Designing for Regeneration
DESIGN INVESTIGATIONS
an integrated, intentional approach to resilience
The modern sustainability movement was born in the 1970s. Across five decades, the ways in which we think about designing in concert with the environment have evolved along with our changing world. Early approaches to “sustainable design” were rooted in the idea of “doing less harm” as we construct the built environment. The terms “net zero energy” and “net zero carbon” refer to buildings which are environmentally neutral, at least in terms of creating all the energy needed to operate the building and storing as much carbon as the building requires in its construction and operations. “Resilient design” focuses on buildings which can withstand and recover from events such as natural disasters. All of these approaches are useful and important – and none of them alone are sufficient to mitigate the impacts of accelerating climate change. Regenerative design, however, approaches the relationship between site and building through a different lens: that of nature itself, including people as part of nature.
“The challenges of our time require design practices for assessing and responding to the world's living complexity. Regenerative design seizes the potential, born of crisis, for transforming our role as designers, planners, builders and citizens.
How can we enable the places where we live and work to thrive, not just sustain a precarious balance?” i
Regenesis Institute for Regenerative Practice
What is regenerative design?
In nature, regeneration refers to the ability of living things to renew, restore, and regrow. In the strictest sense, a truly regenerative site, building, or project would be able to repair itself. While some technologies for self-healing materials do exist, we can also take a broader view of regenerative potential in the context of living systems impacted by a project. What if instead of just minimizing harm, a project could actively do good? Regenerative development is a framework for growing this capability. A regenerative mindset moves beyond harm mitigation towards an integrated, inclusive design approach that acknowledges the interconnected systems acting on a place. A regenerative design can begin to reverse issues caused by previous disruptions, work in tandem with the existing ecosystem, and create site-appropriate ecological resources.
Integrative Design An integrative (or integrated) approach to design considers all components of a project to be part of an interconnected, cohesive system.
Living Buildings A living building is a regenerative building that addresses seven performance areas defined by the International Living Future Institute: place, water, energy, health and happiness, materials, equity, and beauty. iii
Regenerative Design “Regenerative design seeks to reverse the degeneration of ecosystems caused by human activities. It also seeks to design a built environment and human systems that can co-evolve with natural systems.” iv
Resilient Design This approach to design encourages strategies which allow buildings and communities to withstand and/or recover from shocks (such as a natural disaster) or stressors (such as rising temperatures).
Sustainable Design Sometimes referred to as “green” design, sustainable design refers to the mitigation of harmful impacts.
Shifting Perspectives
Regenerative projects require a paradigm shift from the outmoded idea of the architect as a “master of nature” to an understanding of the architect as part of an interconnected system. The challenges of climate change necessitate an accelerated design response: as architect Michael Pawlyn writes in the RIBA Journal, “the degree of change required to meet CO2 reduction targets set by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change will never be achieved by just tightening up the knobs on the current way we work.” ii Changes in architectural practice must begin at the theoretical scale, and extend to the story of place, living systems, site, building, and materials. In the process, we have the opportunity not only to design better buildings, but also to embrace a much richer sense of “place” that encompasses all the natural and human systems that impact our designs.
regenerative design at the theoretical scale
Looking Forward
Regenerative design begins with a forward-looking, systemsthinking mindset. Bill Reed, founder of Regenesis, frames design challenges around a site’s potential (which is timeless and expansive) rather than around problem solving (which forces us to look backwards and limit the scope of our thinking). He also believes that solving large-scale problems has to happen one place at a time, explaining that “a single, particular place is the only scale at which the interface between people and natural systems is immediate and accessible.” v
Beginning to understand a place requires knowledge from diverse experts and disciplines – community members, historians, ecologists, geologists, hydrologists, architects, planners, and others. A regenerative project is rooted in systems thinking, so asking “who needs to be at the table?” is a critical
first step in understanding the natural and human elements that interconnect around a place. Regenerative design rethinks the meaning of “stakeholder,” and every project’s list of stakeholders will be unique to the place. Stakeholders don’t have to be human; through the lens of regenerative thinking, a stakeholder might be an endangered bird, a river, a native plant, or an oyster bed.
