training/use-the-project-leadership-matrix Opfer, W. A. & Abrams, F. (2004). Leadership: an essential element of organizational project management maturity. Paper presented at PMI® Research Conference: Innovations, London, England. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.

White, D.D. (2018, November 16). Personal Interview.

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Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard Jordan Dudley How do we define bullying? It is a concept

Rights Act of 1964 prohibits harassment on the

most often associated with schoolyard teasing,

basis of color, national origin, race, religion

but the sad reality is, many people experience

and sex” (2018). Acts of bullying that include

bullying far beyond school walls. Bullying

one of these topics are considered harassment

is a gradual progression of negativity that

by law and thus have a separate correction

surrounds a person and can manifest itself in

process, but they can be prevented in a similar

many forms. Being different in a society of

way.

perceived perfection is one of the main causes

According to Nagele-Piazza, a senior

for judgement, which holds true in the work-

legal editor, “bullying is generally defined

place as well; and coworkers are not immune

as unwelcome behavior that occurs over a

to the judgements of their peers. These judge-

period of time and is meant to harm someone

ments can create a great deal of damage to

who feels powerless to respond” (2018).

both the person being judged and to the work-

Bullying can be verbal, social, psychological,

place itself. Ultimately, it is the responsibility

or physical in nature. In a 2017 survey by the

of human resource professionals (HRPs) to

Workplace Bullying Institute, sixty-one percent

correct and prevent bullying behaviors. They

of U.S. employees are aware of abusive

must do this in order to maintain a safe and

conduct (Nagele-Piazza, 2018). Several

healthy work environment by creating detailed

studies, like this one, have been conducted to

policies and implementing training programs

uncover the extent of bullying in the workplace

for bullying awareness.

and have shown that thirty-five percent of the

It is not uncommon for the word

workforce feels bullied at some point at the

“harassment” to be brought into the bullying

workplace (Human Resources: Bullying in the

conversation. In many ways, harassment can

Workplace, 2016). Furthermore, the National

be compared to bullying; both situations occur

Institute of Occupational Safety and Health

over a period of time and are meant to harm

found that twenty-five percent of workplaces

someone who feels powerless. The line is

experience bullying (Human Resources, 2016).

drawn between the two by federal law. Lisa Negela-Piazza states that “Title VII of the Civil

Page 58

Workplace bullying leads to a negative outlook on the workplace environment and can

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019

ultimately result in lackluster performance

involves a manager or supervisor, it should

and a steadily declining culture. HRPs play

be brought to senior management or human

a crucial role in managing the culture of a

resources immediately (Koelmeyer, 2017).

workplace and, in doing so, they must also

In addition to defining the chain of

manage elements like bullying. The first

command, HRPs must outline their course of

thing HRPs must understand, before tackling

action for complaints that involve bullying

prevention and correction methods, is the

in the workplace. For example, complaints

power of transparency. Victims of bullying are

may be subject to investigation in order

often embarrassed to report their situation or

to hear both sides of the complaints and

even feel as though it would not be handled

take necessary actions thereafter. It is also

promptly and with care. By openly discussing

a good idea to include mediation in the

workplace bullying and allowing employees to

policy to avoid all bullying complaints being

feel comfortable discussing it, HRPs open the

disregarded (Koelmeyer, 2017). It may be

door to dealing with these situations properly,

wise to include tolerance within the anti-

hopefully bringing an end to them altogether.

bullying policy. Ideally, there would be zero

The beginning stages of dealing with

tolerance for bullying in every organization,

any bullying incidence in the workplace

but because this is somewhat unrealistic,

is the preemptive placement of an anti-

HRPs may choose to have a one warning

bullying or harassment policy and procedure.

system in which the first complaint will be

Constructing policies and procedures is well

dealt with using training and mediation, but

within an HRP’s skill-range and should,

the next complaint will result in termination.

in a perfect world, be quite simple and

Anti-bullying policies are extremely serious

commonsensical. To begin, an anti-bullying

and must be used one hundred percent of

policy must clearly define the chain of

the time with any claim. Legally, it would

command as it relates to who a disgruntled

be negligent of any company to handle a

employee should report their complaint to

complaint against their company policy

(Kelleher, 2017). In most cases, a complaint

(Koelmeyer, 2017). Employees have the right

should be filed with the direct manager or

to sue if their complaints are not handled

supervisor of an employee. If this option is

to the specifications in their employment

not possible, the complaint then goes to the

contract and they could also suffer further

next most senior manager or human resources

psychological damage due to the ongoing

(Kelleher, 2017). Furthermore, if a complaint

situation (Koelmeyer, 2017). HRP’s can even

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add a zero tolerance for false complaints to

important for HRPs to perform the same

their anti-bullying policy to ensure that they are

training with managers and supervisors, with

spending their time and effort on complaints

the addition of explaining how they must

that are of true concern.

handle complaints according to the anti-

When dealing with complaints, there are

bullying policy that is in place. Consequences

two things an HRP must remember in addition

must be explained in these training sessions

to following their company policy. The first

in order for all employees to understand the

thing is to ensure confidentiality between the

seriousness of bullying in the workplace.

HRPs and those involved (Koelmeyer, 2017).

While consequences vary based on

Confidentiality is very important in order

company policies, most companies implement

for employees to trust their human resource

a mediation program. Mediation is a conflict

department and be willing to bring complaints

resolution technique in which HRPs are

forward without fear of backlash. The second

an unbiased third party (“Mediation,”

thing is to take all complaints seriously and

2018). Within these mediation sessions,

treat them the same way. There will be cases

HRPs can give both parties a chance

where employees wish to makes a complaint

to explain themselves while providing

“off the record” without filing a formal

communication techniques to neutralize the

complaint. In this situation, an HRP must

situation (“Mediation,” 2018). When done

remind their employees that every complaint

correctly, mediation promotes reconciliation

is a formal complaint and must be dealt with

and compromise, which would ideally

accordingly, using confidentiality to ensure

eliminate the possibility of future bullying

the employees’ comfort and peace of mind

instances (“Mediation,” 2018). In the case

(Koelmeyer, 2017).

that mediation does not resolve the issue

Training and mediation are wonderful tools for preventing and correcting bullying behaviors that allow for a safe and open

completely, any future bullying accusations should result in termination.

Human resource professionals must correct

discussion about bullying in the workplace.

and prevent bullying behaviors in order to

Training should occur at least once a year

maintain a safe and healthy work environment

in order to explain bullying and harassment,

by creating detailed policies and implementing

and the policies and procedures in place for

training programs for bullying awareness. The

managing it (CUPA-HR, 2017). Furthermore,

unfortunate truth is that bullying occurs far

training is given to all employees. It is

beyond school walls and remains a factor in

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The Lookout the workplace. While harassment and bullying differ as they relate to federal law, companies must implement detailed policies and procedures to manage these situations as well as perform training and mediation. It is easy for human resource professionals to get caught up in their day-to-day responsibilities and forget the importance of bullying awareness.

Without the proper tools and enforcements, there can be serious consequences including

Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 Jordan Dudley is a Business Management major from Wake Forest, North Carolina. She is a member of the Beta Gamma Sigma honors society, as well as the Society for Human Recourse Management, with a passion for promoting healthy workplace relationships and cultures. In addition to her academic and professional interests, Jordan is a classically trained vocalist and experienced equestrian. She hopes to enter and excel in the human resources field following graduation in May 2020.

lawsuits and tremendous psychological damage for victims. n

Works Cited Barrow L. (January 30, 2012). Workplace Bullying and the Role of Human Resource Management. Retrieved from https://peopletalkonline.ca/workplace-bullying-and-therole-of-human-resource-management/ Bullying; New Findings on Bullying Described by Investigators at University of Texas (Revision of the workplace bullying checklist: the importance of human resource management’s role in defining and addressing workplace bullying). (March 2, 2015).

Mental Health Weekly Digest. Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.jproxy.lib. ecu.edu/docview/1658103602/fulltext/5AB1FBD1FE2C4E89PQ/7?accountid=10639 Cowan, R. L., & Fox, S. (2015). Being pushed and pulled: A model of US HR professionals’ roles in bullying situations. Personnel Review, 44(1), 119–139.

Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.jproxy.lib.ecu.edu/docview/1655513301/ fulltextPDF/5AB1FBD1FE2C4E89PQ/14?accountid=10639 CUPA-HR. (December 13, 2017). HR’s Role in Managing Bulling and Harassment at Work. Retrieved from https://www.cupahr.org/hrs-role-in-managing-bullying-andharassment-at-work/

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Human Resources: Bullying in the Workplace. (July 21, 2016). [Video]. Lynda. com. Retrieved from https://www.lynda.com/Business-Skills-tutorials/ Welcome/434460/510181-4.html Koelmeyer, S. How Should HR Respond to Bullying Complaints? (December 15, 2017). Retrieved from https://www.hcamag.com/hr-news/how-should-hr-respond--tobullying-complaints-244944.aspx Mediation. (2018). In Merriam-Webster. Retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster. com/dictionary/mediation Nagele-Piazza, L. (March 28, 2018). Workplace Bullying and Harassment: What is the Difference? Retrieved from https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/legal-andcompliance/state-and-local-updates/pages/workplace-bullying.aspx/

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The New Pollution: A Scientific Review of the Effects of Anthropogenic Chemical Contaminants on Several Avian Physiological and Molecular Systems Across Species Rachel Goodman Introduction

procedures within the last ten years, and are

Although not considered a looming epidem-

only required in certain high-income countries;

ic by the average person, various sources of

otherwise, most synthetic compounds are

pollution—and the human mortality associated

produced and sold without any safety or

with them—are increasing. According to the

toxicity testing (Landrigan et al., 2018).

most recent Lancet commission on pollution

Less than half of the 5,000 chemicals in the

and health, pollution is the leading cause

environment have undergone any toxicity

internationally of disease and premature death

evaluation or harm prevention testing

in humans, and—in the most severely affected

whatsoever (Landrigan et al., 2018).

countries—pollution-related diseases account

The effects of pollution on human societies

for more than one in four human deaths daily

are known. In 2012, 7 million people

(Landrigan et al., 2018). Although household

worldwide died from outdoor and indoor

air pollution is decreasing, ambient air pollu-

air pollution-related illnesses (Jasarevic,

tion is on the rise; major sources of ambient air

Thomas, & Osseiran, 2014). Of the outdoor

pollution can be found in every country, and

air pollution-related deaths, 40% died from

include fuel-powered vehicles, the generation

ischemic heart disease; 40% died from stroke;

of electricity, and mechanized agricultural

11% died from chronic obstructive pulmonary

industries (Landrigan et al., 2018).

disease (COPD); 6% died from lung cancer;

Chemical pollution is also a growing

and 3% died from acute pediatric respiratory

concern. Since 1950, more than 140,000

infections (Jasarevicet al., 2014). In 2015, 16%

new chemicals and pesticides have been

of all deaths worldwide were due to diseases

synthesized, 5,000 of which are present at

caused by pollution (Landrigan et al., 2018).

pathological concentrations within human

The sources of the pollution are also known.

environments (Landrigan et al., 2018).

According to the United Nation’s World Water

Synthetic chemical testing and pre-market

Assessment Programme of 2003, 2 million

evaluation have only become mandatory

tons of sewage and agricultural and industrial

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wastes are deposited into the world’s waters

pollutants is the morphological distortion

every day (“The natural water cycle,” 2003).

and misshaping of erythrocytes and the nu-

In 2016, 78 million tons of pollution were

clei within erythrocytes. Erythrocytes are

emitted into the atmosphere in the United

red blood cells that contain hemoglobin, the

States alone (“Air quality trends,” 2016). Of

molecule responsible for shuttling oxygen and

this airborne particulate pollution, 85% is due

waste products, such as carbon dioxide, to and

to the combustion of fossil fuels (Landrigan et

from tissues and organs of the body. Although

al., 2018).

human red blood cells do not have nuclei, bird

Multiple studies have been completed on the effects of pollutants on human physiology. Rats

erythrocytes are nucleated.

