'New metrics for architectural icons'

‘New metrics for architectural icons’ by

Louis Aston

For the Glasgow School of Art, BA (hons) Mackintosh School of Architecture.

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Contents 1. Introduction

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1.1 What does this have to do with modernism?

2. Methodology

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2.1 Gathering Data

3. Literature review 4.

the Villa Savoye

5. Life Cycle Assessment

5.1 Working methodology

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5.2 ‘Structural Columns’ 5.3 Steel reinforcement in ‘Structural Columns’

5.4 ‘Concrete Girder’ 5.5 Steel reinforcement in ‘Concrete Girder’ 5.6 Floor Slab

6. Modernist wall composition

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6.1 the Villa Savoye, Le Corbusier 6.2 the Farnsworth house. Mies van der Roche 6.3 the Breuer house, New Canaan II. Marcel Breuer

7. How ‘sustainable’ is timber?

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8. Appendix

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9. Glossary

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10.Bibliography

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“Each tonne of carbon dioxide emitted to the atmosphere adds to the climate problem… Reducing emissions to zero within thirty years should be the world’s most important objective. Even a 2 degree temperature rise will have very substantial effects around the world, including intense rainfall and flooring rising sea levels and periods of searing drought”

Goodall Chris, “What we need to do now: For a Zero Carbon Future”, (London: Profile Books LTD, 2020) 2,3

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1. Introduction This dissertation sets out to define the role in which modern methods of analysis can be used in environmental design to reduce the carbon footprint of buildings. The subject of study will focus on the research of architectural icon(s) from the twentieth century of the Modernist style through the lens of ‘sustainable design’. Modernism is broadly renowned for its use and implementation of the structure of highly energy intensive materials such as concrete and steel 1.

The study aims to provide quantifiable data that can be used as a metric to argue both; that the construction industry cannot stand idle as it contributes to accelerate the progression of climate change. But also, architectural icons must also go under the same scrutiny of contemporary architecture to consider their viability as buildings for inspiration in the age of a climate crisis.

-The Paris agreement set out by over 195 countries the legally binding treaty to hold the increase of global average temperature(a) to 2 °C and strive to limit the increase of warming to 1.5°C 2. In the UK, approximately 49 percent of annual carbon emissions are attributable to buildings 3, ‘The London Energy Transformation Initiative’ (LETI) research shows that to achieve these targets by 2025 all new buildings must be designed to deliver ‘net zero carbon’ to the significant reduction of greenhouse gases in the construction of our buildings to zero 4. This entails a paradigm shift, the change of attitude from decades of architectural design and to question the validity of existing, iconic buildings as a precedent for designing in the age of a climate crisis.

Architects Climate Network (ACAN), a body of voluntary individual(s) concerned with architecture and the built environment, claim that the embodied carbon of materials in a residential building can make up to 70 percent of all emissions when accounting for the 60-year lifespan 5. So far, the UK government has made tentative moves to improve much needed legislation towards the regulation of carbon in the construction industry. Namely introducing ‘carbon budgets’, a mechanism to allocate the set of parameters- per industry, for the emission and reduction of carbon every 5 years

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Barnabas Calder, “Architecture, From Prehistory to Climate Emergency” (Great Britain: Pelican Books, 2021) 344 UN, United Nations, “Paris agreement” (UNFCC), accessed March 2022, https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf 3 Pelsmakers, Sofie, and Nick Newman. Design Studio 1 “Everything Needs to Change - Architecture and the Climate Emergency” (London: RIBA, 2021) 3 4 Clara Bagenal George “LETI Embodied Carbon Primer, Supplementary guidance to the Climate Emergency Design Guide”, ((LETI, London Energy Transformation initiative, 2020) https://www.leti.london/_files/ugd/252d09_8ceffcbcafdb43cf8a19ab9af5073b92.pdf, 6 5 Joe Giddings, “ "The carbon footprint of construction: The case for regulating embodied carbon in construction to significantly address the impact of the industry on the planet", (London: ACAN, 2021 ) https://www.architectscan.org/_files/ugd/b22203_c17af553402146638e9bc877101630f3.pdf 2

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but currently, there is a lack of depth and guidance to meet the designated targets on a project-byproject basis. Architects and individuals associated with the construction industry are currently lobbying the UK government for the inclusion of mandatory reporting of carbon emissions in the built environment, along with providing boundaries of carbon emissions on every project 6. Known as ‘Part Z’, the written act provides insights to the implementation by government(s) to ensure there is a ‘carbon cap’ on all projects, initially covering the carbon produced during the manufacturing stage but extending to a whole life carbon assessment.

The strategy, as detailed in the report specifies the mandatory undertaking of a ‘Life Cycle Assessment’, this has already been adopted by some of the world’s largest and environmentally conscious architecture firms like Dortre Mandrup principally located in Denmark. Mandrup is the recipient and winner of countless sustainable accolades and accredited with the ‘most sustainable office building in Scandinavia’ 7. In a research paper 8 they describe ‘sustainable design as a science’, as the unique opportunity that architects must work together with engineers and other fields to find green solutions to designs. They claim; a key part of sustainable design is ‘context-dependent’ to consider the multitude of factors that make up the carbon footprint of materials such as wood, its sourcing and availability. Mandrup describe their need for ‘cradle-to-cradle’ tools such as the Life Cycle Assessment that accounts for the totally of factors which play a ‘vital role in upskilling and educating architects and clients alike’ 9.

1.1 What does this have to do with Modernism?

“Le Corbusier one of the most influential, admired, and maligned architects of the twentieth century, heralded as a prophet in his lifetime, revered as a god after his death… was considered to be the very conscience of modern architecture” 10.

Three years before Le Corbusier was born, the coldest global average temperature was recorded, at -1.61 °C, this would only continue to increase past his death until the warmest global average temperature was recorded in 2016 11. Modernism and Le Corbusier would canon the ideal of fossil fuel expenditure as the new way of living. He among his contemporise championed ‘technological

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Will Arnold, "Approved Document Z: Whole life carbon", (London: Part-Z, 2021) https://part-z.uk/proposal Dortre Mandrup “IKEA Hubhult is good and green”, accessed March 2022, https://www.dortemandrup.dk/news/ikeahubhult-good-and green#:~:text=IKEA%20Hubhult%2C%20the%20most%20sustainable,the%20Green%20Good%20Design%20award!

8 Pelsmaker, “Everything needs to change” 4 9 Ibid 4 10 Nicolas Fox Weber "Le Corbusier [a life]", (United States: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008) 11 NOAA National Centres for Environmental Information “State of the Climate: Global Climate Report for Annual 2020”, accessed April 2022 https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/202013.