Nature doesn’t lend itself to compartmentalization. Looking at any element in isolation limits opportunities and encourages a problemsolving mindset, while widening the lens to understand the complexity of a place within its natural and cultural ecosystem helps to uncover its past and future potential.
At the theoretical scale, designers can also ask, “how does nature do it?” The concept of biomimicry draws inspiration from natural processes. Our site, building, and material choices can help restore natural functions such as air filtration, hydrological systems, or habitat. Every element can serve more than one purpose: for example, a high performance biomimetic envelope might be visually stunning, improve energy efficiency, and help clean the air. Emerging materials options will increasingly allow designers to specify regenerative building products such as sintered stone, which uses its hydrophilic properties to break down CO2 in the air;
or sheep’s wool insulation, which regulates both humidity and temperature while sequestering formaldehyde.vi
Thinking differently about the relationship between architecture and the environment uncovers new opportunities for innovation and regeneration. What if waste from construction, manufacturing, or agriculture could be converted into building materials that sequester carbon or filter water? Unexpected resources may hold as-yet-undiscovered potential. Regeneration can also happen across multiple scales and time horizons. What strategies could be regenerative at the
microscopic scale, the site scale, or the regional scale?
Thinking about potential unlocks new possibilities at all scales. Regenerative design is about supporting and creating thriving systems that work within the natural context. Designers must think not only in terms of what materials and processes would do the least harm, but also in terms of what would enable the whole ecosystem to achieve its highest potential.
Regenerative Site Design
Regenerative design at the site scale requires a deep understanding of “place” including a full range of ecological, climatic, geological, hydrological, and cultural elements. What role does the site play within its natural and cultural ecosystem? What role has it played on a geological time horizon? Where does the site fit into its community? Sustainable design checklists and one-size-fits-all strategies will be insufficient to reveal the true regenerative potential of a place.
The concept of “ecosystem services” vii refers to benefits generated by the natural environment including food, raw materials, water and air filtration, soil renewal, and conversion of solar energy through photosynthesis. Humans depend upon ecosystem services for survival, though we often take for granted that these services are provided freely and (we hope) in perpetuity. The cost of replacing any of these systems through built or technological interventions is immense, and the first step in regenerative site design is understanding the natural functions flourishing on a site in its natural state. How can we preserve and support as many of these functions as possible? Are there natural elements missing from the site due to development which we can restore or create?
Careful site selection offers perhaps the most substantial strategy for regenerative design. At the onset of a project, even before the selection of a site, if possible, designers need to engage with the local community of stakeholders to have a say in the process. Building a foundation of trust within the community sets the stage for the vitality and longterm viability required for a regenerative project. Energized community engagement can propel a project forward.
Once a regenerative project is identified, it is important to analyze the project through a regenerative lens to integrate best site design practices. Design strategies for energy, air, water, soil, and living systems should work hand-inhand with site-scale systems. If stakeholders set sustainable design programs as a goal, these programs can be incorporated into the project as a helpful framework for applying these strategies.
A number of best practices can be applied to the site design. Where possible, buildings should take advantage of previously developed sites and avoid greenfield construction to minimize impacts to existing ecosystems. The Whole Building Design Guide viii offers an array of site design strategies, beginning with selecting a brownfield, greyfield, or adaptive reuse site if possible. Ideally, the building should be located near robust public transit networks to further reduce impacts. The design should work with the existing topography, not against it, by minimizing cut and fill and maintaining the natural lay of the land to the greatest extent possible. Air quality at the site scale depends upon both preservation/restoration of trees and green spaces (which also mitigate heat island effects) and strategies
to minimize any building emissions and purify air onsite. Electrification of building systems is an important first step. Landscape architects and civil engineers will be instrumental in identifying green infrastructure opportunities such as urban forests and quantifying their benefits. ix Emerging technologies include large-scale air purifiers – some sculptural, x some skyscrapersized xi – that can be embedded into the landscape, though their use remains limited.
