FARM CONSTRUCTION 2022 SPECIAL SECTION • Thursday, November 3, 2022 • WWW.AGRIVIEW.COM
Tech intends to update barn cooling University of Wisconsin
Heat waves are difficult for everything – including people, shellfish, forests and crops. But one casualty of heat that doesn’t receive much attention outside of the agricultural community is dairy cows. Heat stress is a major threat to bovines, which are particularly sensitive to hot weather because they have an average body temperature of 101.5 degrees. During hot days farmers put cows in shade or in a barn, spritz them with water and blast them with fans – using a lot of water and electricity in the process. Even still, heat stress, which can reduce milk production and fertility, costs dairy farmers about $1.5 billion per year in the United States and causes lots of animal suffering. As climate change continues to lead to more and more-extreme heat waves, the bovine climate-control problem is only expected to become worse. That’s why Younghyun Kim, an assistant professor of electrical and computer engineering at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and an interdisciplinary research Kim team are investigating cutting-edge technologies to keep Bessie and her sisters from suffering unnecessary heat stress. Kim is the lead principal investigator on a three-year $1-million project that began in 2021, funded by the National Science Foundation and U.S. Department of Agriculture. The project is intended to develop cyber-physical systems to maintain optimal microclimates inside barns and mitigate the impact of heat stress on dairy cows. “Advances in machine learning and the Internet-of-Things have made it possible to understand and manage not only the digital world but also living animals,” Kim said. “We want to answer the question of how we can promote productivity, sustainability and animal welfare in dairy farms using technologies. Wisconsin is the best place to investigate this research question and make the biggest impact with the best experts as a team.”
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Heat stress, which can reduce milk production and fertility, costs dairy farmers about $1.5 billion per year in the United States and causes lots of animal suffering. An interdisciplinary research team at the University of Wisconsin are investigating cutting-edge technologies to keep Bessie and her sisters from suffering unnecessary heat stress.
Researchers from across UW-Madison are collaborating on the project. • Christopher Choi, a professor of biological-systems engineering • Jennifer Van Os, an assistant professor and UW-Division of Extension specialist in animal and dairy sciences • Dr. Sabrina Brounts, veterinarian, a clinical professor in UW-School of Veterinary Medicine’s.Department of Surgical Sciences
Choi
Van Os
Brounts
Most of the large-scale freestall barns currently preferred by the dairy industry are not particularly high-tech and don’t rely on advanced sensing technology to tell when animals are stressed. The aim of the new project is to develop external sensors and sensors implanted in cows that can continuously monitor their microenvironment and physiological stress. The sensors are
to use thermal-induced behavior analysis and computational fluid dynamics-based microclimate control. The data will allow analysis of heat-stress in real time, leading to automatic adjustments to barn cooling systems using a minimum amount of energy and water. The goal is to keep the cows cool, comfortable and productive; to improve the economics of the dairy business; and increase sustainability and animal well-being. “Animal health and well-being is an important factor for not only the dairy farmer in Wisconsin, but also dairy farming in other states and countries,” Brounts said. “Therefore our sensing technology could Please see COOLING, Page 3
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Connections critical to building strength Iowa State University
Many modern farm buildings built with wooden framing are covered by a skin or cladding of ribbed-metal sheeting. The combined strength of the framing and metal skin contributes to the economy of that type of building. Some primary structural members such as wood trusses or laminated-wood posts are pre-fabricated. The majority of the connections between primary structural members, secondary structural members and the building skin are made in the field, but are critical to the strength of the assembled building. Attention to those connections in design, construction and maintenance will enhance building strength and longevity. APPLIED LOADS NEED RESISTANCE When buildings are subjected to wind, snow and dead – building-material weight – loads, the resulting forces must be transferred to the ground or foundation by the building members. Designers may refer to the transfer of forces as creating a
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continuous load path to the ground. Snow and dead loads generate downward vertical loads on building members. Wind-induced loads may generate downward, upward and horizontal forces on building members. Movement – such as deflection, bow, sway or lean – of the building from those applied forces must be resisted by the stiffness of the building. In metal-clad frame buildings, the overall stiffness is a combination of frame stiffness and stiffness provided by the metal skin. Carrying the applied building loads safely to the ground requires properly designed and field-installed fasteners at critical building connections. Post embedment – When building posts are set in the ground, the embedment depth and the surrounding soil type and conditions determine the resistance provided to prevent the post from being pulled out of the ground or leaned to the side. Soils with more sand or gravel provide greater load-bearing strength than those with predominantly silt or clay. Undisturbed soils provide more strength than fill material. Support provided to the post by connection to a rigid building floor can provide additional lateral and uplift resistance. Post footings must be properly sized and rest on undisturbed soil rather than fill or loose material. Confirm that all aspects of the post embedment and soil strength comply with the building design. Please see BUILDING, Page 4
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IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY
Figure 1. Wind-induced deformation needs to be resisted by building stiffness.
