Future Forward K-12 Facilities: A Design Toolkit K12 | LS3P
Design for Wellbeing
Schools are a foundation for thriving communities, and the design of our schools matters greatly.
A well-designed school sets the stage for better learning; encourages better physical, mental, and social health; and fosters a healthy community of students, staff, families, and neighbors.
A high quality education provides opportunities for every child, with positive impacts which can last a lifetime. Each year, America’s public schools serve nearly 50 million students on roughly 100,000 different campuses.1 Over 8 million adults2 also work within these 7.5 billion gross square feet of educational space.3 Learning environments impact close to a fourth of the US population each school day, so even small changes can have massive impacts.
According to a 2015 University of Salford study,4 the classroom environment affects student performance by 16-25%. Other studies have shown that healthier school facilities are linked to increased attendance, higher test scores, and improved teacher retention.5 A study of students attending new schools in California found a 10% increase in math scores and a 5% increase in reading scores as compared with students in outdated facilities, along with better attendance and increased property values in surrounding neighborhoods.6
High quality schools help support physical, emotional, and social wellness – and they’re good for everyone. How, then, do we design schools that support the well-being of their students and staff?
Bene fits of Environmental Wellbeing
• Enhanced student & teacher performance
• Reduce stress and anxiety
• Improved test scores
• Reduced absenteeism
• Lowered stress
• Improved mental health
Healthier school facilities are linked to increased attendance, higher test scores, and improved teacher retention.
Physical Wellness
It begins with the basics. Abraham Maslow’s frequently referenced “hierarchy of needs” framework7 illustrates that people need their fundamental physical needs met before they can focus on higher-order tasks. Simply put, students learn better when they feel better. Best practices for the design of learning environments include natural light and views into the classroom; optimal visual, acoustic, and thermal conditions; and healthy indoor air quality. Comfortable, welcoming, and sunlit classrooms are more conducive to learning than those that are dim, poorly ventilated, too warm or too cold.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs suggests that meeting basic survival needs is a prerequisite for addressing higher-level needs. The concepts are structured like a pyramid – the lower levels represent fundamental requirements like food and shelter, which must be fulfilled before progressing to higher-level needs like belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Addressing physiological needs comes first because our bodies need the essentials to function optimally. Being safe, satisfying hunger, or ensuring a good night’s sleep is a prerequisite to aspiring to more long-term goals. Essentially, Maslow highlights the step-by-step nature of human motivation – satisfying immediate needs paves the way for pursuing loftier aspirations, and the journey up the hierarchy contributes to our overall well-being.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Thriving
Basic Needs of Body & Space Achievement & Recognition Acceptance & Relational Emotional & Physical
Surviving
Fostering thriving spaces is essential for student success. This involves integrating learning theories to create an optimal environment for learning.
Physical Needs Safety Belonging
Connections to Nature
In his internationally bestselling book Last Child in the Woods, journalist Richard Louv posted that “nature deficit disorder” is harmful to all of us, and that engagement with the natural world is vital for physical, mental, and emotional health. His message resonates; we know intuitively that natural environments are calming and restorative. Most of our academic time takes place in walled classrooms, but we can still create meaningful connections with nature during the school day.
Outdoor Learning Spaces
Outdoor learning spaces, from open-air classrooms and learning labs to age-appropriate play areas, help to keep students connected to the natural world around them. Unplugged outdoor time, whether it’s part of a structured lesson or unstructured recess time, encourages physical activity and experiential learning.
Natural Light & Views
Humans have an affinity for environments with abundant natural light and expansive views. Appropriately sized windows, positioned to accommodate the ages of the students in each classroom, are important for student wellness. Views to nature help students manage stress and recover from mental fatigue,8 and students and staff alike benefit from alternating task-oriented, close-range vision with long-range views for eye health. Windows play a critical role in physical and mental health, but designers must integrate shading strategies to optimize light and views while minimizing solar heat gain and glare.
