Designing for Coastal Resilience
DESIGN INVESTIGATIONS
Coastal areas in the US comprise just 10% of the nation’s land, but boast 40% of the country’s populationi
Coastal areas is the US comprise just 10% of the nation’s land, but boast 40% of the country’s population.i Why? People love living near the water for many reasons, including serene views, recreation opportunities, tourism, industry, and lifestyle. It’s not just vacation homes: due to early settlement and trading patterns, coastal areas in the US are also home to some of the country’s oldest and most beloved cities, including New York, Boston, Charleston, Savannah, New Orleans, and San Francisco. From small beach towns to large population centers, the US coast is home to 127 million people.
Along the East Coast, the South Atlantic Bight – a complex and unique marine ecosystem influenced by the interplay of ocean currents and the sweeping curve of the coastline – runs from North Carolina to Florida. The natural beauty and biodiversity support not only healthy oceans, but also tourism and other coastal industries; the South Atlantic Bight supports over 15 million coastal residents.ii
In the face of accelerating climate change, our highly populated coastlines face a unique set of challenges: hurricanes, sea level rise, subsidence, shifting coastlines, extreme heat, pollution, habitat/biodiversity loss, and even seismic activity. How can we best design our built environment to adapt to a changing world?
The Fifth Annual Climate Assessment details “both current and future increases in the severity of coastal hazards.”iii How can we design to safeguard life safety, property, infrastructure, and the culture of our coastal communities to address evolving needs?
Understanding Coastal Geography
Sensitive ecosystems along the coast of the Southeast US serve a variety of natural functions in addition to beauty, tourism, and recreation. Wetlands, which can take the form of salt or freshwater marshes, mangrove swamps, or seagrass beds, act as nurseries and habitat for marine life. Wetlands are also critical to stormwater management. They help to filter water as it flows towards the sea, and they absorb runoff that would otherwise contribute to inland flooding. Additionally, wetlands help to prevent erosion while sequestering carbon.
NOAA reports that coastal wetlands are disappearing at a rate of 80,000 acres per year,iv from both human impacts and natural processes. The economic and environmental impacts of this loss are profound, from the costs of increased flooding to the declining fishing industry. Planning and development which preserves and restores wetland areas allows for wiser, more sustainable land use. Wetlands, in fact, can store 1.5 million gallons of floodwater per acre, take in 8.1 million tons of carbon dioxide per year, and reduce property damage during storms by up to 20% by absorbing water and wave energy.v Preserving sensitive coastal ecosystems isn’t just good for the environment – it’s also a sound financial decision.
Working with coastal geography means remembering that our coastlines are not static. Shorelines evolve along with shifting tides, and many sites which were previously suitable for building may not be viable in the coming years. Barrier islands are particularly vulnerable to gradual geographic shifts as well as sudden disruptions from storms. It is not uncommon for sand eroding from one beach to be deposited miles away to create a new landform, or for a hurricane to carve through an island leaving an inlet where a road used to be. Development that works with the geography will locate infrastructure and permanent structures farther inland and will minimize or eliminate new development in sensitive areas
Natural areas such as dunes and wetlands can offer layers of protection from storm events while also preserving wildlife habitat and offering both beauty and recreational opportunities to residents and tourists alike. Maintaining generous buffer zones between the shoreline and any planned development will be critical as sea levels rise.
Designing for better resilience takes resources. The National Coastal Resilience Fund offers funding for “conservation projects that restore or expand natural features such as coastal marshes and wetlands, dune and beach systems, oyster and coral reefs, forests, coastal rivers and floodplains, and barrier islands that minimize the impacts of storms and other naturally occurring events on nearby communities” through annual grant cycles. Communities and clients seeking to implement strategies for coastal resilience in their projects can explore whether this resource is a good fit for their needs.
Natural areas such as dunes and wetlands can offer layers of protection from storm events while also preserving wildlife habitat and offering both beauty and recreational opportunities to residents and tourists alike.