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innovation’ and an ‘architectural revolution’ to achieve the ‘engineers aesthetic’ 12. This ‘engineers aesthetic’ contributed to the formation and widespread use of concrete and steel 13 deployed in buildings and infrastructure all over the world to solidify the status as the world’s most common material(s). These industries are the single largest carbon emission contributor in the UK and responsible for 13% of all annual carbon emitted worldwide 14. However, it is not the aim of this study to denounce the work of Le Corbusier or comment on the validity of his proposals, but it is important to recognise the environmental qualities of buildings that have significant inspiration and role as architectural icons, that have and continue to inspire countless generations that taint innovative contemporary projects with environmentally destructive buildings.

2. Methodology This dissertation has been structured to present the reader with the digestible format of two parts to understand primarily, What is carbon in buildings, How can it be calculated? And What is the significance of this tool for architectural design?

The line of enquiry is facilitated by ‘The Villa Savoye, (Le Corbusier)’- a modernist icon, to provide a basis for exploration and the historical interpretation of data to calculate the embodied carbon in buildings. The latter chapters compare the scope of tectonic language in the wall construction typology(ies) of ‘the Farnsworth house, 1951 (Mies van der Roche)’ and ‘the Breuer house, 1948 (Marcel Breuer) in the search for a broader, deeper investigation to their implicational use.

The case studies used in this report are driven from a contextual dependent narrative subject to the limitations of primary and secondary sources, it is important for the reader to understand the data required to undertake a life-cycle carbon assessment is unique to every building and reliant on orthographic drawings and the specification of materials. Typically, this process is undertaken in the latter RIBA design phases in varying scales of definition and specification of building elements to inform the selection, quantity, and quality of materials. This relies upon the author to make assumptions based on qualitive and quantitative research that contribute to the contextualisation of projects in respect to the calculations themselves, therefore objectively questioning the accuracy of this report. However, not intended is a scientific study on the accuracy of calculating carbon for a particular building but rather a preliminary investigation towards the implication of using

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Frederick Etchells "Towards a new architecture by Le Corbusier", (New York: Dover Publications, 2020) (Calder 2021) 343 14 Timo Gerres “Green steel production: how G7 countries can help change the global landscape”, (Online: Lead it, June 2021) file:///D:/GSA/Stage%204/P4/wk%2019/IN/g7-green-steel-tracker-policy-brief.pdf 13

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construction techniques and materials which harbour troubling environmental characteristics, contributing to global warming.

The source methodology initially involved the widespread reading of environmental consortia consisting of published books and articles for the preparation of forming an argument to improve the environmental consistency in architectural design. The clarity of the effectiveness, in the construction industry pertains to the self determination of methods used to calculate carbon, the function or aesthetic of design is often the justification for the use of highly embodied energy materials. This resulted in exploring techniques used by architectural research units such as MEARU at the Glasgow School of Art, which address and simplify the impact of material characteristics in the assessment of energy use of buildings. This analysis correlated the expenditure of energy and industrial refinement of materials to supplement the investigation into statistical evaluation(s).

2.1 Gathering data The input data used in this report has been collected from a plethora of sources that have been critically evaluated in terms of authenticity and accuracy by the author. In terms of sources, the data from case studies have been primarily informed by published academic works on the subject comparative to original drawings which if exist; lack sufficiency and clarity. When appropriate, photographs from the original constructional works provide a cross reference to challenge the validity of assumptions made by the author, consistent to the method used in similar academic works. This ‘raw’ information has been interpreted into a 3D model, initially sourced from the public domain but has been subject to modifications by the author to generate diagrams and illustrate process.

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3. Literature Review The critical analysis of relevant texts is appropriated throughout the study to showcase the context dependent narrative of calculation(s) informed from substantiated opinions, however briefly outlined below is the synoptic measurement of thinking generalised in the study of environmental design.

There is the misconception about buildings that they only become damaging to the environment once they have been constructed, where emissions come from ‘processed energy’ drawn from the national grid which is powered by fossil fuels 15. On the contrary, buildings emit carbon in two ways, understandably ‘operational carbon’, the conventional census from the day-to-day supply of energy to heat, ventilation, and operation of electrical appliances. Secondly, ‘embodied carbon’ is lesserknown producer from the sourcing, construction, use and demolition of materials.

Barnabas Calder’s ‘Architecture: From Prehistory to Climate Emergency (2021)’ the period defining piece of work to distil an insightful discussion summarising the evolution of architecture’s dependency on fossil fuel availability. Inherently provides critical observations of the many architectural icons of history and their relationship to energy consumption, which as discussed, is indictive to the production of carbon emissions.

Calder’s analysis of modernist icons pertains to the objectification of fossil fuel energy as a resource to power the many mechanisms that primarily involve the sustainment and production of heat. His investigation recognises the shortcoming(s) of the tectonic layering of the modernist façade, its slimness and inability to prevent the loss of heat 16 for Calder to question the exponential strain and effeteness of the heating mechanisms themselves. He determined that icons, generally predate the relevant technology to provide dwellings with an unsuitable environment of habitation, which led to their replacement on multiple occasions.

“It was to be three years before the final lighting [and heating] installation was in place. The original coal-powered boiler was replaced in 1931-32 with an oil fired one, but after a few years this second smelly, noisy, ineffective heating mechanism it was replaced in 1939… La Roche spent 10,000 French francs per year on maintaining and upgrading his house. Elsewhere in Paris, in 1929 George Orwell was struggling by on just six francs per day” 17

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Sophie Pelsmaker “The environmental design pocketbook”, (London: RIBA Publishing. 2015) 340 (Calder 2021) 347 17 Ibid 348 16

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Calder in his assessment of their re-application and re-investment does not discuss the implication of quantitative carbon data. But rather, a statement addressing the lack of premeditation of a building’s requirements should be basic in principle. Paradoxically, the modernism in quest for innovation - Le Corbusier specifically, led to the distribution of inhabitable buildings and regression of living conditions 18, unfortunately consistent and indictive of the period. Whereas this report uses carbon as a contemporary metric to highlight the harmfulness use of our resources, the financial expenditure provided in this Calder’s report insights a wastefulness character when compartmentalised, to reveal the exorbitant economic cost to running modernist buildings.

Alternatively, take the Bauhaus workshop block (1925-7) designed by Walter Gropius – a prerequisite model of the modernist icon extensively discussed and accredited with one of the first uses of the ‘curtain wall’ façade typology. Similarly, the Villa Savoye is comprised of a thin, single uninsulated pane of glass with a lightweight metallic and/ or timber frame, its ‘design and construction approach’ led to the unequivocal failure of retaining heat in cold environments. The façade’s inadequacies of regulating temperature led to the ‘cracking’ and impairment of the five stock pulverised coal boilers from overcapacity and use, only to be replaced four years later. Up until the 1990’s the heating system underwent eleven stages of upgrade and replacement, all-the-while consuming an incessant amount of coal, shovelled constantly throughout winter, 24 hours a day to ensure no furniture or electrical systems were inadvertently affected from frost - the windows were eventually sealed shut and lined with insulation 19.