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Barn rises in Jackson County
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Cooling From 1
potentially have a broad impact on animal health and farmers all over the world.” The team will spend the first part of the project developing the sensors and controllers before testing the system at UWMadison’s dairy barns, experimenting with different housing and ventilation systems. If it works with cows, the cyber-physical system may be applicable to poultry- and pork-production facilities as well. The new system won’t just be good for animals; it will also help farmers save money and provide new jobs in agriculture technology. “Because this proposed system would require builders with specialized knowledge based on the proposed research activities – particularly in the areas of advanced (Internet of Things)-based sensors and corresponding microclimate control – it should create opportunities for Wisconsin’s builders specializing in dairy-barn design, construction and operation,” Choi said.
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Building From 2
Post-to-foundation attachment – When posts are attached to the top of a foundation, the connection must resist wind uplift along with horizontal wind forces and bending forces in the post. Those connections must include either steel plates embedded in the concrete foundation that extend an appropriate distance up the side of the post, or a base plate of adequate design bolted to anchors embedded in the concrete. Both the embedment of the connectors in the concrete and the attachment of the connectors to the post are critical in the design and function of those connections. Ensure that anchors are properly placed as the foundation is installed, and that all connections to the post are made as specified in the design. Stud-wall-to-foundation attachment – When stud-wall framing is connected to a foundation, the connection must resist wind uplift along with horizontal wind forces. That type of connection cannot resist bending forces, so wall and building lean must be resisted by other means. Nails or screws driven into the end grain
IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY
Figure 2. Post-to-foundation attachment
of wood studs have minimal withdrawal resistance, which is not counted in building design. Uplift resistance must be provided by either metal straps – called tie plates, stud ties or hurricane clips – that attach
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with nails or screws to the side of the stud, and the edge of the base plate or foundation. Or lap sheathing or siding materials over the base plate and connect securely to both the studs and the base plate. Follow
the manufacturer’s recommendations for fasteners required for metal-tie plates, and building designer’s specifications for sheathing or siding attachment to the plate. When the base plate is providing the structural connection between the wall framing and the foundation, it must be securely fastened to the foundation with anchors embedded in the concrete. Follow the building-design specification for the length, size and spacing of anchors. Ensure the base plate is protected from moisture damage that can weaken the ability of the wood to hold the required fasteners. Monitor the base plate and attached sheathing or siding for signs of moisture damage, rust and fastener deterioration. Truss-to-wall attachment – Forces acting on the building roof are transferred to the roof trusses, and from the trusses to the building posts or wall framing. The connection must resist downward snow and dead loads along with wind uplift and horizontal forces. Adequate bearing area between the truss and wall must be provided to carry snow and dead loads. Bearing area is usually provided by resting the heel of the truss directly on the wall plate or on a notch in the post. If trusses rest on bearing blocks attached to the side of a post, there must be sufficient fasteners to carry the full load
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Figure 4. Truss-to-wall attachment – knee braces
Figure 3. Truss-to-wall attachment – A truss-bearing block illustrates a likely-inadequate threenail connection to a post.
from the block to the post – following the design specifications.Horizontal and uplift wind forces must be carried from the truss to the wall. Toe-nailing, common in house and garage construction, is not adequate to carry those loads. Bolts or metal tie plates are required to carry the loads. Connectors should tie the truss to the post or studs rather than to the top plate, unless the top plate is also connected to the studs with load-bearing connectors specified in the design. In post-frame buildings, the connection may also carry bending forces from the
post to the truss. The bending-force transfer may be carried through diagonal knee braces at the truss-to-post connection, or by bolts through the truss and post with a specially designed deep-heel truss. Closely follow design specifications for knee-brace connections and deep-heel-truss connections. Do not allow field modification or omission of knee braces or truss connections without express approval of the building designer. Please see BUILDING, Page 6
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IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY
Figure 5. Roof-purlin attachment – Purlin nailing is shown with inadequate nail embedment.
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Figure 7. Metal-sheeting attachment – Building wind-load failure happens at the edge of the roof.