Strategies to restore natural site hydrology include commonly used Best Management Practicesxii (BMPs) for stormwater management and Low Impact Developmentxiii (LID). These include natural or built systems to minimize runoff and capture and treat stormwater onsite such
as pervious pavers, tiered parking lots, bioswales, and bioretention cells. Many strategies add beauty and recreational opportunities to a site for compounding benefits. Larger scale regenerative water projects include river rewilding xiv and floating wetlands. xv These strategies support biodiversity, encourage native species, clean the water through natural filtration systems, reduce flooding, and provide beauty and enjoyment.
Maintaining or restoring healthy soil on a site is essential to ecosystem and human health, as soil ecosystem services include carbon sequestration, food security, water quality, biodiversity, and raw materials production. xvi Minimizing cut and fill will preserve existing soil systems, though some sites (such as brownfield sites with former industrial uses)
may require encapsulation or soil removal/replacement. A building site with healthy soil systems may also provide opportunities for edible landscape through community or vertical gardens, providing support to humans and wildlife.
Site regeneration also provides opportunities to create habitat for wildlife. In addition to edible landscapes, strategies include providing wildlife corridors through a site with an eye towards creating connectivity across a broader area, installing native plantings, and establishing protocols to eliminate pesticides and other harmful landscape treatments. Bird-safe design will also help to create a safe refuge for both native species and migratory birds.
Regenerative site-scale design should include opportunities for renewable energy such as
solar arrays or wind turbines. Theoretically, any project could be net zero energy with a big enough solar array; but successful integration of onsite renewables works in tandem with building optimization to drive down energy use and maximize renewable energy impacts.
Ultimately, a regenerative site will be one that preserves, restores, or creates value for its community and has the potential to evolve. How do we create places that yield significant dividends over time in terms of experience, social equity, connectivity, or delight? What functions can we achieve through our site designs that will have a net positive impact over time? How can we build coalitions of stakeholders connected to all forms of a project’s potential capital –social, human, produced, and ecological as well as financial? xvii
regenerative design at the building scale
Informed Design Strategies
Regenerative building design must first be informed by the larger issues of place, ecosystems and community. Analyzing the project with a regenerative lens will inform the need, siting and program for buildings. Once these factors are determined, it is important to integrate best design practices at the scale of an individual building. Design strategies for energy, air, water, and habitats should be applied to building-scale systems. The initial decisions regarding form and orientation have some of the greatest impacts on a building’s potential, so orienting the building optimally for passive solar design and daylighting is a critical first step. A compact footprint will preserve as much site green space as possible, so architects should determine early what program spaces can be stacked, what program spaces can serve multiple functions, and what program areas can double as outdoor green space.
A building designed with passive solar principles should:
• keep out solar heat gain where it’s undesirable
• allow sunlight in where it’s beneficial
• control the sunlight through shading strategies and strategic window placement
• control moisture
• maximize daylighting
• minimize reliance on HVAC systems
As a US organization dedicated to Passive House principles, Phius offers resources to achieve its overarching goals: thermal control (designing high performance enclosures and eliminating thermal bridging), air control (designing for air tightness and balanced ventilation), radiation control (designing for high performance glazing, shading, and daylighting), and moisture control (detailing for vapor control in the enclosure and controlling humidity).xviii A deep understanding of “place” is vital to success with passive design principles, as optimal orientation will vary by location.
Energy modeling from the earliest project stages will guide owners and designers in making project decisions that result in lower energy use, lower operational carbon, and reduced operational
costs over time. A building which minimizes energy consumption and integrates onsite renewable energy sources such as solar panels has the potential to be net zero or even net positive energy, creating more energy than it uses.