In a broader sense, there is currently insufficient data to objectively record or accurately measure information which concerns the total, scope or depth of environmental damage modernist icons produce. The author attempts to address the existential problems of sourcing materials and their construction, perhaps overlooked by previous scholars which focus rather on the operational consequences in the running of buildings. Calder describes the census between scholars, “At present architecture schools still tend to treat modernism as the foundation of today’s architecture, but [modernist icons] show, there is no other architectural style in history that offers such a bad model for approaching the relationship between energy and architecture” 20.

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(Calder 2021) 351, Calder identifies the shortcoming of the technical detail and inadequate heating system from the Villa Savoye results in the client’s done spending time in a ‘sanatorium’ 19 Daniel A. Barber, “Heating the Bauhaus: Understanding the history of architecture in the context of energy policy and transition” (Kleinman Centre for energy policy: 2019) https://kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2020/08/KCEP-Heating-the-Bauhaus-Singles-2.pdf, 7 20 (Calder 2021) 358

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4. the Villa Savoye. “the Villa Savoye stands unique… its totally innovative architecture can be perceived as a flagship, a masterly, slightly surrealistic montage, uniting classicism and modernity in a tripartite composition” 21.

Widely commended as neither a country house nor luxury residence but a transformative ‘machine for the living’ which sits perched on-top of a hill looking downwards to Paris. The house was born and fashioned from Le Corbusier’s theoretical position discussed in ‘towards a new architecture’ which embodied 5 major principles of design, 22 Figure 1 & 2.

1. Pilots, ground level columns to elevate the building above ground. (Black) 2. Functional roof. (Red) 3. Floor plan to be free of load-bearing walls. (Green) 4. Long horizontal windows. (Blue) 5. Freely designed facades, free of the constraints of load-bearing walls (Blue + Green) The villa has been discussed exhaustively as possibly one of the most documented buildings to date, many renown theorists such as Kenneth Frampton comment on Corbusier relationship between classicism and modernism in which the Villa correlates. A likeness to the ‘Palladian villa’, in shape and use of ramps but paradoxical- the ‘free façade’ comprised of concrete masonry is nonloadbearing as a synonymous with vernacular architecture only to be plastered over to form uniform, uninterrupted planes and contain the ‘purity’ of spaces 23. The building acts as a promenade; shaping and morphing the viewer on a journey of atmospheric experience, winding up each floor using stairs and ramps to crescendo in an open terrace looking over the landscape.

However, Le Corbusier would receive some of the most criticism of any architect over the past century, the numerous technical problems caught up with him for many of clients to demand constant improvement to the unhabitable homes, just like the Villa Savoye 24. The controversial iconic status is undoubtable to continue just as it has for the past 100 years.

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Jacques Sbriglio, “Le Corbusier: The Villa Savoye”, (Basel: Birkhauser, 2008) 6,7 (Corbusier 1986) 23 Kenneth Frampton, “Le Corbusier”, (London, Thames & Hudson, 2015) 77 - 79 24 (Calder 2021) 346 22

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5. Life carbon assessment This chapter provides the foundation and method of calculating embodied, an adaption of the guide listed as ‘RICS professional standards and guidance, UK: Whole life carbon assessment for the built environment’ 25, Figure 3 represents typical scope of procedure spanning the complete life cycle of a medium scale residential building(s). The resulting data can be used as a tool by designers to make meaningful comparisons to determine the emission output and inform design iterations, specific of each building element to effectively reduce in an individualistic capacity to net zero carbon. Each resulting data point can vary drastically based on the building construction typology and the definition and characteristic of materials specified. The references to embodied carbon data used in this study are UK aligned to distinguish the clarity of materials where the composition, sourcing and manufacture are often left to the discretion of individual(s), regulated by state governments.

The amount of carbon is represented by the kilogram per carbon dioxide approximation, or kgCO2e, also known as the global warming potential 26.

Product stage. The modules A1-A3 takes into consideration the kgCO2e defined through material sourcing, processing, and manufacturing. This concerns materials that are both raw and complied into components, The carbon is also measured between transportation up until the material is brought to site. This stage does not consider the amount of kgCO2e which has been recycled in the materials components.

Construction stage. A4 & A5 considers the carbon released during the shipping of materials to the construction site. This also includes any preparation needed to house the materials in relation to maintaining optimal functionality.

Use stage. B1-B7 calculates the carbon released in relation to the operation of the building. This scope covers the required energy and water demand to operate the building as well as maintaining the functionality of materials.

End of life stage. C1- C4, considers the carbon released during the end-of-life phase in a building.

From demolition to disposing of materials.

Beyond the life cycle stage. This final stage responds to carbon that can be recovered during the life cycle.

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Sturgis, Simon. "Whole life carbon assessment for the built environment". (London: Royal institution of chartered

surveyors. 2020) 26

Gibbons. O. P & Orr. J. J, “How to calculate embodied carbon” (London: The institute of structural engineers, 2020) 1,2

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As specified in Figure 2, for a low energy, medium scale residential development the largest single contributor of carbon emissions occurs during the ‘production of materials’ (A1 – A3), 50 percent. In comparison a development’s ‘operational use’ (B6), is typically half – 23 percent ‘product stage’, when factoring the ‘maintenance, repair, replacement, and refurbishment of materials’ (B1 – B5) the embodied carbon is significantly the largest emitter at 70 percent. A ‘whole life carbon assessment’ considers all building related elements; including temporary works, substructure, superstructure, finishes, and fitting(s), 27 which is completed throughout the RIBA design stages of work; however, this report will consider the minimum scope of investigation 28 that covers only; substructure and superstructure (A1 – A3), due to the forementioned lack of awareness in embodied carbon materials.

5.1 Working methodology The method used in an embodied carbon calculation can be approached in multiple ways, an architectural practice will in sub-contract an environmental technician - freelance or otherwise, using a plugin for multiple BIM modelling software(s) to provide an assessment subject to the proper layering of information present in the model. This investigation will primarily preform the manualbased technique to engage with the historical narrative more accurately due to the specification of historical materials.

The fundamental principle of an embodied carbon calculation is to multiply the quantity of each material by a carbon factor: Material quantity (kg/ m3) x carbon factor (kgCO2e/kg) = embodied carbon (kgCO2e) 29 This formula represents the direct representation of quantifiable release of carbon into the atmosphere, both the structural and constructional materials will be considered relative to the floor area (1m2)).

