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04 This Chapter sets out three scenarios, each offering a glimpse into the potential state of the city depending on the development and infrastructure and policy choices that were made and will possible make a difference in the future chocies. The scenarios cover a range of possibilities and are illustrative in nature. They are neither mutually exclusive, nor exhaustive. Strategies in the scenarios are re-examined through the lens of the frameworks outlines based on custamization of the frameworks studied in the previous chapers to address the considered core characteristics of the scenarios. SCENARIO 1: REWIND - 2002 focuses on Policy – Oriented Scenarios decision making in scenarios SCENARIO 2: PRESENT – 2019 focuses on Complementary Measures Design – Oriented Scenarios Decision are plugged into the existing potentials. SCENARIO 3: UTOPIA – 2050 focuses on a diverse set of literatures on cities and climate change.
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110
SCENARIO 1 - REWIND – 2002 (Policy – Oriented changes)
Policy – Oriented Scenarios decision making in scenarios
Policy frameworks guide public interventions – the overarching principles are social justice, equity and a general understanding that it is good for all. This is not to say that policy takes care of all the public concerns but it approximates a package representing the idea that all concerns can be addressed within the framework. Some policy narratives are stronger and others leave the door open for amendments. The framework is intended to complement existing approaches, which often require resource-intensive self-assessments and the capacity to collect detailed data that is out of reach for most cities across the world. Taking a Reverse step to evaluate the approach : considering the ideas suggested by John Wood, who identifies Metadesign as an approachable to “transform the world by reimagining new ways to live”. This profound rethinking of the system is needed because working within the limits of the current system to make it “sustainable” is not enough (Wood, 2009). In the same manner, Urban Resilience can evolve as the collaborative design of the design tools, processes that can produce a systemic change.
4.1
POLICY TOOLKIT : Risk management approach to risk based planning approach proposing a System approach to integrate resilience in upfront planning and designs.[OCED]
Transboundary dimension
Risks arising from interdependencies and interconnectedness cannot be fully mi�gated without incorpora�ng their interna�onal dimension. Fostering interna�onal coopera�on is key to infrastructure resilience.
Risk-based and layered approach
Given the considerable degree of uncertainty about future risks, the manifold dimensions of infrastructure systems vulnerability, and all the interrela�onships between these systems, the priori�sa�on of resilience measures is essen�al. A risk-based and layered approach helps account for complex interdependencies, for all-hazards and across the infrastructure life-cycle.
En�re risk management cycle
A comprehensive resilience policy should incorporate measures throughout the en�re risk management cycle, from risk assessment, to risk preven�on, emergency preparedness, response, recovery and reconstruc�on.
�ublic-private coopera�on
Although governments con�nue to own, invest in, and operate cri�cal infrastructure in some sectors, a large share of cri�cal infrastructure is either privately owned or operated. The resilience of these systems depends upon governments partnering with infrastructure operators from the public and private sectors in resilience efforts through the establishment of relevant governance arrangements.
Life-cycle approach
Different resilience measures may apply at different phases of the infrastructure life-cycle: robustness and redundancies requires investments in the design phase, while business con�nuity planning and maintenance pertains to the opera�ons, and adaptability can be based on infrastructure retrofi�ng. Thus, it is important to set-up a comprehensive policy that enables resilience throughout infrastructure life-cycle.
�ul�-sectoral coordina�on
Addressing interdependencies in policies requires policy makers and operators to go beyond a silo-based approach and to target the cri�cal infrastructure sectors together. While operators tend to be well aware of their own dependencies upon cri�cal sectors, they may not be as conscious of the dependencies others have upon their own services.
System-level
Infrastructure assets are usually only the components of a wider complex system, which should be considered in its en�rety in a comprehensive resilience strategy. A system approach allows for priori�sing the most cri�cal components, and addresses weak points that create cri�cal vulnerabili�es for the en�re system.
All-hazards and threats
Single-hazard policies are not sufficient to build infrastructure resilience. An all-hazards and threats forward-looking approach to cri�cal infrastructure resilience and security enables policy makers and operators to be�er prepare for the unexpected.