Air purification at the building level can involve both hightech and low-tech solutions. Specifying materials that are healthier for humans
and ecosystems (at every step of the supply chain), avoiding “red list” materials defined by the International Living Future Institute (ILFI), implementing green cleaning protocols, and designing for natural ventilation will all improve indoor air quality. Living walls within a building integrate biophilia and visual interest while harnessing the natural air cleaning processes of plants. High performance HVAC systems can include
mechanical, electrostatic, or UV filters for continuous air purification in the building.xix
Water treatment at the building level encourages new ways of thinking about water use. Where code allows, it is unnecessary to treat water to a higher standard than required for a given function; for example, toilet flushing and irrigation do not require potable water.xx We can reduce the amount of water that needs to be treated through
low-flow fixtures, reduce the amount of water required for irrigation through native and drought-tolerant plantings, and capture rainwater onsite through rainwater harvesting systems and cisterns. Some jurisdictions allow onsite wastewater treatment for greywater (water used for laundry, handwashing, or bathing) and/or blackwater (water used in toilets); the Living Machine xxi system provides a viable example.
Innovative designs for building envelopes can make it possible for buildings to clean the air, produce energy, or filter water through their skins. Designing even part of the façade to support a green wall could provide significant benefits to the microclimate in terms of air quality, heat reduction, and biophilia. xxii Concepts under development for “eco-active facades” include algae walls which photosynthesize to power buildings xxiii or filter the air while providing strategic shading. xxiv
Nanotechnology offers possibilities for envelope coatings that reduce heat, capture carbon, and produce energy. xxv These conceptual technologies are not yet accessible or economical enough for widespread use, but further research and development will amplify the potential for regenerative envelopes.
Biophilia and biomimicry can (and should) extend beyond the envelope and inform the design of all parts of a regenerative building. Considering how nature solves problems may lead to insight and innovation in new strategies, details, or materials. Integrating nature and nature-inspired elements in a design can not only reduce environmental impacts, but also help to create enduring place-based designs with cultural and community relevance. xxvi Buildings that are beloved by their users and communities are more likely to endure and serve multiple functions in their larger context over time.
regenerative design at the materials scale
Shifting Perspectives
At the scale of individual materials, regenerative design principles encourage us to think differently about the components which create our buildings. Mitigating harm is not enough; designers need to be thinking about materials that store carbon, clean the air, or provide energy. Architect Michael Pawlyn suggests that designers “use biomimicry to achieve radical increases in resource efficiency and apply ecosystem principles to integrate the building’s nutrient flows into its context. (All building materials should be considered as nutrients.)” xxvii When we begin to understand the materials we bring into a building as part of the ecosystem, we can be much more effective in designing and specifying materials for regeneration.
Many building materials are effective at sequestering carbon, a critical step in reaching climate goals. Carbon sequestration most often occurs in plantbased materials used in construction, including wood, hemp, straw, bamboo, and algae. xxviii Carbon-storing materials made from plants are bio-based; mineral-based
products can also sequester carbon, such as concrete designed for carbon capture and storage (CSS) technology. According to the Carbon Leadership Forum (CLF), “we can convert buildings from being an existential climate threat (emissions source) to a significant climate solution (emissions sink) by using biogenic materials that store
carbon and reduce emissions during the production of construction materials.” xxix
A building designed using carbon-sequestering materials can ultimately store more carbon than it releases in its construction (embodied carbon) and operation (operational carbon), thus becoming an effective carbon sink. xxx
A regenerative design should prioritize materials that function as carbon sinks where possible, and specify low carbon materials when carbon sink materials are unavailable. Carbon negative materials (those that store more carbon than required for their production) includes a range of structural, finish, and landscape materials. They may incorporate sustainable energy sources, engineering for energy efficiency, and carbon capture technologies. xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii, xxxiv, xxxv
carbon negative material examples