In one study on female Japanese quails

and amphibians, along with birds, which are

(Coturnix japonica), a commercial pesticide

considered excellent indicators of ecological

containing abamectin (ABA), an insecticide

status, have been made common test subjects

belonging to the avermectin chemical group

in an effort to deduce environmental health.

of pesticides widely used in the production

However, an intriguing question has been

of citrus fruits, potatoes, and maize, was fed

raised: What are the effects of anthropogenic

to 3 experimental groups of specimens; the

pollutants—man-made pollutants—on the

control received only drinking water, while

physiological and molecular systems within the

groups 2 and 3 received 1% of the median

avian body? What effects do various types of

lethal dose (15.5 mg a.i./L ABA), and 10%

pollutants—including large-scale agricultural

of the median lethal dose (155.0 mg a.i./L

pesticides and herbicides, polycyclic aromatic

ABA), respectively (De Faria et al., 2018).

hydrocarbons produced from incomplete

The effects of the pesticide on the nuclei of

fossil fuel combustion, and crude oil—have

the quails’ erythrocytes were assessed through

on the circulatory, nervous, endocrine, renal,

blood smears fixed, stained, and inspected

and digestive physiologies within birds across

under a light microscope. A dose-dependent

species? How do these mutagen compounds

trend was observed during the course of the

transform or potentially damage bird DNA?

experiment; the higher the concentrations

How pollutants affect the avian circulatory system

of abamectin fed to the quail through their drinking water, the higher the incidence of nuclear abnormalities within the quails’

One way in which the avian circulatory system

erythrocytes (De Faria et al., 2018). These

may be affected by anthropogenic chemical

abnormalities included notched nuclei, moved

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nuclei, binucleated erythrocyte cells, and

herbicide—mixed in corn oil and administered

asymmetric constriction of nuclei, and were

daily for 30 days, the treatment groups that

detected in significantly larger numbers in the

received 75 mg/kg b.w., 100 mg/kg b.w.,

erythrocytes collected from both treatment

150 mg/kg b.w., and 250 mg/kg b.w. (i.e. all

groups as compared to the control group (De

treatment groups except one given the lowest

Faria et al., 2018).

dose of 50 mg/kg b.w.), displayed erythrocytes

In another experiment conducted on

with significantly increased levels of lobed

broiler chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus),

and notched nuclei relative to the control

who were treated with 92% technical grade

group (Hussain, Khan, Mahmood, Rehan, &

cypermethrin—a type II pyrethroid insecticide

Ali, 2014).

used to control ectoparasite infections in

De Faria et al. (2018) hypothesized that

domestic pets and livestock—and attenuated

abamectin and other agricultural pesticides

with antioxidant selenium and vitamin E,

may cause chemical defects within the cell

chicks who received cypermethrin only in

which affect the erythrocyte’s ability to fully

physiologic saline produced erythrocytes with

and efficiently separate its daughter cells

nuclear abnormalities at a significantly higher

and daughter nuclei during the end stages of

frequency than all other groups, including the

cell division and cytokinesis, which could

control group (Sharaf et al., 2010). Blood from

produce abnormalities such as asymmetrically

the control group demonstrated erythrocytes

constricted nuclei, notched nuclei, and

with normal configuration and shape; in

indentations within both the erythrocyte cell

all treatment groups, however, immature

membrane and nuclear membrane. In addition,

erythrocytes, spindle-shaped erythrocytes,

the authors posit that the individual moved

nuclear segmentation within erythrocytes,

nuclei within each damaged erythrocyte

notched nuclear erythrocytes, and spindle and

could be caused by chemical damage to the

pear-shaped erythrocytes were found (Sharaf

cell structures responsible for maintaining

et al., 2010). In addition, cytoplasm from the

the centralization of the nucleus, such as the

red blood cells was easily detached during

cytoskeleton (De Faria et al., 2018).

the smear preparation of the blood from the

Another mechanism by which chemical

treatment groups (Sharaf et al., 2010). In an

pollutants may affect the avian circulatory

experiment in which male Japanese quails

system is the micronucleation of erythrocytes.

(Coturnix japonica), were given varying levels

Micronuclei are remnants of chromosomes

of butachlor—a pre-emergent chloroacetanilide

found within small satellite bodies in the cell

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cytoplasm after exclusion from the daughter

blood cells are still unknown. Cypermethrin, a

nucleus during cell separation in mitosis. When

highly toxic insecticide, enters the circulation

micronuclei are found within cells, it is a signal

system because it is highly lipophilic (easily

of cell division malfunction, and thus are

dissolved in fats and lipids) and crosses

indicators of cell damage (Sharaf et al., 2010).

the blood-brain barrier’s semipermeable

In an experiment conducted on five groups

phospholipid bilayer membrane; pyrethroid

of broiler chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus)

insecticides are easily absorbed into

treated with cypermethrin and antioxidants,

hematological systems of animals due

2,100 cells from each chick were examined for

to the biochemistry of these compounds

micronuclei on three separate blood sampling

(Sharaf et al., 2010). One theory put forth

days at the beginning (day 10), middle (day

by experimenters as to how micronuclei

20), and end (day 30), of the experiment; on

are formed within hemocytes damaged by

days 20 and 30, the experimental group that

lipophilic pesticides is that chemical damage

were fed only cypermethrin displayed the

causes chromosomal lagging during anaphase;

most significant increase of micronucleated

as the chromatids move towards the poles

erythrocytes relative to all other experimental

and separate from their sister chromatids,

groups, demonstrating progressive

some may lag behind and become part of the

accumulation of cell damage due to non-lethal

cytoplasmic bodies excluded from the nuclei

pesticidal exposure (Sharaf et al., 2010).

in the individual daughter cells (Sharaf et al.,

Interestingly, in three of the five treatment

2010).

groups dosed with butachlor in the study on

Three final ways in which chemical

herbicide exposure in male Japanese quails, the

pollutants may alter the functioning of

ratio of micronucleated erythrocytes to normal

the circulatory system in birds are by (1)

erythrocytes in 1,000 red blood cells taken from

lowering the concentration of hemoglobin

each bird also increased dramatically on days

within erythrocytes, (2) decreasing the total

20 and 30 (Hussain, Riaz et al. 2014). The most

number of erythrocytes within the blood

frequent erythrocyte abnormality observed

system, and (3) diminishing the percentage

in all treatment groups was the formation of

volume of red blood cells within whole blood

micronuclei (Hussain et al., 2014).

volume (hematocrit). In the experiment

The mechanisms by which chemical

that treated male Japanese quail (Coturnix

pollutants disturb the inclusion of the

japonica), with the chloroacetanilide herbicide

chromosomal bodies within cell nuclei in red

butachlor and examined blood samples from

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culled specimens on experimental days 10,

in the mean corpuscular volume of their red

20, and 30, the total erythrocyte count was

blood cells, despite a decrease in hemoglobin

significantly reduced in the 3 most highly

concentration and independent of treatment

dosed groups of the 5 total treatment groups,

with selenium and vitamin E (Sharaf et al.,

in the most severely affected group showing

2010). Therefore, their red blood cells swelled

significant reduction as early as day 10 of

and became larger, but the constituent proteins

treatment (Hussain et al. 2014). However,

became less concentrated. The experimenters

as day 10 was the earliest sampling day, it is

posit that this may have been an indication of

also possible that reduction in erythrocytes

macrocytic hypochromic anemia (Sharaf et al.,

may have begun earlier in the treatment.

2010).

On days 20 and 30, both the hematocrit percentages and hemoglobin concentrations

How pollutants affect avian DNA

decreased significantly in the experimental

Anthropogenic pollutants alter the physical

groups with the highest and second-highest

structures of DNA strands. In herring gulls

dosages prescribed (Hussain et al. 2014).

(Larus argentatus) taken from various regions

The total erythrocyte count, hemoglobin

of the highly polluted Baltic Sea, the frequen-

concentration, and hematocrit percentage

cy of DNA adducts was found at significantly

also decreased significantly relative to

increased levels in gulls from urban centers

control for all experimental groups treated

compared to gulls from rural areas (Skar-

with cypermethrin on all sampling days,

phedinsdottir et al., 2010). DNA adducts

despite other pathophysiological symptoms

are formed when chemical mutagens are

of cypermethrin exposure being attenuated by

metabolized to form highly reactive metabo-

combined selenium and vitamin E antioxidant

lites that covalently bond to DNA molecules

treatment (Sharaf et al., 2010). Additionally, the

within cells; these bonded metabolites may

chicks also showed an increase in erythrocyte

become carcinogenetic or lead to mutations

sedimentation rate, which is usually indicative

in DNA sequences if not removed by DNA

of infection or inflammation as blood cells

repair proteins (Skarphedinsdottir, Halldora

clump together, thus increasing their weight

et al., 2010). In the study on herring gulls,

(Sharaf et al., 2010).

adult herring gulls were collected from three

Interestingly, the broiler chicks

regions in Sweden and two regions in Ice-

experimentally treated with cypermethrin

land; the county of SkĂĽne in Sweden was the

and antioxidants demonstrated an increase

most highly polluted site, while the two other

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Swedish sites (Blekinge county and Söderman-

late pollution (Skarphedinsdottir et al., 2010).

land county) were considered intermediate sites

DNA methylation status—and therefore,

between the severely polluted site and control.

transcription rates of lengths of DNA

The two Icelandic sites (Reykjanes peninsula

strands—may also be affected by pollutants.

and Djúpivogur), were considered controls,

In double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax

as the areas are extremely rural and have no

auritus) colonizing highly polluted Pier 27 in

known anthropogenic pollution sources in close

Hamilton Harbour in Ontario, a statistically

proximity (Skarphedinsdottir et al., 2010). Her-

significant 0.5-fold increase of 5-mC levels

ring gull chicks were also collected from two

was detected in lung tissues relative to the less

intermediate sites in Sweden (Värmland coun-

polluted Centre Island nearby on the same

ty and Södermanland county), and one rural

harbor (Wallace et al., 2018). 5-mC is the

control site in Iceland (Reykjanes peninsula.)

methylated form of the DNA base cytosine,

Of the adult specimens, 100% of the Swed-

and is formed after a DNA methyltransferase

ish birds had DNA adducts detected in their

enzyme transfers a methyl group to a DNA

tissues, and 88.2% of the Icelandic birds had

molecule during DNA methylation. The

DNA adducts at detectable levels within their

process of methylation typically results in a

tissues; the highest DNA adduct levels were

decreased rate of transcription of portions of

found in the gulls from the most polluted site,

methylated DNA as the configuration of the

Skåne county (Skarphedinsdottir et al., 2010).

strand becomes less accessible to transcription

In chicks, DNA adducts were detected in 71.4%

factors. Certain chemical compounds, such

of the intermediate Swedish specimens’ tissues,

as polycyclic aromatic compounds (including

but none were detected in the rural Icelandic

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), have been

specimens tissues (Skarphedinsdottir et al.,

shown to potentially cause hypermethylation

2010). That DNA adducts were found in Ice-

or hypomethylation of DNA, both of which

landic adult gulls from Reykjanes peninsula but

can lead to carcinogenesis through the

not in chicks from Reykjanes peninsula seems

suppression or overexpression of antioncogene

to indicate that even when the chicks are born

P53, respectively (Wallace et al., 2018).

