Post Graduate Thesis - Resilience to Urban Risk : A perspective of Chennai

RESILIENCE TO URBAN RISK : A PERSPECTIVE OF CHENNAI LAUREA MAGISTRALE URBAN PLANNING AND DESIGN

POLITECNICO DI MILANO - DECEMBER 2019 Supervisor : Prof. Eugenio Morello Students : Maitreyi Murali | Sarayu Madhiyazhagan

Resilience to Urban Risks

CHENNAI 2

December 2019 School of Architecture Urban Planning and Construction Engineering Laurea Magistrale [Master of Science] in Urban Planning and Policy Design.

Supervisor: Eugenio Morello Authors: Sarayu Madhiyazhagan & Maitreyi Murali Title: Resilience to Urban Risks: A Perspective of Chennai

DECLARATION We, Maitreyi Murali (886261) and Sarayu Madhiyazhagan (892450), hereby declare that this thesis has been composed by us and that the work has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification.

Our contribution to this work has been explicitly indicated and confirm that appropriate credit has been given within this thesis wherever reference has been made to the work of others.

3

4

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This thesis is the culmination of various research on urban resilience. Throughout this interesting journey, we received support from various professionals, and we wish to acknowledge their support. First and foremost, we sincerely appreciate our supervisor Prof.

Eugenio Morello for his valuable guidance, kindness, and patience. He has led us from time to time in the most productive direction during the research with his vast knowledge and impeccable experience. It is our great fortune to have had him as our supervisor for the research at Politecnico di Milano.

We wish to acknowledge all the anonymous research works and open source software and information sites on this topic and their insightful inputs to the field and the society.

Secondly, we would like to express our gratitude to our colleagues and to the amazingly talented group of assistant professors and digital support team of all our previous studios without whom the project would not have reached its completion.

Special thanks to their generous attitude and support in the Urban Planning studios.

Our acknowledgment would be incomplete without thanking the significant source of our strength, our family and friends.

5

CONTENTS Resilience to Urban Risks

CHENNAI

“There is a certain universal appeal to it.”

Developing a Resilient Strategy for Chennai

ABSTRACT................................................................................ .......................................................08 1. THE CONTEXT............................................................................................................................13 1.1 Identification of the international context (Global aims) ����������������������������������������������������������������� 18 1.2 Identification of the local context (National scale aims) ������������������������������������������������������������������ 30 1.3 Identification of the Micro-local context (Regional scale aims) �������������������������������������������������������� 38

2. THE DESIGN AREA AND URBAN RISK [THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK]....................................45 2.1 Transformation over time - Chennai City ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 51 2.2 Growth Pattern of the area............................................................................................................... 57 2.3 Tryst with Water: Chennai City.......................................................................................................... 61 2.4 Urban risks as an opportunity........................................................................................................... 73 2.5 Fragility Factor & Resilience Factor at City level ������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75

3. URBAN RISK AND RESILIENCE ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������77 3.1 Urban Resilience as a Theoretical Concept �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79 3.2 Urban Resilience : Method adapted for the study �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83 3.3 Measurable: Urban City Resilience Index ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 87 3.4 Urban System: The Spatial Assessment �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93 3.5 SWOT map......................................................................................................................................... 95 3.6 Urban System: Current condition ..................................................................................................... 97 3.7 Urban Resilience as a framework.................................................................................................... 107

4 SCENARIO.................................................................................................................................. 109 4 SCENARIO 1: REWIND - 2002................................................................................................ 110 4.1 Policy toolkit [OCED]........................................................................................................................ 111

4.2 Decision making in Scenario .............. ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 115 4.3 Practical Gaps in the framework ...................................................................................................116 4.4 Workshops and People’s engagement ..........................................................................................118

5 SCENARIO 2: PRESENT - 2019............................................................................................... 123 5.1 SCENARIO 2: PRESENT 2019 [Pause] ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124 5.2 Sponge Architecture........................................................................................................................ 126 5.3 Site Selection................................................................................................................................... 138 5.4 Proposals [Pilot projects]................................................................................................................. 140

6 SCENARIO 3: UTOPIA - 2050.................................................................................................. 147 6.1 Protection........................................................................................................................................ 148 6.2 Accomodation................................................................................................................................. 149 6.3 Retreat............................................................................................................................................. 151 6.4 Avoidance........................................................................................................................................ 152 6.5 Utopia.............................................................................................................................................. 153

7 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................. 155 ANNEXURES REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................. 158 TABLE OF FIGURES....................................................................................................................................... 163 LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................................ 168

7

ABSTRACT What is resilience?

100 Resilient Cities defines resilience as the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses, and systems within a city to survive, adapt and grow, no matter what kinds of chronic stresses and acute shocks they experience. Shocks are typically considered single event disasters, such as fires, earthquakes, and floods.

Stresses are factors that pressure a city on a daily or recurring basis, such as chronic food and water shortages, an overtaxed transportation system, endemic violence or high unemployment. City resilience is about making a city better, in both good times and bad, for the benefit of all its citizens, particularly the poor and vulnerable.

Urban Risk and Why are high risks concentrated in India?

Urban risks are defined as natural disasters which affect a city like an earthquake, flood, etc. But, in the case of India, urban risks need to be understood in the context of all socio-economic, political and environmental processes that manifest risks in urban areas, and not simply in the context of natural hazards. 53 About 76 percent of the Indian population is exposed to high-to-medium hazard risk, of which nearly 30 percent live in the 0.1 million-plus cities including many small and medium-sized towns. One of the distinct features of the Indian economic transition has been the growth of cities that concentrate population and economic activity.

Along with that is also an increasing proliferation of informal settlements that are characterized by poor access to basic services and limited employment opportunities creating systemic multidimensional vulnerabilities.53 In the case of MRC Nagar, Chennai, flooding has been the major urban risk affecting the area for over 10 years. There have been both direct and indirect factors due to which it has occurred.

HYPOTHESIS To study/analyze the idea that the existing and predicted future recurring urban risks that challenges the urban infrastructure can become an aspect that can drive a place to the path of resilience.

8

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS The concepts that were the entry point to the research have been listed below: •Urban Self - Organization •Emergent Socio-Economic Configuration •New Adaptive Approach to Governance •Recourse to reduce negative externalities of “uncertainty” Limitations: •As a parameter, resilience cannot be quantified, it is more about quality of life which cannot be measured.

•Strategy fatigue/exhaustion •Intrinsically interdisciplinary - Not easy to draw a boundary around the concept of Resilience.

•This study requires an acknowledgement that not every future/considered scenario is ideal (nor even possible)

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE GLOBAL: Understanding the role of knowledge imports/exports between developing countries and developed countries in promoting resilience?

NATIONAL: Are Contemporary cities becoming more tolerant of urban risks than resilient?

CITY: Is it possible to connect the big picture with repetitive solutions for similar condition/pattern of risks?

ZONE: Are the zonal regulations/policies flexible enough to allow Resilience in local conditions?

9

ASTRATTO Che cos’è la resilienza?

100 città resilienti definisce la resilienza come la capacità di individui, comunità, istituzioni, imprese e sistemi all’interno di una città di sopravvivere, adattarsi e crescere, indipendentemente dal tipo di stress cronico e shock acuto che subiscono.

Gli shock sono generalmente considerati catastrofi per singolo evento, come incendi, terremoti e inondazioni. Le sollecitazioni sono fattori che fanno pressione su una città su base giornaliera o ricorrente, come carenza cronica di cibo e acqua, un sistema di trasporto sovraccarico, violenza endemica o alta disoccupazione. La resilienza della città consiste nel rendere migliore una città, sia nei periodi buoni che in quelli cattivi, a beneficio di tutti i suoi cittadini, in particolare i poveri e i vulnerabili.

Rischio urbano e perché gli alti rischi sono concentrati in India?

I rischi urbani sono definiti come catastrofi naturali che colpiscono una città come un terremoto, un’inondazione, ecc. Ma, nel caso dell’India, i rischi urbani devono essere compresi nel contesto di tutti i processi socio-economici, politici e ambientali che manifestano rischi in aree urbane e non semplicemente nel contesto di pericoli naturali. 53 Circa il 76% della popolazione indiana è esposta a un rischio medio-alto, di cui quasi il 30% vive in oltre 0,1 milioni di città, tra cui molte città di piccole e medie dimensioni. Una delle caratteristiche distintive della transizione economica indiana è stata la crescita delle città che concentrano la popolazione e l’attività economica.

Insieme a ciò c’è anche una crescente proliferazione di insediamenti informali che sono caratterizzati da scarso accesso ai servizi di base e opportunità di lavoro limitate che creano vulnerabilità sistemiche multidimensionali. 53 Nel caso di MRC Nagar, Chennai, le inondazioni sono state il principale rischio urbano che ha colpito la zona per oltre 10 anni. Ci sono stati sia fattori diretti che indiretti a causa dei quali si è verificato.

IPOTESI Studiare / analizzare l’idea che i rischi urbani ricorrenti esistenti e previsti che sfidano l’infrastruttura urbana possano diventare un aspetto che può guidare un luogo verso il percorso di resilienza. .

10

CAMPO DI APPLICAZIONE E LIMITAZIONI I concetti che sono stati il punto di accesso alla ricerca sono stati elencati di seguito: • Auto-organizzazione urbana • Emergente configurazione socioeconomica • Nuovo approccio adattivo alla governance • Ricorso per ridurre le esternalità negative dell ‘”incertezza” limitazioni: • Come parametro, la resilienza non può essere quantificata, è più sulla qualità della vita che non può essere misurata.

• Stanchezza / esaurimento della strategia • Intrinsecamente interdisciplinare - Non è facile tracciare un confine attorno al concetto di resilienza.

• Questo studio richiede il riconoscimento che non tutti gli scenari futuri / considerati sono l’ideale (e nemmeno possibile)

OBIETTIVO DI RICERCA GLOBALE: comprendere il ruolo delle importazioni / esportazioni di conoscenza tra paesi in via di sviluppo e paesi sviluppati nel promuovere la resilienza?

NAZIONALE: Le città contemporanee stanno diventando più tolleranti ai rischi urbani che resistenti?

CITY: è possibile collegare il quadro generale con soluzioni ripetitive per condizioni / schemi di rischio simili?

ZONA: i regolamenti / le politiche zonali sono abbastanza flessibili da consentire la resilienza in condizioni locali?

11

12

THE CONTEXT

13

* Aerial photography of the site showing southeast coast of chennai [source:beema Falcon https://www.instagram.com/my_shutter_life/]

THE CONTEXT : SITE INTRODUCTION SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA Chennai has an average elevation of 6.7m above sea level. Chennai Metropolis [with latitude between 12°50’49” and 13°17’24”, and longitude between 79°59’53” and 80°20’12”] is located on the Coromandel coast in southern India and the land is a flat coastal plain. These rivers are placid and meander on their way to the sea. Buckingham Canal, a man-made canal, is another large waterway which runs north-south through this Metropolis. Sholavaram lake, Red Hills Lake and Chembarambakkam lake are the three large lakes in the area. Chennai lies close to the equator and most of the year it is hot and humid. Highest temperature attained in May-June is usually about 400C (104 0F) for a few days.

The coldest time of the year is early January when the temperature is about 200C (680F). Predominant wind direction is from South East to North West.

SITE SIGNIFICANCE & CORE MOTIVATION As a Coastal city, Chennai has always been exposed and is vulnerable to floods during monsoon and storm surges. Interestingly, the changing patterns in rainfall has exposed the city to more frequent droughts and flooding risks both from the inland side [inefficient infrastructure] and coastal side [climate change-related sea rise]. Climate predictions of the place indicate decline in precipitation [increase in extreme events], rising seas and rivers [average increase of .19 to 1.2-meter rise along the coast, ISRO 2012; DoE 2015], increasing temperature [a projected increase of 1.6°C to 2.1°C.,MoEF 2010;DoE 2015]. Having experienced 2015 chennai floods and seeing the city and people organizing themselves to tackle the issue with multiple contextualized solutions.

The relevence for attention to the changing pattern of nature and integration of resilience to urban risk into development aligned perfectly with our interest in the field.

15

16

01 The start point of the research is considering already existing policies on urban development at various levels. This study also helps in exploring “prototypes” and “best practices” and “frameworks” that can get adapted physically and conceptually in another location and often for communities of similar or varied size and density facing similar concerns/risks or vice versa. Developed for one set of situations. The lessons learned from one context can get customized with some minor additions to another.

Once a practice has been established [as a success], there is a tendency to replicate it. Finally, the question of coordination, collaboration, and linkage across various governance levels?

Floods are becoming an annually recurring phenomenon/Urban risk in Chennai like most cities around the world. Strategies for mitigation and adaptation can present an inception point for “resiliency” into the planning concept and serve as a genesis for the tangible solutions and intangible frameworks. This chapter aims to explore the existing traces of integrating resilience thinking into urban planning across various scales: Global, National, Regional level.

17

IDENTIFICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT (GLOBAL AIMS) Understanding the role of knowledge imports/exports between developing countries and developed countries in promoting resilience?

100 Resilient Cities (Rotterdam and Chennai) The 100 RC Programme is committed to help cities around the world become more resilient to the physical, socio-economic challenges. In the view of 100RC, resilience includes the major shocks (such as earthquakes, fires, and floods), and also the deferred stresses that devitalize the fabric of a city on a everyday or recurring basis.2 By addressing both the shocks and the stresses, a city becomes more able to respond to adverse events, and is overall better equipped to deliver basic functions in both good times and bad, to all populations.

[Marjolein Spaans & bas waterhout, 2017]1. A framework was developed for each participating cites with tool and instruments for resilient thinking and the front-runner cities were weighed as an onset of inspiration for other cities globally. “One definition of urban resilience is the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses, and systems within a city to survive, adapt, and grow regardless of the kinds of chronic stress and acute shocks they experience.�(ARUP’s International Development team, 2014)3 This is the definition the Rockefeller Foundation adopts in its mission to promote the well-being of humanity throughout the world by facilitating the building of resilience in cities worldwide through its 100 Resilient Cities Programme, launched in 2013.3 Using the Rockefeller framework, which indicates several possible avenues for elaboration, may therefore in fact become an exercise in selectivity [Marjolein Spaans & bas waterhout, 2017]1. Since the framework is manyfaceted, it is necessary for every city to first, define the major issues/ risk peculiar to the city to focus on pursuing resilience.

18

The basics in good order – key decisions Adaptive approach – key decisions

E

G

TOG

EC

Y

T

IN

M

OL

GY

O

EC

R

K

H

WO

ER

ROBUST SYSTEM

N

ADA

PTAT

IO

ENV IRO

Y ET CI

T SO EN M KING I N N N LI

O

ON

Working together and linking in with other projects – key decisions Creating added value – key decisions

&

Liv Su Em elih pp pl o o

&

re

s re l su tica i En Cr of

en

v ir

on

me

nt

Pro te Na cts & En hances tura l&M anmade Asse ts

o Ec ic om Econ Fosters ity r e p Pros

no

m

y

ial S & Ju tabi lity sti , ce

tu

so

uc

cie

str

ty

Infra &

C on Se tinu it rv ice y s

Pro mo tes En Cohe gag sive & ed C ommu nities

er sh ip

He alt h

Public ures Ens ces Servi alth He

Promotes Lead ersh Effective M anag ip & em ent Em p Ra ng owe e Lea of r St d

&

gy ate str

Meet s Basic N eed s

g ein llb we

9

d oa ers Br ld ho e ak

-Term Long ters Planning Fos d e t gra nte &I

ts or s & od ent ym

a

s

le liab ty s Re bili Provide Mo n& catio Communi

–

1.1

c So res rity su u c En e S

Fig 1.1: 100 Resilient Cities - Resilience Framework

Not only Rotterdam, but all 100 cities will encounter challenges in increasing their resilience and keeping the debate going [M. Spaans & B.Waterhout, 2017] 1

100RC offers an approach, but it also offers a platform for debate between academics and stakeholders in cities worldwide The resilience strategy goes beyond disaster preparedness and recovery by including the 4 main focus area/ dimensions that are strengthened by 12 city resilience drivers 19

Rotterdam’s Resilience Story Rotterdam is one of the first cities to participate in this programme. The city has been a front-runner in preparing for climate change and striving for urban sustainability. The concept of urban resilience, introduces the Rockefeller Foundation’s effort in building city resilience worldwide and illustrates this with the Rotterdam case[Marjolein Spaans & bas waterhout, 2017]1 . In order to create resilience in urban systems, cities need to be able to learn, adapt and transform across sectors and levels. The city has been a front-runner in preparing for climate change and striving for urban sustainability. Today, Rotterdam is working toward becoming 100 percent climate-proof by 2025— able to function economically and social with minimal disturbances under any extreme weather situation.3 Rotterdam lays out 6 focus areas: 1)Social resilience and education 2)Climate change resilience 3)Critical infrastructures 4) Cyber resilience and big data 5) Changing governance 6) Energy and harbour resilience The city of Rotterdamformulated its most pressing resilience-building priorities as: – Coping with all water challenges (sea level rise; increasing intensity of rainfall; droughts; changing river discharges; changing groundwater levels; salinisation)

20

– Managing energy-related challenges (investing in high energy efficiency and renewable energy sources) 1 Chennai’s Resilience Story: as defined by the Rockefeller Foundation.