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Sturgis Simon, “Whole life caron assessment for the built environment, RICS professional statement”, (London: Royal institution of the chartered surveyors (RICS), 2020), 9 28 Ibid, 8 29 (Gibbons. O. P. & Orr. J. 2020) 4

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5.2 Structural Columns, Figure 3: Material: Cast concrete in-situ Thickness: 300mm Strength Class: C40/50 Mpa Portland Cement content: CEM 1 (100% Portland cement) Carbon Factor: 413 kgCO2e/m3 --Firstly, we must consider the weight for each individual material to find the total quantities of building fabric. This can be achieved by either calculating the Volume (m3) or weight (KG) in kilograms, which is dependent on the profile edge of the component. The Villa Savoye uses cylindrical columns for structure, [formula has been adapted 30] to consider (r = radius of column thickness). To calculate the total volume of the ‘structural columns’, we would multiply the volume of 1 column by the number of columns. (π x r2 (m) x height (m)) x No of columns = Volume of structural columns (m3) The Villa Savoye contains two variations in height of ‘structural columns’; we would then have to differentiate the columns into two elements and add the sum of them together. ((π x 0.1502 x 6.8) x 29 columns) + ((π x 0.1502 x 3.4) x 3 columns) = 15 m3 Typically, the dimensions which include the thickness and height of the columns would be specified in the set of original structural drawings or product specifications supplied by the architect, however no record of these exists 31. Therefore, the author has consulted secondary sources 32 to calculate the number and height of columns, figure 5.

Secondly, we need to obtain the ‘Embodied Carbon Factor’ (ECF). Similarly, this data is normally specified before the building is constructed and listed under product specification(s) in the ‘Environmental Product Declarations’ (EPD) by the manufacturer 33. However, the ECF can also be obtained from the ICE database. The ‘Inventory of Carbon and Energy’ is a database for building

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Appendix 1

Espion Bernard, “Building Knowledge, Constructing Histories”, (United states: CRC Press, 2018) 373 32 Steven Park, "Le Corbusier Redrawn: The houses", (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2012) 150-153 33 (Gibbons. O. P. & Orr. J. 2020) 14

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materials which contains original energy factors that provide insights to the energy consumed to make a building material (A1-A3) 34.

--Bernard Espion, editor of ‘Building Knowledge, Constructing Histories’, presents a series of articles that to contribute to the latest research in the field of construction history 35. Most relevant; ‘Exploring the visual material within the building process of the Villa Savoye’, by Veronique Boon and Benedicte Gandini to provide the contextualisation of the building process and the justification of ECF values used for materials.

The article functions as a narrative and tool to relate the importance of visual documentation of architectural building(s) and icon, the Villa Savoye. Boone and Gandidi’s research provide unedited insights to the construction of Villa Savoye through a series of amateur films shot and produced by Ernst Weissmann, collaborator, and employee in the ‘Atelier Le Corbusier’ which films have only been recently restored and digitalised for the public. The raw footage is converted into still images which relate the deep, humanistic construction of the Villa Savoye where Weissmann captures craftsmen, not only completing their contractual work but also portrays their faces, laughing and personalising them as potential equals 36. Visible throughout the stills are the individual tasks coordinated by the architect, depicting the pouring of in-situ concrete into timber formwork 37 to visually document the construction techniques used in the cross examination of material characteristics informing the ECF. “The concrete composition [floor slabs] indicated in the offer as well as on plan, is fixed at 0.800 m3 gravel: 0.400 m3 sand and 300 kg of cement” 38.

Considering 300 kilograms of cement is equal to 0.3 m3, we can reasonably assume that the ratio of gravel : sand : cement is equal to 8:4:3. Therefore, the concrete used in the floor slabs have a carbon factor of approx. 370 kgCO2e/m3 based upon the information supplied from the ICE database, detailing an equivalent material composition that pertains the consistent average strength class of 25/30 MPa used in concrete flooring.

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Jones, Craig & Hammond Geoff, “Embodied Carbon the ICE Database”, Circular Ecology, 03/2022, https://circularecology.com/embodied-carbon-footprint-database.html 35 (Espoin 2018) 36 ibid 375 37 Ibid 375 38 Ibid 379

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Then, “The offer specifications set by the contractor mention the calculated weights on the slabs, 1.5 kN/m2 at private rooms, 2.5 kN/m2 at reception rooms and terrace except for 2 kN/m2 for the solarium and 1 kN/m2 for the roof… The [steel] reinforcement bars used are mostly 6mm, 8mm, and 10mm… as is the covering concrete, varying between 5 and 8 cm” 39.

The description of the forces exerted on the different rooms and the variation of thickness from both the steel reinforcement and concrete floor slabs suggest that dependent on the load and function of the building, the strength grade of the materials would vary in the reaction to differing load capacities.

Using this method of analysis, we can link the known materials used in the Villa Savoye with the characteristics observed in the article 40. The ICE database contains comments for each material relating to their specification, to aid in assigning the correct ECF. For example, “In-Situ Concrete, With CEM 1 (Portland cement content 100%),, 40/50 MPa, embodied carbon 413 kgCO2e/m3 assumed 420 kg cementitious content per m3 concrete. Possible uses: structural purposed, in-situ floors, walls, superstructure” 41.

Suggesting, the Embodied Carbon Factor would then be assumed to be 413 kgCO2e/m3 and have a strength class of 40/50 MPa in the ‘structural columns’. The calculation is then divisible by the gross internal floor area (m2): The Cradle-to-gate (A1-A3) calculation for ‘structural columns’:

Volume (m3) x carbon factor (kgCO2e/kg) / total floor area (m2) = embodied carbon (kgCO2e/m2)

((π x 0.1502 x 6.8) x 29 columns) + ((π x 0.1502 x 3.4) x 3 columns) x 413 / 480) = 12.6 kgCO2e/m2

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Ibid 378 Ibid 41 Jones & Hammond “Embodied Carbon the ICE Database” 40

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5.3 Steel reinforcement in structural columns.

Thickness: 10 mm Weight: 450 kg/m3 Volume: 14.6 m3 Carbon Factor: 1.99 kgCO2e/m3 --Weissman film slide’s capture the use of steel reinforcement throughout Villa Savoye, identifying the thickness and steel mesh used of the period 42, whereas (Ford 1989) 43 informs us that the structural columns themselves also use steel reinforcement typical to the building typology of Le Corbusier Villa’s during the 1920’s 44. To calculate the cradle-to-gate emissions of steel reinforcement within the structural columns it follows a similar process previously, (Weight (kg/m3) x volume (m3)) x carbon factor (kgCO2e/kg) / total floor area (m2) = embodied carbon (kgCO2e/m2) The quantity of materials is calculated by the weight multiplied by volume. The weight of steel reinforcement (450 kg/m3) and the carbon factor (1.99 kgCO2e/m3) 45 are considered the industry standard, which contains the thickness (10mm) mentioned by Boone and Gandidi 46.