into a rural area with a “clean genome,” being

Hamilton Harbour—specifically Pier 27—has

reared in the same remote spot does not neces-

a significantly elevated level of polycyclic

sarily preserve this result into adulthood. The

aromatic hydrocarbons in the surrounding

authors theorize that this conundrum may be

atmosphere due to its location downwind of

due to background exposure to ambient particu-

coking ovens, industrial complexes, and the

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two largest steel mills in Canada (Wallace et

discovered) and the most significant levels

al., 2018; King,de Solla, Small, Sverko, &

of the hydroxylated polycyclic aromatic

Quinn, 2014). In addition, the pier is near a

hydrocarbon benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-diol within

major highway with vehicles that produce

samples tissues (King et al., 2014). Pier

substantial gas and diesel emissions (King et

27 cormorants were also found to have a

al., 2014).

mutation rate 9.7 times higher than that of the

Byproduct pollutants, such as polycylic

cormorants from the control site; in one case,

aromatic hydrocarbons, have also been

two chicks from one family were found to

shown to cause mutations in DNA nucleotide

each have separate mutations at two different

sequences. In another study on double-crested

loci, which were not found in the parent birds

cormorants

in the Hamilton Harbour area of Ontario, scientists studied germline

(King, L.E. et al., 2014). The authors of the study theorize the hydroxylation of mutagens may be responsible for microsatellite mutations. Hydroxylation, though important for the catabolism of various chemical compounds, may result in excess hydroxyl groups when imbalanced, which could potentially lead to a radical interaction between the hydroxylated

microsatellite

metabolite and

DNA mutation

an organism’s

rates in adults

DNA molecules,

and their chicks in several colonies, including a control colony on the pristine Mohawk Island in Lake

resulting in oxidized

bases and possible

DNA mutations (Albers, 2006; King et al.,

Erie. In total, 9.3% of all cormorant families

2014). Therefore, the oxidative degradation of

had chicks with mutations in the short tandem

certain polycyclic aromatic compounds may

repeats amplified by polymerase chain reaction

account for mutated DNA sequences.

analysis; of that 9.3%, 78% were from Pier 27,

Proof of damage to DNA can also be

the site with both the highest number of unique

illustrated by the increased response of

mutations (11 of the 14 total novel mutations

DNA repair and maintenance proteins and

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the presence of these proteins’ progenitor

proteins that participate in a negative feedback

mRNA molecules within a bird’s molecular

loop when P53 protein concentrations

physiology. P53R2 mRNA levels—messenger

become too high and must be reduced to

RNA transcribed from a gene with significant

prevent apoptosis of healthy cells; thus, it

importance in the repair of damaged DNA

is not surprising that MDM2 proteins were

by producing proteins that supply dNTPs to

induced to stabilize the presumably rampant

fragmented sites—were found to be increased

P53 pathway in the cells of the significantly

by 1.5-fold in both liver and lung tissue in the

exposed birds.

double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax

Lastly, anthropogenic environmental

auritus) living and breeding on Hamilton

pollutants may affect avian DNA by

Harbour’s heavily PAC-polluted Pier 27, as

catalyzing enzymatic reactions that produce

compared to the control birds from the pristine

the potential for future damage to DNA

Mohawk Island on Lake Erie (Wallace et al.,

and possible DNA mutations. Cytochrome

2018). GADD45α transcript concentrations

P450 proteins—hemeproteins involved

were also significantly increased in Pier

in phase I reactions of avian and mammal

27 cormorants’ lung tissues—a full 2-fold

metabolisms—create chemical changes in

change relative to the Mohawk Island control

compounds that make them more readily

birds (Wallaceet al., 2018). GADD45α is

dissolvable in water and thus, more able to

another gene involved in DNA repair and

be eliminated as a waste product from the

demethylation; and, perhaps not coincidentally,

body. Specifically, these metabolism enzymes

both GADD45α and P53R2 are two of many

induce biotransformation of chemical

downstream genes within the pathway of

species through the process of oxidation

antioncogene P53, a gene responsible for

(Alexander et al., 2017; Kubota, Eun-Young,

the suppression and prevention of tumors

& Hisato, 2009; Nebert & Dalton, 2006).

in numerous multicellular organisms and

Although the metabolism of both natural and

triggered by mutagen exposure (Wallace et al.,

synthetic chemicals is essential to healthy

2018). Additionally, MDM2 mRNA levels were

physiological functioning, some cytochromes’

significantly increased in the tissues of the

processing of foreign compounds can

birds exposed to greater numbers of polycyclic

result in the production of reactive oxygen

aromatic hydrocarbons from local gas and

species—in particular, cytochromes from the

diesel emissions (Wallace, S.J. et al., 2018).

CYP1A subfamily (Alexander et al., 2017;

The MDM2 gene is transcribed to produce

Schlezinger, Struntz, Goldstone, & Stegeman,

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2006; Stegeman et al., 1992). When balanced

to be significant, it should be noted that the

with cellular antioxidants, reactive oxygen

doses administered in the experiment were

species are vital for various functions within

lower than the lowest-observed-adverse-

cells. However, environmental stress can cause

effect-concentration (675 mg/kg), and the

a maladaptive increase in the production of

no-observed-adverse-effect-concentration

reactive oxygen species, resulting in oxidative

(225 mg/kg) for atrazine in target avian

damage to DNA due to the unstable—and

organisms; in addition, the duration for which

now hypothetically unencumbered—reactive

the quails were treated with the herbicide was

oxygen molecule’s tendency to steal electrons

insubstantial compared to the actual amount

from DNA bases (Alexander et al., 2017;

of time organisms are exposed to ambient

Jena, 2012). Therefore, the overexpression of

herbicidal particulate matter in the wild (De

CYP1A subfamily proteins could potentially

la Casa-Resino, Valdehita, Soler, Navas, &

lead to DNA damage.

Pérez-López, 2012). Atrazine concentrations

In both European quails (Coturnix

post-application can exceed a staggering 960

coturnix cotunix) treated with the chloro-

mg/kg (De la Casa-Resino et al., 2012).

s-triazine herbicide atrazine and double-

In the double-crested cormorants

crested cormorants experimentally dosed with

treated with MC252 crude oil, all four

Mississippi Canyon 252 crude oil, CYP1A

treatment groups also demonstrated

mRNA and protein levels increased relative

significant inductions of ethoxyresorufin-O-

to control groups; in the double-crested

deethylase activity (Alexander et al., 2017).

cormorants, the increase was significant and

Ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD)

found in all four treatment groups (Alexander

activity assays measure induction rates of

et al., 2017; De la Casa-Resino, I. et al., 2012).

various types of cytochromes by quantifying

Astonishingly, in the cormorant treatment

the amount of resorufin (a fluorescent

group given only a single dose of 20 mL/kg

compound) produced from the dealkylation

b.w. crude oil, a 71-fold increase in CYP1A

of the substrate 7-ethoxyresorufin, which is

protein expression was detected in hepatic

an activity mediated by cytochrome enzymes

cells as compared to the control group given

(Whyte & Tillitt, n.d.). Thus, the amount of

vehicle only (Alexander et al., 2017). Although

resorufin detected by an EROD assay is a

the increase in concentration of CYP1A

direct indicator of how much of a specific

mRNA within the quail hepatic cells of the

cytochrome protein is present within the

affected experimental groups was not found

cell (Whyte & Tillitt, n.d.). In addition to

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producing potentially harmful reactive oxygen

filtering mechanism located within the capil-

species through the metabolism of foreign

laries that carry blood to the brain and spinal

chemical compounds, cytochromes from

cord. One function of the blood-brain barrier

the P450 superfamily also make excellent

is to prevent potentially neurotoxic substances

bioindicators of environmental pollution due

from entering the brain and altering the body’s

to their tendency to increase in response to

neurological system. A protective phospho-

mutagenic contaminants; therefore, EROD

lipid bilayer also surrounds the blood-brain

assays also provide an approximate indication

barrier. Many pesticides, such as pyrethroid

of how substantially the tested organism has

insecticides, are specifically formulated to be

been exposed to physiologically harmful

lipophilic to ensure their absorption into fatty

pollutants (Whyte & Tillitt, n.d.). This is

tissues and through lipid-rich membranes

because certain chemical substances—such

(Sharaf et al., 2010). Abamectin, a pesticide

as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons—bind

which belongs to the avermectin chemical

to aryl hydrocarbon receptors within the

group of pesticides and is widely used in

cell, which have been found to regulate the

the production of citrus fruits, potatoes, and

transcription rate of various P450 cytochromes

maize, displays antihelminthic, nematicidal,

(Alexander et al., 2017; Walker, Heid, Smith,

and insecticidal properties due to its neuro-

& Swanson, 2000; Whitlock, 1999; Whyte

toxic method of action—it actively crosses

& Tillitt, n.d.). Shockingly, EROD activity

the blood-brain barrier of its target and causes

levels were still significantly increased in birds such as pigeon guillemots (Cepphus columba)

paralysis (De Faria et al., 2018). Although

exposed to crude oil after the Exxon Valdez

itended only as a pesticide, abamectin can leak

oil spill ten years later (Alexander et al., 2017;

from holes in layers of the soil where it has

Golet et al., 2002).

collected and poison sources of drinking water for birds due to spread by rainfall; many other

How pollutants affect the avian nervous

pesticides have been known to leak into bod-

system

ies of water, such as rivers, and poison aquatic

One way in which chemical pollutants affect

organism as well (De Faria et al., 2018). Pyre-

the avian nervous system is by crossing the

throid insecticides such as cypermethrin also

semipermeable blood-brain barrier and lower-

enter the nervous system through the blood-

ing the activation threshold of action potentials

brain barrier and cause oxidative damage

within neurons. The blood-brain barrier is a

to cells through the release of free radicals,

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which damage plasma membranes by means of

biosynthetic proteins and possible sex-specific

lipid peroxidation (Sharaf et al., 2010). Once

behaviors. In female European quail (Coturnix

inside the nervous system, pyrethroids alter

coturnix coturnix) given the herbicide atra-

sodium ion channels, effectively lowering the

zine, a possible endocrine-disrupting chemical

activation threshold of action potentials; this

that inhibits photosynthesis in plants, the ex-

decrease in the threshold minimum within

pression of estrogen receptor alpha increased

sensory nerve fibers ultimately leads to over-

significantly in both treatment groups relative

activation of the transfer system of neuronal

to control on sampling day 30 (20 days after

electrical signals and premature hyperexcitation

the final dosing day), before reverting back to

of the nervous system (Sharaf et al., 2010).

levels maintained on the previous sampling

Because cypermethrin is considered less toxic

day (De la Casa-Resino et al., 2012). Perhaps

to birds and mammals by environmental reg-

not coincidentally, plasma estradiol concen-

ulatory institutions than other pesticides such

tration in both treatment groups also increased

as organochlorides and carbamates, birds may

only on sampling day 30, though not signifi-

be more likely to be exposed to cypermethrin

cantly (De la Casa-Resino et al., 2012). Simi-

and its highly neurotoxic effects (Sharaf et al.,

larly, vitellogenin protein levels demonstrated

2010). Lastly, pyrethroid insecticides have also

no significant difference between experimental

been shown to inhibit gamma aminobutyric

groups on any sampling days except sam-

acid (GABA) receptors—the neurotransmitter

pling day 30, when the group with the highest

responsible for reducing excitability within the

prescribed dose of atrazine (which was still

nervous system (Sharaf et al., 2010). This by-

substantially lower than the no-observed-ad-

product consequence of its neurotoxic method

verse-effect-concentration and the lowest-ob-

of action surely reduces the avian body’s ability

served-adverse-effect-concentration), reached

to remedy the effects of the insecticide’s dam-

levels a full three times higher than control

age to sodium ion channels within neurons.

