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Introduction The built structure has always been the most physical of all manifestations of human endeavour. Each building, each structure or space built, holds within it countless innovations and a bounty of creativity. Cement and the cement industry are vital to this process of design and construction. Spanning the entire industry- from quality to quantity of creation and production, “101 Facts on Cement” exposes the cement industry in a
manner that is unique in both- its perspective as well as format of presentation. The booklet takes a closer look at the cement industry and translates this insight into 101 of the most incredible facts that set the various endeavours and achievements in the field apart. “101 Facts on Cement” thus attempts to bring forth the many marvels and achievements that mark the industry.
1
The first evidence of concrete’s existence in Israel dates back to 12 million years ago, when natural deposits of cement compounds were said to have formed due to reactions between limestone and oil shale, employing spontaneous combustion.
2
The oldest known surviving concrete is found in former Yugoslavia and thought to have been laid in 5,600 BC using red lime as the cement.
courtesy HNTB Architects Engineers Planners
3 The Egyptians were using early forms of concrete over 5000 years ago to build pyramids. They mixed mud and straw to bind dried bricks and used gypsum mortars and mortars of lime in the pyramids.
4 Circa 300 B.C. the Romans employed slaked lime and volcanic ash called Pozzuolana. This hydraulic cement hardened with the addition of water and they also added animal fat, milk, and blood as admixtures to improve strength. courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
5 Pozzuolana was used for aqueducts and for the still-standing Roman Coliseum, built by Emperor Vespasian. They referred to CONCRETE as Liquid Stone.
6 NERO’s Golden House is built in ROME with concrete walls, domes & vaults. The Pantheon is the oldest habitable building, made of concrete.
Š James Wallis
7 Concrete was used in the construction of the vaults and arches on the lower levels of St. Sophia’s in Constantinople.
8 With the fall of the Roman Empire, the art of concrete was all but lost. The quality of cementing materials deteriorated. The use of burning lime and pozzolan (admixture) was lost, but reintroduced in the 1300s. courtesy Docklands Light Railway
9 The manuscripts of the Roman, Pollio Vitruvius, were discovered in 1414 in a Swiss monastery reviving general interest in concrete.
10 The first recorded use of concrete (since Roman times) occurred in Paris, France in 1499. Fra Giocondo used POZZOLANIC MORTAR in the pier of the PONT DE NOTRE DAME IN PARIS. courtesy ZHA
11 John Smeaton, an English engineer looking for a building material that would not be adversely affected by water discovered in 1774 that quicklime made a harder cement.
12 In 1793 he took that discovery another step forward when he realised that the calcinations of limestone that contained clay produced hydraulic lime, a lime that hardens under water.
courtesy Maurice Nio
13 Smeaton’s work led to a more widespread use of concrete throughout England and further advances in technology.
14 James Parker patented a natural hydraulic cement in 1796 that was made by calcinating pieces of pure limestone that contained clay.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
15 William Jessop used this technology to create the West India Dock in Great Britain, one of the first structures to use concrete on such a large scale.
16
From there, the popularity of concrete as a building material spread to France, where Louis Vicat developed an artificial hydraulic lime composed of synthetic limestone and clay in 1812. This technology was used in 1816 to build the world’s first unreinforced concrete bridge in Souillac, France. Š Ajay Nayak
17 1824 Joseph Aspdin of England is credited with the invention of modern Portland cement. He named his cement Portland, after a rock quarry that produced very strong stone.
18
In 1828 I. K. Brunel is credited with the first engineering application of Portland cement, which was used to fill a breach in the Thames Tunnel.
Š Sujatha Mani
19 The density of concrete varies, but is around 2400 kg/m続, water is 1000kg/m続.
20
The “Achilles heel� of concrete is its relatively low tensile strength: only about one tenth of its compressive strength.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
21
As concrete is a porous material it can get saturated with water. In such a case when cooled to below 0째C, it cracks internally. Upon repeated freezing and thawing, the cracks grow, interact, and lead eventually to macroscopic degradation, termed ice damage.
22
Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. However if no provision is made for expansion very large forces can be created, causing cracks in parts of the structure not capable of withstanding the force or the repeated cycles of expansion and contraction. courtesy Tadao Ando, Š Hiroshi Ueda
23
Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after it is initially placed, it is generally accepted that under thermal loading it will never expand to its originally-placed volume.