Recent immigration has made Chennai the fourth most populous metropolitan area in the world. Informal peripheral settlements in low-lying coastal areas that lack access to infrastructure and services house many of these recent arrivals. To protect these in the face of a high flood risk, officials have begun developing coordinate disaster response plans.4 In addition, Chennai is making efforts to build on that experience, learning from past events and continuing to provide best-practice solutions to other regions.

This is similar to how it responded in the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, when it developed an early warning system. The city is budgeting resources to improve waste collection to minimize its impact, both as an environmental threat and during flooding. 4 Chennai, for example, defined six focus areas 1) Shocks and Stresses 2) Aging Infrastructure 3) Economic Inequality 4) Hurricane / Typhoon / Cyclone 5) Infrastructure Failure 6) Poverty Riot / Civil Unrest

1

12

11

2

10

3

TOTAL FACTORS 279

4

9

5

8

1. MEETS BASIC NEEDS

7

6

2. SUPPORTS LIVELIHOODS & EMPLOYMENT 3. ENSURES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES 4. PROMOTES COHESIVE & ENGAGED COMMUNITIES 5. ENSURES SOCIAL STABILITY, SECURITY & JUSTICE 6. FOSTERS ECONOMIC PROSPERITY

Need to do better

7. MAINTAINS & ENHANCES PROTECTIVE NATURAL & MANMADE ASSETS

Doing well, but can improve

8. ENSURES CONTINUITY OF CRITICAL SERVICES

Area of strength

9. PROVIDES RELIABLE COMMUNICATION & MOBILITY 10. PROMOTES LEADERSHIP & EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT 11. EMPOWERS A BROAD RANGE OF STAKEHOLDERS 12. FOSTERS LONG-TERM & INTEGRATED PLANNING

Fig 1.2: Perception of resilience strengths and weaknesses in Chennai

[PRELIMINARY RESILIENCE ASSESSMENT OF CHENNAI BY ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATION]

21

There is an increasing concern about the implications of climate chage owing to rapid growth and high proportion of urban population that are poor or otherwise vulnerable to disruptions [tyler&Moench,2012]5.Cities in forefront of these global programes undertake large infrastructure measures as a strategic protection against climate and future invest and act towards being self-sufficient in terms of resource consumption and develop new urban networks and coalitions that enable them to pool their buying power , share best practices and deploy common measurement tools.

International urban cooperation programme (Clermont Auvergne and Chennai) International cooperation on climate change adaptation is regarded as one of the major avenues to reduce vulnerability in developing countries.

Nevertheless, it remains unclear which design properties of international arrangements match with specific problems in local adaptation processes.

[Christoph Oberlacka & Klaus Eisenack,2014]8 The Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy brings together all local governments voluntarily committed to implementing ambitious climate and energy objectives on their territory and is considered the broadest multistakeholder alliance committed to local climate leadership globally. for over 9000 cities. Regional Covenant of Mayors offices organised principles and practices that best suit each region. These Regional offices, located across the globe, help coordinate and support engagement with participating cities and bring them together under one single umberlla with the following 3 components.6 Component 1: CITY-TO-CITY COOPERATION ON SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT. Component 2: SUB-NATIONAL ACTION UNDER THE GLOBAL COVENANT OF MAYORS INITIATIVE works.

Component 3: INTER-REGIONAL COOPERATION ON INNOVATION FOR LOCAL AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 6 Chennai city is paired up with Clemont Auvergne as a part of is a knowledgeexchange platform to share best practices on sustainable urban solutions. This also includes development of local action plans and tangible pilot projects that helps in overcoming site vulnerabilities with sharing of mutual lessons learnt between the paired cities.

22

MÉTROPOLE CLERMONT AUVERGNE [Population 291813 Area 300.6 km²] and CHENNAI [Population 7088000 Area 426 km²] will focus their cooperation on smart city development, including water management and urban mobility. the focus extends to Smart cities and regional/urban innovation and competitivenessWater, waste management and sanitation. EU and Indian cities are paired based on common priorities and development interests, allowing both parties to build cooperation and share knowledge.

The paired cities focus on specific themes in 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and its dedicated goal on cities - SDG 06 Clean water and Sanitation, SDG 11 to make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable - puts urbanization as one of the key priorities of the global agendas for development.8 In addition on World City Day 2018, under the NUA, there is a defined and renewed dedication among the global development community to ensure our cities expand in a sustainable way for all.9

While the knowledge imports/exports between developing countries and developed countries in promoting resilience seems techinically feasible, the can no longer as useful or robust as in Institutional capability and social capacity front.It should be noted that the sutle idea of Urban resilience is becoming a new urban development and governance agenda, is being rolled out from the top down by a network of public, private, non-profit sector actors forming a global urban resilience complex: producing norms that circulate globally, creating assessment tools rendering urban resilience technical and managerial, and commodifying urban resilience such that private sector involvement becomes integral to urban development planning and governance.[eitner, Helga,2018]10.

While create a market catalyzed by the notion of a resilience dividend.10 Institutional capability and social capacity for adaptation is relatively weak in low-income nations and perhaps in many middle-income nations as well.

Where the network of government agencies, civil society groups, robust and well-maintained infrastructure, social support mechanisms, and economic surplus are weak or missing, it will be quite difficult to mobilize the necessary resources, social capital, and political will to meet the needs of adapting to climate change.

23

EU-India relations: Commitment to battling climate change

24

For over 57 years the EU and India have worked together to reduce poverty, prevent disasters, expand trade, promote joint research in energy, health, agriculture and cooperate many other fields of mutual interest including global and security issues.

smart grids, biofuels and energy efficiency in buildings[Bansal, N. K., Bhandari,2001]12. The EU also seeks to contribute to India’s sustainable modernization under the Partnerships on Water, and Smart and Sustainable Urbanization, and the Resource Efficiency Initiative11.

The EU is India’s largest trading partner, accounting for 13.19% of India’s overall trade in goods, ahead of China (11.66%) and the United States (9.68%). The EU is the second largest investor in India with an investment stock valued at €70 billion. The EU published a new Strategy on India in November 2018 which aims to further strengthen the Strategic Partnership in the areas of Sustainable modernisation, Climate Change, Trade and Investment, Innovation, and joint responses to regional, global and security issue.This is just one example of many activities that promote clean energy on which the EU and India cooperate since 2016 under the umbrella of the Clean Energy and Climate Partnership11.It promotes access to and dissemianation of clean energy and climate-friendly technologies and encourages research and the development of innovative solutions11. Areas of collaboration include activities in offshore wind energy, roof top solar and solar parks, integration of renewable energy and storage,

All aspects of the growing ties between the EU and India which encompass enhanced cooperation on regional, global and security issues, close trade and investment links, intensified sectoral cooperation and growing people to people contacts In light of its commitment to battling climate change, the EU cooperates with India on clean energy and green mobility11. The knowledge will help in understanding the challenges and identify the opportunities that will help build resilient cities through a systematic approach. We must understand and value water in all its complexities. These cities represent the issues faced by most cities of the world and the projects could be replicated in other regions too”13. A comprehensive strategy into reality and make the city less vulnerable. There can be no one big solution to address the water challenges? is it possible to connect big picture problems with replicable solutions that can be embraced by communities and governments alike?

WRI : World Resoures Institute on failure to learn from cities around the world facing similar problems/crisis

Fig 1.3:Baseline Water Stress in TamilNadu.

India Source: Aqueduct, World Resources Institute

In 2015 Chennai [India] faced a devastating flood, contrastingly, in 2019 Chennai’s 4 main reservoirs are virtually dry15. Lack of proper water management in the city and many other cities around the world is intensifying these conditions. Lack of action concerning this will likely lead the city to a situation of facing similar crises in the future14[Raj Bhagat Palanichamy, 2019].Cape Town, South Africa experienced a similar situation a year ago. Sao Paulo, Brazil nearly ran out of water in 2014 and experienced another severe drought last year. WRI’s Aqueduct tool lists 36 countries around the world as “extremely water stressed,” where more than 80 percent of the available supply is used up every year by agriculture, industry and consumers. Cities around the world cannot afford to wait14. They need to implement sustainable solutions with a focus on integrated water resource management and a need for exchange ideas and best practices in a world’s climate-vulnerable urban groups/platform for Experts and country representatives.

Proposed ideas to help avert a similar situation in the future being Harvest rainwater, Reuse wastewater, Conserve lakes and flood plains, open and transparent data on water resources and uses, Improve efficiency by implementing policies to invest in and improve specific sector irrigation systems.

25

GLOBALLY ADAPTED RISK INDEX This section provides a measure /index adapted globally to analyse the exposure to shocks of the global economy against a common baseline growth projection mindset which in turns helps in Understanding the need for knowledge imports/exports between developing countries and developed countries in promoting resilience. This highlights the emerging global mind-set shift including adaptive management and building climate resilience given uncertainty about the future.

“Decisions about infrastructure should consider relevant uncertainties to ensure resilience across a range of potential future scenarios.

Global risk index is a measure an evidence base for ranking cities’ economic exposure to these threats as well as for ranking the threats to the global economy .Climate model projections are a significant source of uncertainty, particularly on a regional or local scale, but other factors (such as socioeconomic changes) are also relevant for climate resilience”[Lola Vallejoi and Michael Mullan,2018]16.

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change: The world’s industrialized and developing country’s negotiators meet yearly in an ongoing evolution of international environmental agreements, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change17[Neil Adger et al., 2003]. This convention encapsulates the major dilemmas of development, equity, marginalization and globalization within its remit and is likely to have far-reaching consequences across the world in matters as wide-ranging as energy use and settlement patterns. Climate change is arguably the most persistent threat to global stability in the coming century17. The Convention itself has learned the lessons from existing international environmental agreements in building legitimacy through a large-scale significant international scientific effort funded by governments through the UN, (IPCC) (Jäger et al., 2001)18.

26

WORLD RISK INDEX very low low medium high very high no data

INDIA WRI : 6.77 VULNERABILITY :12.58 % EXPOSURE: 53.82 %

Fig 1.4 : World Risk Index 2019 [indepth information available in www.WorldRiskReport.org.]

GLOBAL CLIMATE RISK INDEX very low [1-20] low [20-50] medium [50-100] high [100-150] very high [100-150] no data

Fig 1.5 : Global Climate Risk 2015

INDIA rank : 120 Score: 45.2 GLOBAL ADAPTATION RISK INDEX very low [70-80] low [60-70] medium [50-60] high [40-50] very high [<40] no data

Fig 1.6 : Global Adaptation Risk 2015

27

THE GLOBAL RISK INDEX The WorldRiskIndex is genarally calculated based on exposure and vulnerability dimensions. In the dimension of exposure to extreme natural events, the changes affect the data on sea-level rise. In the dimension of societal vulnerability the indicators are replaced and updated annually with special focus on water supply for the year 2019.

The WorldRiskIndex provides information for assessing the general risk of countries falling victim to a disaster caused by extreme natural events does not provide a prediction of the probabilities or timing of the next disasters.

The disaster risk hotspot regions are majorly located in Southeast Asia, Oceania, Central America, and in West and Central Africa according to index calculation performed for 180 states worldwide. The calculation of the disaster risk is based on 4 components: + Exposure to earthquakes, cyclones, floods, drought, and sea-level rise + Susceptibility depending on infrastructure, food supply, and economic framework conditions + Coping capacities depending on healthcare, social and material security, governance + Adaptive capacities related to coming natural events, climate change, and other challenges.19 THE GLOBAL CLIMATE RISK INDEX The Global Climate Risk Index analyses degree of the impacts of weather-related events (storms, floods, heat waves etc.). Global Climate Risk Index is an analysis based on the most reliable data sets available on the impacts of extreme weather events and associated socioeconomic data of the affected countries.20 The Global Climate Risk Index (CRI) developed by Germanwatch analyses the quantified impacts of extreme weather events3â&#x20AC;&#x201D;both in terms of fatalities and economic losses based on data from the Munich Re NatCatSERVICE. The CRI looks both at absolute and relative impacts, and results in an average ranking of countries in 4 indicators, with emphasis on the associate indicators 22 . The countries that are

28

most impacted by the events are given highest ranking. This index as a warning sign that they are at risk either from frequent events or rare, but extraordinary catastrophes.20 Germanwatch states “People all over the world have to face the reality of climate variability. More than 530,000 people died as a direct result of almost 15,000 extreme weather events, and losses of more than USD 2.5 trillion (in PPP)”.22 THE GLOBAL ADAPTATION INDEX The ND-GAIN Index is a free and open-source navigation tool, shows a country’s level of vulnerability, and the preparedness of a country to successfully implement adaptation solutions. The Index defines “preparedness” indicator in social readiness, governance and economic factor sectors . The Index defines “vulnerability”indictors as exposure and sensitivity to climate, population in food, water, health, human habitat, infrastructure and ecosystem services sector stresses, as well as the country’s exposure,sentivity and adaptive capacity component to those stresses.

The Assesment is led by the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative (ND-GAIN) to help corporate and development leaders adapt to, prepare for and manage risks that are intensified by climate change such as over-crowding, food insecurity, inadequate infrastructure and civil conflicts.23 The Index defines “Adaptation” is the adjustment of behaviour to limit harm, or exploit beneficial opportunities, arising from actual or expected climate change.

Recomentations for most adaptation measures need to be carried out at a local level while National governments and global organisations can play a role in providing information, coordinating action, and adapting major infrastructures.23 VULNERABILITY COMPOSITION 0.502 18% Ecosystem services 22% Food

13% human habitat 20% health 11% infrastructure 15% water

READINESS COMPOSITION 0.346 28% Economic

42% Governance

26% Social

Fig 1.7 INDIA COUNTRY ND-GAIN PROFILE

29

IDENTIFICATION OF THE LOCAL CONTEXT (NATIONAL SCALE AIMS) NATIONAL: Are Contemporary cities becoming more tolerant to urban risks than resilient?

Cities are rebuilt built and are increasingly becoming complex systems of social, economic and ecological factors (Liu et al., 2007)26.Economic outlook at the national play a major driver in deciding the paradigm of development25. City systems also addresses relevant economic issues it completely reflect economic developments in the region. They become very vulnerable when any of their subsystems fail to adapt to new challenges, stresses or risk (Coaffee, 2010)27.

Such a situation may lead to a fatal crisis or destructive events (Rao & Summers, 2016)28.

That resilience challenge extends to the wider city this can be understood by looking at the examples of how cities around the world react to the rising seas.

Jakarta, Indonesian capital eyes giant wall to counter rising seas. New York city management is Extending Manhattanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s shoreline into East River.

Major urban issuse being resourse scarcity, inadequate infrastructure , poor quality of lifeline services with climate change most likely to add more stress to the areas facing multiple urban issues.An increasing urban population coupled with urban risks and extreme events worsens the vulnerabilities and is a threat to the stable urban system.

30

1.2 Shanghai adapts Sponge cities, walls to manage water levels Penang faces Heavier rainfall worsens perennial flood problems and Flood mitigation is now a pressing issue. There is demand for more durable fixes from its policymakers in Mumbai,India. Indian city faces double whammy of heavy rain, high tides24.

Delta cities that faces issues of flash flood, sealevel rise, flooding of rivers, canals [Copenhagen, Rotterdam, HochiMinh] adapted Low Impact Development (LID).