Fig 4.1 : OCED Toolkit to integrate resilience into Planning and designs [ source : OCED]74
111
112
Rapid Urbanisation
FRAGLITY FACTOR
Rate of Population Growth (2001 -2011)
Size of the settlement in comparison to the population of the city
Provision of basic services
People lacking access to basic services
Reliance of people private transport
Concentrated Poverty
Unemployement growth rate
City population under poverty rate
RESILIENCE FACTOR
on
Income and Social Equality
People lacking access to basic services Abscence of signature required by the community for launching any plan or policy
Real Perceived Insecurity
Increase in frequency of property damage due to the flood
Real Estate decline post-flood
Micro Income security and Social Protection
Population under Social Protection Scheme (World)
Natural Hazard Exposure
Area of flood plain in the city
Risk Exposure Plan
Per capital income for disaster response
BILLION
Number of NGO’s
Population in informal settlements
Population living in the flood plain
Economic loss of city after floods Mortality loss of city population after floods Strong Policing and Justice Defecit The public has zero confidence in the judicial system as most important cases get passed up. A more rigrous law system needs to be put in place.
Community & Government Co-operation There amount of funding available to TamilNadu
for disaster managment is RS CR There is a presence of Disaster Management Plan, but the specifics of the plan were only developed after the 2015 floods. Even today, the plan is mostly just mitigation.
FIG 4.2: URBAN RISK [THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK] SPECIFIC FOR THE CITY [inspired from Conceptualizing City Fragility and Resilience indicators proposed by John de Boer et.al,2016]75
STRATEGIES APPLIED 1] Alleviating barriers to urban resilience through international cooperation. The final conclusion is that it is imperious for policies that focus on long term urban resilience to take into account the future characteristics of cities and strive to achieve the objectives of resilience on a daily basis, not just when facing a disaster76. A] Necessitating renewed understanding, dialogue, and partnerships among key institutions.[Co-benifits from an action] B] Awareness among the stakeholders and institutionalisation of the learning process.[Transparant social network]76 2] At the city scale, the cause and method to deal with flooding and drought while single neighbourhoods intervention can reduce the inundation or increase the ground water level within the boders and the replication of the idea creates a towards. impact.the first strategy is to rffectivel recreate the effect of small water tanks [traditional water management model] that dotted the city and acted as water retention and network of sinks for flood resilience 3]Decentralisation decision making and infrastructure manangemnt at local scale to mediate developement aspirations idea creates environmental capacities.from the understanding of the context from previous studies, social resilience at the neighbourhood scale materialise more meaningful interactions A]Programming the spaces of neighbourhoods’ between stakeholders through reactivating identified potentials of the site. B] As a concept, Collaboration features attributes of connection, interaction and involvement, designed to achieve an outcome at individual organization, or social levels. 4] A detailed development plan for the zone to resources with community.while the road map of transformation including timeline, scale, budget and overall impact of various proposed projects should resource by technical team. Our recommendation for the site and the city is to include potential use of avaliable social resource and material resource with community engagement and innovative governance approach.This approach can have a kick-off start with varoius tool of engagement [discussing later in theis chapter]. 113
FIG 4.3:
Framework for scenarios
ENCROACHMENT OF GREEN/OPEN AREAS DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT NETWORKS ALONG WATERBODIES TRIGGERING MORE DEVELOPMENT
SEA-LEVEL INCREASE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION : COASTAL AREA
GLOBAL WARMING
ENCROACHMENT OF WATERBODIES, WETLANDS
FLAT TERRAIN (ABSENCE OF NATURAL GRADIENT FOR FREE RUN-OFF
INCREASE IN RAINFALL
URBANISATION
TOPOGRAPHY
CLIMATE CHANGE
ELEMENTS OF DIRECT FACTORS
DIRECT FACTORS
FLOODING /DROUGHT
INADEQUATE STROMWATER / DRAINAGE SYSTEM
WASTE AND OTHER DEBRIS DISPOSAL
IMPERPIABLE SURFACE
OLD SEWAGE SYSTEMS LACK OF AWARENESS PAVED CONCRETE SATURED REQUIRED SPACES [ATTITUDE OF USERS] RENDERED INSUFFICIENT DISCERPENCIES INADEQUATE WASTE CAPACITY WITH BETWEEN DEVELOPERS MANAGEMENT CONSTANTLY INCREASING [PUBLIC & PRIVATE & AGENCIES URBAN POPULATION LOCAL AUTHORITIES] MAINTANCE OF DRAINAGE CHANNELS LACK OF COORDINATION BETWEEN SERVICE AGENCIES
114
INDIRECT FACTORS
ELEMENTS OF INDIRECT FACTORS
4.2 - Decision making in Scenario [Generic] STRATEGIC PLANNING AT VARIOUS SPATIAL AND URBANISATION PATTERN TEMPORAL SCALES. REFLECTING NATURAL HYDROLOGY SYSTEMS INFRASTRUCTURE
TOP-DOWN STRATEGIES
DEVELOPMENT REGULATIONS: TO AVOID ENCROACHMENT
HIGHER RUN-UP FACILITIES FOR THE FLATTER SOUTHERN TERRAIN FLAT TERRAIN ( FLOOD DEFENCE STRATEGY
INCREASE IN RAINFALL
URBANISATION
TOPOGRAPHY
INADEQUATE STROMWATER / DRAINAGE SYSTEM
WASTE AND OTHER DEBRIS DISPOSAL
IMPERPIABLE SURFACE
TRADITIONAL DRINAGE NETWORK AS FLOOD MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
MAXIMIZING PARTICIPATION AND CONTRIBUTION
SPATIAL DESIGN
CLIMATE ADAPTATIONS RESILIENT MEASURES
DIRECT PROBLEMS
-LED GROWTH CONSIDERING UNEVEN VULNERABILITIES
METHODS AND APPROACHES
INDIRECT PROBLEMS
BOTTOM-UP STRATEGIES
MAINTANCE OF DRAINAGE CHANNELS
MULTI-STAKEHOLDER INCENTIVES
STAKEHOLDER MEETING DEVELOPERS [PUBLIC & PRIVATE & LOCAL AUTHORITIES]
BUILD SOCIAL NETWORKS TO BUILD COMMUNITY RESILIENCE
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4.3
116
Our approach to urban resilience goes beyond the frameworks to find the gaps and strengthen the selforganised tool and considered Who?