24
Concrete’s light-reflective properties mean less electricity is needed for pavement illumination compared to what is required for other pavement materials.
courtesy Tadao Ando, Š Mitsuo Matsuoka
25
Concrete highways improve the fuel efficiency of trucking fleets.
26
Concrete has certain acoustic properties that help in sound insulation. These are measured in Sound Transmission Class. Depending on wall thickness, concrete walls reduce sound transmission by more than two-thirds over timber frame construction. Š Shigeo Ogawa
27
Concrete’s thermal mass provides energy savings for the lifetime of a structure.
28
The natural colour of concrete reflects more light, reducing heat gain in urban areas.
Š Mitsuo Matsuoka
29
In the 1930s air entraining agents were introduced to improve concrete’s resistance to freeze/thaw damage.
30
In 1849 Joseph Monier, of France, reinforced William Wand’s (USA) flowerpots with wire ushering in the idea of iron reinforcing bars (re-bar). He received a patent for his creation in 1867.
Š Mitsuo Matsuoka
31
In 1902 August Perret designed and built an apartment building in Paris that used what came to be known as “a system for reinforced concrete�. This structure deeply influenced architecture and concrete construction for decades since it was built without load-bearing walls using instead columns, beams, and slabs.
32
1970s — Fiber Reinforcement was introduced as a way to strengthen concrete.
Š Oosuna
33
These materials consist of glass, carbon or aramid fibres set in a suitable resin to form a rod or grid, and provide highly durable concrete reinforcement.
34
FRP rods have low compressive strengths in comparison to their tensile capacities, so the traditional design approaches for columns will have to be reconsidered.
courtesy Masjid Negeri Petra Jaya Foundation
35
Concrete reinforced with polypropylene fibers instead of steel yields equivalent strength with a fraction of the thickness.
36
The new fiber-reinforced bendable concrete uses microscale CELLULOSE fiber reinforcements in addition to the existing ingredients in the concrete that is designed to provide more flexibility. POLYMER reinforced cement concrete is reinforced with POLYACRYLIC ACID as an admixture. coutesy Tadao Ando, Š Makoto Yamamori
37
In 1825 construction of the Erie Canal, New York, USA created the first great demand for cement in the country.
38
The first recorded shipment of cement to the United States was in 1868, when European manufacturers began shipping cement as ballast in tramp steamers at very low freight rates.
coutesy Tadao Ando, Š Shigeo Ogawa
39
The first rotary kiln was introduced in England in 1886, which allowed for continuous production of cement, It replaced the vertical shaft kilns.
40
In 1891 George Bartholomew placed the first concrete street in the USA in Bellefontaine, Ohio. It still exists today.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
41
The Alvord Lake Bridge built in 1889 in San Francisco, was the first concrete reinforced bridge was. It still exists today, over a hundred years after construction.
42
The Ingalls Building built in 1903 in Cincinnati, Ohio, was first the concrete high rise. Standing sixteen stories tall it was a great engineering feat of its time.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
43
Detractors feared a concrete building would not be able to withstand wind and concrete shrinkage and legend has it that people were so sure the Ingalls Building would collapse that a local reporter once stayed all night outside the building, waiting for it to fall down.
44
The tallest reinforced concrete building in the world was constructed at 311 S. Wacker Dr., Chicago, Illinois.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
45
The first concrete domed sports structure, The University of Illinois’ Assembly Hall, was constructed at Champaign-Urbana in 1967.
46
The ring-beam on which the dome was placed was prestressed by wrapping 988 km of 31 mm steel wire under high tension around it. This made the dome selfsupporting. The dome was the first of its kind, and at one time it was one of only two edge-supported domes in existence. courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
47
Assembly Hall is considered an engineering marvel because contractors used prestressed concrete in a way it had never been used before.
48
In 1936 Hoover Dam, Arizona, US the highest concrete dam in the Western Hemisphere used 2.5 million cubic-metres of concrete, all of which was poured continuously during a two-year period.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder , Tadao Ando
49
During the construction of the Hoover dam, the chemical heat caused by setting cement was dissipated by embedding 936 km of 25 mm steel pipe in the concrete and circulating ice-water through it from a refrigeration plant could produce 1000 tons of ice in 24 hours.
50
In 1951, about 9 million cubicmetres of cement concrete made the Grand Coulee Dam, Washington, USA the largest concrete structure ever built.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
51
In 1994 construction began on the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China and when completed in 2009, it will be the world’s largest concrete structure.