(Weight (kg/m3) x volume (m3)) x carbon factor (kgCO2e/kg) / total floor area (m2) = embodied carbon (kgCO2e/m2)

(450 x 14.6) x 1.99 / 480)

= 27.2 kgCO2e/m2

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(Espoin 2018) 379 (Espoin 2018) 379 44 Ford. R. Edward, “The Details of Modern Architecture”, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1989) 243 45 (Gibbons. O. P. & Orr. J. 2020) 12 46 (Espoin 2018) 379 43

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Therefore, the total sum for Cradle-to-gate calculation (A1-A3) calculation for structural columns with steel reinforcement in Villa Savoye:

12.6 kgCO2e/m2 + 27.2 kgCO2e/m2 = 39.8 kgCO2e/m2

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5.4 ‘Concrete Girder’ Material: Cast concrete in-situ / Lost tile Thickness: 500 - 800mm Volume: 5.6 m2 Strength Class: C40/50 Mpa / Portland Cement content: CEM 1 (100% Portland cement) Carbon Factor: 413 kgCO2e/m3 / 330 kgCO2e/m3 --Edward R. Ford describes the structural organisation of the Villa Savoye.

“Villa Savoye… [composed of] structural bays of 5 x 5 or 2.5 x 5 meters… the columns were displaced or split in two when in conflict with the other plan (most noticeable at the ramp that splits the centre column line. The major girders (which pick up the loads of the minor beams created by the tiles) are dropped below of the bottom of the Slab… the floor [a method of] reinforced concrete. It was, a ribbed slab created by the ‘lost tile’ process” 47 Firstly, it is critical to consider Le Corbusier’s ideal ‘free plan’ 48 which contributes to the tectonic composition, role of taking loads and position of the ‘Concrete Girders’. Figure 7 illustrates the structural component in composition – predominantly acting as secondary structure to counteract the lateral load’s from the ‘Structural columns’. The concrete elements play a vital role in spanning the columns to hold up the floor slabs, which result in the plan-free of loadbearing walls as well as the facades. The Villa Savoye, is formed from a structural grid, defined in the variation of 5m x 5m or 2.5m x 5m which organises the position of ‘Structural columns’ and loads are transferred through strategic points in relation to the spatial arrangement of rooms and the formation of the ramp, see figure 7. This tectonic language produces a formula that can factor the building’s program and atmospheric aspiration, where the simplistic structural arrangement can act as a catalyst to manipulate space and form. The characteristic and secondly role the ‘Concrete Girders’ play in carrying loads ensures the same strength to weight ratio as the columns, it would be difficult to justify any change in material composition to conclude the ECF is consistent alongside the columns.

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(Ford 1989) 243 (Corbusier 1986)2

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The cradle-to-gate (A1-A3) calculation for Concrete girders as follows: Volume (m3) x carbon factor (kgCO2e/kg) / floor area (m2) = embodied carbon (kgCO2e/m2)

((Volume of row type 1 (m3)) x (No. of rows)) + ((Volume of row type 2 (m3)) x (No. of rows)) x (No. of floor) x carbon factor (kgCO2e/kg) / total floor area (m2) = embodied carbon (kgCO2e/m2)

(((0.3 x 0.3 x 25) x 2 rows) + (0.3 x 0.3 x 37.5) x 1 row)) x 2 floors) x 413 / 480

= 13.6 kgCO2e/m2

5.5 Steel reinforcement in ‘Concrete Girders’ (Weight (kg/m3) x volume (m3)) x carbon factor (kgCO2e/kg) / total floor area (m2) = embodied carbon (kgCO2e/m2)

(450 x 5.6 x 1.99 / 480) = 10.4 kgCO2e/m2

Therefore, the total sum for Cradle-to-gate calculation (A1-A3) calculation for concrete girders with steel reinforcement in Villa Savoye:

13.6 kgCO2e/m2 + 10.4 kgCO2e/m2 = 24.0 kgCO2e/m2

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5.6 Floor Slabs The floor system used in the Villa Savoye, acts as a solid mass and tertiary structure and a modification of the ‘Francois Hennebique system’ figure 10. - comprised of concrete clay tiles, to be held up by timber formwork while poured concrete over and massed into a solid. This system is dependent on Corbusier’s ‘free plan’, without the supporting ‘Concrete Columns’ or ‘Concrete Girders’ the slab would fall into itself from tensile loads.

The Floor slab(s) are made up of the ground, first and roof slabs. The ground and first floor use the same ‘lost tile’ process of structure and composition whereas the roof has been modified in an effort to prevent the ingress of water with the addition of several layers; Bituminous mastic (durum fix), sand, and gravel 49.

The cradle-to-gate (A1-A3) calculation for floor slabs and as follows: Volume (m3) x carbon factor (kgCO2e/kg) / total floor area (m2) = embodied carbon (kgCO2e/m2)

(Volume of ground floor (m3)) + (Volume of first floor (m3)) x carbon factor (kgCO2e/kg) / total floor area (m2) = embodied carbon (kgCO2e/m2)

(21.5 x 19.2 x 0.5) + (21.5 x 19.2 x 0.5) x (166) / 480

= 168.3 (kgCO2e/m2)

The cradle-to-gate emissions of roof slab, sand and gravel are negligible. Therefore, the total sum for Cradle-to-gate calculation (A1-A3) is as follows.

168.3 kgCO2e/m2 + 40.4 kgCO2e/m2 = 208.7 kgCO2e/m2

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ibid 249

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6. Modernist wall composition The following chapter will challenge an embodied carbon calculation to provide comparable data to bring the focus towards a tailored discussion of environmental design. To provide context, the facades of three Modernist icons: The Villa Savoye (Le Corbusier), the Farnsworth House (Mies Van der Roche) and the Breuer house (Marcel Breuer), provide insights to the different tectonic layering of facades throughout the Modernist period. This will inform the reader the relevance and scope in which an EC calculation can reduce the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere.

Barnabas Calder suggested that the technological advancements of materials in the 20th century was made possible by the availability and cheapness of fossil fuels 50 to inadvertently propel the Modernism period to characterise and be defined as a rejection of traditionalism, which has dramatic consequences for design and the environment.

“They [pitched roofs] were to be flattened, vertical windows were replaced by horizontal screens, instead of resting on the earth, modern [buildings] must be raised on stiles or exploit the cantilever to appear floating” 51.

Maritz Vandenberg likened the rejection of traditional methods to a rebellious teenager yearning to shock their elders 52. However, the playfulness of Vandenberg’s analogy is understated, the correlation between the use of fossil fuel and materials is a distressing one. The “increased transparency and luminance epitomised the Architecture of the Modernist movement and that, glass was liberated by the advancement of production material of reinforcement concrete and glass", such materials of steel, concrete and glass require an immense use of energy to source, manufacture and erect.