Island cities that faces flash flood, groundwater recharge, increased rainfall Climatechange and salinization adapted SuDSm[sustainable urban drainage systems]. Some of the commonly adaptes Multifunctional flood defence strategies are rooftop storage, bioswales, redevelopment of urban parks and public spaces, multiuse plazas, strom barriers.

Fig 1.8: Smarter Cities India - The Urban Effect 2015 [Source: https://www03.ibm.com/press/us/ en/photo/38837.wss]

31

NATIONAL ECONOMIC ASPIRATIONS VS ECOLOGICAL SECURITY At national level the economic outlook (OECD’s twice-yearly analysis of economic trend. The Economic Outlook for Southeast Asia, China and India 2019 addresses “responding to Environmental Hazards in Cities”. The yearly Outlook also focuses on smart city strategies and urban environmental risks.29 2019: focuses on Smart Urban Transportation realising the probable perk of urbanisation for growth, a forecast to grow till 2023 [to address urban environmental risks Progress can be made through the expansion of public transport systems, the reduction of power generation emissions occurring close to cities and by setting more stringent regulations for polluting industries among others].29 2018: Fostering Growth through Digitalisation: key aspects of regional integration. 30 2017: Addressing Energy Challenges: addressing energy challenges and renewable energy development in particular. 30 2016: Enhancing Regional Ties: agglomeration benefits are quickly reduced by congestion costs, in particular air pollution and long commuting time. 30 2015: Strengthening Institutional Capacity 30

Fig1.9: Urbanisation and increasing Flood risk in India

32

[Source:https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/urbanisation/chennai-apart-52265]

The underlying issue for climate resilience is to ensure that risks relevant to climate change are identified and allocated correctly. The general principle for PPPs is that risks should be allocated to the parties who are best able to manage those risks.[Demirag, I et al., 2012] 31 The management of risks can consist of efforts to reduce the risk through changes in design or operation, and the use of financial instruments to transfer risks to other involved stakeholders/parties. The uncertainity makes the risks from climate change are particularly difficult to manage.

Because of this uncertainty, passing the risk to the private sector can be expensive, but keeping it in the public sector reduces the private sectorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s incentive to manage the risks. Despite the importance of clarifying risks, no OECD country has explicitly incorporated climate resilience into their PPP frameworks (Vallejo and Mullan, 2017)16. According to World Bank report (2016), this is also the case for a set of 16 emerging and developing economies, including Brazil, China, India, Indonesia and South Africa. As a result, if there are increasingly severe impacts of climate change later in the design life of the project, they would not be considered by the private party, and would need to be addressed by the government in the planning, design and contracting phase.

But For instance, the only evidence of resilience against many types of existing hydro-meteorological risks may already be mainstreamed into project technical design processes and be considered existing best practice, as is often the case of hydropower or dam projects. These processes, oriented around maintaining security and stability, are most often viewed from a short-term engineering resilience perspective, referring to the time needed for a system to return to a stable equilibrium state [Chelleri, L. et al.,2015]32. However, there is an increasing interest in exploring how to incorporate approaches around longer-term systemic transformation (incorporating risk mitigation within the recovery processes). The challenge is to ensure that these processes adequately consider how risks may evolve in the future, as well as how they have been experienced in the past. While progress at the national level may be slow, initiatives are taking place for specific projects and sectors.

The design process are on the basis that they will be best placed to manage those risks. So far, the response has been more episodic and less strategic and integrative as economic resources are often limited and ecological security is not at the for front of the political agenda, the adaption process has been traditionally practised only the exposed systems or sectors.

According to the World Resource Institute, India has been featured time and again amongst the 163 countries most affected by river floods.

33

PROBLEM 1 : COASTAL AREAS - THE FOCAL POINT OF RAPID DEVELOPMENT: The Indian coastal region has a privileged combination of valuable nature resources and unique landscape. Living on the coast and utilising the all what natural offers,exploiting the resources are as old a process as the origin of civilisation. As per the last census (1991) in India, the coastal areas have become the focal point of rapid development.33 Therefore, many of the problems encountered in the coastal zone result in conflict between the broader concepts of conservation versus development. to achieve a balance between these two, to regulate coastal development and to ensure minimisation of longterm problems, Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) was enacted in the year 1991 defining the various zones with defined regulations on the possible development that are permitted in these Zones. This CRZ is a coastal environmental legislation attempts to regulate the relationship between people, their activities and the coastal environment. Achieved a balance between the human activities and the environmental interests proves to be a difficult process33.

Since, no government guidelines and regulation can be successfully implemented without strong public participation, Government of India has initiated a more integrated and balanced approach towards planning and management of coastal zone.

This highlights the need for implementation of such an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) program as a prioritised national program in India.[Pathak, M.C. et al.,2001]33

34

PROBLEM 2: POLICY FOCUS ON RECOVERY [DISASTER RESISTANT] AND NOT ON REPAIR [DISASTER RESILIENT]: Within the Indian context , few cities present multiple urban precints the need urgent attention.the inneffiency of urban systems roots from the gap between demand and supply of necessary infracturcture due to rapid urbanisation.The existing inadequacies and inefficiency hunders the ability of the city systems to adapt to new risks and affects the city’s resilience.

NDMA [National Disaster Management Authority]Policies : Surat [GDMA] to Chennai [TNDMA],Pune and Jaipur are the major cities with similar risks but different geographical conditions. This thesis focuses on chennai metropolitan area [CMA] “To build a safer and disaster resilient India by a holistic, proactive, technology driven and sustainable development strategy that involves all stakeholders and fosters a culture of prevention, preparedness and mitigation.” - NDMA Vision34 The NDMA is responsible for “laying down the policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management” and to ensure “timely and effective response to disaster”.34 The fundamental incapability of the urban fabric to deal with uncertainity realted to flood risk.In addition to inherent flood risk , human activities and urban development processes worsens the vulneradilities of the region. the existing diaster policies focus on the recovery after every annual occurrence as response, modification of urban practices has not been addressed actively.34

35

Fig 1.10: Climate change as a driver of concurrent hazards in an urban environment

Chennai, like many cities in India, has built over its wetlands. The pavement prevents groundwater from being recharged during rainy monthsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and instead causes low-lying areas to flood Located on the east coast, it gets two-thirds of its rains from the northeast monsoon that arrives in November and December and only a third from the southwest monsoon

Fig 1.11: Inland Water logging in the urban environment 36

PROBLEM 3 : INCREASING DEMAND - LACK OF PLANNED EXPANSION: Driven by the ambitions of becoming a global city, city authorities favoured market-driven urbanization and capitalist needs of MNCs. As a result the master plan 2006 drafted by CMDA favoured fast economic development. Increase in demand resulted in the encroarchment of land associated with waterbodies and in more advanced cases ponds, lakes, swamps and marshes were often filled in and built upon without taking into consideration the ecosystem benefits they provide, and the various stresses they are exposed to.[Bassi, Nitin et al.,2014]35 The fast paced development expansions lacked planning .The booming economy resulted in increse in migration and there by increasing the sprawl adding additional urbanisation pressure on natural systems. People migrate from their hometown to Chennai and get employed in different unorganized sectors [Kumaran T, 2012]36. The residential neighbour emerged as a result of demand from the growing economic developments found their place in the natural buffer zones and flood banks. The strong increase in demand by middle working class groups actively investing in the residential developments, ther also an increasing need for awareness about the condition of these construction sites amongst the local homebuyers [Pushpa Arabindoo, 2016]37.

Cities agglomerate people and economic output in small geographies: Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 100 most populated cities account for approximately 16 per cent of its population, produce 43 per cent of its total output and occupy 0.26 per cent of the land [Revi et al., 2011]38. Lowlying areas catogerized under no-buliding zone which are rendered as residual spaces are occupied /encroached by urban poor. Encroachment of the sensitive area increase the flood vulnerability of the region and the cascading effect affect other lowlying areas which are generally occupied by socio-economically weaker section. According to the Survey of India 2011, 31% of chennai city population lives in slums.

37

IDENTIFICATION OF THE MICRO-LOCAL CONTEXT (REGIONAL SCALE AIMS) CITY: Is it possible to connect the big picture with repetitive solutions for similar condition/pattern of risks?

ZONE: Are the zonal regulations/policies flexible enough to allow Resilience in local conditions?

Chennai Metropolitan Area [CMA] spanning extent 1189 Sq.Km, the region comprises of the Chennai City 176 Sq.Km , 8 Municipalities, 11 Town Panchayats and 179 Village Panchayats in 10 Panchayat Unions, and has a population of 7.04 million as per 2001 census.

Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) was constituted as an ad-hoc body in 1972 and become statutory body in 1974 under the Tamil Nadu Town and Country Planning Act 1971.39 “The vision of Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority is to provide people friendly administration in the process of ensuring better quality of life inChennai Metropolitan Area through environmentally sustainable, economicallyprogressive, technologically innovative management policies and programs.” - CMDA Vision.39 The process of contemporary city planning seeks to steer market forces in the city building towards citizen welfare and public good where Zoning and building byelaws are the primary tools of planning. In addition, master plans seek to lay out a physical pattern of land use and transportation routes for the whole city or metropolitan area. Thus CMDA master plans 2026 serve as a guide for public agencies to tailor their sectoral programming to the plan while facilitating private investments as well.40 Annual Plans and 5 year Plans for investments; the Metropolitan Planning Committee [MPA] would prepare perspective plans with 20-25 year perspective with 5 year programmes and annual budgets and forward it to the State Government.

CMDA will also act as the Secretariat of the MPA to assist in the formulation and review of the draft Metro-Perspective plan.40 Development Regulations: “These regulations have served as a tool for regulating the developments in CMA. However in the last twenty years or so, there have been a number of unauthorized/ deviated developments taking advantage of the loopholes in the Tamilnadu Town and Country Planning Act, 1971 and the Local Bodies’ Acts and poor enforcement. The Regularisation Schemes announced between 1999 and 2002 have not yielded the desired results.

38

1.3

Fig 1.12: Chennai landuse map 1975, 2006 and 2026 showing urbanisation over waterbodies [source: Lakshmi Manohar & Muthaiah KT, 2016]42

Fig 1.13: Chennai â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Land Cover during 1997 & 2001 urbanisation over potential social / green quality open spaces (Source: Sundaram Map, 2009) 39

- As far as Chennai City area is concerned, Detailed Development Plan for 56 planning units have been prepared covering about 60% of the area, and the remaining area could not be covered for various reasons including the non-availability of micro level / subdivision level land data, ongoing resurveys by Revenue Department etc.

- The success of any plan depends on several factors: clear enunciation of objectives, setting of realistic physical targets, allocation of adequate financial and other resources, commitment of implementing departments and agencies, investment climate, private initiative and involvement, participation of stakeholders at every stage of planning and implementation, political will and public cooperation. Despite several constraints many of the objectives of FMP have been realized.â&#x20AC;?[CMDA Second Master Plan, 2026]40 Chennai City River Conservation Project which was launched in 2000[2] is aimed to improve the waterways.The Master Plan 1992â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1993 incorporated Madras Metro Flood Relief/ Storm Water Drainage study outcomes in the form of structural and non-structural measures. In 2010, the State Government has launched a massive flood mitigation project for the city, involving construction of new micro and macro drainage systems in four basins and making improvements to existing drainage. The works like improvements works to divert surplus water, desiltation, strengthening existing city drainage network, etc.,[Lavanya, A. K.,2013]41 PROBLEM 1: URBANISATION OVER WATER-BODIES The CMA has developed without reflecting on natural physiography, by obstructing its natural hydeological system due to building over flood plains, marshes, lakes and ponds. [Lakshmi Manohar & Muthaiah KT, 2016]42.Unprecedented floods in the region were the result of Unregulated urbanisation.

PROBLEM 2: URBANISATION OVER POTENTIAL SOCIAL / GREEN QUALITY OPEN SPACES. Social space exists in a very just society (Kumaran & Negi 2006)43. Growth and economic development of Chennai and the growth of slums have totally ignored the need for urban social spaces of good and adequate quality within the urban fabric.[Kumaran, T et al.,2013]44.

40

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

Ministry of Urban Development

Urban Renewal Scheme

MRTS, Railway, Smart cities, SBM-U

JNNURM Renewal Scheme for better health and services, AMRUT, PMAY, SBM-U

Planning Comission of India 11-Year Plan, Census survey of India

Fig 1.14

CHENNAI’S ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP 1 3

4 5

1

CHENNAI DISTRICT PROFILE Chennai district earlier: 178sq. km.

Expanded Chennai District: 426 sq. km.

7

3

6 3

5 4

10

CHENNAI [ZONE] CIVIC DIVISION MAP 10 Zones [Zone 9: Saidapet, Zone 10: Adyar]

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Chennai

1

2

8 9

2

2

CHENNAI ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS MAP [1. Chennai North 2. Chennai Central 3. Chennai South]

CHENNAI REVENUE DIVISIONS MAP 5 Division [4.Mylapore- Triplicane 5. Mambalam- Guindy]

REGIONAL PARA-STATE AGENCY

Metropolitan Development TNHB [Housing Board] Authority (CMDA) Neighborhood development including provision of

Landuse , DRC[Development Regulations] , Masterplan plots and built houses, Sites and Services schemes.

Chennai City Corporation Municipalities Town & Village Panchayat

TNSCB [Slum clearance Board]

Provision of housing, infrastructure and livelihood programs in slum areas in Tamil Nadu State

TNEB [Electricity Board] Electricity generation and supply for Tamil Nadu State

Provision of Roads, construction of Road Over &Under Bridges, Pedestrian subways etc. streetlights, solid TNRDC [Road Development Corporation] waste collection and management, micro-drainage, Major roads within Chennai City, all bus route roads parks and playgrounds in their area of jurisdiction. and major district roads for Tamil Nadu State

“

NO-REGRETS STRATEGIES Activities and policies that support development goals even if climatechange effects never happen – can reduce vulnerability to climate change but also generate immediate benefits by reducing vulnerability to current climate variability.

“

PWD[Public Works Department] Implementation & Maintenance of macro-drainage system for Tamil Nadu State

CMWSSB[Water Supply and Sewerage Board] Water Supply & Sewerage facilities for CMA

CRRT[River Restoration Trust] MTC [Metropolitan Transport Corporation] Bus Transport for CMA

Traffic Police(Greater Chennai)

Traffic Management Schemes for CMA

41

31

THE MULTIBENEFIT DIMENSION MICRO-LOCAL CONTEXT [REGIONAL SCALE] : To connect the big picture with repetitive solutions for similar condition/ pattern of risks we have considered mainstream development programmes such as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), Smart Cities Scheme, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojna (PMAY) and Swachh Bharat Mission Urban (SBM-U) could play a leading role in building resilience in the identified cities and states.53 1] SMART CITY : Recent Natural disasters such as flooding in Kerela, Chennai, and even Bhubaneswar (ranked in Top 50 for the Government’s commitment to youth-led smart city programmes) emphasis the importance of urban resilience as a key smart city objective45. This is critical in India because more than half of its cities are prone to floods in a time of extreme weather. Thus, suggesting Smart City Governments to take a systems-wide view to prevent the re-occurrance for similar tragedies. Key smart city objectives suggested for Top 50 smart cities include "INTELLIGENCE : City officials first have to understand when and where flood are imminent. Chennai was recently identified among the Indian 10 states most vulnerable to flooding, yet only has a flood monitoring system, not a flood forecasting system. In contrast, Buenos Aires complements weather reports and citizen alerts with sensors in over 30,000 storm drains that measure ‘live’ water levels, direction, and speed to prioritize areas for emergency response and to restore critical services.45 HUMAN FACTORS: Sensors and algorithms are also helpful to establish adequate levels of vigilance and response, either in calibrating the right levels of dam water releases, the maintenance of watercourses, drainage and sewer networks, or for long term urban and infrastructure planning.45 INSPIRATION FROM NATURE: As stormwater runoff + increases due to concrete infrastructure, urban planners are also incorporating green infrastructure such as avenue trees to reduce flood-related landslides; permeably-paved roads that limit stormwater runoff; retention and detention ponds, green roofs, and rain gardens to absorb rainwater; landscape elements such as bioswales that remove debris and pollution from surface runoff water; as well as floodplains that increase the capacity of drainage channels as a buffer zone, while expanding public spaces.45

42

There are many other solutions that range from better urban planning and regulatory enforcement, to 3D mapping and simulations, tidal surge barriers, and flood insurance. Rebuilding Kerala will be an opportunity to explore many of these options. However, the true resilience of a city is also observed in the response of its people. The floods in Kerela and Chennai saw not only emergency services but also its people rallying together to help one another, which was no less a story of humanity worth celebrating than any technological investment."45

2] Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): Providing basic services (e.g. water supply, sewerage, urban transport) to households and build amenities in cities which will improve the quality of life for all, especially the poor and the disadvantaged is a national priority. An estimate of the funds required over a 20 year period, at 2009-10 prices, was made by the High Powered Expert Committee (HPEC) during 2011. The Committee estimated budget required for creation of urban infrastructure, including urban roads and services, such as water supply, sewerage, solid waste management and storm water drains and the requirement for Operation and Maintenance (O&M). Learnings from the earlier Mission have shown that infrastructure creation should have a direct impact on the real needs of people, such as providing taps and toilet connections to all households. This means that the focus should be on infrastructure creation that has a direct link to provision of better services to people. [AMRUT]46.