Bioplastic: Plastic containing biochar (organic materials burned without releasing C02) for cladding and finish materials (Made of Air)
Bricks made from Carbon-Injected Industrial Waste: Concrete masonry units (CMUs) which embed industrial waste in cement-based blocks
Carbon Capture Concrete: Concrete that sequesters carbon from industrial emissions
Carbon Negative Carpet Tiles: Finish materials incorporating recycled plastic and biomaterials (Interface)
Cement-free CMUs: Blocks that use mineral waste like steel slag and CO2 but avoid cement (Carbicrete)
Grass-based Panels: Structural panels made from fast-growing, renewable grass (Plantd)
Green Cement: Significantly lower carbon footprint cement (Hoffman)
Hempcrete: Non-structural building material used for infill or insulation, made from hemp and bound with lime
Mycelium Insulation: A fungus-based biomaterial that sequesters carbon from agricultural wastes (Biohm)
Olivine Sand: A commonly available material that, when scattered as a landscape element, can absorb its own weight in CO2
Responsibly Sourced Wood: Renewable resource that sequesters carbon in structural and finish applications
Vegetal Concrete: Discarded plantbased aggregates using industrial slag as a binder (Agrocrete)
Wood Fiber iInsulation: Carbon sequestering insulation panels (Gutex)
3-D Printed Wood: A printable material that uses waste from timber and paper processing (Forust)
lower carbon material examples
Ecosmart Drywall: Lighter, less water intensive wall panels that use less transportation energy than traditional drywall (USG)
Engineered Bamboo: Renewable bamboo product used for structure and finish applications (Lamboo)
Fly Ash Bricks: Lighter, stronger product than conventional bricks with compounding benefits from reduced structural weight and transportation costs
Geopolymer CMUs: Blocks made from natural clay, crushed basalt, and post industrial materials for lower carbon impact (Watershed Materials)
Recycled Aluminum Roof Shingles: Roofing material made from postconsumer waste (Classic Metal Roofing Systems)
Recycled Metal Products: These products may be carbon intensive to produce but over lifecycle can have huge impacts due to ease of recycling
Recycled Plastic Cladding: Exterior cladding material made from high density polystyrene (Kedel)
selected resources
AIA Materials Pledge: Encourages designers to specify materials supporting human health, social health and equity, ecosystem health, climate health, and a circular economy
Aireal: Materials library focused on materials that sequester carbon
BIFMA: “Not-for-profit trade organization for business and institutional furniture manufacturers”; creates and manages voluntary standards for building and furniture products
Clean Production Action (CPA): Works with existing international networks to develop “green chemicals, sustainable, materials and environmentally preferable products”
Center for Environmental Health: Healthier Furniture Purchasing Guide: creates guidelines for selecting furniture free of chemicals known as “the hazardous handful”
Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute: Developed the “Cradle to Cradle Certified®” standard for a wide variety of products
GreenScreen for Safer Chemicals: Developed the GreenScreen Certified® standard for environmentally preferable products
Health Product Declaration
Collaborative (HPD): Works to provide transparency in materials to foster better decision making for healthier environments
Informed (formerly Healthy Building Network): Works to reduce toxic chemicals in the built environment through research & policy, data tools, and education & capacity building
International Living Futures Institute (ILFI) DECLARE: Provides voluntary product information labels to promote transparency
ILFI Red List: Identifies harmful substances in the building industry to assist designers in avoiding their use and finding alternatives
Mindful Materials: Initiative originally founded by HKS to promote transparency through a consistent product labeling system; resources include the Common Materials Framework (CMF) and the Manufacturer Materials Commitment
generating conclusions
Regenerative design at the conceptual, site, building, and materials scale encourages us to view the built environment through a wider lens. Building upon the knowledge of the sustainable and resilient design movement, a regenerative mindset allows us to move towards restorative, place-based projects that actively improve their relationships to living systems. When we view each project as part of a complex and interconnected network of systems, we can begin to understand a site’s past and present and envision its future potential as part of a thriving ecosystem.
for your reference
Patterns of Biophilic Design: This seminal 2014 report by Terrapin Bright Green defined and advanced biophilic design principles, and is supported by continuing research.
American Institute for Architects (AIA): Resources include the Framework for Design Excellence, which provides design strategies across 10 different principles; and Blueprint for Better, a call to action for architects, civic leaders, and the public to implement designs for climate action and equity.