(De la Casa-Resino et al., 2012). Thus, it can be speculated that estrogen receptor alpha, the

How pollutants affect the avian endo-

sex hormone estradiol, and the yolk protein

crine system

vitellogenin must be linked and directly affect-

Environmental pollutants may overstimulate or

ed by endocrine-disrupting chemicals, which

otherwise increase concentrations of sex hor-

alter the normal functioning of the endocrine

mones within the endocrine system, resulting

system; estradiol has been found to activate

in excessive production of endocrine-regulated

estrogen receptors and indirectly control the

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019

production of vitellogenin in oviparous verte-

related experiment conducted a year later, the

brates (De la Casa-Resino et al., 2012; Matoz-

same research group dosed European starlings

zo, GagnĂŠ, Marin, Ricciardi, & Blaise, 2008).

(Sturnis vulgaris) with the same estrogens

As endocrine-disrupting chemicals have a pro-

found in the E. fetida earthworms; interesting-

clivity to mimic the configurations and actions

ly, this dosing of starlings resulted in increased

of sex hormones and bind to hormone receptors

song complexity, hypothesized to be due to

such as estrogen receptor alpha, it is possible

hypermasculinization of the brain (Markman,

that endocrine-disrupting herbicides such as

2008). As these particular earthworms are a

atrazine may modify the molecular composition

major prey item of the starlings in the area,

of sex-specific tissues and concentrations of en-

it stands to reason that the current population

docrine-catalyzed biosynthetic proteins within

and its successor populations will display this

cells (Markman, MĂźller, Pascoe, Dawson, &

and potentially other progressively more con-

Buchanan, 2011). Disturbingly, even at the low-

cerning behaviors associated with endocrine

est-observed-adverse-effect-concentration, the

disruption as pollution levels continue to rise.

Environmental Protection Agency still warns of observed lower viability of embryos, lower

How pollutants affect the avian renal

egg production, and an increase in the ratio of

and digestive systems

defective eggs to total clutch size in bobwhites

Environmental contaminants may affect avian

and mallards (De la Casa-Resino et al., 2012;

renal systems through damage to the glomer-

EPA, 2006). Furthermore, endocrine-disrupting

ulus of the kidneys, impairing their ability to

chemicals seem to affect birds at a macroscopic

filter metabolic wastes from the blood. In male

level, manifesting in modifications of sex-spe-

Japanese quails (Coturnix japonica) given

cific behaviors. In a study on bioaccumulation

varying doses of pre-emergent herbicide buta-

of estrogenic chemicals, Eisenia fetida earth-

chlor daily for 30 days, the group prescribed

worms living in the biofilm of sewage sites

the highest amount of the herbicide exhibited

contaminated with sewage treatment chemicals

significantly higher serum urea concentrations

were shown to accumulate endocrine-disrupt-

on all sampling days; the group prescribed

ing chemicals stored within the affected soil

the second highest amount of the herbicide

systems of the filter beds; compared to controls,

presented significantly increased serum urea

the experimental earthworms had significantly

concentrations on the final two sampling days;

higher levels of estradiol, dibutyl phthalate,

and, the group given the third highest amount

and bisphenol A (Markman et al., 2007). In a

of the herbicide showed significantly in-

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creased serum urea concentrations on the final

differentiate between causes of hepatotoxicity

sampling day (Hussain et al. 2014). Urea is

or liver damage. Injured liver cells leak

the main nitrogenous waste product of protein

more of their constituent enzymes into the

catabolism; therefore, the author theorizes, the

bloodstream, resulting in increased serum

increase in serum urea concentration is indica-

hepatic enzyme levels; thus, Hussain et al.

tive of damage to the glomerulus, which filters

(2014) posit that the observed increase in

metabolic wastes from the blood before the

all serum lactate dehydrogenase, alanine

blood is recirculated through the cardiovascu-

transaminase, and aspartate transaminase

lar vessels and the waste products are further

levels may ultimately indicate damage to

filtered and excreted by the kidneys (Hussain et

hepatocytes.

al. 2014).

Chemical pollutants may also injure

Conclusion

hepatocytes in the digestive system and cause

From the evidence cited, it is plain to see that

liver enzymes to leak into the bloodstream. In

anthropogenic environmental contaminants

the same experiment on male Japanese quails

have a significant effect on avian physiologi-

treated with sublethal doses of butachlor,

cal and molecular systems. In the circulatory

the treatment group given the highest dose

system, various pollutant molecules alter the

of the herbicide (250 mg/kg b.w.) exhibited

morphological phenotypes of erythrocytes and

significantly increased serum levels of lactate

the nuclei within the erythrocytes, as well as

dehydrogenase, aspartate transaminase, and

increase the frequency of micronuclei within

alanine transaminase on all sampling days,

erythrocytes by mechanisms still relatively

while the treatment group given the second

unknown. It can be presumed that physical

highest concentration of butachlor (150 mg/kg

changes in phenotypic structures of red blood

b.w.) also showed significantly increased levels

cells and the organelles within red blood cells

of all three liver enzymes relative to control

could potentially ignite or delay biochemical

on two of the three sampling days (Hussain

reactions due to the modification in the config-

et al. 2014). Lactate dehydrogenase catalyzes

uration of the proteins.

the conversion of lactate to pyruvic acid, and

At the molecular level within avian DNA,

is released after damage to tissues; aspartate

chemical pollutants appear to have significant

transaminase is important in the metabolism

effects on the nucleotide sequences and future

of amino acids, and is frequently measured

backbone of DNA strands by catalyzing

in conjunction with alanine transaminase to

mutations and enzymatic reactions that create

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019

potential for oxidation of bases through the

(Sturnus vulgaris), mallard ducks (Anas

production of reactive oxygen species. In

platyrhynchos), Northern bobwhites (Colinus

addition, pollutants seem to alter methylation

virginianus), double-crested cormorants

statuses of DNA ready to be transcribed. The

(Phalacrocorax auritus), and numerous others.

nervous system is affected by the alteration

With the human data exhibiting rising death

of gated sodium ion channels within the

rates due to pollution-related diseases and

membranes of neuronal cells, increasing action

rapidly increasing levels of pollutants in

potentials of electrical signals through the

human and animal environments, it seems to

reduction of activation thresholds in signaling

be only a matter of time before bird species

pathways.

across the globe experience correlated death

Environmental contaminants mimic the

and disease rates as well; or, at least, before

actions of sex hormones in the endocrine

humans stop denying the impact of pollution

system, and have been shown to attach to

and actively work to depollute the planet that

hormone receptors responsible for sex-

we are defiling. n

specific biosynthetic protein production; consequently, these rapid increases of sex

Rachel Goodman is an undergraduate

hormones also appear to affect behaviors

student of Biology at East Carolina

in birds that are thought of as being sex-

University. She is passionate about

specific, such as songbirds singing for mates.

animals, kindness, learning, problem-

Lastly, avian renal systems are affected by

solving, and her lovely mom Jane, brother

pollutants through damage to the glomerulus

Max, and babushka Dorothy. She enjoys

of the kidney, as well as injury to hepatocyte

hiking, gardening, reading, studying, and

cells in the liver; the consequences of which

spending time with her pet children. She

produce significantly increased levels of liver

loves to work hard and achieve goals,

enzymes in the bloodstream and a pathological

and she is on a lifelong journey to gather

increase in serum urea concentrations. These

as much knowledge and experience as

systems have been shown to be affected

possible. She is particularly fascinated

across various bird species, including

by the studies of genetics, physiology,

herring gulls (Larus argentatus) Japanese

molecular biology, electrochemistry and

quails (Coturnix japonica), European quails

organic chemistry, the Russian language

(Cortunix coturnix coturnix), pigeon guillemots

and its dialects, mathematics, the atom,

(Cepphus columba), European starlings

biological evolution, and psychopathology.

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Works Cited Albers, P. H. (2006). Birds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Avian and Poultry Biology Reviews, 17(4), 125–140.

Alexander, C. R., Hooper, M. J., Cacela, D., Smelker, K. D., Calvin, C. S., Dean, K. M., . . . Godard-Codding, C. A. J. (2017). CYP1A protein expression and catalytic activity in double crested cormorants experimentally exposed to Deepwater Horizon Mississippi Canyon 252 oil. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 146, 68–75.

De Faria, D. B. G., Montalvão, M. F., de Souza, J. M., Mendes, B. D., Malafaia, G., & de Lima Rodrigues, A. S. (2018). Analysis of various effects of abamectin on erythrocyte morphology in Japanese quails (Cortunix japonica). Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(3), 2450–2456.

De la Casa-Resino, I., Valdehita, A., Soler, F., Navas, J. M., & Pérez-López, M. (2012).

Endocrine disruption caused by oral administration of atrazine in European quail (Coturnix coturnix coturnix). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 156, 159– 165.

EPA. (2006). Finalization of atrazine IRED, and completion of tolerance reassessment and reregistration eligibility process. United States Environmental Protection Agency.

Science Chapter for Atrazine: Environmental Fate and Effects, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, Washington, DC. EPA. (2016). Air quality—National summary. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/air-trends/air-quality-national-summary Albers, P. H. (2006). Birds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Avian and Poultry Biology Reviews, 17(4), 125–140.

Golet, G. H., Seiser, P. E., McGuire, A. D., Roby, D. D., Fischer, J. B., Kuletz, K. J., . . .

Newman, S. H. (2002). Long-term direct and indirect effects of the ‘Exxon Valdez’ oil spill on pigeon guillemots in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 241, 287–304.

Hussain, R., Khan, A., Mahmood, F., Rehan, S., & Ali, F. (2014). Clinico-hematological and tissue changes induced by butachlor in male Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica).

Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 109, 58–63.

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Jasarevic, T., Thomas, G., & Osseiran, N. (2014). 7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution. World Health Organization. Retrieved from http://www.who. int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/air-pollution/en/ Jena, N. R. (2012). DNA damage by reactive species: mechanisms, mutation, and repair.

Journal of Biosciences, 37(3), 503–517.

King, L. E., de Solla, S. R., Small, J. M., Sverko, E., & Quinn, J. S. (2014). Microsatellite DNA mutations in double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) associated with exposure to PAH-containing industrial air pollution. Environmental Science and Technology, 48(19), 11637–11645.

Kubota, A., Eun-Young, K., & Hisato, I. (2009). Alkoxyresorufin (methoxy-, ethoxy-, pentoxy- and benzyloxyresorufin) O-dealkylase activities by in vitro-expressed cytochrome P450 1A4 and 1A5 from common cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo).

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 149(4), 544–551.

Landrigan, P. J., Fuller, R., Acosta, N. J. R., Adeyi, O., Arnold, R., Basu, N., . . . Zhong, M. (2018). The Lancet commission on pollution and health. The Lancet, 391(10119), 462–512.

Markman, S., Guschina, I. A., Barnsley, S., Buchanan, K. L., Pascoe, D., Müller, C. T. (2007). Endocrine disrupting chemicals accumulate in earthworms exposed to sewage effluent. Chemosphere, 70, 119–125.

Markman, S., Leitner, S., Catchpole, C., Barnsley, S., Müller, C. T., Pascoe, D., & Buchanan, K. L. (2008). Pollutants increase song complexity and the volume of the brain area HVC in a songbird. PLos ONE, 3, 1–6.

Markman, S., Müller, C. T., Pascoe, D., Dawson, A., & Buchanan, K. L. (2011).

Pollutants affect development in nestling starlings Sturnus vulgaris. Journal of Applied Ecology, 48, 391–397.

Matozzo, V., Gagné, F., Marin, M. G., Ricciardi, F., & Blaise, C. (2008). Vitellogenin as a biomarker of exposure to estrogenic compounds in aquatic invertebrates: a review.

Environment International, 34(4), 531–545.

Nebert, D. W., & Dalton, T. P. (2006). The role of cytochrome P450 enzymes in endogenous signaling pathways and environmental carcinogenesis. Nature Reviews Cancer, 6(12), 947–960.

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Schlezinger, J. J., Struntz, W. D. J., Goldstone, J. V., & Stegeman, J. J. (2006).