The selection of the houses and facades are informed by their respective attachment to Modernism and consequence to the environment, the characteristics as mentioned above flat roof, raised building, etc… are embodied to stand as an icon of architecture.

7.1 the Villa Savoye. Le Corbusier, “Typical to Corubsier’s houses of the period, the walls of the Villa Savoye use; hollow pumice concrete masonry, lined with ‘Kalk Cement’ externally and plaster internally. However, no insulation or water proofing was used, figure 11. This cavity was of little waterproofing value; it kept water that had penetrated the exterior from entering the interior but did not allow it to escape. It was probably 50

(Calder 2021) 340 Maritz Vandenberg, "Farnsworth House, Ludwig Mies van der Roche" (London: Phaidon Press, 2003) 13 52 (Vandenberg 2003) 13 51

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thought to have insulating properties, but such air spaces are of limited value without insulation to keep the air still. Convection currents in this cavity would allow heat to easily escape from the building” 53 The simplistic cavity wall construction typology of Le Corbusier can be deceiving in nature, solely considering the tectonic description of the facade one would be inclined to consider the wall a typical load-bearing structure comprised of a double-leaf masonry concrete block, lined with a cement-based material, plaster, or stucco. This is not the case, we understand that the load bearing structure is primarily taken through reinforced concrete columns and floor slabs. Le Corbusier coined this typology as ‘Dom-Ino’, modified from an existing ‘Hennebique frame’. ‘Dom-Ino’ positions concrete columns at the end of floor slab(s) and moved inwards, resulting in the opening(s) for structure to be independently positioned and configured where the façade acts as a separate entity to be formed and utilised more flexibility. This independence from structural responsibility resulted instead of vertical windows dependent on traditional masonry excisions but long, free standing horizontal windows, informed by light and the opacity of façade. So much so that the timber ribbon windows of Le Corbusier used in the ‘Dom-Ino’ typology are synonymous with open, light spaces 54.

The marriage of this theoretical position and technological innovation was able to reduce the thickness of a façade from 600 to 300 mm, when considering the removal of traditional concrete blockwork (300 mm).

Concrete, which makes up the bulk of the materials used in the Villa Savoye has been branded by the Guardian (British Newspaper) as “The most disruptive material on Earth” 55. Concrete, made up of aggregates, water, and cement accounts for 8% of all annual carbon emissions 56. Portland cement, through a twofold release of carbon is the biggest contributor in the emissions of concrete. Roughly half of the emissions are released in production where the compound of clay and limestone is heated, by fossil fuel driven kilns to 1500 degrees, then ground down to power. The second half of emissions are attributed to the ‘calcination’ or de-composition, an exothermic release of heat when acting as a bonding agent 57.

The quantity and variety of cement used in the façade is responsible for increasing the amount of embodied carbon dramatically. The wall, assumed to consist of the air cavity (in double-leaf masonry 53

(Ford 1989) 245 Andrea Deplazes, "Constructing architecture: Materials processes structures, A handbook", (Basel, Switzerland: Birhkauser, 2018) 55 Watts Jonathan, “Concrete: The most disruptive material on Earth”, The Guardian, 02/2022, https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/feb/25/concrete-the-most-destructive-material-on-earth 56 Preston, Johanna Lehne and Felix, "Making Concrete Change: Innovations in Low-carbon cement and concrete", (London: Chatham house, 2018) 5 57 Ibid 18 54

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construction) as a natural insulator varies between 1.34 and 3.19 W/(m²K) when considering the concrete lintel - which spans the breadth of the façade above the window frame. This would suggest that the Villa Savoye would lose heat roughly 10 times the rate of a typical house wall (0.29 W/ (m²K, comprised of 140mm insulation) 58 and 20 times the rate of a Passivehaus wall (0.15 W/(m²K) 59.

Previous studies of the structural frame in the Villa Savoye suggest that major cold bridging occur where the U-Value reach up to 2.6 W/(m²K) 60.

These ‘U-values’ has little consequence to the casual reader but have dramatic implications when considering the fabric of our newly built homes of the 21st century. A Passivehaus, is a building that meets technical standards and requirements in respect of; a comfortable, healthy, and durable home with exceptionally low energy costs 61. The typical Passivehaus standards, considering a ‘Uvalue(s)’ within the floor, roof, and walls are key metrics to determine the thermal performance of buildings, the ‘U-value’ indicates how successful a building can retain heat that affects the amount of energy, electricity, therefore carbon is used to power Villa Savoye.

I acknowledge that it was not aware to Le Corbusier, among others the potential for fossil fuel consumption to cause devastating climate change 62. Comparing the Villa Savoye to Passivehaus standards demonstrates the changing of attitudes over the last century, to bring awareness behind the intent to design buildings in the way we do. The Villa Savoye was conceived and designed from a theoretical position stipulated by Le Corbusier; an important fact to consider as we have and continue to be inspired by architectural icons from the Modernist period, we should also consider the impact in which the materials we use have on the planet.

The Façade for the north-facing elevation of the Villa Savoye releases 45.4 kgCO2e/m2” 63. The equivalent to 21,792 kilograms of Carbon-dioxide when accounting the habitable floor area (480 m2).

If we consider then, 21,792 kgCO2e is the approximate amount of carbon released in the production of materials for the facades of the Villa Savoye. So, if the average UK person travels 11,000 km in a car per year and a typical 5 door hatchback produces 106 gCO2e/km. This would equate to a Volkswagen polo being able to drive halfway to the moon or 5 times round the circumference of the planet for the same carbon expenditure 64.

58

Sophie Pelsmaker, "The Environmental Design Pocketbook", (London: RIBA Publishing, 2015) 265 Janet Dadedy, Cotterell & Adam “The Passivehaus Handbook: A pratical guide to constructing and retrofitting buildings for ultra-low energy performance”, (Cambridge: Green Books, 2012) 21 60 Colin Porteous, “The New eco-architecture: alternatives from the modern movement”, (London: Spon Press, 2002) 12 61 (Dadedy 2012) 62 (Calder 2021) 345 63 Appendix: 2 64 Appendix: 3 59

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6.2 the Farnsworth house. Mies van der Roche.

“The Farnsworth house has this in common with Cannery Row in Monterey California; it is a poem, a quality of light, a tone, a habitat, a nostalgia, a dream. It has about it, also, an aura of high romance” 65.