Stakeholders
The main Stakeholders are city, residents, government organizations. Prioritizing, including and excluding stakeholders from the processbased on needs and action.
What?
Type of Engagement \ method of engagement
The Type of Engagement that is desirable for the existing urban system. The generic and specific method of engagement that can be catogorized as methods of communication , participation,funding mechanisms and resource.
When?
Where?
Why?
Rapid onset change or slow-onset changes and resilience Phase Planning phase of present or future generations .The analysis and problem implementation identification and a road map for implementation for the projects Scale and level Scale of the project impacts and Spatial boundaries of the of involvement urban system influences the level of involvement of each stakeholder and formation of actors team Purpose Data collection etc
Underlying motivation of the method to build a resilient city requiresa collabrative actors to work towards the vision The method can be process and outcome-orientation.
Fig 4.4 : Question considered for urban resilience building process for the site 72
THE The aim of this scenario to identify the gaps in the framed toolkit and to explain why and to what extent they are relevant for all the projects, highlighting not only the differences but also the common elements as well as the initial shared lessons. 1]NEW TRENDS IN DATA ACQUATION The framework is intended to complement existing approaches, which often require resource-intensive self-assessments and the capacity to collect detailed data that is out of reach for most cities across the world . Enhance capacity for scientific assessment 2]NEED FOR COLLABRATION : INNOVATIVE GOVERNANCE This profound rethinking of the system is needed because working within the limits of the current system to make it “sustainable� is not enough.synergy in approach in capacity development 3]INSTITUTIONAL AND COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT In order to alleviate barriers to adaptation effectively, rules for prioritisation, monitoring and evaluation need to ensure that international mechanisms tackle the root causes of vulnerability which are often of institutional, political and social rather than technical nature. transparency
DATA ACQUATION
The necessary resources (time, budget, data) for flood risk assessments are often limited Crowd-sourcing as a trend in data acquaition existing and continuing for a long time. Various Global data-sets are available as ‘open source’ and the vast amount of data is still increasing. Examples are digital elevation data from SRTM, gridded global rainfall maps from CRU land-use maps and river networks from OpenStreetMap. 80 A self-organised emergent , free, web-based, and collaborative data sharing websites was built on a non-forprofit business model during These platform has more than active volunteer contributors who add new knowledge to the system daily. Independent institutes like Deltarus work on applied research in the field of water and subsurface Furthermore, specific to the research Deltares is developing global scale flood models for global flood risk analyses.81 Advantage: Vulnerability is highly site-specific, decentarlised data acquation results show less generalizable factors.