Uncoupling of cytochrome P450 1A and stimulation of reactive oxygen species production by co-planar polychlorinated biphenyl congeners. Aquatic Toxicology, 77(4), 422–432.

Sharaf, S., Khan, A., Khan, M. Z., Aslam, F., Saleemi, M. K., & Mahmood, F. (2010).

Clinico-hematological and micronuclear changes induced by cypermethrin in broiler chicks: their attenuation with vitamin E and selenium. Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology, 62(4), 333–341.

Skarphedinsdottir, H., Hallgrimsson, G. T., Hansson, T., Hägerroth, P. A., Liewenborg, B., Tjärnlund, U., . . . Balk L (2010). Genotoxicity in herring gulls (Larus argentatus) in Sweden and Iceland. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 702(1), 24–31.

Stegeman, J. J., Marius, B., Di Giulio, R. T., Lars, F., Fowler, B. A., Sanders, B. M., Van Veld, P. A. (1992). Molecular responses to environmental contamination: enzyme and protein systems as indicators of chemical exposure and effect. In Biomarkers: Physiological and Histological Markers of Anthropogenic Stress (pp. 235–335). Taylor & Francis.

United Nations. (2003). The natural water cycle. World Water Assessment Programme: Executive Summary. The United Nations World Water Development Report (pp. 8–9).

Walker, M. K., Heid, S. E., Smith, S. M., & Swanson, H. I. (2000). Molecular characterization and developmental expression of the Aryl hydrocarbon receptor from the chick embryo. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 126(3), 305–319.

Wallace, S. J., de Solla, S. R., Thomas, P. J., Harner, T., Eng, A., & Langlois, V. S. (2018).

Airborne polycyclic aromatic compounds contribute to the induction of the tumoursuppressing P53 pathway in wild double-crested cormorants. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 150, 176–189.

Whitlock, J. P. (1999). Induction of cytochrome P4501A1. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 39, 103–125.

Whyte, J. J., & Tillitt, D. E. (n.d.) EROD activity. United States Geological Survey Columbia Environmental Research Center. Retrieved from https://www.cerc.usgs.gov/ pubs/BEST/EROD.pdf

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Can Humans Effectively Collaborate with Robots in the Workplace?

Dawn Smith Two crucial aspects of manufacturing are

become cumbersome and, over an extended

wanting products to be better than a compet-

time, prove to be nonchallenging. Boredom

itor’s and producing those products as fast as

could have a negative effect on the employee’s

possible. A company must always search for

job performance and could end up costing the

ways to improve the quality of the product

company money in poor production. While

they’re producing and keep their workforce

some people may be fine performing the

trained on the latest innovations in order to

same tasks day after day, other workers want

reach and stay at the top of a certain industry.

to be a part of making improvements in the

There is a new generation of robots emerging

workplace. If your place of employment makes

in industry: collaborative robots. Any type of

reliable products in a timely manner, it’s only

improvement made to either a process or the

helping the workforce keep their jobs.

addition of machinery will cost the compa-

While robots can track production numbers

ny money. Collaborative robots are designed

and provide alerts for lower productivity,

to work alongside a human counterpart. The

it takes a human to take this data and use

prices for these types of robots are generally

it to apply changes to processes that need

thought to be high, but the collaborative robot

improvement. The thought process behind this

has a listing price averaging less than $30,000

is, “Workers with analytical skills will bring

per unit, with prices expected to drop to less

premium assets to manufacturers in multiple

than $18,000 by the year 2020 (Satyavolu,

ways, such as supply-chain optimization,

2017). With emerging technology, especially in

product quality, and asset optimization”

the manufacturing sector, utilizing robots may

(Satyavolu, 2017, p. 3).

be the answer to achieving both productivity

Pairing robots with humans can prove to

and the highest possible quality with limited

be a win-win for a company, as what one

cost to the company.

lacks in skill or knowledge, the other can

The idea behind pairing a robot with a

provide. Artificial intelligence (AI) can be

human counterpart is to increase productivity,

given the ability to learn, but a machine

as well as perform precise and/or repetitive

doesn’t understand human emotion or

tasks. Repetitive tasks to a human worker can

reasoning. Humans have an ingrained need

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for acknowledgement and recognition for a

arrange the manufacturing of things to come,

job well done. This need, at times, may play

by both programming robots and passing

into decisions made in the workplace that are

out assignments to the people working near

more geared to an individual’s ego rather than

them. The responsibilities of each can be

what is truly best for the company. On the other

targeted easily by recognizing the capabilities

hand, a robot would have no such reasoning

that a robot and its human counterpart

and can only do the tasks without any emotion

possess, Siemen’s research scientist Juan

influencing it.

Aparicio states, “Increasing the intelligence

In order to take a position of this coordinated

of machines doesn’t mean that fewer people

effort, organizations must see how people

will be working in tomorrow’s factories,” and

can successfully enhance machines, how

insists that “humans and machines can amplify

machines can improve what people excel at,

each other” (“Automating Automation,”

and how to update business procedures to

2018).

help the association. Rules need to be created

Accentuating robotic and human

in order to enable organizations to thrive in

capabilities creates a partnership between

their businesses through exploration and work

the robot and its human counterpart. Florrian

in the field. One company that is working

Michahelles, who currently heads Siemens’

towards robot/human integration is Siemens,

“Web of Things” research group in Berkeley,

an industry leader in the areas of electrification,

CA and his group are developing an AI

automation, and digitalization. They are

program called a “reasoner.” The hope is,

embracing the emerging technology of robotics

once completed, this program will be able to

by finding new and innovative ways for robots

govern the steps required to manufacture a

and humans to work towards a common goal.

product, then determine how the product will

Robots are relentless laborers, yet they don’t ad-lib well. This is when human intuition and creativity can make a difference. Changes on

be assembled, taking into consideration the robots’ abilities.

Dr. Wang Zi Jian, an expert research

the sequential construction system require

scientist for Siemens in Beijing China, is in

meticulous reconstruction by people, making

the process of performing research and testing

it difficult to switch up what a manufacturing

the latest technologies as a major aspect

plant produces. Presently, scientists at German

of a project called “Autonomous Systems

mechanical goliath Siemens say they have an

Revolution” (“Working with robots: the future

answer: an industrial facility that utilizes AI to

of collaboration,” 2018). For a little more

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 Robotics in the workplace continue to

been working on what is called a data glove.

improve but still has limitations. A robot

The glove is a device that enables a person to

currently can’t think for itself or perform

control and direct a mechanical arm. Utilizing

outside its programming. Humans are still far

distinctive sensors, the glove interprets and

more efficient than robots when it comes to

translates movements and gestures of the

making decisions, handling difficult situations,

human hand. The expectation is the robot

brainstorming, and making quick decisions

will work with the human counterpart in the

if something goes wrong on the production

assembly of a product (“Working with robots,�

line. As robots become more of a staple in

2018). It is believed that using this will allow

manufacturing and their responsibilities are

a human to direct a robot to assemble a car,

more developed, we as humans will become

which will alleviate the physical impact felt by

more dependent upon them. Companies will

the human counterpart of lifting substantial or

want to maintain and increase the revenue

bulky materials. This is an excellent example of

this new technology can generate for them.

robots and humans working side by side in the

Statistics show the use of manufacturing

workplace. The human dictates to the robot the

robots is increasing rapidly. Figures from

tasks that are to be performed; in this instance,

the International Federation of Robots (IFR)

one cannot perform the job without the other.

show a 15% increase in robot sales in 2015

Since robots can work anywhere and

in relation to 2014, with a projection of

perform in basically any environmental

approximately 2.5 million industrial robots in

condition, they can be used in a chemical

the workplace in 2019 (The Impact of Robots

industry setting, such as a nuclear power

on Productivity, Employment and Jobs, 2017).

plant dealing with spills that would otherwise

With this emerging technology are some

pose a major health concern for humans. In

fears regarding robots replacing humans

order to sustain these newer technologies and

in the workforce. While this concern is

keep people safe, a company must employ

understandable, robots will not fully replace

personnel whose primary responsibility is to

all jobs performed by humans. According to

ensure the robots and systems put in place

the IFR, less than 10% of jobs can be made

continue to perform as designed with humans

fully automated (The Impact of Robots,

in the workplace. These personnel are called

2017). Research indicates that robots will only

safety engineers, and they uphold robot safety

supplement human labor in factories rather

requirements and standards.

than substitute, which will in turn increase

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The Lookout the quality of the work and cause a rise in demand for a higher skilled worker, resulting in higher wages. While not all workers will benefit from increased job security or attain a higher skilled position, those that are willing and able to attain the needed skills to work in a collaborative environment with robots will create opportunity for advancement. â–

Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 Dawn Smith is currently a Senior enrolled at East Carolina University studying Industrial Engineering Technology with a concentration in manufacturing. She received her Associates degree in Business Administration from Maryland Community College in 2004. Dawn has over 25 years experience working in manufacturing, spending the last 13 years with the same company as a Quality Technician handling internal issues for the fabrication department in addition to supplier quality issues for the entire facility. Upon graduation, Dawn would like to become a Quality Engineer in the healthcare industry.

Works Cited Automating Automation. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.siemens.com/innovation/ en/home/pictures-of-the-future/digitalization-and-software/artificial-intelligencerobotic-research.html How Humans and AI Are Working Together in 1,500 Companies. (2018). Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2018/07/collaborative-intelligence-humans-and-ai-are-joining-forces nternational Federation of Robotics. (2017). The Impact of Robots on Productivity, Employment and Jobs [Ebook] (pp. 2-10). Retrieved from https://ifr.org/img/office/ IFR_The_Impact_of_Robots_on_Employment.pdf Satyavolu, P. (2017). A human, a bot, and a manufacturing shop: Welcome to the future workplace. Machine Design, 89(8), 55. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com. jproxy.lib.ecu.edu/docview/1953989767?accountid=10639 This AI Factory Boss Tells Robots And Humans How To Work Together. (2018).

Retrieved from https://www.fastcompany.com/3067414/robo-foremen-could-directhuman-and-robot-factory-workers-alike Working with robots: the future of collaboration. (2018). Retrieved from https://www. siemens.com/global/en/home/company/jobs/what-we-do/working-with-robots.html

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Creative Works Kenly Cora Jarod Jordan Miranda Cox Kathryn Poulsen Ashley Costa

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Among the Roses Miranda Cox Sweat drips down Benny’s brow as he tries to keep it together for just a little bit longer. The late summer sun burns white-hot as the boy leans

through his hair.

“This ain’t gettin’ nothin’ done. Guess I’ll use good ol’ Pat and Charlie. They ain’t failed me yet.”

over the engine of a beat up ’69 Ford truck. That

Benny pops the passenger door open and

sun would’ve roasted any other kid’s skin, but this

rummages through the glove compartment for

young man lucked up for once. He had been evenly

something to wrap his hand in. He only finds a

cooked by that sun while working in the fields,

dirty, old rag laying limply towards the back, and

and now his formerly pasty skin is a deep orang-

he decides that’ll have to do. Locking the truck up

ey brown. Taking a step back from the truck, he

has a weird sense of finality to Benny. As he starts

shakes his head. It had been his Pa’s when it was

the trek to work, he can’t help but look back at

new, and now it’s his piece of junk.

the truck. He isn’t sure why, but a wave of anger

Man, what am I gonna do? He thinks. I gotta get to work real soon, and I can’t afford to call in.

washes over him.

Daggone stupid piece of crap, why’d ya have to

Not t’mention there ain’t no one t’ cover for me. I

breakdown now? I got school and work t’ worry

dunno if I can even do anything else for this thing

about and now this. What am I gonna do? Fixin’

as is.

ya’s gonna be a bitch . . .