Planning for Rising Tides
The same proximity to water that supports coastal cultures creates significant challenges, and designing for resilience means understanding both shocks (such as hurricanes and flash flooding events) and stressors (such as rising seas combined with land subsidence). Many coastal cities such as Charleston, SC and Norfolk, VA experience “sunny day flooding,” also known as tidal flooding or nuisance flooding. This localized flooding is both inconvenient and hazardous. King tides, which occur seasonally when the moon is closest to the Earth, bring much higher waters.vii
According to NOAA, sunny day flooding has markedly increased since 2020 – fourfold along the Atlantic coast and elevenfold along the Gulf Coast – and is expected to occur up to 75 days a year in some locations by 2050.viii Disruptions and impassable roadways create ripple effects for residents, tourists, businesses, and the local economies. In these events, accurate forecasts and communication with the public will be invaluable in minimizing harm.
While sunny day flooding may once have been regarded as an occasional inconvenience that comes with coastal living, it is now an indicator of much bigger problems. Water levels that are a nuisance on a calm day become extremely dangerous when combined with a hurricane, allowing storms to wreak far more damage from higher storm surges than similar storms in the past.
Sea levels are expected to rise at least another foot globally by 2050 due to melting ice sheets and the fact that warm water expands. That rise will disproportionately affect the East Coast of the US among other areas. As a recent Washington Post article points out, for people buying a home today, 2050 is well within the 30-year mortgage range. This is no longer a distant issue.ix Inequitable settlement patterns have also led to economically disadvantaged populations living in low-lying places along the Atlantic and Gulf Coast; any planning for resilience will need to include bolstering or relocating not just vulnerable places, but also vulnerable people.x
Designing for a coastal built environment that works with rising waters will require a thorough understanding of site-specific risks. Insurers are increasingly pulling away from high-risk areas, including entire states such as California, Florida, and Texas,xi and many decisions about new construction will be influenced by the economics of managing risk. For established areas – particularly historic or densely populated places –strategies may require significant upgrades to infrastructure such as stormwater and wastewater systems. Critical facilities such as emergency operations centers, hospitals, and shelters may need to be relocated to higher ground well in advance of a severe flooding event.
FEMA and the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) provide information on flooding risk through continuously updated maps. Areas in Zone A or V are prone to flooding and considered a Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA), and flood insurance is often required for structures in these zones. According to FEMA definitions:xii
“Zone V. Portion of the Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) that extends from offshore to the inland limit of a primary frontal dune along an open coast, and any other area subject to high-velocity wave action from storms or tsunamis.
Coastal A Zone. A subset of Zone A. Specifically, that portion of the SFHA landward of Zone V (or landward of a coastline without a mapped Zone V) in which the principal source of flooding is coastal storms, and where the potential base flood wave height is between 1.5 and 3.0 feet.
Zone A. Portion of the SFHA in which the principal source of flooding is runoff from rainfall, snowmelt, or coastal storms where the potential base flood wave height is between 0.0 and 3.0 feet.”
TheNatureConservancy’s“ResilientSitesforCoastalConservation in the South Atlantic”xiii report provides an interactive map of resilience and vulnerability along the South Atlantic Coastline andmaybeausefultoolinresearchingpotentialfutureconditions of coastal sites.
Many cities are exploring large-scale civil engineering options such as sea walls and flood barriers; these interventions vary in effectiveness and come with a large cost. The price tag of the MOSE barrier in Venice was $8 billion, plus an additional $328,000 for every use, while protecting a limited area from high waters.xiv The cost of the Thames barrier, which opened in 1982, was a relative bargain at $1.6 billion in today’s prices, but was only designed to be effective through 2030.xv An investment of $16.2 billion will be needed to maintain and expand protections for the London city center and surrounding areas until 2100.
Large infrastructure projects may be strategically employed to protect important cultural and historic sites and population centers, but are not necessarily the best solution in all cases. These public investments raise important questions about whose property is protected and whose is not. Sea walls and flood barriers require a significant investment in ongoing maintenance and repair, and must be designed to account for accelerating sea level rise over the life of the structure. These projects may unintentionally alter sensitive ecosystems and, if not carefully designed, can negatively impact local economies by blocking views to the water and dampening tourism.