52
The first installation of a polished concrete floor in the US was a 3716 sqm warehouse floor for the Bellagio in Las Vegas in 1999.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
53
The oldest known concrete ship was a dingy built by Joseph Louis Lambot in Southern France in 1848.
54
In the 1850s Jean-Louis Lambot was the first to use reinforcing in boats.
courtesy ZHA
55
1914 The Panama Canal is completed with three pairs of concrete locks having floors up to 20 feet thick and walls up to 60 feet thick at the base. The Panama Canal locks were built with reinforced concrete, and this led to the first hydroelectric dams to be constructed with reinforced steel and concrete.
56
In India, the first cement plant was commissioned in 1914 at Porbandar with a production level of 1000 tonnes per annum.
courtesy I-Structure
57
The first public natatorium erected of reinforced concrete in 1898 was in Gebweiler, France.
58
The most influential structure on the development of large, enclosed public space of reinforced concrete was the Jahrhunderthalle (Centennial Hall) of Breslau, Germany. This structural icon lead the way in large span public buildings. courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
59
When completed, Burj Dubai’s construction will have used 330,000 m3 of concrete and 39,000 tonnes of steel rebar (enough to extend over a quarter of the way around the world if laid end-to-end).
60 courtesy Indian Architect & Builder , Tadao Ando
The Burj Dubai sets record for vertical concrete pumping on any building at 601 m surpassing the 449.2 m to which concrete was pumped during the construction of Taipei 101. It also holds the record for highest vertical concrete pumping for any construction.
61
The Mike O’Callaghan-Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge at 580 m in total length with a main span of 332 m will be the largest concrete arch-bridge in North America when it’s completed, which is estimated to be 2010.
62
The useful life of a concrete road is 40 years. When it is replaced, the old surface can be crushed and used in the new road. Modern concrete roads are very smooth-riding, energy-saving, cooler and quiet. courtesy Tadao Ando, Š Hiroshi Ueda
63
Reinforced concrete was improved by the development of prestressed concrete.
64
Eugene Freyssinet, a French engineer, developed prestressed concrete that is, concrete containing cables that are placed under tension opposite to the expected compression load before or after the concrete hardens. courtesy Tadao Ando, Š Mitsuo Matsuoka
65
Although prestressed concrete was patented by a San Francisco engineer in 1886, it did not emerge as an accepted building material until a halfcentury later.
66
The shortage of steel in Europe after World War II coupled with technological advancements in high-strength concrete and steel made prestressed concrete the building material of choice during 68 European post-war reconstruction. courtesy Tadao Ando, Š Mitsuo Matsuoka
67
In 1948 pre-stressed concrete was introduced and first used in airport pavements, The King Dome in the United States uses pre-stressed concrete for a dome diameter of 202 meters.
68
Prestressing removes a number of design limitations conventional concrete places on span and load and permits the building of roofs, floors, bridges, and walls with longer unsupported spans.
Š Makoto Yamamori
69
The new P.O.S.T. (Pre-stressed Open Space Truss) provides a solution for long-spans, while maintaining the shallow floor depth of a flat plate system. This system works well for hotel and condominium applications, especially with coveted parking spaces in the lower levels.
70
Ultralite panels are being manufactured with Carbon Cast, a grid of carbon fiber reinforcing. The resulting weight reduction generates savings in shipping, erection, and substructure costs.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
71
Concrete, produced at an estimated rate of 5 billion cubic-metres per year, is the second most widely consumed substance on Earth, after Water.
72
The United States uses 404 kg. of cement per person each year. California uses 390 kg and Nevada uses 984 kg. per person each year (Source: US Census 2000).
courtesy Tadao Ando, Š Mitsuo Matsuoka
73
The United States uses 70 million tonnes of cement every year - approximately one fifth of the cement used throughout the world annually.
74
The United States ranks third in cement production, behind China - the world’s leading producer - and India whose 2007 industry output was 160 million metric tons.
courtesy Tadao Ando
75
The market for cement in India is projected to rise at an 8.6 % annual pace through 2012 to 233 million metric tons, among the fastest growth rates in the world.
76
In India Per capita consumption has increased from 28 kg in 1980-81 to 110 kg in 2003-04. In relative terms, India’s average consumption is still low and the process of catching up with international averages will drive future growth. courtesy Tadao Ando
77
The cement industry is one of the most capital intensive industries, the cost of a new cement plant can be equivalent to about 3 years of revenue.