The Misson purpose of Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) is to (i) ensure that every household has access to a tap with assured supply of water and a sewerage connection; (ii) increase the amenity value of cities by developing greenery and well maintained open spaces (e.g. parks); and (iii) reduce pollution by switching to public transport or constructing facilities for non-motorized transport (e.g. walking and cycling)46.

"Handbook statement Prescribed by the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) in the form of Service Level Benchmarks (SLBs) and indicators and standards are valued by citizens and are a part of AMRUT mission.The pursuit of better outcomes will not stop with the provision of taps and sewerage connections to all (universal coverage).

According to International Environmental Law Research Centre (IELRC) other benchmarks will be targeted following a step-by-step process after achieving the benchmark of universal coverage. Such a gradual process of achieving benchmarks is called “incrementalism”. This does not mean that other SLBs are less important, but that in the incremental process SLBs are achieved gradually ac cording to National Priorities. In the case of urban transport the benchmark will be to reduce pollution in cities while construction and maintenance of storm water drains is expected to reduce, and ultimately eliminate, flooding in cities, thereby making cities resilient."Guideline and Misson statement.46 3] PMAY: This Mission seeks to address the housing requirements of the urban poor using ‘slum rehabilitation with participation of private developers using land as a resource; promotion of affordable housing for weaker sections through creditlinked subsidy; affordable housing in partnership with public and private sectors; and subsidy for beneficiary-led individual housE construction/enhancement.’ These actions could have vulnerability reduction outcomes by recognising the lands under consideration for housing redevelopment/development could be exposed to highhazards or environmental risk.47 4] SBM-U:The mission aims to incorporate scientific solid wastemanagement techniques, effect behavioural change and improve awareness of public health issues regarding sanitation.It is also slated to create an enabling environment for private sector participation by 2019 in all statutory towns. These actions could have vulnerability reduction outcomes by reducing many everyday risks to people’s health and the environment.48 43

THE MULTIBENEFIT DIMENSION : To connect the big picture with repetitive solutions for similar condition/ pattern of risks we have considered in international frameworks for action, processes and commitments such as the Sendai Framework and Paris Climate Agreement on reducing risks and climate commitments along with the 2030 Goals, followed by the Habitat III New Urban Agenda could offer a framework to achieve not just reduction in loss and damage and disaster risk, but also a long-term transformative development for the country India, but each have their limitations could play a leading role in building resilience in the identified cities and states.[Garima Jain & Amir Bazaz,,2016] 53 SENDAI FRAMEWORK-2015-2030: Framework consists of seven global targets that need to be developed into national and local targets and indicators. While four of the seven indicators focus on reduction of losses (lives, damage, economic loss and infrastructure), three are aimed at the adoption of national strategies for action, increased international cooperation and improved access to early warning systems.

Breifly focuses on reduce direct disaster economic loss , reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basicservices, among them health and educational facilities, including through developing their resilience by 2030.49 2030 SDGS AGENDA : Risk reduction is a part or a co-benefit in all sustainable development practices, particularly in the urban (Goal 11) where SDGs aspire for cities to be resilient. The unique nature and conditions for disaster risk are not understood or highlighted for action as climate action (Goal 13). There are many targets that aim to reduce risk/build resilience either by focusing on exposure and reducing vulnerability of the poor, aiming to ensure resilient infrastructure and practices or improving awareness and adaptive capacities. 50 The actionable indicators are few and limited in view with prominence given to post-disaster losses and preparation for response rather than pre-emptive action towards vulnerability reduction, sustainable reconstruction/planning to minimise or avoid risk. Although most of these indicators are required at the national level, and not from cities. It is difficult to judge the progress of many of these in the short term. Besides, data sources for many of the life loss and economic loss are insufficient/flawed (Mitchell, 2012). Most of these are also input/output-oriented rather than outcome-oriented.50 44

PARIS AGREEMENT: The Expected action demands enforcement of the commitments by the national governments. This was a landmark agreement between 191 nations on achieving climate change mitigation, adaptation and financing, this fell short of demanding INDCs [Intended nationally determined contributions] towards a 1.5-degree Celsius future (needed as per scientific recommendations such as IPCC 2014).51 NEW URBAN AGENDA : The New Urban Agenda (NUA) is a vision document to achieve a sustainable, equitable, safe, inclusive and resilient future for all people in all cities, but it lacks priorities and specific guidelines to help with implementation.There are six thematic areas, 10 policy units and 22 issue papers that form the basis of this NUA of which the policy unit on ‘Urban Ecology and Resilience’ recognises the uncertain future ahead in the context of changing climate and increasing urbanisation, and brings attention to the ‘70% of urban infrastructure that will exist in 2030 that does not exist yet’ as an area of opportunity.52

Fig 1.15: Post-2015 Agenda for Resilient and Sustainable Development [National Programmes that could integrate risk reduction practices for a more sustainable outcome] Source: Urban Risks and Resilience in India [IIHS]53

45

Fig 1.16: Extreme weather events in 2019, India [Source:Times of India]

CURRENT RESPONSE TO THE RISK: Despite the global move from a hazard-centric response approach to a more holistic risk reduction approach, Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policy, infrastructure, capacity and financing still prioritises emergency response and rehabilitation. Possible policies and regulations adopted to tackle urban flood. Absolute Prevention of the flood is an impossible task At Building scale, building regulations to waterproof basement, building on stilts, regulated FSI [floor space index]. At Neighbourhood scale, increasing the SuDS capacity, SuDS-swales and ponds to capture and store or allow water to infiltrate as close to its source as possible. At Area Scale, regulations for the protection of flood plain from development, concrete embankment of reservoirs, balancing lakes, naturalize flood plain. At land-use scale, stronger minimum distance regulations, some conventional solutions like a seawall, floodgates are considered. Vision 2023 of the city included Effective communication and a detailed emergency evacuation plan.

46

TNSDMP 2018 - 2030: TAMIL NADU STATE DISASTER MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE PLAN : Attempts to integrate disaster risk into policy-making and planning.2018 State Disaster Management perspective plan is based on Sendai framework’s multi-hazard approach.

“Building a safe and disaster-resistant TamilNadu through a systems approach, inclusive development, and mainstreaming disaster risk concerns into the development ethos of the state “ - Vision what is missing?

1]"The current implementation challenge is the gap in technical/ scientific and sociological data available on a different type of vulnerable communities, nature of the vulnerability, institutional gaps, fragmented governance structure with limited coordination."54 2]"While the CDMP claims to incorporate several guidelines of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030)—the-UN sponsored global agreement on disaster—the plan is mute on societal resilience as prescribed by the Sendai Framework: a) dissemination of disaster risk information to general public and communities at risk of exposure to disaster to build the knowledge of government officials at all levels, civil society, communities and volunteers.In fact, the Hyogo Framework of Action (2005-2015)—predecessor of Sendai Framework—was anchored in building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters, which is not factored into the CDMP. Most of the global agreements from climate change to sustainable habitat, including Sendai Framework and Hyogo Framework of Action, have concluded that effective integration of disaster risk reduction (DRR) into development policies, planning and programing would immensely minimise the impacts of disasters. The CDMP advocates that DRR concerns are being integrated into the plan, but this integration is not clear in the plan." [Avilash Roul,2017]55

47 47

48

This chapter explores the local level at which Urban risks are faced and the reasons for these risks. It delves into the specfics of Chennai City and the design area, Mayor Ramanatha Chettiar (MRC) Nagar. More importantly, the city and its dynamics with its water sources - The Bay of Bengal, The Adayar Creek, The Buckingham Canal and the various tanks and lakes that in and around the city.

Water has always been a major part of Chennaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s history, right from the War of the Adayar Creek to the most recent floods in 2015. Poorly planned urban settlements along low - lying areas, lack of water management, overcrowding in addition to the rising sea -levels are issues that have left Chennai at a risk of flooding over the years. This urban risk can be used as an opportunity to frame various strategies to make the city more resilient.

02

49

NE Monsoon

Urbanisation Pressure Migration to city Pressure

BUCKINGUM CANAL (man made) OTTERI NALA George Town Egmore

COOVUM RIVER Nugambakkam T Nagar

ADYAR RIVER Expansion

BAY OF BENGAL

Triplicane

Mylapore Environmental Pressure

Guindy Adayar

Environmental Pressure

SW Monsoon

N

1 km

3 km

5 km

2.1

THE DESIGN AREA AND URBAN RISK [THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK] Transformation over time - Chennai City Chennai or Madras was a cluster of various fishing villages since the early 17th century. Topographical and hydrological constraints largely guided the developments in Madras. These “clusters” were concentrated and located in more elevated areas.10 Chennai’s journey to how it is today commenced when it was starting to get colonialized. The Portuguese were the first to arrive in 1522, followed by the Dutch in 1612 and finally it was occupied by the British in 1639.

It was on August 22, 1639, when a local “Nayak” ruler delegated/entrusted a portion of land to the East India Company for building warehouses/industries, etc. This landprimarily consisted of the fishing clusters and was located near the Coromandel Coast.10 In 1640, Fort St. George was built by the British, which was the anchor of this city that had been recently colonized. The Fort was used to control the Harbour which was part of the first trade route. The nearby isolated villages of Mylapore, Triplicane, and Chennaipattinam were integrated to form a larger metropolitan area of Madras.56 Between 1755 and 1763, a Naval Base was established which made the Southern part of India more secure than before. By the 18th century, the British had conquered lots of areas of present-day Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh, Karnataka to form the Madras Presidency, with the city of Madras as the capital. By 1688, Madras was the first Municipal Corporation outside Britain, and the infrastructure development started here. The first railway line opened in 1856 which extends from Royapuram to Arcot. The development of infrastructure in Royapuram opened up settlements in low-lying areas.56 Over the next 200 years, infrastructure boomed which led to the present-day Chennai. The first water supply to the city started in 1872 and the primary sewage system in 1907. Electric lighting was shortly introduced in 1910, and the railway system was upgraded to the electric meter gauge system in 1928.The period between the 1900’s to the 1940’s, and the city grew from 70 sq.km with a population of 540,000 people to a sprawling area of 80 sq.km with 860,000 people. By 1947, India gains independence from British rule. And Madras City is chosen as the capital of the Madras State.56 The boundaries of the city now expanded to 129sq.km to accommodate an annual growth of 2%. During the 1950s and 1960s, the town started developing towards becoming an educational, institutional and the financial hub of the South. With the increase in cheap labor-power, lots of industries began popping up in and around Madras City.

51

THE DESIGN AREA :Transformation over time - Chennai City

N 1 km

N 3 km

5 km

1 km

N 1 km

5 km

1 km

3 km

5 km

Fig 2.5 Chennai in 1990's

N

N 1 km

1 km

Fog 2.3 Chennai in 1930's

5 km

N 3 km

Fig 2.2 Chennai in 1900's

52

3 km

Fig 2.4 Chennai in 1950's

Fig 2.1 : Chennai in 1734

3 km

5 km

Fig 2.6 Chennai Today

3 km

5 km

The annual population also increased from 2% to about 3.51% between 1951 and 1961. Tanneries were an important industry at that time. The Integral Coach Factory was established in 1952, and the Nehru Stadium was also built then. Educational Institutions like the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) and Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI) which played an essential role in attracting people from the neighboring states of Andra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Kerala.1 In 1969, the First World Tamil Congress was held, and Madras City is made the capital of the state of Tamil Nadu.

The 1970s saw the tremendous expansion of Madras city along the West in Ponnamallee and Thiruvallur corridor and the south along Tambaram corridor towards the establishment of Industrial estates by the government and location of cotton and textile mills. The area of the city also increased to 176 sq.km to accommodate new immigrants.56 The 1980s presented a new problem for the city – a lack of housing due to the ever-growing migrant population who had come to Chennai looking for opportunities for work. The town continued to expand and transform over time to accommodate the growing community. The ’90s and early 2000s witnessed an economic liberalization, and the new industry – continued to grow south along the Old Mahabalipuram Road. In the year 1996, Madras was renamed as Chennai. It gave the city a new identity. This was a city that had its roots deeply embedded in tradition and culture while also making space for the new. It was an ambiguous mix of both the old and new.56 The 2000s brought about a new era for Chennai. As the IT corridor continued to expand, the population also grew and started encroaching areas of environmental importance like marshlands, wetlands, etc. The exploitation of these lands had already begun during the British era when they passed a law that identified these lands as “wastelands.” Due to this, real estate developers started building on them, garbage was dumped, and it led to a state where the quality of life was deteriorating. 60 The Rain Water Harvesting Movement was launched in 2001 to help save water as the natural resources had been depleting over the last 200 years.

The population in 2001, according to the Census, now stood at 4,343,645 citizens out of which, 820,000 citizens lived in the slums, below the poverty line. Between 2001 and 2001, when the next Census was done, the population had grown and how. The new population now stood at 7.088 million people. Squatter settlements were an all-time high60 53

Fig 2.10 Aerial View of MRC Nagar - Today

In the pictureabove, we can see how MRC Nagar has grown, and it is sitting on a very precarious ecosystem of Chennai.

Fig 2.7 2001 - MRC Nagar

54

Fig 2.8 2009 - MRC Nagar

Fig 2.9 2015 - MRC Nagar

The number of people in slums had increased, and about 31% of the population resided in them. The city now had 9 Municipalities, eight town panchayats and 25 village panchayats were annexed to the city. The area od the city expanded from 174 sq.km to about 426 sq.km.60 In 2015, the city faced unprecedented rainfall during the NE monsoon which led to devastating floods causing 470 deaths and displacing lakhs. All the urban issues like clogged drainages, inadequate drainage systems, squatter settlements, and the expanding urban population were the external factors which added to the after-effects of the floods. Even today, in 2019, these urban issues are still prevalent. The current population (in 2019) stands at 10.63 million, and the city occupies an area of426 sq.km which comprises of 15 Municipal Zones and eight town panchayats. It is also the 4th largest metropolitan city in India.61 The design area - MRC (Mayor Ramanathan Chettiar) Nagar is located in Zone 13 (Adayar) in Chennai City. This part of the chapter talks about the transformation of the site over the last 20 years. The site was chosen as one of the main areas to study because, during the 2015 floods, MRC Nagar became an “island” of sorts. It was cut off from the rest of the city when it was flooded. The reason the area became an “island” during the floods lies in its transformation over the last 20 years.

During the early 1900s, the Chettinad Palace was built on the shores of the Adayar River. This property is the oldest in MRC Nagar. Right after came the Chettinad Vidyashram school. Apart from these two institutions on the site, Quibble Island Cemetery was built in 1726 for the British. Only after independence, it was opened up to the public.

In the early 2000s, the “Make in Chennai” evolution took place. After this, MRC Nagar started developing as prime real estate. By 2001, there were a couple of residential projects coming up. Most of the site was still marshland and being an estuary of the Adayar River; it has flat topography. Due to a flat topography, its extremely prone to flooding.

By 2005, the marshland has been filled up and was being prepped for buidlings that were coming up in the next few years. A lot of residential projects were popping up in this area as it was close to all the central areas of the city.

By 2010, most of the area was filled up, and all the natural drainage was blocked making way for all the commercial and residential project that came up.