Deciding to take another look at the truck,

Waving a dismissive hand at the truck, he picks

Benny plunges his hand into its open maw, only to

his pace up to a jog. He needs to make it to work

reel back cursing. It wouldn’t be the first time he’s

on time if he’s going to do anything about this

lost to this truck. Damn thing loves to bite.

truck.

“God bless America! Can’t catch not nary a break with this damn truck, can I?!”

Benny looks over the newfound gash trailing blood down the palm of his hand. The color makes

Benny fumbles around with his coins trying

him think of his roses back at home. He’d love

to get the payphone to call home. He has to tell

nothing more than to tend to those for a short

his Pa what just happened and hopefully get that

while. Just to sit among the roses. Benny heaves

damn truck home somehow. It’s not like he can just

another sigh before running his uninjured hand

leave it there. He also needs to give a call to his girl

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and let her know he can’t pick her up today. She’ll

pick her up, but he feels like shit doing this to her.

understand. The ringing of the phone wrattles

Benny glances at the clock hanging cockeyed over

Benny’s already threadbare nerves. Finally, a gruff

the grungy payphone. 12:30. He’s already thirty

voice crackles over the phone.

minutes late and has approximately five seconds

“Yeah?”

before his boss grabs him by the scruff of his neck

“Hey Pa. So bad news.”

and drags him over to the sizzling grill. His boss

“Yeah?”

knows he’s got a world full of problems, but that

“The truck broke down, n’ I’m pretty damn sure

doesn’t excuse him from earning his pay. Benny

it’s on its last leg.” Benny lets out a big sigh before

takes a quick look around at the nearly empty

continuing. “It needs new parts. Expensive ones.”

parking lot, and with a great sigh, he shuffles his

Pa takes a deep breath and Benny can just see him run a tired hand over his face. Pa has been

way into Old Joe’s Bar and Grill.

It may only be late afternoon, but the grill is

through the wringer the past few years. All of them

bustling with customers. The bar of Old Joe’s is

have.

more for Friday and Saturday night, when the

“Well, Benny ya need t’ get it together boy.

younger crowd and the alcoholics decide to cut

Important thing right now is that job o’ yers. Go on

loose. Benny lets out a few wary “hi’s” and “how

boy get t’ work. Me n’ yer sisters n’ brothers’ll get

are ya’s” on his way to the back where his boss is

the truck home. Where’s it at?”

grilling up a storm. Joe isn’t old, but Joseph Senior

“Fourway. Down by the Johnson’s farm.”

had already coined the name of the establishment

“Alright. Bye son.”

before Joe Junior had taken over.

Benny lets out a whoosh of air and runs his

“Hey Joe, man I’m so sorry; I know I’m late; I’ll

fingers through his hair. At least he’s done with his

make it up t’ ya. I’ll stay late, I’ll clean up, whatever

Pa for now, but this part is almost worse, it’s time

ya need man.”

to let his girl down. As if he could get any lower.

He hates it, but all Benny can do is stammer

He rummages through his pockets trying to find

stupid apologies and pray he’s not fired. Taking the

the change, growing more and more frantic as

spatula from Joe, Benny starts cooking up greasy

Benny realizes he may not have the money to do

burgers and fries. He was only a couple of minutes

this one thing. He knows he doesn’t have time to

late, but knowing Joe, he’ll have to stay a few extra

hunt down someone to beg for change like a damn

hours to make it up to him. That’s not really all

pauper, but he doesn’t want to screw his girl over.

that bad, Benny wants the money, he’s just worried

Benny knows that she won’t be too pissed off once

about walking home at night. After wiping his

he explains why he didn’t call and why he didn’t

hands off on a tattered dish rag, Joe slaps Benny

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 through the crowd, waving and smiling, being her

“Take it easy Benny. Just tell me why yer late.”

usual, sweet self. Once Elaine reaches the back a

Benny glances over at Joe and can tell he is

small frown slips onto her face.

disappointed. This don’t make no sense. Joe usually

“Benny, what’s wrong? You know Daddy

pitches an unholy fit when I’m late. Why ain’t he

doesn’t like you. Couldn’t you ’ve waited till ya

yellin’? He looks damn near calm. What’s going on

took me home?”

with him today? Everything is all which-a-ways.

Benny thought.

“Well Joe, the truck broke down, so I had to walk here to call my Pa to pick it up. I didn’t even get to call my girl. I’m real sorry about this. I don’t want to let ya down, and I need this job.”

“Well see that’s what I need to talk to you about. The truck broke down, so I dunno when I’ll be able to do that again.”

“Oh, why didn’t ya say so? It’s all good. I’ll ride home with Marla. Why don’t you do the same?”

“Laney, ya know I live out in the boonies.

Joe nodded slowly throughout Benny’s little spiel

Marla would never do that. Her house and mine

and lightly patted him on the shoulder once he was

are in two different directions. Everyone I know

done.

lives close to town or the college. It’s what I get for

“It’s alright Benny, things happen. I could tell

living on a farm.”

when ya walked in somethin’ was buggin’ ya. Just,

“Well Benny, ya don’t got much of a choice

try not to let it happen again. If ya do, I’ll have to

now do ya? Ya still need to go to school. Whatcha

fire ya. Ya girl is out there with her daddy. If ya

gonna do now? Ya just gonna give up like ya

want, I can direct her back here so ya can tell her

Daddy wants ya to?”

what’s what.”

“Laney, ya know I don’t want to do that, but

“Thanks Joe. I owe ya one.”

I think I might have to. Ya know I love learning.

Joe nods and walks out to go shoot the breeze

Gran and Mr. Riker would want me to continue,

with his buddies, first swinging by Mr. Paul Rutherford and his daughter Elaine. Benny watches

but—” “Look, Daddy ain’t gonna let me stay with ya if

as Joe shakes Mr. Rutherford’s hand and nods at

ya don’t get a degree. He don’t want me marrying

Elaine. Joe gestures back at Benny while Benny

no farmer. I’m sorry Benny, but ya gotta figure

plasters a smile on his face, giving a quick wave

something out. I love you.”

at Mr. Rutherford and his girl. Benny can tell Mr.

Elaine’s voice was soft as rose petals, and she

Rutherford looks none too pleased by Benny’s

gently placed a hand on his face before leaving

appearance, or the fact that Benny is interrupting

him to his thoughts. Benny knew she wasn’t trying

their lunch to talk to Elaine. Elaine sidles her way

to be mean, but as soft as she said it, her words

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 school. They knew I worked hard for this. Damn I miss them.

It’s been a while since Benny has thought

Benny squints sweat out of his eyes as he takes

about Mr. Riker, it tends to be too painful for him

the long walk home. The sunset is a smear of colors

to think about. Mr. Riker was his high school

over the dark cotton fields. His head is spinning

woodshop teacher, and one of the only teachers

with worry and crunching numbers trying to see

that really seemed to care for him. When Gran

how he could ever afford the parts. He just knows

found out Benny was failing, she knew it just

the carburetor is busted. The truck is old and with

would not do. She told Mr. Riker how bad Benny

that model it wouldn’t surprise him if it needs to

was doing in class, and Mr. Riker took him aside,

be replaced. The four bald tires need to be replaced

had a one on one talk with him. Mr. Riker also

too. Not to mention the brakes. He also needs gas.

made sure to talk to all of Benny’s teachers, to see

The thing is falling all to pieces.

if they would work with him. Come to think of

Then there’s class. He has to be in class by 8:00

it, the only people that ever cared about Benny’s

a.m. tomorrow and he has no car. Not to mention

grades and well-being were Gran and Mr. Riker.

going to work. He’ll need to pull in extra hours if he

Benny wishes he could’ve paid Mr. Riker back for

has any hope of getting the money soon. The ride

helping him, but Mr. Riker was in a car accident

to work is fifteen minutes, and the ride to school

after high school graduation. One of the drunk

is forty-five minutes to an hour from home. The

football players decided to have a little joyride. Go

walk to work is doable, but the walk to school is

Blue Jays.

impossible.

Then there’s his girl, Laney. He just can’t lose her.

The whole way home Benny had been looking down at the dusty ground. Just walking home

Not after all the hell he’s been through convincing

by memory, but once he reached the end of the

her Daddy to let them be together. Her Daddy can

path he stopped and there was that heap of junk

be a real bastard, and he knows if she could she

again. He felt anger and frustration creep over his

would still date him.

skin, the hair on the back of his neck practically

I dunno how I’m gonna do this. I can’t just drop

standing up. He just doesn’t get why this shit has

out. I worked too hard for this scholarship. If Gran

to happen to him. He’s done nothing but care for

and Mr. Riker were here today, they would be so

that truck and go easy on it. He rarely uses it other

disappointed. Hell, I’ll be disappointed. Mr. Riker’d

than to get to work and school. Benny stomped

want me to tough it out. Gran would give me a

up to the truck and gave it a swift kick. That truck

good talking to and try to figure a way to get me to

used to be his Pa’s pride and joy. Now look at it.

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Benny can barely see the Wright Brother’s outline

and sees the person he’s been dreading the most,

through the dust on the license plate. What a piece

his Pa. His Pa is just sitting in his dusty recliner

of crap. He glances up at the house backlit by the

thinking. He may not be old, but you can see the

sunset and surrounded by the cotton fields.

lines that time has written. It takes a minute, but

Great. Now to tell Pa what lack of a plan I got.

I already know how this is gonna go. Can’t believe

eventually Benny sees his Pa’s eyes slide up to look at him. Benny can tell that his Pa is dreading this.

someone as stupid as me got into that damn college

“Benny, come over here. We gotta talk.”

anyway.

Silence slips over the bundle of siblings. A

Shuffling his way up to the porch feels like the

quick murmur of good lucks is given to Benny

longest walk of his entire life. Before creaking up

before they all head straight to their rooms. Benny

the steps into the inevitable shit storm, he takes

obliges his Pa by walking over to sit on the floor

look over at his garden. The wild bramble of red

like a little kid.

roses crawls up the circle of posts they were planted next to. Benny isn’t quite sure what those posts were put there for, but now they belong to the roses.

“Benny, whatcha got for me? I need to know now what’s what.”

Pa’s gruff voice jars Benny a little, but Benny

His Gran used to tend to those roses just as much

takes a deep breath and tries to start saying

as she tended to him. Those things would’ve been

something. Anything.

dead without her. Gran taught Benny everything he knows, and she’d be proud of how well he’s kept

“Well Pa, I ain’t got much. Tell ya the truth I ain’t got anythin’, but I can’t just—”

them up over the past year. He goes over and takes

“Can’t just what? Look son, I know ya like

a deep breath of the gentle, sweet smell they emit

college n’ all, but boy, it just ain’t workin’ out for

and is filled with a sense of calm.

ya!”

“I know this ain’t gonna go well, but at least I got my roses.”

He stands up straight and walks into the house,

Benny feels every drop of peace he previously felt drain away. He had only been in college for a while now, but it feels like the world to him. Sure,

feeling a little bit more ready for the talking to

he isn’t the top student, but he likes to work hard

he’s about to receive. The screen door squeaks

and learn as much as he can. He’d never felt this

and slams shut with a bang, letting everyone

way about learning. Mr. Riker and Gran instilled

within ear shot know that he’s home. In a whirl,

a fire in him. After seeing that he could do well in

his three siblings are surrounding him, each one

school, Benny wondered how far he could take it.

complaining about having to help move his truck.

For all he knows he could maybe find a better job

Benny glances over the babble in front of him,

with his degree. Hell, maybe he could continue

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going to school after he gets his Associate’s if he

father and thy mother, ain’t that in the damn Bible,

works hard enough. He just wants a chance.

honey?”

“Pa, I know how ya feel about school, but listen.

Benny hears his Ma shuffle in quietly from the

I just want a chance. I wanna do this, I think I can

kitchen. He knew she would never take his side

do this. What if I got a loan? Why don’t ya think—”

against his Pa.