Roof-purlin attachment – Wind uplift forces applied to roofing materials are transferred to the trusses through the roof purlins. When purlins are nailed on top of the truss, fasteners must provide adequate embedment depth and size for withdrawal resistance from the truss. Toe nailing is likely not adequate. Special ring-shank pole-barn nails or screws may be required. Metal tie straps provide additional uplift resistance. When purlins are hung between the trusses in metal hanger brackets, adequate fasteners are required into both the purlin ends and the truss. Increases in wind loads around the edge of the roof add to fastener requirements at the edges of roof sections. Diagonal wind bracing – Building framing assembled in rectangular patterns, such as stud walls and roof trusses with purlins, requires bracing to prevent racking – leaning or twisting the rectangles into diamond shapes. The steel skin on the building can provide much of the diagonal bracing effect, but particularly during construction diagonal frame bracing may be required. That bracing may be temporary, or may be permanently included in the structure. Ensure diagonal bracing is installed according to design specifications. Do not cut or omit diagonal bracing for doors, windows or equipment without approval of the building designer. Connections at the ends of diagonal bracing are particularly important to brace function. Ensure that connections to posts, plates or foundations are properly installed and protected from moisture damage. When bracing carries compression loads – squeezing along the length – lateral bracing of the member may be required to prevent sideways buckling. Follow design specifications. Metal-sheeting attachment – The metal sheeting of the building must carry loads from wind and snow to the structural framing. Wind uplift and outward forces, along with induced diagonal-bracing forces, are significant design factors for sheeting connections. Uplift and outward force resistance requires adequate fastener spacing and embedment depth. Follow design specifications. If screw fasteners are overtightened and strip the threads, replace them with longer fasteners – or move to a new fastener location and seal the hole from the stripped screw. Wind-uplift forces are greater at the edges of roof and wall surfaces due to both the movement
IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY
Figure 6. Roof-purlin attachment – Metal tie plates or straps
of wind around the corners and the load on roof overhangs, when present. Additional fasteners – closer fastener spacing – are justified in those edge zones. Edge zones of greater wind pressure are generally assumed to be at least 3 feet wide from the edge of the roof or wall section. As mentioned in the section on diagonal wind bracing, the building steel sheeting can also provide resistance to wind forces that would cause racking of the building frame. The metal sheeting attached to the framing forms a rigid diaphragm that provides resistance to racking. In resisting racking, shear forces are created in the connections between the steel sheets, and between the sheets and the framing. Those forces are larger around the edges of each diaphragm – that is, around the edge of each individual wall or roof section. Those additional diaphragm forces add load to the connections between steel sheeting and the underlying framing, and between that framing and the trusses, posts or foundation. Building-failure investigations frequently point to connection failure around the edges of the roof surface as the beginning point for structural failure. Figure 7 shows roof panels that have been peeled off the edge of the roof as a result of inadequate strength of the connections at the roof edge. Figure 8 shows a section of roofing – roof sheeting and purlins – separated from a building frame by wind forces. Note that the sheeting remained attached to the purlins, but purlins were not adequately connected to trusses. Inspecting connections – Inspection during and after construction should verify
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that the connections at critical locations were properly installed. Verify with the construction plans that the proper size and number of connectors were installed. Check screw or nail size, spacing, length and embedment into framing members. Fasteners in sheeting ribs do not carry as much shear load as fasteners in the flat part of the sheeting. Fasteners too near to the edge or end of a wooden-framing member will carry less load. Overtightening of fasteners that damages the metal sheeting or under-tightening that leaves a loose fit will reduce connection strength. Verify the condition of the framing members at the edges of roof and wall sections. Defective framing members – roof purlins, eave purlins, sidewall girts, top plates or bottom plates – can lead to connection failure between the metal sheeting and the frame. Do not allow building modifications that are not part of the original building design and plans. Insist that any on-site modifications be confirmed in writing from the building designer. Connection maintenance – Critical connections should be inspected every few years, and also following any severe windstorms. Areas near the edge of the roof and the base of the wall are also prone to deterioration and maintenance issues as buildings age. During maintenance inspections and repairs, pay particular attention to connection and framing-member condition along the roof eaves, roof ridge, DAVID BOHNHOFF, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Figure 8. Metal-sheeting attachment – A roof section is separated from a building frame by wind.
Please see BUILDING, Page 8
IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY
Figure 9. Connection maintenance – Roof sheeting rusts around fasteners.