Biophilia
Biophilic design principles also help to create connections to nature by bring outdoor elements inside. In the classroom, this often takes the form of natural materials such as wood; the inclusion of plants or water features; curved surfaces and organic shapes; and spaces which create a sense of “prospect and refuge,” mystery, or thrill. Research indicates that biophilic design in the classroom is strongly associated with lower stress and higher performance.9
more students meet grade level standards in a biophilic classroom compared to their peers in a conventional classroom
Green design consultants Terrapin Bright Green have been leaders in the biophilic design movement, and their 14 patterns of biophilic design are commonly referenced.10 This framework includes:
Nature in the Space: visual connections with nature, non-visual connections with nature, non-rhythmic sensory stimuli, thermal and airflow variability, presence of water, dynamic and diffuse light, and connection with natural systems
Analogues of Nature: biomorphic forms and patterns, material connection with nature, complexity and order
Nature of the Space: prospect, refuge, mystery, risk/peril
Weaving a few of these elements into a classroom greatly enhances the learning environment and can have far-reaching benefits. A 2019 study11 evaluated the impacts of biophilic design on a middle school math classroom; quantitative results included a threefold improvement in math scores and 7.2% higher percentage of students meeting grade level standards in a biophilic classroom as compared to their peers. Qualitative results included lower stress, better concentration, and fewer instances of aggression (even with the same students behaving differently in non-biophilic classrooms). The benefits of biophilic design extend across ages and across project types; teachers and students alike tend to feel and perform better in spaces that incorporate natural elements, and biophilic design can make a school building feel more welcoming to all.
A rooftop greenhouse serves as a living classroom, fostering a deep connection with nature. Empowering students through hands-on learning, encouraging understanding, appreciation for nature.
Lighting
Visual design for learning environments requires a holistic approach, and should incorporate standards for task-dependent classroom lighting. Various surfaces such as student desks, white boards, and computer areas should be designed for the recommended amount of light for each task. The ideal lighting design will blend daylighting – a strategy which uses natural light for most tasks – with artificial lighting to achieve optimal light levels for each function.
Day Lighting
We know intuitively that people thrive in daylit spaces, and research backs up daylighting as an important design strategy for K-12 schools.12 According to a landmark study in 1999, students in daylit spaces perform better and retain more information. Exposure to natural light also supports healthy circadian rhythms and better sleep, and access to natural light and views has been shown to reduce absenteeism and improve performance among staff as well as students.13
Daylighting begins with proper building orientation. In the Southeast, this means aligning the building footprint so that the long axis runs east/west to take advantage of the southern sun angle. Proper window size and placement are also crucial, and sunshades and other devices can help to welcome in sunlight while minimizing heat gain and glare.
As a rule of thumb, spaces within 15’ of an appropriately sized and positioned window can typically be fully daylit; spaces between 15’ and 30’ from a window can capture about 50% of the benefit of daylighting, and spaces more than 30’ from a window will probably require artificial lighting. Given the average dimensions of a classroom, most classrooms should be able to take advantage of daylighting opportunities with proper attention to classroom layout and orientation. Light shelves and highly reflective paint can help bounce light deep into the interior, and solar tubes can help illuminate corridors and other interior spaces.
Lighting Controls
Lighting design often goes unnoticed; in fact, if all goes well, systems working in the background help to make classroom lighting seamless and automated. Advanced lighting controls include occupancy sensors, which switch lights off automatically in unused spaces; time control sensors, which can be pre-set for various times of day; and daylight sensors, which continuously adjust for ambient lighting conditions to avoid overlighting or dimness. Manual controls allow teachers to adjust lighting for their needs and preferences, and dimmer switches are increasingly popular for creating a cozier mood for certain activities or adjusting for A/V projection needs.
Dynamic Lighting
In addition to designing for optimal light levels and balancing natural and artificial light in the classroom, dynamic lighting can be integrated to support a range of classroom tasks. Dynamic lighting – made much easier by LED technology - allows teachers (or automatic controls) to adjust the color temperature of the light in the learning environment. Research on “focus” lighting showed significantly improved student performance (as measured by oral fluency),14 a 2016 study suggested that “easy,” “standard,” and “intense” lighting modes could be conducive to rest/recess, everyday learning, and high-focus activities.15 A German study,16 which followed students for an entire school year, tested “normal,” “energy,” “focus,” and “calm” lighting modes, showed dramatic results when teachers modified the lighting mode to suit the task: 35% increase in reading speed, 45% reduction in errors, and 76% reduction in hyperactive behaviors.17
45%
Reduction in errors when modifying lighting to suit the task
Acoustics
Our ability to learn is heavily impacted by our ability to hear and understand others around us. Even a small reduction in speech intelligibility can have major impacts on student comprehension. Classroom acoustics impact both short-term memory and performance;18 researchers are also studying the links between classroom noise and a student’s sense of well-being.19 Acoustic design is especially important to the development of early literacy skills.20 Careful planning for acoustical control will help create an environment conducive to listening.