Smaller scale interventions such as beach renourishment may also offer temporary, if expensive, solutions. In vulnerable areas such as the Outer Banks, difficult conversations involve weighing the cost of short-term interventions vs. managed retreat as houses are claimed by the ocean. In Rodanthe, NC, for example, a one-time beach renourishment could cost $40 million, with a total investment of $175 million required over 30 years to maintain the shoreline. Buying 80 affected properties, however, would cost around $43 million. Demolishing these properties would create a window of 15-25 years when the remaining beach might support the local tourist economy, but barrier islands are by nature designed to shift, and no solution is permanent.xvi
Coastal cities must also consider the feasibility of building and maintaining infrastructure over the long term. In vulnerable areas, roads may need constant clearing and maintenance, and frequent repair costs after storms can be significant. Rather than try and re-shape the shifting land where hurricanes cause frequent damage, bridges or ferries may be more viable options in the long term than rebuilding roads after a hurricane. Municipalities should also carefully consider the risks of adding permanent infrastructure to sensitive environments. Gas stations, for instance, which are damaged in a storm could cause significant harm to the ecosystems, and may be very expensive to relocate or demolish if a site needs to be abandoned due to rising waters. While roads such as North Carolina’s Highway 12 connect important historical, cultural, and tourist sites for the state, the costs of maintaining and insuring property on barrier islands is becoming prohibitively expensive and the geography will continue to change; some degree of strategic retreat will likely be necessary.
Working with the Water
Before undertaking any coastal project, designers must develop a thorough understanding of the site, including current and potential future water levels. Tools for mapping and anticipating water levels, such as NOAA’s Sea Level Rise Viewer toolxvii and FEMA’s flood mapsxviii provide valuable insights in making coastal site decisions. Maps created by these agencies are typically adjusted after hurricanes and reflect the changing nature of coastal zones. The Nature Conservancy has also developed a series of coastal resilience appsxix to serve as a “decision support system” for specific geographies, and emerging AI tools may also be useful in analyzing coastal resilience scenarios.
Designing well above anticipated flood levels is an important first step, remembering that typical water levels can be impacted by a variety of factors such as an increase in impervious surfaces from nearby development, saturation of the ground from recent storms, slower moving hurricanes which can drop extreme amounts of water in a concentrated location, and the fact that warmer air holds more water and can create “rain bomb” events from even a typical summer storm. As the US Geological Survey reminds us, a “100-year flood” refers to a 1 in 100 chance of waters reaching a particular level in any given year – but historic flooding one year does not preclude historic flooding the next.xx
Site access is a particularly important consideration in lowlying areas. Critical infrastructure such as hospitals, emergency operations centers, and shelters should be located on high ground well away from potential flood zones. Multiple routes to a facility, and even building entries at multiple levels, can provide additional safe access points if a primary roadway or entrance is blocked.
The National Institute of Building Sciences reports that even building one foot above the 100-year flood elevation saves $6 in damage and repair costs for every $1 invested; building up to five feet of freeboard rather than just one saves $5 for every $1 invested, and building the first floor up to 10 feet above base flood elevation in a hurricane zone saves up to $12 for every $1 invested.xxi Building on piers is a common strategy in coastal environments. In low-lying areas further inland, it may make financial sense to elevate the site before beginning construction, as the cost of fill is far less expensive than the cost to remediate water damage.
Designers and owners may evaluate both dry floodproofing and wet floodproofing strategies. Dry floodproofing means preventing water intrusion through impermeable materials or by mechanical barriers installed in advance of a storm. Deployable flood barriers may be an option – or even a requirement – in some areas such as the Charleston peninsula, where every commercial building in a flood zone must have systems stored onsite to be installed in advance of a hurricane. Dry floodproofing techniques can keep water out of a building during flooding to minimize or avoid damage; these strategies may also be costly and are prone to mechanical failures. Rising waters create significant hydrostatic pressure on a building’s structure, so damage may occur even if a building stays dry.xxii
Wet floodproofing takes a different approach: designing the lower floors of a building to accommodate flooding. Strategies include specifying finishes and programming for uses which can tolerate water, eliminating drywall and other pervious materials, locating electrical and mechanical equipment on higher floors, and installing storm vents that allow water to flow through to relieve hydrostatic pressure.
Case Study
Welcoming Water at 4’ Above Sea Level
We Are Sharing Hope SC (SHSC), a nonprofit facilitating organ and tissue donation, brings donor families, recipients, and the community together. SHSC needed a building to support its lifesaving and emotional work of education, advocacy, relationship building, and counseling; the low-lying marshland site offered beauty, inspiration, and authentic connections between the program and landscape.