The Biomimicry institute: Founded in 2006, The Biomimicry Institute works with educators and innovators to develop naturebased solutions. Initiatives include design competitions, prizes, and the AskNature.org website exploring biophilic solutions.
Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute: Cradle to Cradle administers the Cradle to Cradle Certified ® standard to support a circular economy in the building industry and beyond.
International Living Future Institute (ILFI): ILFI administers the Living Building Challenge and other standards for buildings, products, and communities. ILFI also administers the Just program for transparency in social justice and the Declare program for transparency in building products, and maintains a Red List of chemicals
to avoid in specifying building products.
Interior Design Pledge for Positive Impact: The Interior Design Pledge is supported by multiple organizations and encourages designers to make better design choices for climate, health, and equity.
Lighting Advocacy Letter: This initiative seeks to encourage better design options and specifications for more sustainable lighting products.
North American Rain Catchment Association
Partnership for Southern Equity (PSE): PSA administers the JUST Communities standard to support “inclusive, just, and restorative” places. (This program is the evolution of the former EcoDistricts certification.)
Regenesis: This firm provides support for regenerative including education through the Regenerative Design Practitioner series for designers worldwide; see textbook “Regenerative Development and Design: A Framework for Evolving Sustainability” by Pamela Mang, Ben Haggard, and Regenesis.
Whole Building Design Guide: This resource for high performance building design was created by the National Institute of Building Sciences.
Works Cited
Regenerative Practice Course Literature, Regenesis Institute for Regenerative Practice.
ii Pawlyn, Michael. September 13, 2019. “What Is Regenerative Architecture?” https://www.ribaj.com/ intelligence/climate-change-emergency-regenerativedesign-michael-pawlyn
iii International Living Future Institute. N.d. “Living Building Challenge.” Accessed March 18, 2024. https:// living-future.org/lbc/
iv Regenerative Practice Course Literature, Regenesis Institute for Regenerative Practice.
v Regenesis Group. N.d. “How We Work.” Accessed June 3, 2024. https://regenesisgroup.com/how-we-work/
vi CaraGreen. N.d. “Biomimicry and Building Materials
– What You Need to Know.” Accessed January 3, 2024. https://www.caragreen.com/biomimicry-and-buildingmaterials-what-you-need-to-know/.
vii Zari, Maibritt Pederson. June, 2015. “Ecosystem services analysis: Mimicking ecosystem services for regenerative urban design.” International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment. https:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S2212609015000059 .
viii Nugent, Sarah; Packard, Anna; Brabon, Erica; and Vierra, Stephanie. Updated August 11, 2023. “Living, Regenerative, and Adaptive Buildings.” https://www.wbdg.org/resources/ living-regenerative-and-adaptive-buildings.
ix Baro, Francesc; Chaparro, Lydia; Gomez-Baggethu, Erik; Langemeyer, Johannes; Nowak, David; and Terradas, Jaume. May 2014. “Contribution of Ecosystem Services to Air Quality and Climate Change Mitigation Policies: The Case of Urban Forests in Barcelona, Spain.” https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3989519/.
x Holland, Oscar. May 19, 2023. “Could These Air Purification Towers Tackle India’s Pollution Problem?” https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/18/style/india-airpurification-towers-pollution-problem/index.html.
xi Chow, Denise. March 21, 2018. “This Skyscraper Sized Air Purifier Is the World’s Tallest.” https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/ skyscraper-sized-air-purifier-world-s-tallest-ncna858436.
xii EPA. Updated August 18, 2023. “National Menu of Best Management Practices (BMPs) for Stormwater.” https:// www.epa.gov/npdes/national-menu-best-managementpractices-bmps-stormwater.
xiii Whole Building Design Guide. Updated November 3, 2016. “Low Impact Development Technologies.” https://www.wbdg.org/resources/ low-impact-development-technologies.
xiv Planet Wild. July 25, 2023. “River Rewilding: How We Can Save Our Waterways.” https://planetwild.com/blog/ river-rewilding.