The Acoustical Society of America has created acoustical standards for classrooms to help schools determine appropriate strategies for school design.21
Strategies for Acoustics
Selecting materials & finishes
Carefully selecting materials and finishes to reduce reverberation, minimize background noise, and improve speech intelligibility
Detailing structure & wall systems
Detailing structure and wall systems to reduce transfer of noise between classrooms
Balance of open spaces
Balancing the needs of open learning environments with needs for improved acoustical performance
Minimizing background noise
Specifying light fixtures and mechanical equipment to minimize background noise from lights or HVAC systems
Vocal Amplification
Considering vocal amplification where appropriate to reduce vocal strain for teachers
Thermal Comfort
Humans tend to be most comfortable in environments with temperatures between around 68 and 78 degrees F, depending on humidity; a comfortable humidity range is generally between 30% and 50%. Not surprisingly, when classroom temperatures stray from this comfort range, student performance suffers. A 2015 study found statistically significant improvements in performance in elementary classrooms with optimal ventilation and thermal comfort.22 In 2018, a Harvard study indicated that, for every 1 degree rise in school temperature above comfortable levels, student test scores showed a 1% loss in learning for that school year.23 Understanding the impact of heat on learning is particularly important in a climate such as the Southeast.
Humans tend to be most comfortable in environments with temperatures around 68-78 degrees Fahrenheit, depending on humidity.
In designing for thermal comfort, MEP consultants provide invaluable expertise. These team members will assist in carefully selecting and sizing HVAC equipment, and with achieving the right balance between individual classroom controls and maximum HVAC efficiency. Building commissioning will verify system performance and proper installation, allowing districts to fine-tune equipment for maximum function and efficiency.
Proper building orientation and detailing are also critical in managing variables such as solar heat gain in warm months or uncomfortable drafts in cold months. A high-performance building envelope will boost comfort and minimize cooling and heating loads; vegetated or white roofs will also help to reduce solar heat gain.
It may be valuable to conduct a “sweater survey” during the hottest months to evaluate temperature and humidity settings and consider adaptive comfort standards for most buildings. Districts can separate de-humidification from thermal conditioning to dramatically reduce the need for over air-conditioning in hot months where appropriate. In the Southeast, nobody should need a sweater in August.
1%
Loss in learning per school year for every one degree rise in the school temperature (above comfortable levels)
Air Quality
Most people spend roughly 90% of their time indoors, and the quality of the air we breathe has a significant impact on both short-term productivity and long-term health. This impact is more pronounced in children, whose growing bodies are more susceptible to the effects of toxins, and who take in twice as much air as adults do by volume compared to the size of their bodies.
Adequate ventilation is critical to keeping carbon dioxide at healthy levels. A full classroom of students going about the very natural process of breathing will, without adequate minimum ventilation rates, generate uncomfortably high C02 levels which contribute to lethargy and lowered performance. The impact of CO2 on classroom performance is significant. Studies have shown that, in classrooms with higher outdoor air ventilation rates, students score higher on standardized tests, respiratory infections and sick days decrease, and teachers perform better.24
Aging school buildings are more likely to have outdated HVAC systems, which may not be capable of maintaining ventilation and air quality standards. Air quality is also influenced by toxic chemicals in cleaning supplies, and the fumes off-gassing from paints, carpets, and furniture often become concentrated in tightly sealed buildings with inadequate ventilation and further degrade air quality. Poor air quality contributes to respiratory infections, aggravated allergies, sluggishness, shorter attention spans, and higher rates of absenteeism among students and teachers, all of which adversely affect classroom performance.
As an added benefit, though high performance HVAC systems may require a greater up-front investment, the improved efficiency can significantly reduce energy consumption and expenses while improving air quality and student wellness, resulting in lower overall lifecycle costs than less efficient equipment.