78
Modern cement plants have capacities well in excess of 1 million tonnes per year which once built, its facilities may last for 50 years.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
79
It requires the equivalent of 60 to 130 kilograms of fuel oil and 110 kWh of electricity to produce one tonne of cement.
80
The cement industry is the world’s third largest consumer of energy and typically uses 12 tons of fuel each hour.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
81
Waste fuels that can be used in cement kilns include used motor oil, spent solvents, printing inks, paint residues, and cleaning fluids.
82
Concrete is used very successfully in boat building. The weight of a well-made concrete boat compares favourably with that of a wooden boat of the same capacity.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
83
Shotcrete uses compressed air to shoot (cast) concrete onto (or into) a frame or structure. It is frequently used against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it eliminates the need for formwork. It is sometimes used for rock support, especially in tunnelling.
84
TX Active, the new photocatalytic cement technology for self-cleaning and pollution-reducing concrete, utilizing a hydraulic binder with photo-catalytic properties that render concrete self-cleaning and/or pollution-mitigating. courtesy I-Structure
85
Thin-shell construction, takes advantage of the inherent structural strength of certain geometric shapes, such as hemispherical and elliptical domes; in thin-shell construction great distances are spanned with very little material.
86
Glass concrete was developed for the Lillehammer Winter Olympics, where the material contained more than 70% of recycled crushed glass that replaced the gravel used in ordinary concrete.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
87
Adding optical fibers to a concrete mix generates translucent concrete. This “see-through” development is changing the perception of concrete’s opaque mass.
88
Reactive powder concrete is extremely workable, durable and yields ultrahigh strengths without using coarse aggregates. Reaching compressive strengths of 30,000psi, this new-age concrete also has tensile strength with the inclusion of steel and synthetic fibers. courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
89
Self Consolidating Concrete (SCC) eliminates the need for mechanical consolidation and yields a smooth surface finish without mix segregation.
90
Pervious concrete is a mixture of coarse aggregate, Portland cement, water and little to no sand. A typical pervious concrete pavement has a 15-25% void structure and allows 13-36 litres of water per minute to pass through each square foot. courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
91
Lightweight Masonry takes the form of Aerated Autoclaved Concrete block (AAC). With sufficient structural capacity to be used as low-rise bearing walls, AAC block greatly reduces masonry partition wall weights for elevated slab construction.
92
Insulated Concrete Form (ICF) walls are gaining popularity in the US residential and commercial markets. These are rigid foam forms filled with concrete. In addition to rapid construction, energy savings and increased durability, owners also gain a healthier and quieter environment. courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
93
In sound transmission tests, ICF walls allowed less than one-third as much sound to pass through compared to an ordinary frame wall filled with fibreglass.
94
A Japanese company has patented a technique for producing moulded cement incorporating vegetable fibres that reach their full strength by the addition of a nitrate.
courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
95
Geopolymer concrete is a greener alternative to ordinary Portland cement made from inorganic aluminosilicate (Al-Si) polymer compounds that can utilise 100% recycled industrial waste (e.g. fly ash and slag) as the manufacturing inputs resulting in up to 80% lower carbon dioxide emissions.
96 Two British Engineers, William Crawford and Peter Brewin, have developed an inflatable concrete building. An inflatable dome is designed such that it integrates plastic to inflate the structure and double as the inner skin while an external resin of concrete holds the structure together. courtesy Tadao Ando, Š Mitsuo Matsuoka
97
Auguste Perret, Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier were amongst the first architects to popularize the use of concrete as a building material in the early twentieth century.
98 The style of architecture followed by Corbusier came to be known as brutalism. This originates from the French béton brut, or “raw concrete”, a term he used to describe his choice of material. courtesy Tadao Ando, © Mitsuo Matsuoka
99
For the Millau Viaduct, a bridge spanning a broad and deep valley in southern France, British architect Lord Norman Foster specified highstrength concrete to create remarkably svelte support piers, the largest of which are taller than the Eiffel Tower.
100 A new study from Arup has underlined why reinforced concrete is the best solution for hospital construction highlighting the materials ability to meet stringent vibration criteria at minimal or no extra cost. courtesy Indian Architect & Builder
101
The use of a machine to bend the steel reinforcing bars first began during the construction(1907-1915) of the Hauptbahnhof (Main Train Station) in Leipzig, Germany.
© Jørn Utzon Foundation
“Concrete is a true structural material that represents its own time. When constructed and maintained properly, nothing can surpass concrete”. – Tadao Ando, Architect