xv Shedd Aquarium. August 30, 2022. “Rewilding Rivers: A Tale of Floating Wetlands in Chicago.” https://www.sheddaquarium.org/stories/ rewilding-rivers-a-tale-of-floating-wetlands-in-chicago.
xvi Saha, Kamalika. October 27, 2022. “Regenerative Agriculture for Soil Health.” https://www. asbmb.org/asbmb-today/science/102722/ regenerative-agriculture-a-boost-for-soil-health.
xvii Mang, Pamela; Haggard, Ben; and Regenesis. 2016. ”Regenerative Development and Design: A Framework for Evolving Sustainability.”
xviii Phius. N.d. “Principles of Passive Net Zero Energy Building.” Accessed January 8, 2024. https://www. phius.org/passive-building/what-passive-building/ passive-building-principles.
xix Alexander, Max. n.d. “4 Types of Whole-House Air Filters.” Accessed January 9, 2024. https:// www.thisoldhouse.com/green-home/21014891/ whole-house-air-purifier.
xx International Living Future Institute. 2019. “Water Petal Permitting Guidebook.” Accessed January 9, 2024. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/ https://living-future.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/ WaterPetal_PermittingGuidebook_FINAL.pdf
xxi Findlay, Iain. N.d. “The Living Machine: An Ecological Wastewater Treatment Facility. Accessed January 9, 2024. https://ecovillage.org/solution/ the-living-machine/.
xxii Scheuermann, Rudi. May 13, 2021. “What Are ‘Green Envelopes’ and Why Would They Transform the Future of Fities?” https://www.euronews.com/green/2021/05/13/ what-are-green-envelopes-and-why-would-theytransform-the-future-of-cities .
xxiii Perez, Denrie. December 11, 2020. “The First AlgePowered Building Presents Unique Renewabel Energy Solution.” https://www.engineering.com/story/the-firstalgae-powered-building-presents-unique-renewableenergy-solution .
xxiv Marini, Matthew. Way 3, 2019. “It’s Alive: UNC Charlotte’s Integrated Design Research Lab Imagines an Algae-Glass Curtainwall.” https://www.archpaper. com/2019/05/unc-charlotte-integrated-design-researchlab-algae-facadesplus/.
xxv The University of Sydney. N.d. “Eco-Active Building Envelopes.” Accessed January 10, 2024. https:// www.sydney.edu.au/nano/our-research/grandchallenges/2022/eco-active-building-envelopes.html .
xxvi Project for Public Spaces. N.d. “What Is Placemaking?” Accessed January 11, 2024. https://www.pps.org/article/ what-is-placemaking .
xxvii Pawlyn, Michael. September 13, 2019. “What Is Regenerative Architecture?” https://www.ribaj.com/ intelligence/climate-change-emergency-regenerativedesign-michael-pawlyn
xxviii Weir, Madeline; Rempher, Audrey; Esay, Rebecca. March 27, 2023. “Embodied Carbon 101: Building Materials. https://rmi.org/embodied-carbon-101/.
xxix Kriegh, Julie; Magwood, Chris; and Srubar, Wil. January 2021. “Carbon Storing Materials: Summary Report.” https://carbonleadershipforum.org/carbonstoring-materials/ .
xxx Kriegh, Julie; Magwood, Chris; and Srubar, Wil. January 2021. “Carbon Storing Materials: Summary Report.” https://carbonleadershipforum.org/carbonstoring-materials/ .
xxxi https://www.dezeen.com/2021/06/27/ carbon-negative-carbon-neutral-materials-roundup/
xxxii https://carboncredits.com/ carbon-negative-building-materials/
xxxiii https://www.architectmagazine.com/technology/ products/sustainable-building-materials-for-lowembodied-carbon_o
xxxiv https://www.ctc-n.org/technologies/ carbon-sink-and-low-carbon-building-materials
xxxv https://carboncredits.com/ carbon-negative-building-materials/