Though the site elevation is only 4’ above sea level, the design elevatesthemajorityoftheprogramabovefloodlevelonpilotis,and the building works with water rather than against it. The ground floor is open to the elements and forms a sheltered haven for gathering and reflection; carefully considered landscaped ribbon pathways intersecting within the space knit the site together with hardy native plantings. The natural, authentic materials connect the indoors and outdoors. Bluestone walls, a common material in Charleston, bear the names of donors; these memorial walls are the literal and metaphorical foundation of the organization. Cast-in-place concrete runs upward through the building, and a glass-encased ground-floor entry volume will tolerate rising and receding waters during occasional flooding events. Zinc panels and batu wood elements wrap the exterior.
Case Study
Designing for New Uses at a Historic Naval Port
Located on waterfront property at the old Charleston Naval Base, the Zucker Family Graduate Education Center is an academic research institute dedicated to integrative approaches to restoration. As a nod to the site’s industrial history, the form and materials echo the history of stacked shipping containers. The building is elevated on a concrete podium which protects it from floodwaters, minimizes site impacts, provides a covered parking area, and creates an excellent vantage point for capturing views of the Cooper River.
The design team worked with, not against, the site’s biggest constraint: a flood-prone and chemically challenged ground plane on a formerly industrial site. The ground plane needed to be remediated and remain largely encapsulated, but was ideal for vehicular site circulation and parking. This condition inspired the formal and organizational strategy of vertical layering, and added rich possibilities to the ultimate design. CURI’s programs repurpose much of the industrial infrastructure from the historic port functions for new uses, and the strategy of preserving the ground plane for transport of large equipment by ship, rail, and tractor-trailer helps to avoid pedestrian conflicts.
Academic space is elevated on a concrete podium above the ground plane, with access provided by elevators, stairs, and an enticing openair waterfront ramp. In addition to raising the program spaces above the floodplain, the elevated vantage point maximizes views of the river and port. A variety of indoor and outdoor gathering spaces celebrate these views and visually connect students and faculty to the activities of the site. The roof provides another opportunity to take advantage of spectacular views. The design of the roof garden pays homage to South Carolina’s three major geographic areas, the Lowcountry, Midlands, and Upstate, through form and native plantings.
The building is LEED Gold certified, with sustainable design strategies that include remediation of a brownfield site, an 8,000 square foot green roof, extensive daylighting and solar tubes, and high-performance building systems.
Clemson Zucker Family Graduate Education Center
Designing with water also means managing stormwater onsite, which can be more challenging in low-lying areas due to a flatter terrain and higher water tables. Designers and engineers must understand stormwater capacity for the site, and account for predicted increases from heavier rainfall from future storms. Low impact development (LID) strategies are particularly important for sensitive coastal ecosystems; water falling anywhere in the watershed will eventually make its way downstream, so managing both the quality and quantity of water inland is critical to managing water downstream as well.
Strategies to allow water to infiltrate naturally (as opposed to directing water to manmade structures as possibly polluted runoff) include rain gardens, disconnected impervious surfaces, pervious pavers, rainwater harvesting, tree boxes, rain gardens, maximum green space, native landscaping, and green roofs.xxiii These elements better mimic a site’s natural hydrology to minimize site runoff.
At the city or regional scales, taking advantage of natural coastal systems can yield substantial benefits. This “green infrastructure” includes wetlands, shellfish beds, sea grasses, sand dunes, coral reefs, barrier islands, and living shorelines. Preserving and enhancing these elements can help absorb and clean water while minimizing wave action and mitigating storm impacts.xxiv To increase green infrastructure, some areas may need to be restored to their natural state, and low-lying terrain that functions as public green space can double as a waterway or spillway during a storm event.
This “green infrastructure” includes wetlands, shellfish beds, sea grasses, sand dunes, coral reefs, barrier islands, and living shorelines.