In 2015, MRC Nagar faced the worst of the flooding as it was low-lying and was situated right next to the estuary and its natural drainage system was blocked.

55

THE DESIGN AREA : Growth pattern of the Area

0.5 km

1 km

N 0.5 km

Fig 2.11 MRC Nagar in 2001

56

1 km

N

Fig 2.12 MRC Nagar in 2005

2.2

THE DESIGN AREA : MRC Nagar 2001 to 2019

0.5 km

1 km

N 0.5 km

Fig 2.13 MRC Nagar in 2009

1 km

N

Fig 2.14 MRC Nagar in 2019

57

Chennai or Madras was a cluster of various villages or small settlements around a nucleus of a temple. It had good, fertile soil with agriculture and trade as the main occupation. The city does not have any perennial rivers, and it depends solely on the Northeast monsoons for the existing rivers to fill up. In the ancient times, a system was invented to conserve water flowing in these rivers before it reached the sea – a diversion of river water into tanks through water channels that were dug up. Most of these tanks were considered sacred as temples were built along with it.

Since their primary livelihood depended on the water in the tanks, the water tanks were deemed to be holy, and this method helped to conserve them.57

N 1 km

3 km

5 km

Fig 2.15 Waterbodies of Chennai - Present day

Triplicane Vadapalani

Mylapore

N 1 km

3 km

5 km

Fig 2.16 Waterbodies of Chennai -16th Century

58

Madras had a very significant water management system.” Yeri” is a small body of water formed by blockading a natural depression with bunds on three sides and leaving the fourth side open to water that flows in from the catchment area. The water is stored for irrigation and drinking purposes. The overflows are released through a weir and the water for irrigation by a conduit which then directs it into channels built to cover the entire area. “Kulam” is the Tamil word for a pond or a tank. Fig shows us the symbiotic relationship between the different water management systems. 57 In the early 16th century, Madras was a small settlement of various, scattered villages for centuries before the arrival of the British.

The eastern part of the city is built on a ridge along the coastline. The west is traversed by the Cooum River in the north and the Adyar River in the south. These two rivers divide the city into different parts. Both of these rivers have formations of sand- bars at their mouth due to the wave action. It is seen that the significant settlements happened along these ridges. 57

During the British Raj, there was a white town for colonizers, and the Cooum river separated a black town for the colonized. The black town had the main market area and came to be known as George Town. The city had formed over the ridges; thus, the low-lying lake system was left untouched. The British focused on expanding the City in all direction through infrastructure development. The tanks that were used for irrigation started losing importance and became a breeding ground for malaria. Due to this, the tanks were filled up as the economy also changed from agriculture to industries. The filling up of tanks was a costly process, and since all the water management systems were connected, it led to the drying up of the other tanks.57 Fig 2.17 Ancient Water Management System

The three most massive tanks in Chennai, namely: The Long tank, the Vyasarpadi Tank and the Spur Tank were all filled up to accommodate the residential needs of the city in the really 1930s. The Long Tank was a boomerang-shaped, 6 km long from its southernmost tip of what was called the Mylapore Tank to the westernmost tip of the tank it flowed into, The Nungambakkam Tank. In 1923, Town Planners proposed the Mambalam Housing Scheme due to the increase in population and demand for more housing in the city. It was a 1600-acre project and to fulfill the needs of the people; it became necessary to breach the Long tank and let its water into the Adyar river. The breaching was done in 1930 and thus began the development of Thyagaraja Nagar (T. nagar).62 59

TRYST WITH WATER : CHENNAI CITY Chennai's Tryst with Water

Fig 2.18 Chennai's Waste Water Management Map

In 1941, the “Lake Area” was developed on the Nugambaakam Tank and for the development of Loyola College, 54 acres of land was allocated. In 1974, the last remnants of the Tank were handed over for the Valluvar Kottam complex.

Post-independence, the Vyasarpadi Tank, into which 28 tanks once flowed, was taken over by the TamilNadu Housing Board’s various schemes of Vyasarpadi Neighbourhood Scheme and the Vyasarpadi Industrial Estate n the 1960s. The Spur Tank vanished in the 1920s when the Kilpauk Garden Hospital was built. The only remaining part of the Spur Tank is the Chetpet Lake, which is dry most of the time.62 Chennai's Water Sources

Fig 2.19 Chennai's Water Sources 60

The agency responsible for the supply of water to the city and the sewerage is the CMWSSB (Chennai Metro Water Supply and Sewerage Board). They get their water sources from the lakes, tanks, and rivers in and around Chennai as well as underground aquifers which are filled by the monsoon rainfall.

The significant sources as shown in the map are the Poondi Reservoir, Chembarabakkam Lake, Cholavaram Lake, and Red Hills Lake. It also gets water from other sources like the Veeranam Lake and the Krishna River.

Recently, two desalination water plants have been set up in Chennai which utilizes the process of reverse osmosis and provides drinkable water to the people.56

2.3 Wastewater Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A crisis in itself According to the map, we have identified that Chennai has five sewerage plants: Kodungaiyur sewage treatment plant- North, Villivakkam Sewage treatment plantCentre, Koyambedu sewage treatment plant- Centre, Nesapakkam sewage treatment plant â&#x20AC;&#x201C;west and Perungudi Sewage treatment plant-South.

Fig 2.20 Buckingham Canal - 1961

Fig 2.21 Buckingham Canal - 2019

Sewage collected from the households in the city are treated in the plants mentioned above. In the areas which are not connected to sewage lines, tanker or lorries are used to pump water from these households. 56 Other than these treatment plants, about 30% of the untreated sewage is let out into the Cooum and Adyar rivers. Sources in the CMWSSB said that 340 sewage outfalls into the waterways. It was also noted that at least 50 of residential and commercial premises directly let sewage into the waterways. The storm Water Drains maintained by the Chennai Corporation are estimated to carry about 10 Million litres of sewage in a day. Areas like T.Nagar, Thiruvanmiyur face this problem.64

61

Chennaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s waterbodies:

diminishing

The natural ecosystem of Chennai city today comprises of three rivers, five wetlands, and six forest areas. The three rivers are the Cooum, Adyar, and Kosathalaiyar. There is also the Buckingham Canal, even though it is humanmade, plays an essential role in the water map of the city. Out of the five wetlands, Pallikaranai and Pulicat Lake are the most popular ones.

Among the forests, except Huzur Gardens, all of them namely Vandalur, Guindy National Park, Madras Christian College, IIT Madras, and Theosophical Society are well known.

The Buckingham canal was once used for cheap transportation until 1960 to transport rice, salt, firewood, charcoal, fish and chunam shells. Small passenger boats were used to navigate the canal. Locks were provided at its junction with the two riversAdyar and Cooum. In that way,

Fig 2.22 Chembarambakkam Lake in 2018

62

the canal could control the tidal levels of these rivers. It also could carry up to 5,600 cusecs of water when it was functioning. Today, 60% of the untreated sewage of the city is let out into the Buckingham Canal, and it has turned into a breeding ground for diseases and pollution. The two rivers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Adyar and Cooum are no better off. According to a survey of fish species in Cooum found 49 species in 1949, which dwindled to 21 by 1979 and to zero by the end of the 2000s.

These rivers are dead. The wetlands have been shirking over the years as well. The Pallikaranai Marsh originally covered an area of 235 sq.km which came down to 50 sq.km during the 1970s. The encroachment of the Pallikaranai Marsh is an ongoing and happening process. In 2019, the entire Marshland only covers about 5.5 sq.km. This marshland is one of the significant groundwater recharging areas of Chennai City, in addition to being a habitat for various bird species.

63

Fig 2.23 Chembarambakkam Lake - Today

63

N

64

1 km

3 km

5 km

Fig 2.24 Flood prone areas in Chennai

THE DESIGN AREA AND URBAN RISK [THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK] Urban Risk according to the UNDRR can be defined as a disaster which is “a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope with using its resources.” 65 Risk in terms of Chennai is disasters such as flooding and droughts. In our report, flooding has taken priority as the city undergoes this cycle every ten years or so. Flooding in Chennai is of two types – Sea level rise and the floods caused by the monsoons. The topography is quite flat and its more prone to flooding than any other coastal city.

The major causes of urban flooding in Chennai have been identified as follows: + Uncontrolled urban sprawl due to poor urban planning and a loss of natural drainage. Drainage channels have been filled up and blocked. The natural lakes encroached, canals polluted and degraded and heavily silted.66 + Inadequacy of stormwater drainage systems and a lack of maintenance. A survey stated that Chennai has 2847 km of urban roads as compared to 855 km of stormwater drains. Plastic covers also clog these drains due to inadequate upkeep.66 + The increase in impervious surfaces. Paving of roadsides, parks and public open areas make it prone to flooding.66 + A lack of coordination between the various government agencies affects the decisions that are taken to overcome flooding. There is no single department which coordinates the functions of the Corporation, Development Authority, Slum Clearance Board, Housing Board, Public Works Department, CMWSSB etc.66

65

The most vulnerable areas due to the flooding are the low-lying informal settlements around the Adayar River Estuary, Adayar Creek, Cooum river and the fisherman communities which lie on the sandy shores of the Coromandel Coast.

This Urban Risk can be used as an opportunity to develop the Resilience strategies and policies implemented in the city.

The map on the left shows us all the flood prone areas in Chennai which can be rectified with various measures.

The five significant areas of challeneges are : Rapid and Unplanned Fig 2.25 Flood prone areas in Chennai - MRC Nagar

66

Urbanization, Lack of Water systems, Disaster risks, Poor government ecosystem and disadvantaged vulnerable communities. 66 First, we need to understand how Chennai has been affected over the past 35 years to understand what measures need to be implemented.

The Chennai Water Disaster Timeline10 in the next page identifies the most significant disasters that have affected Chennai over the years - right from the oldest floods, cyclones, periods of drought to the water crisis happening right now.

0.5 km

1 km

N

Fig 2.26 Vulnerable communities in and around MRC Nagar

67

Fig 2.27 :Disasters in Chennai over the years [ source mentioned in Table of Figures]

An Aerial of the1985Anfloods Aerial| Source of the1985 : TOIfloods | Source : TOI

An Aerial of the1985Anfloods Aerial| Source of the1985 : Thefloods Hindu| Source : The Hindu

85 1985 FLOODS

FLOODS The cyclone The hit cyclone Chennai hit a�er Chennai a�er crossing Nellore crossing at aNellore speed at of a speed of 80-90 Km/hr, 80-90 which Km/hr, triggered which triggered heavy rains. heavy The city rains.receives The city receives about 650mmabout in 3 days 650mm and in about 3 days and about 900mm of water 900mm in total. of water It was in total. It was one of the most onedevasta�ng of the mostfloods devasta�ng floods which causedwhich the Adayar causedRiver the Adayar to River to overflow &overflow submerge & submerge the the encroached flood encroached plains. flood plains.

FLOODS FLOODS The city received The city rainfall received of over rainfall of over 700mm in just700mm three days. in just It three was also days. It was also registered as registered a record-breaking as a record-breaking high high at that �me at of that 17.4 �me cm inofjust 17.424cm in just 24 hours. This hours. heavy rainfall This heavy caused rainfall caused excessive flooding, excessive andflooding, electricity and electricity was cut off, was leaving cut off,people leaving people Aerial of the1998 Anfloods Aerial| of Sou th abandoned atabandoned their homes. at their homes. An Insider Insider

1996 1996

CYCLONE NISHA CYCLONE NISHA Cyclone Nisha Cyclone crossed Nisha thecrossed the TamilNadu coast TamilNadu near coast Karaikalnear Karaikal with a wind speed with aofwind 75 km/hr speedon of 75 km/hr on 27th November 27th2008.

November The city 2008. The city received con�nuous received con�nuous heavy heavy rainfall of about rainfall 400mm of about for four 400mm for four days from 25th daystofrom the 25th 28th to of the 28th of November. Across November. the state, Across a the state, a minimum of minimum 180 lives of people 180 lives of people was lost, was 20 lakh lost, people 20 lakh people displaced, and displaced, around and 40 lakh around 40 lakh people affected people by the affected cyclone. by the cyclone.

Public infrastructure Public infrastructure and and agriculture agriculture were affected were affected throughout the throughout state. the state.

2006 200

2010 2010

CYCLONE JAL CYCLONE JAL The cycloneThe crossed cyclone the crossed coast the coast between Chennai between and Chennai Nellore with and Nellore with speeds of 60-70 speedskm/hr of 60-70 on 7th km/hr on 7th November 2010.

November The city 2010. received The city received an average rainfall an average of about rainfall 70mm, of about 70mm, but only parts but ofonly theparts city of were the city were affected. Around affected.

10,000 Around people 10,000 people living in low-lying living in areas low-lying were areas were evacuated. evacuated.

2008 2008 In the city, several In thelow city,lying several areas, low lying areas, like informal se�lements like informalnear se�lements the near the rivers, subways rivers, weresubways submerged. were submerged.

The water of The about water 15000 of about cusecs15000 cusecs was released was from released the from the Chembarambakkam Chembarambakkam reservoir, reservoir, adding further adding to the further exis�ng to the exis�ng flooding. Thisflooding. lasted for Thisabout lasted for about one week before one week thingsbefore returned things returned to normalcy. to normalcy.

Roads destroyed byRoads Cyclone Thane | by Source : IBTThane | Source : IBT destroyed Cyclone

CYCLONE THANE CYCLONE THANE Cyclone Thane Cyclone was one Thane of the was one of the more severemore cyclones severe which cyclones which made landfall made between landfall between Chennai andChennai Puducherry and on Puducherry on December 30th, December 2011. 30th, Wind 2011. Wind speeds reached speeds up reached to 140 up to 140 km/hr uproo�ng km/hr several uproo�ng trees several trees and caused coastal and caused inunda�on coastal inunda�on up to 500 m damaging up to 500 several m damaging several fishing boats. fishing Trafficboats. jams,Traffic jams, flight, and flight, trains andweretrains were disrupted fordisrupted several for hoursseveral hours causing thousands causingofthousands people of people inconveniences. inconveniences.

2011 2011

The Chen Dece mad Andh wind The 300m two tota cyclo were d

12 2012 DROUGHT DROUGHT CYCLONE NILAM CYCLONE NILAM Between 2011 Between and 2014, 2011 Chennai and 2014, and Chennai and The storm hitThe thestorm southeast hit the coast southeast of coast of the state of the TamilNadu state offaced TamilNadu severe faced severe Mamallapuram Mamallapuram on the 30th ofonOctober the 30th of October Thedrought. years 2011, The years 2012, 2011, and 2012, and 2012 with wind 2012speeds with wind of nearly speeds 100of nearlydrought.

100 2013 saw Chennai no rainfall. managed Chennai managed km/hr. The city km/hr. received The city around received 120 around2013 120saw no rainfall. water crisisitsby water augmen�ng crisis bythrough augmen�ng through mm rainfall mm during rainfall the cyclone. during the The cyclone.itsThe sources such as sources desalina�on such asplants desalina�on and plants and cyclone uprooted cyclone trees, uprooted disrupted trees, disrupted Lake.

Veeranam The city Lake.received The city received electricity, and electricity, 4000 people and 4000 werepeople Veeranam were heavy in 2014, rainfall bringing in 2014, things bringing things evacuated. Normalcy evacuated. returned Normalcy to the returned to the rainfallheavy back to normal. back to normal. city within a day. city within a day.

2014 2014 FLOODS FLOODS During November Duringand November December and2015, December 2015, Chennai city Chennai received city torren�al received rainfall. torren�al rainfall.

The maximum The recorded maximumrainfall recorded was rainfall was 319.6 mm, which the which highestis record 319.6ismm, the highest record singlerainfall day. The rainfall caused on a single on day.a The caused severe severe flooding in flooding the city inandtheitscity and its The floods claimed suburbs. The suburbs. floods claimed about 470 about 470 lives and destroyed 4.92 in lakh houses in lives and destroyed 4.92 lakh houses the en�re took amore than a the en�re state.

It tookstate. moreIt than week essen�al to restore essen�al week to restore services to services to normalcy.

100% of electricity was only normalcy. 100% of electricity was only a�er and two relief weeks, restored a�errestored two weeks, as and relief as well restora�on work con�nued well restora�on work con�nued throughout December. throughout December.