If the Villa Savoye is considered a ‘machine for the living’ 66, the Farnsworth house rejects the cohabitation of man and machine, to focus rather, broadly on the sentiment: “that of being at one with Nature, and with oneself” 67. The significance of Farnworth house to this study concerns materials, a juxtaposition of design ambition and environmental consequence; to design a building that acts as an extension of nature but constructed using man-made materials which release an immense amount of carbon emissions in production.

“At Farnsworth, the dawn can be seen or sensed from the only bed in the house, which is placed in the northeast corner… shortly after sunrise the early morning light, filtering through the branches of the linden tree, first dapples and then etches the silhouette of the leaves in sharp relief upon the curtain” 68.

The Farnsworth house is an architectural icon, not only for creating moments like this figure 12 but also to the embodiment and purity of Modernist principles, that principally reject traditionalism 69. It was only in the 20th century that the advancement of technology has permitted such idyllic moments of tranquillity to be made available to the masses through the availability and standardisation of materials 70.

One could argue that Palumbo’s description of waking up in the Farnsworth house could not be achieved structurally or tectonically without such a thin skeletal structure 71, only available throughout materials with a high strength to weight ratio like steel or concrete. We can assume then, that Mies is reliant on the materials he selected in the façade and structural frame to sculpt the atmosphere and inform the position of spaces in relation to the angle, movement, and pattern of light throughout the day. The rudimentary form and structure of a low-volume was sandwiched, between floor and roof slabs comprised of wide-flange steel sections that join onto welded half-steel beams to form a perimeter bar, to border the laterally supported steel decking figure 13. “The

65

(Vandenberg 2003) 5 (Corbusier 1986) 67 (Vandenberg 2003) 5 68 (Vandenberg 2003) 69 ibid 70 (Calder 2021) 71 (Deplazes 2018) 131 66

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resultant box is enclosed by a plate-glass skin, an apotheosis of Mies’ phrase ‘almost nothing” 72. One can notice the similarities between Le Corbusier’s ‘Dom-Ino’ and Mies’ ‘almost nothing’ design statement, the grid-based approach to transfer the loads of roof and floor slab(s) through a structural frame result in the facades becoming non-loadbearing.

In comparison, steel releases 27 times the amount of carbon dioxide than concrete (0.1 kgCO2e - 2.7 kgCO2e) 73. Not usurpingly then, the typical façade of the Farnsworth house releases 217.6 kgCO2e/m2” 74 or the equivalent of 44,825.6 kilograms of carbon-dioxide when accounting for the floor area (206 m2).

72

Kenneth Frampton, "Modern Architecture: A critical history" (London: Thames & Hudson, 2007) 235 Jones & Hammond “Embodied Carbon the ICE Database” 74 Appendix: 4 73

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6.3 the Breuer house, New Canaan II. Marcel Breuer “The European economic and political crises of the 1930’s and the social provisions of Roosevelt’s New Deal brought to the United States both a refugee intelligentsia and extensive programmes for social welfare and reform” 75.

Among the wave of intellectual refugees to the United States, such as Corbusier and Mies were Marcel Breuer, along with Walter Gropius. Breuer and Gropius immediately began a four-year long collaboration, together reinforcing an allegiance to regional conditions and materials but also a return to other modernist norms 76. The continuation of the international style practiced by Breuer in the United States was shaped by the great depression of the 1930’s which brought great finical strain to all facets of society. The domestic market shifted from to the use of more simple, economic, and low skill construction techniques such as the ‘platform-based balloon’ system. The typical client of Breuer consisted of well-educated professional from a middle-class background, seeking an architect-designed house with substantial property and occasionally costly requirements 77. Small scale residential commissions made up much of Breuer’s portfolio which lacked the financial investment into the use of steel frame structures typical to the Manhattan or Chicago skyscrapers.

This was replaced using more traditional materials of abundance in North America such as timber, to Le Corbusier this would be a regression from his Villa Savoye.

“Breuer’s notion of approximating reinforced concrete in wood, where walls become rigid slabs (instead of covered frames) and act as stusses, was applied also to the designing of wide openings for windows with increasing the weight and size of the lintels without metal or brick” 78.“The tectonic goals appear to coincide with buildings performance objectives: the frame of squared sections carries the load, inner sheathing provides the rigidity, and the outer sheathing closes off the frame, in which the thermal insulation is embedded, thus holds the complete sandwich together. Finally, on the outside another layer protects the sandwich” 79.

This layered style of construction marked a search for the ideal summer house for Breuer 80, synthesised from the economical, adaptability to the site, flexibility to the number of occupants to

75

(Frampton 2007) 238

(Porteous 2002) 19 Isabelle Hyman, "Marcel Breuer, Architect. The career and the buildings", (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2001) 124 78 Ibid 234 79 (Deplazes 2018) 77 80 (Armesto 2001) 52 76 77

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facilitate the ‘American dream’. Breuer in his search developed a typology still used today and synonymous with zero carbon architecture. The Passivehaus design guide stipulates that there is no requirements for the materials used in the building fabric to ascertain Passivehaus certification 81.

Discussed in chapter 5 is the holistic identity of low zero carbon buildings, that they should consider the use of ‘natural materials’ such as timber or cork in the building fabric. “For a ‘typical’ house the embodied energy is up to 10 per cent of total energy over its lifetime; for a low-energy house this may rise to 30 or 40 per cent” 82, this is the basis in which Passivehaus requirements are set to focus rather on the operational requirements on regular homes than Zero carbon buildings. The lack of clarity to not suggest requirements when considering materials in the building fabric is slightly confusing- as buildings reduce ‘operational energy’ use, the embodied carbon of materials become a significant factor in attempting to design zero-carbon buildings.

Why are ‘natural materials’ key to zero carbon design?

‘Natural materials’ are specified by their association and origin to ‘bio-based’ products. Derived primarily from timber (that have very little or negative ‘embodied carbon’) during the lifecycle of timber; before it is source and manufacture into products, they absorb carbon during photosynthesis. This term is known as ‘carbon sequestration’. It is important when sourcing timber it can only be considered sustainable when gathered from a protected forest, where the quantity of timber is regulated to mediate its removal and addition of lumber.

Knowing this, the typical façade of the Breuer house releases 27.1 kgCO2e/m2 83 or the equivalent of 7452.5 kilograms of carbon-dioxide when accounting for the floor area (275 m2). When accounting for ‘carbon sequestration’, -17.2 kgCO2e/m2 or -4719 kilograms of carbon-dioxide 84.

(Dadedy 2012) Ibid 62 83 Appendix: 5 84 Appendix 6 81 82

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7.

How ‘sustainable’ is timber?