Designing for High Wind
Water is far from the only design consideration for coastal environments. Buildings and other infrastructure must also be able to withstand high winds. A Category 5 hurricane can bring wind speeds in excess of 157 miles per hour. Even less powerful slowmoving storms can cause catastrophic damage from sustained winds speeds, and severe thunderstorms can cause powerful downbursts as well. The form, orientation, structure, and envelope must be designed to resist windborne debris, lateral wind loads, and roof uplift. Designers should also understand typical prevailing winds as well as storm scenarios. Designing above code minimums is an important first step, as local code adoption cycles may lag behind current best practices. Every $1 invested in above-code design saves $4 in damage and recovery costs in the wake of a storm.xxv
Envelope design strategies for high-wind scenarios include impact-resistant glass and smaller windows in strategic locations. Hurricane shutters and window screens offer additional protection. A thorough understanding of fluid dynamics is important to window design and placement; for example, the windows on the windward side of a building are subjected to positive pressure while those on the leeward side of a building are subjected to negative pressure, or suction. These dynamic pressures will affect both window size and placement.
Doors should follow FEMA recommendations. Ballasted roofs are not appropriate in high wind zones, as rocks can add to the windborne debris, and whether fully adhered or mechanically fastened, roofing systems must be tested to meet design pressure requirements identified by structural engineers. These requirements will be determined in part by anticipated wind loading, square footage, building elevation, and proximity to the coast. For the roof membrane, puncture and tear resistance should be a primary goal. Single ply roofs can include fiber reinforcement to greatly increase durability. The roof parapet should be a minimum of three feet tall to minimize corner uplift pressures in roofing systems.
Any exterior MEP infrastructure (preferably located well above potential flood levels) should be screened (including fencing and lid) to protect against windborne debris. Strategically placed louvers can minimize damage from impact. Screening must be coordinated with overall wind pressure design, as screening not rated to wind pressure design creates the possibility for more windborne debris and damage. Critical components should be placed in a secure location inside the building envelope if possible. Mechanical curbs and supports for exhaust fans or other rooftop equipment must also be designed to withstand high wind speeds. Cable tie downs to roof davits could be an effective tool to prevent equipment from becoming windborne debris.
For critical infrastructure, the structural systems should accommodate ASCE 7-16 wind loading requirements as the minimum design, but requirements are potentially higher for survivability in a Category 5 hurricane. ASCE 7-16 wind loading or higher may be a substantial change to the structural systems compared to current building code requirements and would need to be part of the initial design phases for coordination. For extreme risk scenarios, FEMA provides guidelines for the design of safe rooms which can potentially withstand tornado or hurricane-force winds.xxvi
Hurricane Resilient Hospital Study
Case Study
New Hanover County Government Center
Built to Withstand a Category 5 Storm
Resilient design is a hallmark of the new 100,000 SF New Hanover County Government Center project in Wilmington, NC. The project, located in a coastal area prone to hurricanes, features office space, a 35,000 SF Emergency Operations Center, and 911 Center for county residents. The landmark project involved a public-private partnership in an opportunity zone; a customer service counter on the ground floor streamline access for the public in a welcoming, modern, and efficient new space.
In the event of an emergency such as a hurricane, the Emergency Operations Center is designed to withstand 165 MPH winds. Strategies for hardening the structure included tinted impactresistant glass and screening to protect mechanical systems fromwindbornedebrisduringastorm.Themixoftilt-upconcrete and conventional construction provides an exterior that is both durable and economical.
The full build-out of the site will feature mixed-use development withmulti-familyhousingandretail,andwillwelcomethepublic with green spaces, public art, and places for the community to gather.
Designing for Seismic Zones
Coastal areas which are also seismic zones come with a unique set of resilient design challenges; most of the South Carolina coast (including the city of Charleston) falls under this category. Charleston’s distinctive and decorative earthquake bolts were an early strategy to stabilize buildings after the 1886 earthquake caused significant damage. Contemporary strategies include large expansion joints which keep buildings from bumping into each other during earth shaking and floods, and earthquake drains to prevent soil liquefaction. These drains – made of perforated PVC installed in a 3’ grid underneath a building and below a gravel base which acts as a reservoir – help keep the building from moving.
FEMA’s “Designing for Earthquakes” manualxxvii provides detailed guidance, and a qualified structural engineer will be invaluable to the resilient design of any project in a seismic zone.