20

Tanker “Pratibha Cauvery” stranded Cauvery” on Elliots stranded Beach | on ElliotsWomen to Women collect water lorries water | Source Tanker “Pratibha Beach waiting | waitingfrom to collect from: lorries | Source : Source : The Hindu Source : The Hindu Financial Express Financial Express

Flood

Drought

Cyclone

Fig 2.28 :Disaster timeline of Chennai

Tsunami

1998

DROUGHT A�er con�nuous rains over the past couple of years, the city and state experienced severe water crises over the next three years: 2000, 2001, and 2002. The drought was so severe that domes�cDROUGHT water supply through pipelinesA�er had stopped.

Therains city over the con�nuous switchedpast to couple mobile ofsupplies - city and years, the water tanks.

The water supply state experienced severe water was onlycrises restored a�ernext heavy over the three years: rains in 2005.

2000, 2001, and 2002. The drought was so severe that domes�c water supply through pipelines had stopped. The city switched to mobile supplies water tanks. The water supply was only restored a�er heavy rains in 2005.

2004

TSUNAMI - BOXING DAY On 26th December 2004, 30m high waves struck the coast of the Indian over peninsula. These waves were caused also by an underwater earthquake of high magnitude 9.0 on the Richter scale st 24 origina�ng off the West Coast of the used Great Sumatra, with a TSUNAMIIndonesia, - BOXING DAY ricity focal depth 30 km.

Onof26th December 2004, 30m ople waves struck the coast of the I An Aerial of the1998 floods | Source : Business Coastal peninsula. communi�es Chennai Theseinwaves were c Insider faced the of the waves. by worst an underwater earthquak Twenty-five kuppams faced severe magnitude 9.0 on the Richter damagesorigina�ng in 4 coastal revenue off the West Coast o villages. Great Sumatra, Indonesia, w Satellite view | Source : NASA focal depth of 30 km.

It affected 73,000 people and resulted Coastal in an evacua�on of 30,000. communi�es in Ch Two hundred human faced sixthe worstlives of were the w CYCLONE OGNI lost, several injured,kuppams and 17,000 Twenty-five faced s The cycle crossed homes destroyed.

E NISHA damages The in 4government coastal rev Chennai on 28th undertook relief d the villages.immediate December 2006 and measures to assist families that lost Karaikal Satellite view | Source : NASA made landfall near family members and those who m/hr on It affected 73,000 were people Andhra Pradesh with a renderedresulted homeless.

The city in an evacua�on of 30 wind speed of 65 km/hr. heavy Two hundred six human lives The city CYCLONE receivedOGNI for four lost, several injured, and 1 300mm of rainfallcycle in just crossed 28th of The homes destroyed. The govern two daysChennai and 500mmon in Marina Beach during the Tsunami | Source : TOI state, a 28th undertook immediate total throughout FLOODS AND CYCLONE FANOOS people December the 2006 and measures to assist families tha cyclone. Parts city The cyclone made landfall near Vedaranyam on December people madeof the landfall near family members and those who were heavily 10th, 2005. The damages to Chennai were minimum as the 40 lakh Andhra flooded Pradesh with a rendered homeless. during thisspeed �me. of 65 km/hr. cyclone weakened to a deep depression and then to low cyclone. wind pressure. and The city received However, during November - December, Chennai received affected 300mm of rainfall in just rainfall from the northeastern monsoon. It received 35% more he state. two days and 500mm in Marina Beach during the Tsunami | Source than average rainfall, it led FANOOS to flooding in the city and its total throughout the FLOODS ANDand CYCLONE suburbs. The It wascyclone reported that more than 15 lives were lost, on 2525 cyclone. Parts of the city made landfall near Vedaranyam December ng areas, huts were destroyed, anddamages many more homes were par�ally as the were heavily flooded 10th, 2005. The to Chennai were minimum near the destroyed.

During weakened the two months, persistentand rainfall, during this �me. cyclone to a there deep was depression then to low merged. which affected normal city life.

Normalcy returned to the city pressure.

0 cusecs only a�erHowever, the last spell on November 4th December 2006, for about ten received during - December, Chennai the days. rainfall from the northeastern monsoon. It received 35% more eservoir, than average rainfall, and it led to flooding in the city and its exis�ng suburbs. It was reported that more than 15 lives were lost, 2525 r about huts were destroyed, and many more homes were par�ally eturned destroyed. During the two months, there was persistent rainfall, ormalcy. which affected normal city life. Normalcy returned to the city only a�er the last spell on 4th December 2006, for about ten Fireman clearing the roads| Source : FirstPost days.

CYCLONE VARDAH Vardah, a tropical cyclonic storm, made landfall on 12th December DROUGHT 2016 in Chennai. It was the most severe cyclone over the last two Between 2016 and 2018, Chennai and decades. Rainfall recorded was about 119.10 mm with win speeds surrounding areas have faced severe drought due reaching 140 km/hr. 13, 578 people were affected by the storm, and to lack of rainfall. The rainfall deficit in 2016 was about 12-15 lost their lives. The GCC’s report stated that more damage Fireman clearing the roads| Source : Fir recorded at 62% over the state of TamilNadu and was caused due to avenue trees had been uprooted, street lights and in 2018, it was between 19 - 59 %. In March 2019, electricity poles broken and clogged stormwater drains. Water and VARDAH CYCLONE FLOODS the government declared drought in the districts electricityVardah, were restored within a week, but telecom services, a tropical cyclonic storm, made landfall onremoval 12th December mber 2015, of Chennai, Kanchipuram, and Thiruvallur. All four DROUGHT of uprooted trees, and clearing roadblocks took longer than two weeks.

2016 in Chennai.

It was the most severe cyclone over the last two n�al rainfall. reservoirsBetween have almost The Chennai state 2016 dried and up.

2018, and decades. Rainfall recorded was about 119.10 mm with win speeds ainfall was government sanc�oned about 40faced croresevere rupeesdrought to surrounding areas have due reaching 140 km/hr. 13, 578 people were affected by the storm, and hest record CMWSSBtotolack combat the water crisis by arranging of rainfall. The rainfall deficit in 2016 was about 12-15 lost their lives. The GCC’s report stated that more damage nfall caused for waterrecorded tanks, digging hiring at 62%new overborewell, the stateand of TamilNadu and was caused due to avenue trees had been uprooted, street lights and ty and its of agriculture wells. in 2018, it was between 19 - 59 %. In March 2019, electricity poles broken and clogged stormwater drains. Water and d about 470 FLOODS the government declared drought in the districts electricity were restored within a week, but telecom services, removal h houses in 2015, and December of Chennai, Kanchipuram, and Thiruvallur. All four of uprooted trees, and clearing roadblocks took longer than two weeks. more than a rainfall. ed torren�al reservoirs have almost dried up. The state servicesrainfall to corded was government sanc�oned about 40 crore rupees to ty was only s the highest record CMWSSB to combat the water crisis by arranging nd as caused Therelief rainfall for water tanks, digging new borewell, and hiring n con�nued the city and its of agriculture wells. st December. claimed about 470 4.92 lakh houses in t took more than a essen�al services to electricity was only Aerial View of Chennai | Source : The Hindu weeks, and relief as work con�nued roughout December.

FLOODS

An Aerial of the1998 floods | Source : Business Insider

2006

1998

Chennai received incessant rains during 1998. The flooding caused during this year was recorded as one of the most catastrophic floods, which caused substan�al damages. Some housing colonies FLOODS along the Adayar River were Chennai incessant rains submerged duringreceived these floods. during 1998. The flooding caused during this year was recorded as one of the most catastrophic floods, which caused substan�al damages. Some housing colonies along the Adayar River were submerged during these floods.

2004

2000

2000

2006

2005

2005

2016

2016

2015

2019

2015

201

People desperately trying to pull water | Source : CNN Aerial View of Chennai | Source : The Hindu

71

THE DESIGN AREA AND URBAN RISK Urban risk as an opportunity Urban Planning for the city of Chennai needs to integrate information on environmental stress and implement measures to address them proactively. Even after the 2015 floods, multi-hazard maps are hard to come by. The flood-prone areas were only marked post the December 2015 floods. Climate Change issues such as sea-level rise, in particular, are issues that need to be addressed in public planning discussions.65 Even though sea-level rise has been projected to be on the rise, infrastructure development continues to be built along the coast â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s blue-green needs to be conserved for becoming a sustainable city in the future. Environmentally sound decisions utilized in urban planning might lead to a better mitigation system while dealing with future risks and disasters.65 Instead of building impervious surfaces, porous pavements can be made to recharge the groundwater table that has been depleting over the years.

Solid waste management needs to be a top priority while planning for the future. A survey conducted by the 100RC indicates that solid waste management and sewage are high impact challenges. A significant cause of the flooding was attributed to inadequate solid waste management in the city. 65 The Resilient Chennai Strategy 2019 has identified some resilience opportunities that could be implemented in the future. Some of them are as follows : + Solid Waste Management: Steps have been taken by the GCC (Greater Chennai Corporation) to redefine solid waste management vendor contracts and to ban the manufacture, sale of single-use plastics.

Citizens have also made an effort to contribute to managing waste in their community. One such example was the case in Manali, where the Residential Welfare Associations (RWAs) made an effort to segregate 100% of their waste due to the active participation by the citizens. With more support from the GCC, these RWAs could do a better job at solid waste management. 65 + Accessible public transport systems : The root cause of accessible public transport systems is poor planning, road infrastructure problems and inadequate public transportation services, and is especially problematic in peri-urban areas. A 2018 Centre for Science and Environment report states that Chennai citizens have the longest daily commutes. 65 72

THE DESIGN AREA AND URBAN RISK Urban risk as an opportunity

2.4

Neighborhoods in the core area of the city are not pedestrian-friendly and do not cater to non-motorized vehicles. There are no segregated spaces for vendors, pedestrians or parking and it makes it congested, not walkable and unsafe. Chennai ranks low among the Asian Countries in terms of walkability. However, it did win a Sustania Award in 2015 for efforts to improve sustainable transportation. 65 It was awarded for its effort to retrofit over 75kms of walkable streets and the redesign of an additional 60 km. It also recognized Chennai’s support for cycling, which is demonstrated by implementing a public bike-sharing (PBS) system. 65 + Sustainable Water Management Systems : The development over the city’s natural ecosystem has led to a depletion its water table and exposed citizens to frequent flooding. Flooding risk has been further aggravated b dumping solid waste and sewage into the water bodies. Resilience building in Chennai includes a need for water conservation. Some missions have been kickstarted to allow this to happen: Sustainable Water Security Mission – This Mission was formed in September 2015 in the legislative assembly with the aim of protecting and restoring Chennai’s water bodies and to meet Chennai’s growing drinking water needs by implementing various projects to: expand and reinforce rainwater harvesting systems; Promote reuse and recycling of greywater ; restore and revitalize waterbodies in and around Chennai. The GCC and CMWSSB are the primary agencies involved in this mission. 65 Chennai Smart City Ltd. - T.Nagar Piping Infrastructure Chennai Smart City Ltd. is trying to explore options to revamp the existing water piping infrastructure in particular areas like T.nagar. This is also done to reduce the quantity of water leakages.65 Water Recycling According to the water survey conducted by resilient Chennai, more than 55% of the residents are willing to consider using waste water recycled by the government for domestic purposes. 66 73

Fig 2.29 THE

FRAGLITY FACTOR

DESIGN AREA AND URBAN RISK [THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK] FRAGLITY FACTOR & RESILIENCE FACTOR AT CITY LEVEL

RAPID /UNREGULATED URBANISATION Population growth% Size of settlement % proportion to city size

CONCENTRATED POVERTY/ UNEMPLOYMENT Unemployment growth% City population under poverty rate %

REAL PERCEIVED INSECURITY % increase in frequency of property damage due to flood % real estate/ business decline Post flood NATURAL HAZARD EXPOSURE % flood plain of city area % of popolation living in the flood plain/ exposed to weather related disaster economic loss % of city GDPmortality loss % from disaster as a % of city popolation POLICING AND JUSTICE DEFECIT policing per 1000 residents % of public confidence in judicial system measure of governmnet effective ness

PROVISION OF BASIC SERVICE % of people lacking access to basic services % of reliance on private transport

RESILIENCE FACTOR

INCOME AND SOCIAL EQUALITY Gini co-efficient % of popolation laking access to basic service % of signature required for launcing a democratic plan/ policy relative to the size of population.

MICROINCOMESECURITY AND SOCIAL PROPECTION % of population under socialprotection scheme % non-profit organisations

RISK EXPOSURE PLAN % of per capita income for diaster response % non-profit organisations % of population in informal settlement

STRONG COMMUNITY & GOVERNMENT COOPERATION lack of quantifiable metric for this factor presence of disaster plan Amount of funding availabe; for regional recovery

74

2.5

2015 Floods of Chennai

[source:https://edition.cnn.com/2015/12/03/asia/gallery/india-floods/index.html

* 2015 Floods of Chennai

[source:https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/2adfdb274c1744e69d0732eace9c15d8

75

76

03 This chapter focus on navigating a raft of information generated at different scales and involving a diverse range of assessment statistical datas and gathered informationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, Additionally, on translating these into adaptation framework that are socially and politically acceptable despite significant degrees of uncertainty. The Assessment mapping intents to intentionally blur the boundaries between Metrological data, Scientific ground observation data, Statistical data and Sociological data.

Urban Resilience as a versatile concept has grown its ways through various disciplines and paradigm shifts. Building a resilient city requires detail and careful assessment of its current level of vulnerabilities and Potentials. Within the context lies physiographical heterogeneity with substantial difference in exposures to hazards. Assessment considers land use, settlement patterns, functions, densities of the zones, and characteristics of the neighborhood and their communities to arrive at a hotspot within the city that can serve as a testing [pilot] ground for further analysis.

77

URBAN RESILIENCE AS A THEORETICAL CONCEPT : Resilience as a theoretical concept and policy proposition is constantly being redefined and clarified. definition of Resilience. It is a concept that draws from a wide range of disciplinary perspectives, and describes the stable intersection of “governance networks,” “metabolic flows,” “built environment[s],” and “social dynamics.” [Lawrence Vale,2015] Davoudi, (2012: cited in Lu & Stead, (2013) Field of Applied Sciences,

“Resilience the term is used to describe the stability of materials and their resistance to external shocks”

Holling, (1996:) Field of Ecology

Resilience is defined as “the magnitude of the disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes its structure”

Davoudi (2012) Field of Ecology

“Resilience is defined not just according to how long it takes for the system to bounce back after a shock, but also how much disturbance it can take and remain within critical thresholds. (…)What underpins both perspectives is the belief in the existence of equilibrium in systems, be it a pre-existing one to which a resilient system bounces back (engineering) or a new one to which it bounces forth (ecological).”

Mileti, (1999) Lu & Stead, (2013

“Resilience as a notion in relation to cities and planning surfaced in the 1990s, in response to the environmental threats of adjusting social and institutional frameworks “

Kinzig et al., (2006 cited in (Davoudi 2012, p.302)

“Evolutionary resilience is embedded in the recognition that the seemingly stable state that we see around us in nature or in society can suddenly change and becomes something radically new, with characteristics that are profoundly different from those of the original”

Evolutionary resilience Martin (2011 Regional economics

“Regional economic resilience in this framework could be viewed as having to do with the capacity of a regional economy to reconfigure, that is adapt, its structure (firms, industries, technologies and institutions) so as to maintain an acceptable growth path in output, employment and wealth over time”

ARUP’s International “Resilience is the capacity of individuals, communities, Development team (2014) institutions, businesses, and systems within a city to survive, adapt, and grow no matter what kinds of chronic stresses and acute shocks they experience.”