When comparing the carbon data from the three case studies; the Villa Savoye, the Farnsworth house, and the Breuer house, timber is the most sustainable material – even without the inclusions of ‘carbon sequestration’. This process of calculating façade typologies with varying construction methods and materials is the prime use of this an ‘embodied carbon’ calculation in professional practice. However, when considering the use of timber in buildings throughout the world it often is specified from harsh environment(s), like Siberia where the wood is naturally more durable. This results in the long transportation and distribution of material(s) to the site, which was not calculated in this study but if further investigated would provide the scope for a transportation analysis.

--In conclusion, this investigation has calculated the minimum scope capacity of the embodied carbon for the Villa Savoye, concluded as 386 kgCO2e/m2. When considering a SCORS rating, a performance rating for buildings, it finds itself perched in the worst category for the emission of carbon. The report has provided a consistent historical narrative to provide the contextual reasoning for the techniques used by Le Corbusier, and that the reasonable assumptions made by the author are justified in the calculations. Specifically, identified is the flooring system of the Villa Savoye which is the single largest emitter of carbon, due to the quantity and variety of concrete used. The ‘embodied carbon’ analysis has proved to be a vital tool to accurately calculate and present quantifiable data the amount of carbon a building can produce, which is approximately 185, 280 kilograms of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere.

Comparatively, when considering the three façade typologies, the use of steel in the Farnsworth house stands out to be the largest emitter occurred in the study. As discussed, the form, architectural experience and o aesthetic may not be achievable through the low-carbon construction techniques like the Breuer house, which uses a lightweight timber ‘balloon platform’ frame compared to single plate glass and steel sections. The use of steel and concrete to ant capacity dramatically make our buildings more corrosive and unsustainable and it becomes difficult to justify the use of highly embodied carbon materials during the current climate crisis, knowing now he implications for their use. Perhaps the most troubling aspect is that steel and concrete, as a material is much cheaper and available than timber. It will be up to the architects of the next generation wither or not they have the moral justification to adopt the use and principles stated in this report to design, holistic ‘sustainable’ buildings.

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Appendix:

Appendix 1. Formula to calculate volume of an object: Length (m) x Breadth (m) x Height (m) = Volume (m3)

Appendix 1. Formula for cradle-to-gate embodied carbon: (Density (kg/m3) x thickness (m)) x carbon factor (kgCO2e/kg) = embodied carbon (kgCO2e/m2) or Material quantity (kg/ m3) x carbon factor (kgCO2e/kg) = embodied carbon (kgCO2e/m2)

Appendix 2. Embodied carbon calculation (Cradle-to-gate), the Villa Savoye façade Using formula, appendix 1. To calculate individual façade material then summed up to calculate total embodied carbon: Façade Composition: Stucco (exterior) + Concrete block + Mortar + Air cavity + Concrete block + Mortar + Plaster (Interior) = ((2275 x 0.02) x 0.13) + ((1650 x 0.03) x 0.174) + ((1000 x 0.08) x 0.133) + ((1650 x 0.03) x 0.174) + ((1000 x 0.08) x 0.133) + ((849 x 0.01) x 0.13) = 45.4 kgCO2e/m2

Appendix 3. Carbon associated with, the Villa Savoye façade If we consider the following: The carbon released to produce materials of the façade of the Villa Savoye is 21,792 kgCO2e,

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The average UK car travelled 6,800 miles in 2020 85 A 1.0 petrol Volkswagen polo (2020) produces 106 gCO2e/km 86 The distance to the moon is 384,400 km The circumference of the planet is 40,075 km Appendix 4. Embodied carbon calculation (Cradle-to-gate), the Farnsworth house façade Using formula, appendix 1. To calculate individual façade material then summed up to calculate total embodied carbon: Façade Composition 87: 6mm polished plate glass + wide-flange steel sections: (((15 x 206) x 1.44) + ((80 x 206) x 2.45)) / 206 = 217.6 kgCO2e/m2

Appendix 5. Embodied carbon calculation (Cradle-to-gate), the Marcel Breuer house facade Using formula, appendix 1. To calculate individual façade material then summed up to calculate total embodied carbon: Façade Composition 88: Tongue and groove timber binding (exterior) + timber sheathing (diamond bracing) + timber joists + timber studs + insulation + plywood (interior) (18.75 x 0.263) + (3.46 x 0.263) + (7.2 x 0.452) + (7.2 x 0.452) + (8.8 x 1.120) + (7.2 x 0.681) = 27.1 kgCO2e/m2

UK Gov, Department of Transport, “Statistical data set: Vehicle mileage and occupancy”, 04/2022, https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/nts09-vehicle-mileage-and-occupancy 86 Volkswagen Marketing, Volkswagen (UK), “THE POLO PRICE AND SPECIFICATION GUIDE”, 04/2022, https://www.volkswagen.co.uk/files/live/sites/vwukdr/files/Pricelists/polo-pricelist.pdf 87 (Ford 1989) + (Vandenberg 2003) 88 (Ford 1989) + (Armesto 2001) + (Libraries 2022) 85

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Appendix 6. Embodied carbon calculation + sequestration (Cradle-to-gate), the Marcel Breuer house facade Using data, appendix 5. To individual embodied carbon elements then multiplied by sequestration factor: (4.93 x (-1.55)) + (0.91 x (-1.55)) + (3.25 x (-1.55)) + (3.25 x (-1.55)) + (9.86 x 1) + (4.9 x (-1.61))

= -17.2 kgCO2e/m2

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Glossary U-Value: Measures the ease with which a material or building assembly allows heat to pass through it, i.e. how good an insulator it is. The lower the U-value, the better the insulator. Uvalues are measured in W/m2K Cradle to gate: Encompasses all input and output flows (as applicable from the system boundaries) between the confines of the cradle up to the factory gate of final processing operation) Cradle to grave + end of life: Cradle to gate plus operation end of life processes. A complete study.

Cradle to site: Cradle to gate plus delivery to the site of use. This boundary condition is ambiguous when it comes to construction site energy and material waste.

Cradle to practical completion: Cradle to gate plus delivery to the site of use, site energy and embodied carbon of waste materials.

Embodied Carbon (EC): Embodied carbon is the sum of fuel related carbon emissions (i.e. embodied energy which is combusted – but not the feedstock energy which is retained within the materials) and process related carbon emissions (i.e. non-fuel related emissions which may arise, for example, from chemical reactions).

Global Warming potential (GWP): The release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere gives rise to global warming.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): A ’tool’ where the energy and materials used, and pollutants or wastes released into the environment as a consequence of a product or activity are quantified over the whole life-cycle from cradle-to-grave.

Passivehaus: A is Passivhuas if it meets a voluntary technical standard, that being international, has to be met regardless of the local climate.

Standard assessment procedure (SAP): The standard assessment procedure is a methodology used by the U.K government to assess and compare the energy and environmental performance of dwellings. Its purpose is to provide accurate and reliable assessments of dwelling energy performances that are needed to underpin energy and environmental policy initiatives.

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