Designing for Passive Survivability
A truly resilient building must be able to support its inhabitants during a disaster that leads to a prolonged power and water outage, even if the building itself sustains damage. Designing for passive survivability begins at the earliest project stages with selecting an optimal building orientation and footprint for passive solar design. In the Southeast, this means aligning the long side of the building within 15 degrees of the east/west access to minimize solar heat gain in summer, encourage winter sunlight in the building, and allow for year-round daylighting. This fundamental decision greatly reduces a building’s energy requirements and increases survivability for occupants in the event of an HVAC failure. Providing an energy-efficient envelope and operable windows will further reduce energy needs and allow natural ventilation.
Since hurricanes occur in the warmer months and can lead to power outages of days or weeks after a storm, passive survivability is of the utmost importance in managing the effects of heat. Heat exposure is particularly dangerous for older adults and sensitive groups, and heat-related deaths outpace hurricane deaths by a factor of 8 to 1. Building in natural strategies for cooling and ventilation can save lives in the wake of a storm, and adding as much insulation to the roof as possible is an important step.
In a building with greatly reduced power consumption, an emergency generator can more effectively power critical building functions. Strategic design of electrical circuits can allow for easy load shedding to conserve fuel, and mechanical engineers can partition off prioritized spaces for air conditioning as well. Onsite renewable energy sources such as photovoltaics or wind turbines may also provide sufficient power for a well-designed building if the power grid is damaged.
Designing for a Coastal Future
Our beloved coastal areas are important to our past, our present, and our future. In designing for resilience, we can best preserve the existing culture that makes these places special, nurture appropriate tourism to boost local economies and provide enjoyment, and promote education about coastal ecosystems and communities.
We can also look outside of our region for innovative solutions. Places that have learned to live with water – the Netherlands, for example – can share insight and expertise from centuries of experience. Dutch experts in water management have participated in “Dutch Dialogues” in cities such as Charleston and New Orleans to share successful strategies which work with natural hydrological systems. Rather than focusing on barriers to keep the water out, these experts focus on creating “Room for the River” by designating parklands as zones which can safely flood, and creating emergency reservoirs in garages, lakes, or other places designed to hold and slow water.xxviii The City of Boston, likewise, has developed a resilience plan called Climate Ready Boston which integrates infrastructure, building, and landscape solutions to work with sea level rise while preserving historic landmarks and a high quality of life for residents.xxix
The process often begins with looking at historic maps and understanding that what used to be water will eventually be water again. Learning to view water as an asset and to restore and conserve the natural water systems will create avenues to coexist with water while planning for a more resilient future in a changing climate.
Works Cited
i National Ocean Service. N.d. “What Percentage of the American Population Lives Near the Coast?” https://oceanservice. noaa.gov/facts/population.html.
ii The Nature Conservancy. N.d. “South Atlantic Bight.” Accessed February 13, 2024. https://www.conservationgateway.org/ ConservationByGeography/NorthAmerica/UnitedStates/edc/reportsdata/marine/sabma/Pages/default.aspx
iii US Global Change Research Program (USGCRP). 2023. “The Fifth National Climate Assessment. Accessed February 7, 2024. https://nca2023.globalchange.gov/ .
iv NOAA Fisheries. June 13, 2022. “ Recommendations for Reducing Wetland Loss in Coastal Watersheds of the United States.” https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/recommendations-reducing-wetland-loss-coastal-watershedsunited-states .
v NOAA Fisheries. June 13, 2022. “ Recommendations for Reducing Wetland Loss in Coastal Watersheds of the United States.” https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/recommendations-reducing-wetland-loss-coastal-watershedsunited-states .
vi National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. N. d. “National Coastal Resilience Fund.” Accessed February 7, 2024. National Coastal Resilience Fund | NFWF .
vii US Climate Resilience Tool Kit. N.d. “High-Tide Flooding.” Accessed August 9, 2023. https://toolkit.climate.gov/topics/ coastal-flood-risk/shallow-coastal-flooding-nuisance-flooding
viii NOAA. N.d. “High Tide Flooding.” Accessed August 9, 2023. https://coast.noaa.gov/states/fast-facts/recurrent-tidalflooding.html .