78

3.1 URBAN RESILIENCE CONCEPT TO REALITY: Urban resilience, a new urban development and governance agenda, is being rolled out from the top down by a network of public, private, non-profit sector actors forming a global urban resilience complex: producing norms that circulate globally, creating assessment tools rendering urban resilience technical and managerial, and commodifying urban resilience such that private sector involvement becomes integral to urban development planning and governance. The Rockefeller Foundation’s 100 Resilience Cities Program is at the center of this complex, working with the World Bank, global consultants, NGOs, and private sector service providers to enroll cities, develop and circulate urban resilience assessment tools, and create a market catalyzed by the notion of a resilience dividend.[Helga Leitner,2018]68 Urban Resilience is the measurable ability of any urban system, with its inhabitants, to maintain conti-nuity through all shocks and stresses, while positively adapting and transforming toward sustainability. A Resilient City assesses, plans and acts to prepare and respond to hazards—natural and human-made, sudden and slowonset, expected and unexpected—in order to protect and enhance people’s live, secure development gains, foster an environment for investment, and drive positive change.[Building Ur-ban Resilience as defined by UN-Habitat]70 Compared to the old concept of durable urban development, urban resilience is much more comprehensive because not only does it englobe the former, but it also helps complete it with aspects regarding the management of risks associated with potential urban disturbances. Urban Resilience being a vast topic placing it under one theoretical umbrella.

Urban resilience generally refers to the abilities for those living in cities (areas with 50,000 or more people) to persist, transition, or transform in the face of disruptions.

However, most concepts of resilience are positive (as opposed to normative), describing measurable conditions (rather than imagining alternative futures) [Sara Meerow and Joshua P Newell,2017]72. In the context of Chennai, Ecologists measure resilience with primarily place-based metrics related to nature, while social scientists rely more heavily on sector-specific metrics related to people.

The short answer is that in many cases, resilience is not used in an exact, defined way, but more as a versatile (and seemingly fashionable) umbrella term, which loosely expresses some of the conceptual underpinnings of the adaptation approach taken.

Cities that are capable of evolving, planning and acting so that they are permanently ready to respond to the dangers they face, can come under the category of resilient cities.71 79

Fig 3.1 : A simplified conceptual schematic of the urban system [Note: Schematic design inspired by Dicken (2011)]71

Fig 3.2 : Question to be considered for urban resilience building process 72

80

Urban resilience is a concept that allows searching for systemic solutions in (view of) vulnerabilities and risks (“turn risks into opportunities”). Indicatively, for Chennai, the concept of urban resilience gives a new frame that allows positioning the frame of urban resilience as an element for urban development to take a multi-dimensional approach to be a city of the future.

Understanding of Resilient as the desired state: Urban systems in the state of equilibrium, when stresses by risks may adapt to a new state of being or bounce back to stability. Theorists Simmie &Martin [2010] emphasized on pre-existing equilibrium and called it “equilibrium resilience”. Sub-systems like transportation infrastructure networks that are a part of everyday life of people require a certain degree of stability consistency. while change has a positive impact on continuous restricting of complex systems like institutional network with time. Theorist Holling emphases that the challenge for complex systems such as cities is that change is constant and so a state of steady equilibrium is hardly attainable and respond to this reality by referring to multiple points of possible equilibrium (Holling, 1973) can be called “Evolutionary /transformative resilience”. Resilience as the desired state would be a subtle combination of the two depending on the function of the system.

Understanding of Resilient thinking: 1] The policy and programmatic focus needs to move from the idea of ‘disasters’ to the concept of ‘risk’ which is a composite of hazards (climatic and non-climatic), vulnerabilities, exposure and capacities (Jain & Malladi, 2016), which is called as Urban Resilience 2] “ Theory of resilience as it applies to urban conditions, and offers a suite of strategies intended to build urban resilience capacity: multifunctionality, redundancy, and modularization, (bio and social) diversity, multi-scale networks and connectivity, and adaptive planning and design.”- [Jack Ahern,2011] 3] In this definition by Sara Meerow in 2016, resilience is recognized as a desirable state of the W as mentioned in fig 3.2 as fundamental questions to be considered while understanding resilient thinking in an urban setup.

This hypothesis will be reflected in the study and assessment of the context in the following chapters..

81

Urban Resilience as a Analytical Framework / Method adapted for the study

URBAN FACT INTREPRETATIONS Connectivity [street driections] functions[building composition] services[facilities] urban pattern[bulit space/empty] urban pattern[green space] ongoing projects [actors].

SHOCKS AND STRESSES Hazards can be sudden and slo burning, natural or human-made, rare or regular, foreseen or not that create stressin the existing urban fabric.

RISK /HOTSPOTS MAPS Spatial distribution of a natural hazard, flooding overlaps with that of a population and assets their exposure and vulnerability distribution.

PLAN Creating implementation strategies that encourage a city to do more with what it has, tackle vulnerabilities and strengthen capacities to function effectively and efficiently depending on how the city system chooses to respond.

SCENARIO This thesis sets out 3 scenarios offering a glimpse into the potentials including temporal aspects covering a range of possibilities to address the summary of above analysis Isolated and localised scenarios.

desirable trajectory [Foresight]

URBAN SYSTEM Any human settlement – metro olis, city, town or village – is an integrated and complex system of systems, comprised of sectors, people and hazards, and managed through effective governance mechanisms.

Transformation to a more

URBAN CITY RESILIENCE INDEX Helps in quantifying the factors taht contribute to the perspective through the assesment and evalution of pre-existing data

Identifying ‘Exposure’ and ‘Vulnerability’ to Risk

MEASURABLE To analyse the Tangible and intangble elements that translate into qualitative and quantitative data.

Fig 3.3 : Scheme showing the Framing of the Approach [source: Author]

82

3.2

Health & Well-being andLeadership & Strategy

Infrastructure & Environment

Economy & Society

RESILIENCE CITY DIMENTIONS

ASSESSMENT ELEMENT Built Infrastructure

Nature

Physical factor

Instituition

Inhabitants

Socio-economic factor URBAN SYSTEM

SHOCKS AND STRESSES

PLAN

URBAN CITY RESILIENCE INDEX

Fig 3.4 : Urban System Scheme [source: Author, inspired by 1,64]

Spatial assessment - Methodology: Experiential understandings of Factors that contribute to urban resilience have been widely identified, there have been few attempts to integrate these perspectives, often relying on qualitative and experiential knowledge obtained from survey from open government data platforms [https://data.gov. in], census datas, open source information and datas, acceptable assumptions, preexisting data easily accessible by the local government and city corporation research.

The study is based on categorizing the characteristic peculiar to the context under four elements: Physical, Natural, SocialEconomic, Institution. Built infrastructure element includes the physical factors that

again can be represented as different variables like housing, roads, Electricity, Water, Sanitation, waste disposal. The nature element includes Urban green space, water bodies, natural hazards, environmental policies. People element includes social factors like population, age, employment status, community services contributing to social capital, education, and awareness.

Institution element is an important social and economic factor to identify the ways in which knowledge practices produce these diverse perspectives and abilities. This element includes Governance, institutional collaboration, stakeholder organizations, crisis management technical departments.

83

SOCIAL RESILIENCE

" The Climate Disaster Resilient Index [CDRI] tool shall serve as an urban planning tool depicting the sectors within an OVERALL urban context that are RESILIENCE more or less resilient.

The datas and the statistics obtained from the "Human Security Engineering for Asian Megacities Program" initiative of Kyoto University, funded by the Global Center of Excellence (GCOE) in cooperation with the Corporation of Chennai and University of Madras.

Zone data were collected through questionnaire survey. This tool is an multidiciplinary planning tool to access city's resilienceto climate related hazards in five dimensions67

PHYSICAL RESILIENCE

ECONOMIC RESILIENCE

INSTITUTIONAL RESILIENCE

" NATURAL RESILIENCE

84

Fig 3.5 : Resilience Assessment of five dimensions [source: Community, Environment and Disaster Risk Management, Vol. 15 67]

85

OVERALL RESILIENCE

PHYSICAL RESILIENCE

"

OVERALL RESILIENCE

ECONOMIC

Considering all the individual RESILIENCE dimension, the overall resilience shows that natural resilience is the lowest while the institutional resilience is the highest.

Fig 3.6 : Overall resilience in all 10 Zones

Fig 3.7 : Overall CDRI resilience index mapping for all zones

ECONOMIC RESILIENCE " The average density is 26768 sq.km and the population and growth rate is 1.72% and still growing [CMDA INSTITUTIONAL 2001 DATA]. since all the zones are in close proximity with each RESILIENCE other geographically within rather a considerable geographical scale, the intensity and frequency of the hazards have a low variation unlike variations in the implementation of environmental polices in INSTITUTIONAL development plans, landuse, and ecosystem RESILIENCE services. The Economic resilience in the southernzones tends to be higher showing more newly proposed projects in the area.

The largely varied or ununiform resilience map draws attention to the southern part of chennai.

Additionaly, the comparitively new developing areas along the NATURAL southern urban fringe though is less RESILIENCE densely populated than older zones, shows higher population growth.

Suggesting actions needed in the southern most zones [9 and10] that offer both vulnerabilities and potentials for urbanisation.

NATURAL

86

3.3 MEASURABLE: URBAN CITY RESILIENCE INDEX Health & Well-being andLeadership & Strategy

Infrastructure & Environment

Economy & Society

RESILIENCE CITY DIMENTIONS

ASSESSMENT ELEMENT Built Infrastructure

Nature

Physical factor

Instituition

Inhabitants

Socio-economic factor Urban System

URBAN CITY RESILIENCE INDEX

RISK INDEX = HAZARD * VULNERABILITY * EXPOSURE [R = H * V * E]

URBAN CITY RESILIENCE INDEX= RISK INDEX : COPING CAPACITY

URBAN GREEN SPACE HOUSING BUILDING ABOVE WATER % OF LOSS OF URBAN GREEN SPACE, %OF URBAN GREEN LOGGING

ROAD

% OF LAND TRANSPORT NETWORK, PAVED ROADS ,ACCESSIBILITY DURING FLOODS ,STATUS OF INTERRUPTION DURING HEAVY RAINFALL, COVERED DRAINS

ELECTRICITY & WATER ACCESS, AVAILABILITY, ALTERNATE CAPACITY, SUPPLY CAPACITY

SPACE AS COMPARED TO BUILDINGS/ POPULATION DENSITY

POPULATION % OF POPULATION GROWTH DEPENDENCY RATE POPULATION DENSITY

GOVERNANCE STATUS OF EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS, CAPACITY TO LEAD A RECOVERY PROCESS, STATUS OF EMERGENCY MANAGEMANT , STATUS OF COORDINATION

WATER BODIES % OF LOSS OF WATER BODIES, % OF WATER BODIES AS COMPARED TO BUILDINGS

EMPLOYMENT STATUS % OF YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT , % OF UNEMPLOYMENT GROWTH RATE

INSTITUTIONAL COLLABRATION % OF DEPENDENCY ON EXTERNAL INSTITUTES , STATUS OF COLLABRATION BETWEEN THE ZONE AND THE CORPORATION

NATURAL HAZARDS [FLOOD THREAT], FREQUENCY OF FLOOD, CYCLONES, DROUGHTS,HEATWAVE

ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION & POLICIES WASTE MAMAGEMANT PLAN WASTE DISPOSAL MITIGATION POLICIES TO ACCESS TO SANITATION, COLLECTION OF WASTE REDUCE POLLUTION, EXTENT % OF ENVIRONMENTAL AFTER DISASTER, RECYCLE POLICIES IN DEVELOPMENT / TREATMENT OF WASTE PLANS, STATUS OF ENVIRONMENT CONSERVATION POLICIES.

COMMUNITY SERVICES STAKEHOLDER ORGANISATIONS % NGOS AND PRIVATE , % OF PROPLE STATUS OF COMMUNIITY PARTICIPATING IN ZONESâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S INSTITUTIONAL COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES , COLLABRATION WITH NGOS % OF UNEMPLOYMENT AND PRIVATE ORGANISATION GROWTH RATE EDUCATION AND AWARENESS % OF LITERACY RATE, STATUS OF AWARENESS ABOUT DISASTER, FUNCTIONALITY AFTER DISASTER

TECHNICAL DEPARTMENTS STATUS OF LEARNING FROM PREVIOUS EVENTS, AVAILABILITY OF DISATER TRAINING /DRILL PROGRAMS

CRISIS MANAGEMENT ANNUAL BUDGET TARGETING RISK MANAGEMENT EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

Fig 3.8 :A Modified framework for city urban resilience index 87

Fig 3.9 : MEASURABLE: URBAN CITY RESILIENCE INDEX FOR ZONE 10

ZONE 10

27.92 SQKM IN SIZE

30% ARE OF NON-

PERMANENTSTRUCTURE

<50%

LOSS OF URBAN GREEN

UP TO 40%

SPACE

DUE TO DEVELOPMENT ABOVE NORMAL/FLOOD WATER LOGGING. ACTIVITIES HALF OF ALL BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED FOLLOWING BUILDING CODE OF ZONES GREEN SPACE REMAINS

< 10%

GOVERNMENT INITIATED MOST ROADS OF THIS ECO-PARK WITH EDGE ZONE ARE PAVED AND RESTORATION OF CREEA REMAIN ACCESSIBLE AND ESTUARY [COVERING DURING NORMAL 38 ACRES] TO RESTORE THE FLOODING ECOLOGICAL BALANCE LOW-LYING -PRONE TO OCCATIONAL FLOODING OF ALL ROADS IN PREDOMINENTLY RESIDENTIAL CHARACTER AFFECTED AREAS IN NORTH AND BUSINESS INTERRUPTED FOR UP TO AREAS IN SOUTH

30%

4 HOURS 60%

OF THE PEOPLE HAVE ACCESS TO HYGIENIC SANITATION HALF OF THE ROADS HAVE ROADSIDE COVERED DRAIN.

80%

OF ALL SOLID WASTE IS

NO

PERMANANT SETTLEMENTS LOCATED ON HAZARDOUS GROUND.

MEDIUM TO GOOD CONDITION

FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

2.3% /YEAR

< 11%

OF PEOPLE LIVE BELOW THE POVERTY LINE MOST HOUSEHOLDS DEPEND ON

>1

ABSENCE

OF DISASTER EDUCATION, AND ABSENCE OF DISASTER DRILLS

SUBSIDIES/ INCENTIVES

> 25%

AVAILABLE FOR RESIDENTS TO -REBUILD HOUSES -HEALTH CARE AFTER A DISASTER [NOT FULLY SUFFICIENT]

< 11%

AVAILABILITY OF TRAINING FOR EMERGENCY WORKERS LEADING TO A MORE AD HOC DISASTER MANAGEMENT TEAM

INCOME SOURCE

UNEMPLOYED ESPECIALLY YOUNG LITERACY RATE OF THE ZONE IS ABOVE INDIAN AVERAGE

PEOPLE SUFFERING FROM WATERBORNE DISEASES

>40

PEOPLE ARE ENGAGED IN ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES POLICIES ARE TO SOME EXTENT REFLECTED IN DEVELOPMENT PLANS, TREATED BEFORE OF ALL RESIDENTIAL AS WELL AS HAZARD DUMPING OR RECYCLING MAPS IN DEVELOPMENT HOUSES ARE INSURED. ACTIVITIES. COLLECTED

25%

GOOD

GOVERNANCE' TRANSPARENT AND CAPABLE ZONE 46% [14-64AGE] AUTHORITY WITH YOUNG DEMOGRAPHIC REGARDS TO LEADING THE RECOVERY PROCESS STRUCTURE WITH A DENSITY OF 17478 IN THE AFTERMATH OF A PEOPLE/SQ.KM DISASTER. AVERAGE POPULATION GROWTHS

32%

NO

EXISTENCE

OF EARLY WARNING SYSTEM

LIMITED

OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMMUNITIES TO PARTICIPATE IN THE ZONEÃ&#x2022;S DECISIONMAKING PROCESS

88

Fig 3.10 : MEASURABLE: URBAN CITY RESILIENCE INDEX FOR ZONE 9

ZONE 09

23.56 SQKM IN SIZE

LESS THAN 1/4

ARE OF NONPERMANENTSTRUCTURE

<50%

ABOVE NORMAL/FLOOD WATER LOGGING. HALF OF ALL BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED FOLLOWING BUILDING CODE

>60%

LOSS OF URBAN GREEN

UP TO 40%

SPACE

DUE TO DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES

< 10%

OF ZONES GREEN SPACE REMAINS

GOVERNMENT INITIATED ECO-PARK WITH EDGE OF ALL ROADS ARE EQUIPPED WITH A RESTORATION OF CREEA DRAINAGE AND ESTUARY [COVERING 38 ACRES] TO RESTORE THE 30% OF ALL ROADS ECOLOGICAL BALANCE IN AFFECTED AREAS LOW-LYING -PRONE TO INTERRUPTED FOR UP TO OCCATIONAL FLOODING PREDOMINENTLY RESIDENTIAL CHARACTER IN NORTH AND BUSINESS AREAS IN SOUTH

4 HOURS 75%

OF THE PEOPLE HAVE ACCESS TO HYGIENIC SANITATION

100% ACCESS TO

PORTABLE WATER FOR 3-5HOURS/DAY

NO

2.6 % /YEAR

GOOD

AVERAGE POPULATION GROWTHS

GOVERNANCE WITH

YOUNG DEMOGRAPHIC

OF ZONES ANNUAL BUDGET IS TARGETING DRM. A DISASTER MANAGEMENT PLAN (CONTINGENCY PLAN) IS IMPLEMENTED AND INCORPORATED INTO

39% [14-64AGE] STRUCTURE

39%

OF ALL LABOUR COMES FROM OUTSIDE THE CITY. LABOUR FORCE INTERCONNECTS THE ZONE WITH NEIGHBOURING ZONES POPULATION DENSITY-17614/SQ.KM

UPTO

30%

OF PEOPLE LIVE BELOW THE POVERTY LINE MOST HOUSEHOLDS DEPEND ON

>=2

INCOME SOURCE

UP TO 2%

DEVELOPMENT PLANS

YEARLY

RECURRING DISASTER AWARENESS PROGRAMMES/DRILLS IN SCHOOLS

SUBSIDIES/ INCENTIVES

-FULL ACCESS TO PRIMARY HEALTH FACILITIES BEFORE AND DURING A DISASTER.