Strategies to Improve Air Quality
Optimize classroom air quality
Provide a minimum ventilation rate of 15 cubic feet per minute of air exchange in a classroom, as defined in ASHRAE Standard 62
Efficient climate control
Select a properly sized, wellmaintained HVAC system
Promoting healthy interiors
Specify low VOC and no VOC materials and finishes to minimize off-gassing
Green cleaning plan
Develop a green cleaning plan to minimize buildup of environmental toxins
Healthy construction methods
Insist on construction methods which promote healthy air quality, such as covering all ducts during construction, and building commissioning to verify equipment installation and performance
Nutrition
Growing bodies need fuel to perform at their best. While many factors influencing healthy eating are operational, the architecture and site design can positively influence healthy behaviors as well. The cafeteria and dining areas should be designed for efficiency and enjoyment, so that students can move through the service line quickly and share a meal in an inviting environment with their classmates. Natural light and views are welcome elements in dining spaces; connections to outdoor patios or picnic areas, where appropriate, also contribute to an environment that allows students to socialize and recharge.
“Edible school yards” can encourage nutritional awareness and instill healthy eating patterns by engaging students in ageappropriate agriculture. Strategically replacing ornamental plants with an edible landscape can provide educational opportunities along with seasonal home-grown treats, and school gardens can yield larger contributions to the campus cafeteria while encouraging students to enjoy the outdoors and learn to grow healthy foods.
@ MARCUS MURPHY
Third Party Certifications
For school systems looking to dive deeper into strategies to promote physical well-being, several highly respected organizations offer guidance, detailed standards, and certification programs for healthier buildings. These include:
• The International Well Building Institute developed the WELL standard, which focuses on 10 categories: air, thermal comfort, light, community, mind, movement, water, sounds, materials, and nourishment.25
• Fitwel offers a certification program focused on active living and healthy buildings.26
• Blue Zones works at the community level to implement strategies for wellness and longevity, including in the built environment.27
• The International Living Future Institute created the Living Building Challenge, which helps buildings/ communities/ campuses function as an ecosystem and provide resilient, beautiful, and healthy environments in which to live and work.28
Mental & Emotional Wellness
Beyond supporting learning by addressing the needs of the physical environment, our schools should cultivate safety, belonging, and a sense of welcome for all students. Schools of the past focused on the “cells and bells” model; today’s learning environment is more geared towards community, problem solving, and experiential learning.
Inspirational Spaces
A beautiful space motivates and inspires people of any age. A welldesigned school building conveys that its students and teachers are valued by the community; it’s a physical representation of not only what they need, but also what they deserve. Our schools can give children the opportunity to experience wonder, and elevated design encourages elevated behavior. We can think beyond the quantitative requirements of program and square footage and lean into the qualitative elements that make a place special – how does the school building make people feel? A beautiful space also encourages a sense of ownership and pride – not only for the students, but also for their families, staff, and community.
Student-Friendly Design
Classrooms that are appropriately scaled for the age of their learners are empowering. When students have access to childscale sinks, furnishings, and equipment, they build autonomy and confidence as they move through a space. Flexible, movable furnishings also create a sense of independence and ownership. When students have choice and are able to manipulate the learning environment, they are learning to work within a community and exercise their agency in appropriate ways. Flexible furnishings also allow teachers and students to create a variety of spaces such as “campfires” for small group discussions and “watering holes” for social engagement. Equipment can quickly be adjusted for direct instruction or project-based learning, and introverts and extroverts can better self-select to feel comfortable and included. Age -appropriate classroom colors or elements to bring in an element of novelty and surprise – twinkling lights, dimmer switches, special learning nooks – all speak to the needs of the learning community.
@ MELVA CALDER
Social Wellness
A school isn’t just a place of learning; it’s also a community. Shared spaces should promote camaraderie, collaboration, teamwork, connection, and friendship. From learning commons areas to the playground to the cafeteria, the school design can incorporate places for socializing, collaboration, and relationship building. The built environment can support inclusion through a variety of seating areas which accommodate intimate conversations or large group activities; many schools even combat loneliness by providing “buddy benches” which allow students to signal that they’re looking for a playmate.29 Student galleries instill pride in student accomplishments and celebrate learning. Even staff members need dedicated areas which promote collegiality, respite, and knowledge sharing.
Many schools even combat loneliness by providing “buddy benches” which allow students to signal that they’re looking for a playmate.
Designing for Inclusion
Students come to school with a wide variety of backgrounds and needs. Many, tragically, have experienced at least one “adverse childhood experience” including exposure to abuse, mental illness, addiction, or other forms of trauma. School should be the safest place outside of the home, and for many students, school is safer than the home.