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foundation, wall corners and end-wall rake – the joint between the roof and end wall. Roofing materials near the eaves of livestock buildings are particularly prone to moisture condensation and deterioration of roof metal. Watch for signs of rusting or corroding of roof metal at those locations. Corroded or rusted metal sheeting is prone to fasteners breaking through the metal when subjected to load.Replace rusted or corroded metal roofing. Reduce the risk of future metal rusting or corrosion through means such as modified ventilation attic air intakes, improved insulation or condensation control. Refer to Iowa State University-Extension and Outreach’s publication “Gable End Attic Air Intakes for Swine Building Ventilation – AE 3545. Visit store.extension.iastate.edu and search for “ae 3545” for more information. Repair or replace building-framing members that show signs of deterioration or damage. Use a metal probe, knife point or small screwdriver to test wood members for integrity. Use a wood-moisture meter to check for excess moisture content. Design connection strength is reduced when
wood-moisture content in use exceeds 19 percent. Look for visible streaking as an indication of past condensation dripping and running. If necessary, remove soffit panels or insulation to gain better access for inspection. Use a flexible inspection camera to access restricted areas for investigation. Consult a qualified engineer or building professional if damage is found that requires repair more complex than fastener or member replacement. Trussdesign and inspection are not the focus of this article, but if inspection reveals truss damage or truss-plate teeth that are not firmly embedded in truss members, seek professional advice for repair strategies. Safety First – Be cautious when investigating and repairing building connections. Hazards include sharp metal edges and points, raw wood edges, blowing insulation and debris, and falls from ladders. Wear protective eyewear and gloves, and disconnect power before inspecting areas around electrical wiring. Authors – Shawn Shouse, Kapil Arora, Brian Dougherty, Kris Kohl and Kristina TeBockhorst – field agricultural engineers with Iowa State University-Extension and Outreach; reviewed by David Bohnhoff, emeritus professor with University of Wisconsin-Biological Systems Engineering
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IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY
Figure 10. Connection maintenance – Truss-plate tooth withdrawal is shown.
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Early barn reflects utilitarian style
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WISCONSIN HISTORICAL SOCIETY, IMAGE #20606
The John Karlman barn is located in Hawkins in Rusk County, Wisconsin. Its round-log construction includes notching vertical boards in the gables. Date built is unknown.
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Historical barn reflects short era WISCONSIN HISTORICAL SOCIETY Reference number 88000091
The Nashold Twenty-Sided Barn offers a unique glimpse into Wisconsin’s agricultural past. Built in 1911, near the end of a short-lived period of circular-barn construction, the Nashold Barn is one of a few well-maintained survivors. Promoted by agricultural researchers at nearby University of Wisconsin-Madison and elsewhere, circular barns were a scientific response to the growing needs of dairying. Builders intended their round shape to reduce construction materials and costs. Circular construction created a more-efficient interior layout because facing cows toward the center silo allowed for easy feeding and waste removal. Constructed with a fieldstone basement and wood-frame hayloft, the Nashold barn radiates around a 40-foot center silo. Small multi-paned wooden windows illuminate the ground-floor cow stalls. On the exterior of the barn, the ramp leading to the hayloft is an earthen embankment under which
WISCONSIN HISTORICAL SOCIETY PHOTOS
The Nashold Twenty-Sided Barn is located in the township of Fountain Prairie in the town of Fall River in Columbia County, Wisconsin. The architect is unknown.
sits a milk house. This construction strategy allowed for efficient insulation of milk in both the winter and summer, and is an adaptation little seen in other barns. The barn is listed in the both the State Register and National Register of historic properties. It’s located on private property; please respect the privacy of the owners.
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Circular construction created a moreefficient interior layout because facing cows toward the center silo allowed for easy feeding and waste removal.
The earthen ramp leading to the hayloft has a milk house under it, allowing for efficient insulation of milk in both the winter and summer.
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Rare limestone barn built in 1881 WISCONSIN HISTORICAL SOCIETY Reference number 01000299
WISCONSIN HISTORICAL SOCIETY PHOTOS
Built in 1881 of quarried limestone, the Thomas Stone Barn has changed little since that time. It’s an example of the late-19th and early-20th-century Revival Architectural Style. Architects were Isaac Jones and Walter Thomas.
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On the exposed south-facing basement, 10 evenly spaced doors open to the fields.
The most notable alterations to the structure are conversion of the stables to cow pens in the basement level.
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The Thomas Stone Barn stands apart from the numerous agricultural structures that dot Wisconsin’s landscape due to its stone construction, large size and expert workmanship. Built in 1881 of quarried limestone, the barn has changed little. The north façade has two broad, arched entries giving access to the hayloft. The basement level of the barn holds the original stable and an open stone floor. On the exposed south-facing basement, 10 evenly spaced doors open to the fields. Surrounded by 165 acres of crop and pastureland, the barn has remained fundamentally unchanged – though changing agricultural technologies have altered aspects of the structure. Originally built for a livestock-raising business, the Thomas Stone Barn – like many early Wisconsin barns – was converted into a dairy farm in the early 20th century. The most notable alterations to the structure were conversion of the stables to cow pens in the basement level, as well as the addition of a milk house and a loafing shed.
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The basement level of the barn holds the original stable and an open stone floor.
Rather than detracting from the historical significance of the barn, those additions reflect important trends in Wisconsin’s agricultural history. They suggest the constantly changing mandates of agricultural technology upon Wisconsin farms. The barn is near Wisconsin Highway 18/U.S. Highway 151 in the town of Brigham in Iowa County, Wisconsin. It’s listed on both the National Register and the State Register of historical properties. It’s located on private property; please respect the privacy of the owners.
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