12%

PERMANANT HOUSEHOLDS ARE FULLY SETTLEMENTS LOCATED UNEMPLOYED ESPECIALLY PREPARED TO DISASTERS ON HAZARDOUS YOUNG LITERACY RATE SUPPORT IS GIVEN GROUND. OF THE ZONE DURING DISASTERS IS ABOVE INDIAN MEDIUM TO FROM NGOS/CBOS AVERAGE GOOD CONDITION FUNCTIONING EXISTENCE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES OF EARLY WARNING PEOPLE ARE ENGAGED IN SYSTEM COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES

<20%

95%

OF ALL SOLID WASTE IS COLLECTED

FEW PEOPLE (LESS THAN A QUARTER) LIVE IN LESS THAN PROXIMITY TO POLLUTED HOUSEHOLD ASSETS AND TREATED BEFORE SITES DUMPING OR RECYCLING VECHILES ARE INSURED

1/4

<50%

LIMITED

OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMMUNITIES TO PARTICIPATE IN THE ZONES DECISIONMAKING PROCESS

89

90

Built infrastructure

Built Infrastructure

Inhabitants

Nature

Inhabitants

Institution

Fig 3.11 : Urban resilience index mapping for Zone 9

Built infrastructure

Built Infrastructure

Inhabitants

Nature

Inhabitants

Institution

Fig 3.12 : Urban resilience index mapping for Zone 10

Illustration made by author with the use fo Datasand statistics gathered from openly available various public repository 67

Chennai city

zones

Neighbourhood

Fig 3.13: Scales of Assessment

91

92

3

4

7

5

*Aerial view of Kotturpuram and Nandaman

*Aerial view of Guindy Kathipara Bridge

*View of Nandanam YMCA Ground

*View of Adyar Broken Bridge

*Aerial view of Chennai Metro line

6

*Aerial view of MRC Nagar

2

*View of Saidapet Bridge

*View of Mylapore Temple Tank *[source:beema Falcon https://www.instagram.com/my_shutter_life/ & mychennai facebook page]

8

1

3.4 URBAN SYSTEM: THE SPATIAL ASSESSMENT ( VULNERABILITY â&#x20AC;&#x201C; POTENTIAL) SAIDAPET + Residential Neighbourhood + Institional(highcourt) , urban sprawl (slum) + Transportation(subway rail, metro) CITY RELEVANCE : +Bridge (Connecting north and south banks of Adyar river) +diverse religious communities /centers

30.1 %

5

KOTTURPURAM

3

ADYAR

+ Housing board [TNHB]Neighbourhood + Squatter settlement +TNSC constructed flats in the riverbed

+ Large neighbourhood + Costliest areas (Property values) + Flat coastal plain

CITY RELEVANCE : +Informal sector +Centenary Library[one of largest library]

CITY RELEVANCE : +Theosophical Society +Traditional arts and culture center +Elliots beach +Educational instititions

1

2

Raja Annamalaipuram + Neighbourhood + Residencial (housing board, Govt) + Flat coastal plain CITY RELEVANCE : +Hospital/healthcare +Adyar creek restoration project +Commercial

Existing % of Green cover the zone compared to City Average 14.9 %

MORE

Vulnerable Neighbourhood

LESS

Vulnerable Neighbourhood

+Insitutional and public buildings + Government building + Industrial estate

+ commercial institutions neighborhood + Housing Townships (Property values) + Flat coastal plain

CITY RELEVANCE : + National park [2.7 sq.km within city limits] +Entry point to the city limits from the suburbs +Nodal points of road traffic and train services +Recreation : Race Course and sport ceners GUINDY

CITY RELEVANCE : + housing development +Major Arterial road +Green Townships

4

8

+ Large Residential neighbourhood + IT office (Property values) + Flat coastal plain CITY RELEVANCE : + Research Centres [Historic campus] +Information Technology Businesses +Bus Terminus and important juncture +Recreation : Beach line is 1 km +Food outlets

NANDANAM

THIRUVANMAIYUR

7

Fig 3.14 : characteristics of Major neighborhood along the adyar river

93

94

Fig 3.15 : URBAN SYSTEM: THE SPATIAL ASSESSMENT [ SWOT MAP ] Strength & Opportunity

N 0.5 km

Quality power supply [uninterrupted]

1 km

Landscaped greenery in Adyar Growth oriented reforms

Skilled and Educated man power

PPP investments

Good Urban Land Market

Exisiting Landuse pattern

High Standard of Educational Institutions

Floating of bids for projects for city makeover

Strong Commercial and Industrial Base Urban with Green

Eco-restoration of the Adyar River Metrowater Agency will implement projects to prevent sewage inlets in the river.

Walkways and parks in the stretch from Saidapet to Ramapuram

Availability of developed lands Institutions Existing water system and drainage systemurban expansion has undermined this very complex network of waterbodies and drainage system.

STRENGTH

Eco-restoration of the river in suburban areas proposed by Water Resources Department Parks will be developed in localities along the river where encroachments have not been identified so far OPPORTUNITY

3.5

Fig 3.16: URBAN SYSTEM: THE SPATIAL ASSESSMENT [ SWOT MAP ] weakness & threat

N 0.5 km

1 km

Encroachments narrowing the width of the waterbody [Varied densities of settlement]

Traffic Cogestion Inadequate infrastructure

[ILLEGAL] Informal settlements

Water shortage

[LEGAL] Government and institutions and residential settlements

Social vs economic need safeguarging future resources

[LEGALISED] Private Developments

Inland flash floods [areas affected by water clogging] Flat terrain Sewage disposal Construction debris Residential waste disposal Lack of acccessibility WEAKNESS

Low Lying Area [flood prone areas]

Alternatives/adopted for landuse [encroachment] Private properties vs Informal settlements Governmant Infrastructures Future land requirement [estimated] Automobile pollution THREAT

95

CHENNAI RAINFALL DATA (IN MM)

TEMPRATURE DATA (IN NUMBER OF DAYS BEYOND 40°C)

2,566 38

2,095 23

1,836

22

1,660 1,596 Ø 1,438

1,633

17 Ø 14

1,399 1,210

1,295

1,310 1,310

13

13

13

14

10

1,181 1,053

16

17

15

1,094

1

1,016

7

3

5

739

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2000

2016

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

Fig 3.17 : Chennai rainfall and temperature fluctuations over the years [2002-2016] +11

+8

+9

+10

+9

+10

+7

+2

+0

+8

+8

+8

+1

+1

+3

+6

+6

+6

+6

+4

0

+3

+4

+4

+3

+4

+2

-1

+17

+13

+10

+10

+10

+4

-1

Fig 3.18 : Inland +14 Contour [ Natural when sealevel rise is +0 m ] +12Map+11 +8 topography +7 +6 -1 Elevation Data : min: -1 m max: 17 m

Fig 3.19 : Projected sealevel rise due to global warming [sealevel rise is +1 m & +2m]

96

The identification of risk boundary through analysis of most affected areas from indundation maps of 2015 floods. Additionally considering the predictions of sealevel rise if the areas are not planned for resilience [likely to be affected in the near future]

3.6

N

0.5 km

1 km

Fig 3.20 : Projected flood risk map [overlapping]

The identification of most affected areas [low-lying areas] naturally prone to flooding in the event of normal rainfall based on natural topogarphic data mapping with QGIS. Considering the normal NE monsoon and SW monsoon rainfall effects.

97

98

Water Adyar Watershed Basin Railway line City limit Neighbourhood zone [study area]

5 km

10 km

Fig 3.21: Blue wire [Natural Topography]

N

BLUE WIRING The average level of land in the city is only 2.0m above the Mean Sea Level (MSL). Adyar basin being the sizable geographical scale to understand the natural topography and hydrological flow of the landscape. This scale as a planning unit helps in visualizing the pattern of flow and the need for the development pattern to go in hand and hand with the other wiring systems and the need to flow or rest while guiding the growth accordingly. The blue, green, grey wiring systems within the basin that influences and puts pressure on the river when the integrity of one is compromised.

The city’s sewage system is first pumped into a relay through its pumping station to treatment plants located at the periphery [Strom water drain Department, Greater Chennai Corporation].

The treated water is dumped into the river which flows from west to east and reaches the Sea [Bay of Bengal]. By the time the river meets the sea, untreated outfall water, and debris, open dumping wastes mix with the waterways thereby defeating the purpose of operating a centralized sewage system. Due to perennial sand bar formation at the river’s mouth and the low tide 1.2 m tidal range, the Adyar river is unable to naturally flush the toxic waste until monsoon season[Gupta and Nair 2011]. Under “Sustainable Water Security Mission” [proposed by GCC] various types of decentralized works such as construction of Rainwater Harvesting [RWH], Greywater Recycling, Strom Water Harvesting, Restoration of temple tanks, lakes, and ponds. Pilot projects of collecting rainwater from the stormwater drain into tanks and parks, Campus rainwater harvesting such as sunken wells in parks, OSR [Open Space Reserve] lands, playgrounds are under process.

99

100

URBAN SYSTEM:

Fig 3.22 : Patterns of the City [ drainage sewers line and road pattern ]

THE SPATIAL ASSESSMENT [GREY AND GREEN WIRING MAP ]

Extent of neighbourhood Primary Circula�on Secondary Circula�on Private Road Selected Sites

0.5 km

1 km

N

101

102

URBAN SYSTEM:

Fig 3.23 : Map and Graph showing green wiring of the site

Fig 3.24 : Map and Graph showing Road Pattern orientation in the context with the bars indicate the direction that more roads point to than any other direction.[Generated using by releasing a free tool created by Geoff Boeing]

THE SPATIAL ASSESSMENT [GREY AND GREEN WIRING MAP ]

Ecological restoration of adyar creek and Estuary [1.5 sq.km]

Theosophical society 0.004 Sq.km Guindy national park [2.7 Sq.km]

N

E

W

S

103

104

Existing Waterbodies Sewage water drainage Treaded water from STP/Untreated waterdrains into ocean City limit Neighbourhood zone [study area]

5 km

10 km

Fig 3.25 :Existing Water and sewage water collection flow direction

N

BUILD AND GREEN LANDSCAPE The orientations of every road in a place conforms the street grid.

The zone has a strong grid, there's also a substantial number of streets oriented in all sorts of directions, but the strong grid shows the orientation is toward the river channel. By exploring the way to how cities are built; their hidden patterns and influences can be understood [Vladimir Agafonkin,2015].

Subtle connections show the interdependency of the wiring systems in the city [water bodies[major], nearby attractions and may other factors influence the direction of roads]. The flat terrain of Chennai needs effective storm water drainage system to prevent water stagnation. Though the orientation is defined by the presence of water bodies, the size will be designated depending upon the catchment area, land pattern and discharge irrespective of the width of the road. The impermeable road surface significantly reduces the absorbing capacity of the zone, leading the water to rush through the landscape thereby increasing the runoff during flood storm events. The grey wiring includes the unplanned build-up area further reducing the porosity and rendering the land more impervious than before. Therefore, existing storm water drain construction is rendered unsuitable for the current scenario. Thus, making flooding hazards more intense by affecting the natural slowed down runoff process within the urban landscape fabric.

CURRENT STATUS OF GREEN COVER : A study conducted by the Care Earth Trust, which is a non-governmental organisation concerned over the conservation of biodiversity shows that only 15% of the city is covered by trees. [426 sq km Greater Chennai Corporation (GCC) area with only 64.06 sq km green cover].30% Adyar [site area] has the most green cover in the city but falls short of the mandated 33%.

105

106

URBAN RESILIENCE AS A FRAMEWORK MEASURABLE DIMENSION The RiskIndex is calculated based on hazard, exposure and vulnerability dimensions.

In the dimension of Hazard, the area affected by flood risks are identified. In the dimension of vulnerability, the indicators of Fragility and resilience factors are considered. In the dimension of exposure, percentage of population exposed to flood events are quantified. Urban Resilience index considers the coping capacity of the place to adapt to the stress induced by the risk event. By adding information about the contours and elevation of the city we can create zones of risks from future instances of flood and the resulting potential vulnerabilities.

URBAN RISK AND RESILIENCE THE SPATIAL ASSESSMENT OF VULNERABILITY â&#x20AC;&#x201C; POTENTIAL OF CURRENT CONDITION HAZARD MAPPING In particular for hazard dimension, flooding potential and low-lying areas have been mapped, and the helps in identifying sensitive areas.in temporal aspect the change in pattern of rainfall is studied. Terrain characteristics of the land and meteorological properties of the region are the main natural factors for flood. By the end of the hazard assessment we arrived at three zones least Prone Zone [LPZ], moderate Prone Zone[MPZ], highly prone Prone Zone[HPZ] to flooding.

WATER WIRING OF THE PRECINCT Every small water bodies should be taken into consideration along with the large and well known rivers, reservoirs and canals. Only y doing so we would not missed out any small bit of information and thus we could edify the problems. Open green areas that restore the balance in nature of water flow.

GREY AND GREEN WIRING OF THE PRECINCT The 2015 floods recoded an indundation of .5 to 5m elevation,so elevation below 5m are considered vulnerable except for neighbourhoods with wider river width or breathing space along the edge.with the edges being encroached by legal illegal and legalized settlements and irregular elevation of egde due the debris dumping etc resulting in obstruction to the flow of water. By considering interconnectedness of blue green and grey wiring of the context helps in not only reduces reduces risk to flooding but also water scarcity. severe scenarios worsen the risk stress while enhancement of the same systems also has cascading benefits -like reduced runoff,improved health and well-being, improved air quality,increased infiltration due to surface permeability, reduced heat islan effect due to evaporation.

City systems are assemblages of deliberate, if uncoordinated, spaces and places embedded with the complexities and contradictions of the communities that occupy them.For Developing city like Chennai, at the crossroads of urbanization and designing with nature, not against it, considering intergration of all urban systems can reduce vulnerability, increase resilience, and ultimately result in new forms of urbanity.

3.7

URBAN SYSTEM: THE SPATIAL ASSESSMENT [GREY AND GREEN WIRING MAP ]

Institution school -Compounded buildings with open space campus with restricted entry Public Government Office -Compouned single building +open space campus Dense Residential building 3-8 floors high with enclosed space between buildings Commercial building with open space reserve [OSR] Existing green spaces

Fig 3.26 : Map showing settlement pattern of the precinct

Primary road Secondary road Tertiary road

Fig 3.27 :Map showing traffic pattern of the precinct

Traffic streets [Impermeable surface] Shaded Streets

?

Traffic streets streets with Street lighting Buildings with OSR Space between buildings Sloped roof with small Paved Courtyard Flat terrace [3-5 FLOORS] Flat terrace

[8+ FLOORS]

Huge blocks with paved Courtyard

Fig 3.28 :Mapping infrastructure characteristics and oppurtunities in the precinct

107

108