Trauma-Informed Design
Trauma-informed design draws from research to create spaces which feel safe, reduce triggering stimuli, and help students learn to manage their emotions. These design strategies, however, may appeal to all types of kids – introverts, highly sensitive people, or those who are just excited and need a minute to calm down before moving to the next task.
Classroom layouts which are open and uncluttered allow students to monitor for perceived threats. Even if they are doing this subconsciously, a tucked away or elevated space (such as an alcove or platform) creates a sense of seclusion while maintaining sight lines and a connection to classroom activity. Providing intimate, safe, child-scale nooks in the classroom will allow
students to find refuge and retreat when they feel overstimulated. Classroom circulation should be generous enough to allow students to navigate without touching.
Students who have experienced trauma may be sensitive to loud noises and visually overstimulating environments. Classrooms should feature ample sound-absorbing strategies such as lower ceilings, area rugs, pillows, and acoustic tiles. Teachers can also strategically incorporate soft and comforting water sounds or music without words. Natural light and views to nature are also soothing.
Neurodivergent Design
Students may experience the sensory world in a variety of ways. A growing understanding of neurodivergence – different ways in which people process information from our environment – is encouraging the design of spaces which support all learners. Neurodivergence is an umbrella term that may include people with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), dyslexia, or other conditions. Differences in processing sounds, visual stimuli, textures, and even smells in the classroom can impact how safe students feel within a space and whether they are able to focus. The good news is that good design for neurodivergence is good design for neurotypical learners as well; any student (or teacher!) can benefit from these strategies.
Noise can quickly become overstimulating to neurodivergent learners, so careful attention to classroom acoustics and finishes is critical to controlling sound and reverberation. Carpeting, rugs, or soft seating all help to absorb sound. Mechanical sounds like the hum of an HVAC system or plumbing fixtures down the hall
may not register with neurotypical students, but may be very distracting to neurodivergent students. MEP systems should be designed and maintained with acoustics in mind as well as efficiency. The buzz and flicker of fluorescent lights can likewise be an unpleasant distraction; natural light is preferable to overhead lighting, and cozy lamps can provide illumination for particular tasks or areas which don’t receive adequate daylight. Furnishings which allow for both self-selection and movement may be beneficial to sensory regulation as well.
Respite areas within the learning environment create safe spaces where students can calm themselves when they begin to feel overstimulated. These smaller-scale areas within the classroom can include soft seating, lower lighting levels, and a degree of separation from classroom activity to student. Fidget toys or texture walls can give sensory seekers the tactile input they need to self-regulate.
A successful education system caters to the holistic development of each individual child.
Academic success is a worthy goal; to achieve the best learning outcomes for all students, however, we must first acknowledge that preparing students to succeed academically means paying careful attention to their physical, mental, emotional, and social needs as well. Integrating wellness into the design of both the building and the curriculum will yield significant benefits in terms of creating a health learning community that allows all students to thrive.
References
1Maya Riser-Kositsky, “Education Statistics: Facts About American Schools,” Education Week, Updated January 17, 2023, https://www.edweek.org/leadership/ education-statistics-facts-about-american-schools/2019/.
2Maya Riser-Kositsky, “School Staffing by the Numbers,” Education Week, Corrected July 8, 2022, https://www.edweek.org/leadership/ school-staffing-by-the-numbers/2022/06
321st Century School Fund, The Center for Green Schools at the U.S. Green Building Council, and the National Council on School Facilities “State of Our Schools,” 2016, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED581630.pdf.
4 Peter Barret, Ph.D, DSC at al, “The Impact of Classroom Design on Pupils’ Learning: Final Results of a Holistic, Multi-Level Analysis,” https://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/ eprint/33995/1/BAE-D-14-01430R1_Schools_paper_as_accepted.pdf.
5 United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Evidence from Scientific Literature about Improved Academic Performance,” accessed January 25, 2023, https://www. epa.gov/iaq-schools/evidence-scientific-literature-about-improved-academic-performance.
6Julien Lafortune and David Shanholzer, “Do School Facilities Matter?: Measuring the Effects of Capital Expenditures on Student and Neighborhood Outcomes,” Dec. 13, 2018; https://ojp-content.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/NHI/Old/ BaseImages/2019/06/Chris/DoSchoolFacilitiesMatterMeasuringT_preview.pdf
7 Maslow, A. H. (1943). “A Theory of Human Motivation.” Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396
8Dongying Li and William C. Sullivan, “Impact of Views to School Landscapes on Recovery from Stress and Mental Fatigue.” Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 148, pages 149-158, April 2016.