Pa knocks his chair back a solid foot as he stands up. Pa isn’t a violent man, but it was enough to

“Leonard dear, why don’tcha go easy on Benny?

He did work hard for this after all.”

cause Benny to scramble back. Benny could tell

“Did I ask for that?”

this is where the yelling would start. It’s always

Benny can’t see his ma, but in his mind, he can

when the yelling starts. Benny can never say what

envision her shrinking at the harshness of his Pa’s

he actually thinks. Pa points a thick, hairy finger in

words. He feels frozen to the spot, just staring at

Benny’s face.

his Pa. At least she tried.

“Now, ya listen here boy! Ya need that car to get where ya goin’! Ya think a bank will give a poor

“No dear, yer right dear.”

Benny hears his Ma shuffle back into the

farm hand a loan? Nah! They don’t give a shit bout

kitchen, probably to cry. Benny’s Pa turns his

us and they never will. And besides that, I can’t

attention back to Benny. A look of resentment

afford to pay for nothin’! The only way this’ll work

crosses his Pa’s face at the look of fear in Benny’s

is if ya drop out. I’ve done everythin’ for this family!

eyes. His Pa sighed and collapsed back into is

Everythin’! I work my fingers to the bone just to put

chair.

food on the table! Ya can do this one damn blessed

“Benny. Are we clear? Yer to drop out.”

thing for this family! Look, if ya want a job in the

“Yeah, Pa. We’re clear.”

future, just be a sharecropper like me! It may not be

“Look son, I’m sorry. I know ya heart was set,

much, but ya can survive.”

Benny hates it, but all he can do is tremble after what his Pa just said. He can feel the tears trying to

but it just ain’t workin’.”

“I know. I’ll drop out tomorrow.”

His Pa nods, gets back up, walks into his room,

rush to the surface. He presses them back, takes a

and shuts the door. Benny feels so hollow. He

deep breath, and tries to speak.

didn’t want it to end like this. Slowly, he picks

“Pa, Mr. Riker worked too hard to get me this scholarship. I just can’t toss that out!”

himself up off the floor, and goes to check on his ma. As soon as Benny enters the room, she picks

“Benny! That man won’t yer family, now was

herself up from the scuffed-up kitchen chair and

he?! Sure, what he did was nice, but Benny he was

places a hand on Benny’s shoulder. She rubs his

just teacher! This is yer Pa speakin’! Honor thy

shoulder and gives him a meek smile.

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“Benny, just know yer Pa loves ya. I know this is hard, but it’s for the best. Now, Imma go check on the youngins’, go take a walk.”

Benny nods, he still hadn’t regained the ability to talk yet. He doesn’t know when he will. He walks out the door as if his autopilot button had been pushed. He can hear his siblings softly calling out to him, but he just can’t talk to them right now. Before he knows it, he’s there, standing in the cocoonlike embrace of his roses. Gently taking a silk like blossom into his hand, he starts to feel a deep sadness pulling at his heart.

“I can’t talk t’ my family like I talk t’ y’all. Y’all may not say much, but it says the world to me that y’all are here for me. I appreciate it. Least I can do is deadhead y’all. Y’all’d like that? Wouldn’t ya? While I’m doin’ that, I’m gonna try t’ work through what I need to do. Is that okay with y’all?”

As soon as he starts to talk, the tears begin to tumble down his cheeks. Locked away in that rose cocoon, he lets all his worries slip away. n

Miranda Cox is pursuing a degree in English with a business and technical communication certificate at East Carolina University. She will be graduating in the spring of 2020, which she is very excited about. She plans on moving to Raleigh, NC, to obtain a job in technical writing. One of her many hobbies is creative writing and she hopes to be published in the future.

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Wall Kathryn Poulsen

And as these people storm by with words and whispers all about, I stay by my wall and try not to fall.

For their words are echoing through my ears, making me cringe.

I try to slowly blend into the wall and not the names they call me, because those will not define me.

Like all the ones before. n

Kathryn Poulsen is a freshman Stage Management major from Wake Forest, NC. She has had a passion for creative writing since she was in seventh grade. Every summer she would attend a creative writing camp at Hollins University where she would share her work with other people who had a passion for creative writing. This camp has helped her writing grow and from it she has written multiple poems and started three novels. The number one thing on her bucket list is to publish a book.

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One More Night Ashley Costa [Nighttime. A bedroom. ABIGAIL, a disheveled, thirty-five-year-old woman, is sitting on a bed. She is crying and holding a glass of wine. She wears only a very large button-down shirt that is partially buttoned. An opened box is laid out before her on the bed. Items are scattered everywhere: opened books, piles of clothes on the floor, opened pill bottles and wine bottles sit on the bedside table. Picture frames are turned over. THEO, a forty-year-old man dressed in a black tuxedo, is seen standing by the bedroom door. ABIGAIL places the glass of wine on the bedside table and reaches into the box. She pulls out a picture. She smiles and laughs softly as she caresses it.]

ABIGAIL: This was our first real date. Do you remember this?

THEO: Yes, of course. How could I forget? I had seen you so many times at the city library, and you would always check out the strangest books. You seemed like such an interesting character to me, and I just knew I had to get to know you better. [THEO smiles and slowly approaches the bed]. Do you remember all those silly jokes I would tell you at the library?

ABIGAIL [Sniffling, but laughs]: What is Emily Dickinson’s favorite reindeer?

THEO [Now sitting at the end of the bed and looking at ABIGAIL]: Dasher. [Laughs] That one has to be your favorite.

ABIGAIL: We were so young here. It’s so crazy to think that this was fourteen years ago. I think I had just turned twenty-one. You looked so handsome, Theo. [She looks up at THEO and places the picture back into the box as she smiles.] You still do.

THEO: And you still look as beautiful as ever, Abigail. I can’t believe you still have that picture of us.

Why didn’t I know about this mysterious box? What else do you have hiding in there?

[THEO reaches towards the box, but ABIGAIL quickly moves it out of his reach. She puts her hand back into the box and pulls out folded up pieces of paper with a white-laced garter wrapped around them. ABIGAIL unwraps the garter and unfolds the pieces of paper.]

ABIGAIL: Oh wow. [Pauses and wipes away a few tears as she looks at the papers.]

These are our vows. This one is yours. Listen. [Reading as she tries not to cry.] “It was a force of enigma that has brought me to you, and ever since then it has always been you.

[Pauses.] I give myself to you and everything that I will ever be. I promise to give you my unconditional love and devotion—”

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THEO: Until my last dying breath.

ABIGAIL: You were always so much better at writing than I was. I remember I was having such a hard time finishing my vows the day of our wedding. That’s why it took me so long to finally come downstairs. I never got to tell you. I’m so sorry I kept you waiting. [Continues to wipe away her tears.]

THEO: You know that doesn’t matter to me anymore, Abigail.

[ABIGAIL stuffs the pieces of paper and garter back into the box as she pulls out another picture. She places her hand over her mouth and takes a deep breath as she squeezes her eyes shut for just a moment before opening them again.]

ABIGAIL: God, you look so sick here, Theo. It still hurts me to even see this picture of you. You just look so different. You look so weak and exhausted.

THEO: Is that the picture you took of us while I was in the hospital? Of course you would have that in there, Abigail. [Shaking his head.] My god.

ABIGAIL: [ABIGAIL looks away from THEO as she turns the picture over.] I just—I just wanted to have something that would remind me of our final moments together if something were to happen, you know? I just wanted to have something to remember you by.

THEO: You wanted to remember how utterly ridiculous I looked? Come on, Abigail. I’m sure there are plenty of other things you have in that box of yours to remember me by.

ABIGAIL: This was it. [Turns the same picture back over and glances down at it.] This picture was the last picture we ever took together. I couldn’t stand seeing how sick you looked. I don’t even know why I took the damn picture. I obviously don’t want to remember you like that. I don’t want to remember thinking that everything was going to be okay and that you were going to come back home any day. I don’t want to remember— [Breaks down into hysterical sobs.] I want to remember you like this! [Gestures towards THEO.] I want to remember you as you were on the day of our wedding. How happy you were and how you looked at me with so much love in your eyes. That’s how I want to remember you.

And yet, here I am looking through these things just trying to remember all the good moments we shared together.

[ABIGAIL continues to cry as she reaches over to the bedside table and grabs both her wine glass and the bottle of pills. THEO looks at ABIGAIL and takes a deep breath.]

THEO: I know this isn’t what you actually want, Abigail. I know you. Don’t do this.

Think about what you have—what we have. Things will get better. [THEO leans forward and places both of his hands onto her hands. He guides her hands back over to the bedside table and she places the wine glass and bottle of pills back down.] You just

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have to give it time. I promise. Please listen to me.

ABIGAIL: [Shakes her head as she looks down.] I haven’t been the same since then. I lost a part of myself, Theo. A part that you took with you. I just don’t know how much longer I can wait before things get better.

THEO: It won’t be much longer. I think maybe it’s time you do something with that box, don’t you think? You’re just bottling up all these feelings and I know that can’t be good. Look at me, Abigail.

ABIGAIL: [Raising her head to look up at Theo.] But, what if I can’t do it, Theo? I don’t—I don’t know why I can’t stop crying. It’s been almost a year now and I still find myself thinking about you every night. I want to move on, but I just miss having you here with me. I don’t want to be alone. Please, just one more night, Theo. One more night.

[THEO smiles reassuringly towards ABIGAIL as he stands up from the bed. Now standing beside her, he looks down at her. He touches her cheek with the tips of his fingers as she looks up at him.]

THEO: You can. I’ll always be here, Abigail. Be strong for me—for us.

[The lights begin to fade as a knock is heard on the bedroom door. The spotlight transitions over to the door where it slowly opens and a little girl peaks her head through the cracked door. The rest of the stage is dark.]

LITTLE GIRL: [Speaking softly.] Mommy—I just had another scary dream about Daddy and now I can’t sleep. Can I sleep with you?

[Lights begin to brighten. THEO is gone and ABIGAIL is the only one in the bedroom.

ABIGAIL reaches out her arms towards the LITTLE GIRL.] ABIGAIL: Aw, honey. Come here. [LITTLE GIRL smiles as she walks towards the bed and jumps into ABIGAIL’s arms.] Mommy had a bad dream about Daddy, too. It’ll be okay, though. Everything will be okay. He’s still here watching over us.

LITTLE GIRL: What’s this, Mommy? [Looks at the opened box as she crawls out of ABIGAIL’s arms and sits beside her on the bed.]

ABIGAIL: [Places her hand on the box.] This is something that I have to remind me of your Daddy whenever I find myself missing him. It helps me feel better sometimes. There’s a ton of pictures in here.

There are even some pictures of the three of us. Those ones are definitely my favorite. [Laughs gently as she reaches over to tuck some hair behind the LITTLE GIRL’s ear and kisses the top of her head.]

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LITTLE GIRL: [Smiles.] I wanna see!

ABIGAIL: Well. . . [Pauses and looks back over to the opened box.] How about this? I think maybe it’s time you have this. Whenever you’re feeling sad and missing Daddy, you can always look through all the things I put in here. Maybe you can even put in some of those letters that Daddy wrote to you. Do you like that idea?

LITTLE GIRL: [Jumping up and down.] Yeah! Daddy got me Mr. Blankey. Could I put him in there, too? ’Cause I’m a big girl now and I don’t sleep with him anymore.

ABIGAIL: Of course, baby. [Laughing.] You can put whatever you want in this box. It’s yours now.

Come on, it’s time for bed.

[ABIGAIL closes the box and leans over the side of the bed as she places the box on the floor. LITTLE GIRL lifts up the covers and gets underneath them. ABIGAIL reaches over to turn off the lamp on the bedside table but stops for a moment. She picks up one of the-face down picture frames and looks at it. It’s a picture of ABIGAIL and THEO on their wedding day, smiling. ABIGAIL smiles slightly and leaves the picture frame up as she turns over to hold the LITTLE GIRL.] LITTLE GIRL: Night, Mommy. I love you.