ix Kaplan, Sarah and Dennis, Brady. February 15, 2022. “Sea Level to Rise One Foot Along U.S. Coastlines by 2050, Government Report Finds.” https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2022/02/15/sea-level-rise-2050-climate/ .
x Wing, Oliver; Lehman, William; Bates, Paul; Samson, Christopher; Quinn, Niall; Smith, Andrew; Porter, Jeremy; and Kousky, Carolyn. January 31, 2022. Nature Climate Change. “Inequitable Patterns of US Flood Risk in the Anthropocene. Inequitable patterns of US flood risk in the Anthropocene | Nature Climate Change .
xi Freedman, Andrew and Bomey, Nathan. June 6, 2023. Uninsurable America: Climate Change Hits the Insurance Industry.” https://www.axios.com/2023/06/06/climate-change-homeowners-insurance-state-farm-california-florida .
xii FEMA. August 2011. “Coastal Construction Manual.” https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-08/fema55_voli_ combined.pdf .
xiii The Nature Conservancy. N.d. “Resilient Coastal Sites for Conservation in the South Atlantic.” Accessed February 13, 2024. https://www.conservationgateway.org/ConservationByGeography/NorthAmerica/UnitedStates/edc/reportsdata/climate/ CoastalResilience/Pages/Resilient-Coastal-Sites--for-Conservation-across-the-South-Atlantic.aspx .
xiv Buckley, Julia. February 18, 2022. “The Flood Barriers That Might Save Venice.” https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/ mose-venice-flood-barriers/index.html#:~:text=The%20MOSE%20cost%20around%20%248,nearly%20double%20the%20 original%20estimates.
xv Royal Geographical Society. N.d. “The Future of the Thames Barrier.” Accessed August 9, 2023. https://21stcenturychallenges. org/the-thames-barrier/ .
xvi Dennis, Brady. May 15, 2023. “North Carolina Beach Houses Have Fallen into the Ocean. Is There a Fix?” https://www. washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2023/05/15/north-carolina-beach-houses-erosion-solution/.
xvii NOAA. N.d. “Sea Level Rise Viewer.” Accessed August 8, 2023. https://coast.noaa.gov/slr/#.
xviii FEMA. N.d. “FEMA Flood Maps.” Accessed August 8, 2023. https://www.fema.gov/flood-maps
xix The Nature Conservancy. N.d. “Apps.” Accessed February 11, 2024. https://coastalresilience.org/tools/apps/
xx USGS Water Science School. June 7, 2018. “The 100-Year Flood.” https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-scienceschool/science/100-year-flood .
xxi National Institute of Building Sciences. 2020. “Mitigation Saves.” https://www.nibs.org/files/pdfs/ms_v4_overview.pdf
xxii Wilson, Alex. June 29, 2015. Fundamentals of Resilient Design: Dry Floodproofing.” https://www.resilientdesign.org/ fundamentals-of-resilient-design-dry-floodproofing/ .
xxiii North Carolina Coastal Federation. N.d. “Low Impact Development.” Accessed August 10, 2023. https://www.nccoast. org/protect-the-coast/restore/low-impact-development/#:~:text=Low%2Dimpact%20development%20(LID),by%20 preventing%20polluting%20stormwater%20runoff .
xxiv NOAA. N.d. “Green Infrastructure Protective Services Animation.” Accessed August 10, 2023. Green Infrastructure Protective Services Animation (noaa.gov) .
xxv National Institute of Building Sciences. 2020. “Mitigation Saves.” https://www.nibs.org/files/pdfs/ms_v4_overview.pdf .
xxvi FEMA. April, 2021. “Safe Rooms for Tornadoes and Hurricanes.” https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/ fema_safe-rooms-for-tornadoes-and-hurricanes_p-361.pdf.
xxvii FEMA. December 2006. Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects.” https://www.wbdg.org/FFC/DHS/fema454. pdf
xxviii Morrison, Jim. December 5, 2019. “Cities Around the Globe are Eagerly Importing a Dutch Specialty- Flood Prevention.” https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/cities-around-globe-eagerly-importing-dutch-speciality-floodprevention-180973679/ .
xxix Wired BrandLab. N.d. “Designing the Coastal City of the Future.” Accessed February 13, 2024. Designing the Coastal City of the Future | WIRED .