9 Jim Determan, FAIA et. al., ”The Impact of Biophilic Learning Spaces on Student Success,” AIA Building Research Information Knowledgebase, October 1, 2019.
10 William Browning, et.al., “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design: Improving Health and Well-being in the Built Environment,” https://www.terrapinbrightgreen.com/wp-content/ uploads/2014/09/14-Patterns-of-Biophilic-Design-Terrapin-2014p.pdf
11Jim Determan, FAIA, et. al., “The Impact of Biophilic Learning Spaces on Student Success,” 2019, accessed February 21, 2023, https://www.brikbase.org/sites/default/ files/The%20Impact%20of%20Biophilic%20Learning%20Spaces%20on%20Student%20 Success.pdf.
12 Lisa Heschong, “Daylighting in Schools: An Investigation into the Relationship Between Daylighting and Human Performance,” August 1999, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328416721_Daylighting_in_Schools_An_Investigation_into_the_ Relationship_Between_Daylighting_and_Human_Performance_Condensed_Report.
13Erica Cochran Hameen, et. al, “Effects of Day-Lighting in Schools on Student Performance and Well-Being. January 2013, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333827796_Effects_of_Day-Lighting_in_Schools_on_Student_Performance_and_ Well-Being.
14 Michael S. Mott, et. al., “Illuminating Effects of Dynamic Lighting on Student Learning.” Accessed February 21, 2023, https://education.olemiss.edu/download/ Philips-Research.pdf.
15 Kyungah Choi and Hyeon-Jeong Suk, “Dynamic Lighting System for the Learning Environment: Performance of Elementary Students,” Optics Express, Vol. 24, Issue 10, 2016, https://opg.optica.org/oe/fulltext.cfm?uri=oe-24-10-A907&id=340246.
16 Michael Schulte-Markwort, et. al., “Applicability and Efficacy of Variable Light In Schools,” February 2012, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51723443_ Applicability_and_efficacy_of_variable_light_in_schools.
17 SitelogicIQ, “Benefits of LED Lighting in K-12 Schools,” accessed February 21, 2023, https://www.sitelogiq.com/blog/benefits-led-lighting-k-12-schools/.
18 Maria Klatte, Kirstin Bergstrom, and Thomas Lachmann., “Does Noise Affect Learning? A Short Review on Noise Effects on Cognitive Performance in Children, August 30, 2013, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3757288/
19 Arianna Astolfi, et. al., “The Influence of Classroom Acoustics on Noise Disturbance and Well-Being for First Graders,” December 13, 2019, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pmc/articles/PMC6923245/.
20 Kiri Mealings, “The Effect of Classroom Acoustic Conditions on Literacy Outcomes for Children in Primary School: A Review.” November 4, 2021, https://journals.sagepub. com/doi/abs/10.1177/1351010X211057331.
21Acoustical Society of America, “Classroom Acoustics Booklets,” accessed January 25, 2023,https://acousticalsociety.org/classroom-acoustics-booklets/.
22 Ulla Haverinen-Shaughnessy and Richard J. Shaughnessy, “Effects of Classroom Ventilation Rate and Temperature on Students’ Test Scores,” August 28, 2015, https:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4552953/.
23 Joshua Goodman, et. al., “Heat and Learning,” May 2018, https://scholar.harvard. edu/files/joshuagoodman/files/w24639.pdf
24 United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Evidence from Scientific Literature about Improved Academic Performance,” accessed January 25, 2023, https://www. epa.gov/iaq-schools/evidence-scientific-literature-about-improved-academic-performance#:~:text=Test%20Scores-.
25 International Well Building Institute, “WELL Building Standard,” accessed January 25, 2023, https://standard.wellcertified.com/well.
26itwel, “Certify with Fitwel for Added Value, Risk Mitigation, and ESG Reporting,”, accessed January 25, 2023, https://www.fitwel.org/certification.
27International Living Future Institute, “Living Building Challenge,” accessed January 25, 2023, https://living-future.org/lbc/
28 International Living Future Institute, “Living Building Challenge,” accessed January 25, 2023, https://living-future.org/lbc/
29 Dougal Shaw, “How ‘Buddy Benches’ Are Making Playtime Less Lonely,” BBC News, December 14, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/stories-45958313.