ABIGAIL: I love you too.

[The lights slowly fade to black as ABIGAIL and the LITTLE GIRL fall asleep.] n Ashley Costa grew up in Bristol, Connecticut, and later moved to Wilson, North Carolina, where she currently resides. Ashley is enrolled at East Carolina University and is majoring in English with a minor in creative writing while also working towards a certificate in Business and Technical Communication. Ashley received her Associates of Arts at Wilson Community College where she officially decided to chase her dreams of becoming a book editor for a publishing house. She will graduate from East Carolina University in May of 2020.

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Summer Lovin’ Kenly Corya He drove a red jeep.

The fingers of his right hand traced patterns on her thigh as he grasped the wheel with the other.

He took her on long drives through the country with windows rolled down as her long blonde curls caressed her face.

They stole kisses under apple trees, chased each other through the orchard.

Time was infinite and laughter, endless.

He plucked flowers from her hair and whispered promises of a life together.

She promised him an adventure when she tumbled in his car.

The trees shifted, once green, then red, brown, now bare.

The fruit rotted.

He sold his jeep.

She cut her hair. n

They shared raspberry kisses, tongues stained blue, lips sweet from Speedway slushies.

Once, he carried her far from home, their destination a secret.

In the wilderness, she uncovered her inner-Gaia.

Magic wove through her long hair, wildflowers nestled themselves in her curls. They lay on a blanket.

He fed her fruit like a goddess, but the thunder came and they had to go home.

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Petals and Promises Kenly Corya

meet me in the magical place our secret meadow nestled in the woods where fairies glow in the trees and little goblins croak from their damp home in the brook I’ll wait for you there in my simple gown I’ll rest in the overgrown weeds, thorny flowers, and briars

a single blazing star between my fingers goldenrod dust brushed across my cheekbones and pressed against my eyelids the sweet nectar of a wild geranium smeared on my lips and bloodless cheeks and when you finally meet me we’ll dance our bare feet making a path through the grass so that we will one day find our way back to this sacred place n

Kenly Corya is an undergraduate student at East Carolina University from Greenwood, Indiana. She is pursuing a BA in English with a double minor in Hispanic Studies and Creative Writing. She primarily writes poetry but is also interested in essay and fiction writing. When she’s not writing, she enjoys making music, hiking, and performing. Post-graduation, Kenly intends to pursue an MA in English Literature and hopes to publish a collection of her poetry. You can find her poetry on Instagram @kenlycorya.

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Facade Jarod Jordan “Why’re you such a cold fuckin’ bitch? Doesn’t this hurt? Doesn’t this mess with your head, your heart? Anything?”

The words sprayed a venomous cloud into the

had a little bit too much to drink? That’s bullshit.

Total bullshit.”

His words flared with their venom-lined edge again, each syllable another stab at her. Samena

air, but their ill-intent denatured and unraveled

tightened her fingers on each other, uncrossed

into wisps of useless sound. She sat, legs crossed,

then re-crossed her legs as the black denim rubbed

fingers steepled, eyes refined to slits that could

together.

slice steel. The man continued to fire off a volley of

“All the more reason for you to not be with a

pointless insults, his salt-and-pepper chin chewing

‘cold-hearted bitch’ then, correct? Since I’m upset

and grinding each word into the space between

over ‘total bullshit.’”

them.

“I just don’t get it. You’re some piece of work. I don’t understand—” “I’m not asking for understanding, Allan. I’m asking you to leave.”

“Just like that? I make one mistake; don’t follow one of your fucking rules, Sam, and I’m out?”

Samena took an even breath, settling a twinge in her stomach. Her fingers clasped together into a barricade on her lap. A few loose strands of her onyx hair slipped alongside her cheek.

“Allan, please, just go.”

Allan was already pacing in tight, forceful

Even as she said this, she could feel the bitter chill it left in her mouth. Allan’s face dropped for a second, but quickly contorted into another raging maw, ready to strike, ready to devour Samena where she sat. His arm shot up. Drawn, readied, and on the verge of swinging. Samena flinched almost imperceptibly in the armchair and closed her eyes, preparing for the slash of pain to her face.

His arm fell to his side limply.

“I cannot believe you. Fine. You know what?

I’m done. You can go fuck yourself with whatever shard of glass you use to get off.”

Allan turned to leave. His shoulders and back

ellipses in front of Samena. He waved his arms in

hunched. Samena kept her glacial stare fixed on

sharp jerks, blades of flesh and bone that crumpled

him.

and stretched his ratty T-shirt with each swipe.

“No, I won’t ‘just go.’ You’re going to kick me out, throw away all we’ve built up, just because I

“I’ll be back for my shit.”

“I’ll have it ready for you.”

Allan squinted his eyes. A snarl curled up, but

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the energy to sustain it leeched from his face. He

steps. Gavin flung himself onto the bed and buried

grabbed the knob to the front door, swung it open,

his face deep into a Luke Skywalker pillow. She

and slammed it behind him. The decorative glass

laid next to him and draped her arm over his back.

panes rattled in their frames as Allan opened the

“Can you tell me why you’re crying, please?”

rickety car door and slammed it shut. The engine

Muffled sniffles squirmed up from the fabric as

kicked up, revved, and faded.

small brown feet rubbed together, toes curling and

Samena drew in another breath, but it ripped

folding over each other. Her hand traced Gavin’s

and felt ragged as she swallowed it down. As she

side with a ginger touch, smoothing out his shirt

settled her hands on her knees to rise, small feet

and covering his Blue’s-Clues-underweared

pattered away from around a hallway corner.

bottom.

“Fuck.”

She pressed her eyelids together and jammed a knuckle into the corners. Slow deliberate steps

“Gavin, please talk to Mommy. Did you see or hear what happened?”

Another slow nod. Tears tried to bead at

took her through the small living room, around the

Samena’s eyes, but she blinked them away and

same hallway corner, and down to the end where a

swallowed the quake in her voice.

bedroom door was closed and locked.

“Gavin, please unlock the door. You know we don’t lock doors.”

Samena knocked gently, pressing her forehead

“Gavin, baby, it’s okay. He’s gone now.

Mommy’s okay. I promise.”

A sharp squeal and shudder erupted from Gavin, and a scream boomed into the pillow.

against the dark-stained wood. Nothing stirred

Little fists grabbed the edges and pulled them

inside.

close to the sides of his head. Gavin curled into

“Please, Gavin. Mommy just wants to talk.”

a tight ball and heaved with each successive sob,

The small feet plopped to the floor, bare skin

his tears seeped into her shirt. Samena gripped

sticking slightly to the wooden planks. A slight

his side with her firm hand and brought him into

clunk, a twist, and the door gave way to Samena’s

her chest. The sting in her eyes grew unbearable.

forehead. A mass of black curls drooped over a

She tried to open her mouth to comfort him, but

swollen face streaked with tears. She bit the inside

the seizing of her throat only snagged on air as

of her lip as it pursed.

she inhaled sharply. His arms wrapped around

“Honey, can I come in?”

her neck ashis head bobbed and bumped into her

Gavin’sblack curls nodded wearily as they turned

chin.

and retreated to the bed, a red Power Rangers shirt

“Please, baby. It’s okay. Mommy’s okay.”

bounced at his little knees. She followed with quiet

Gavin’s sobs quieted for a moment as he took a

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 lasting longer and longer until it didn’t fade. Her

“No, Mommy. No, you’re not.”

hair was wrapped into a neat bun at the crown of

He choked up the words, and they wrenched the

her head, not a strand out of place.

tears from Samena’s eyes. She cradled him closer

The familiar sputtering of an engine pulled into

with her arms and stroked his back with her hands,

the driveway. Her hands balled into fists at her

rocking them both to sleep.

side, but she forced them to relax. She dropped herself into the living room armchair and sat in silence, eyes fixed on the window covered by

Samena’s vision fluttered and blurred into focus

elegant curtains. The engine cut off. Shoes gritted

as Gavin snored gently, still wrapped up in her arms

against the concrete of the driveway. Crunch.

as his hair tickled her cheek. She meticulously

Crunch. They continued up the wooden porch

unraveled her arms from him and tucked him into

stairs. A heavy thud wracked on the door as

bed. She rose with care and glanced at a Power

Allan’s knuckle pounded glass panes.

Ranger wall clock. Two hours had passed. Allan would probably be back soon. She slid from Gavin’s room and left the door slightly cracked, flicking out

“C’mon, Sam, let me in. I’m sorry. Can we talk about this?”

Samena gulped a lump in her throat down. She

the light. The small wet stains of his tears on her

tried to ignore him, to push his presence away.

chest could still be seen, so she changed.

More knocking. The panes rattled harder. The

She went to her bathroom, still littered with

door shuddered in the frame.

Allan’s effects. The sink faucet handle creaked

“I’m trying to be nice here, Sam. Let. Me. In.”

as cool water dribbled out, slowly at first, then a

She jumped up from her chair and hastily

stream that gurgled into the drain. She cupped her hands and splashed the water onto her face and patted it off with a towel. The faint smell of Allan’s shaving cream crept in her nose. Her jaw clenched as she tossed the towel onto the vanity counter and gripped the edges of the quartz slab. The water creaked off and Samena busied herself by collecting Allan’s belongings into clear plastic totes.

Another hourand Samena had the totes filled and stacked outside on her porch. With each one she placed, a numbness slinked through her body

undid the locks, yanking open the door.

“You’re going to wake up Gavin. There’s your stuff. Now, please take it and leave.”

“You’re not even going to give me a chance to explain myself?”

“The only thing I’m going to give you is your stuff. Leave.”

“Sam, c’mon, this isn’t fair—” Samena, still holding the doorknob, pushed it closed with a slam.

“I don’t even know why I tried with a soulless

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Volume 7 Issue 1 | 2019 herself down into it. It wrapped her like a thick

Allan grunted and huffed, trying to heft all

warm blanket. She drifted down lower, the water

the totes up at one time in an awkward tower. He

swallowing up her ears, her hair splaying out in

made a few steps before a yelp and a crash battered

a mass of inky black. Her hands clasped together

against Samena’s ears.

over her breasts as she held herself in the tub.

“Fucking-shit. Damnit.”

“I’m okay.”

The ghost of a smile settled on Samena’s face as

The words sounded so far away, so foreign, so

she stepped away from the door. Allan cursed and

empty.

shuffled outside, presumably scraping his things

“I’m okay.”

from the ground and back into the totes, then into

They continued to drift, coiling into darkness

his car.

as Samena closed her eyes. Gavin’s words splintered across her mind with ferocious intensity. No, you’re not.

Evening sun filtered through the door’s glass and the windows, splattering multicolored smears and shadows on the furniture, floor, and walls. Samena

Warm tears mingled with the water around her face.

“No, I’m not.” n

took another deep breath and headed back towards her bedroom, then back into the bathroom.

She turned the bath faucet and let the tub fill with steaming water. As it did, she slowly disrobed, letting her clothes slump into piles in the bathroom corner. A few small, jagged scars raked along the middle of her back. She grabbed a small make-up wipe from the packet beside the sink and wiped away the concealer from her face. Another flick of a scar faded into view along her hairline. She stared at it for a moment, the steam from the filling bath beginning to cloud the mirror. Her eyes drifted down to her nose, just slightly skewed left with a bump on the bridge. Her visage blurred as the last of the mirror fogged over.

The water in the tub sloshed gently as she let

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Jarod Jordon is a senior at East Carolina University majoring in English with minors in creative writing and psychology. With a passion for writing, he aspires to attain his MFA in creative writing with a concentration in fiction in order to teach creative writing courses at the collegiate level.