COLLABRATIVE & INNOVATIVE GOVERNANCE
In order to reduce vulnerability to water crisis, there is a need for new forms of urban governance and planning institutions that are capable of managing both centralized actions by utilities and decentralized actions by millions of households/ individuals.83 some best pratices of the actions >Co-investment platforms and funds >PPP- Privet Public Partnership >Real estate : losing their recent sales momentum. Advantage: Since vulnerability is dynamic, spatially, and demographically variable.83
INSTITUTIONAL AND COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
The current trend in participatory planning and citizen empowerment innclude Interactive methods and tools for participatory design and appraisal of flood risk management strategies, such as planning kits and dashboards. The link between collective efficacy in communities (the ability of community members to control the behavior of individuals and groups in the community) and this comes with several co-benefits including crime reduction.79
Currently, the gaps in initiation, awareness creation, phase wise implementation and maintenance are filled by some self organised platforms, urban local bosies, community and ngos. Some practices and new trends are discussed later in this chapter Chennai water crisis: A wake-up call for Indian cities. (2019, August 6). DownToEarth. Retrieved from https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/water/chennai-water-crisisa-wake-up-call-for-indian-cities-66024 117
4.4
118
01
CROWD SOURCING IN COLLECTION OF INFORMANTION:
Fig 4.5 : Screenshot of flooded street map website [ source : https://osm-in.github.io/flood-map/chennai.html]85
CROWDSOURCING FLOOD DATA FOR CHENNAI : A map based tool to report flooded streets using OpenStreetMap data. This is a crowdsourced effort to map inundated roads in Chennai, and to produce virtually data available to identify which parts of the city were most affected, and vulnerable to such climate phenomena. Citizien [a data mapping specialist at Mapbox] built open source map of flooding map and flooded street can be reported by the residents. 86 [*The map consists of a base layer of low lying areas created using elevation models from ISRO and NASA, and inundated areas from UNITAR. The map interactivity was built using Mapbox GL and is hosted on GitHub built by Arun Ganesh.]
02
PRIORITISING SHOCKS AND STRESSES WITH PUBLIC POLL SURVEYS
Fig 4.6 : Screenshot offacebook page [ source :https://www.facebook.com/pedro.b.ortiz}
87
Methods to Prioritising shocks and stresses: The results and opinions from the recent workshops to proitize the actions to invest government funds are submitted to the Commissioner for Greater Chennai Corporation The results have been 80% for water, 8% for TOD's and sea-level, only 3% for economic development. Existing, water shortage needs immediate attention . while however , the future impact due the lack of interest for the future and the positioning of Chennai in a global context through its economic developmentare to be considered as well.87
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120
03
PARTICIPATORY PLANNING
Fig 4.7 : Screenshot of Eye on Canal website [ source :https://eyesonthecanal.in/} EYES ON THE CANAL is an exercise in participatory planning to make the canal a livable place for the residents of Chennai. The initiative involves various activities such as awareness walks, community mapping exercises, stakeholder engagement meetings and an open-ideas competition to generate interest and ownership towards the canal, which has suffered from collective abandonment.[https://eyesonthecanal.in/]88 Variuos media and qualitative measures like photo documentation,online surveys , observational analysis , social media analysis, photo documentation.initial step being formation of non hierarchical network of individuals,experts, government, non government and private organisations shall be formed to work on a local level88 Urban Design Collective, Chennai Urban Design Collective (UDC) is a collaborative platform for architects, urban designers and planners to create livable cities through participatory planning. UDC collaborates with local and international organisations, anchoring workshops and public events to raise awareness on good urban design and participatory planning practices. One such initiative was to conduct a workshop titled ‘Mapping Water in Chennai – The Future in Our Hands’ on day 2 of the forum. The workshop was held for various stakeholder groups with the aim of arriving at recommendations for improved protection and management of our water resources.89
OTHER BEST PRACTICES OF TYPES OF ENGAGEMENTS : Engagement by smaller groups have triggered locality specific data literacy, as evident from efforts as tool to identifying and understanding current and future risks / stress / shocks and exposure threats to both human and physical assets.These efforts would generate broder consiousness and social pressure. urban issue being noticed and debated ,then be served much beyond academic interests. SOCIAL MEDIA / COMPETITIONS FACEBOOK- SAFETY CHECK FEATURE
DOWN TO EARTH -MAGAZINE/ WEBSITE AND OTHER PLATFORMS.
SUJRVEYS / EXHIBITIONS/URBAN EVENTS STREET EVENTS [WEEKEND CAR FREE PUBLIC SPACES] KOCHI BIENNALE- URBAN EVENTS
STREET ART
TACTILE URBANISM
GAMES / DIGITAL APPLICATIONS FIELDS OF VIEW Field of view is an Scientific and Industrial Research/ Think tank Organisation based in karnataka that designs games and simulations to help make better public policy for citizens and organisations Fig 4.8 : Best practices of types of engagements [ source: various websites mentioned inlist of figure]
121
122
05 Chapter 5 talks about the importance of MRC Nagar as an area that is vital to the city as a whole but also how it has been used as a "testing ground" for developing projects in other parts of the city. MRC Nagar was one of the most affected areas during the floods of 2015. It became a virtual island as it was flooded on three sides and it was close to impossible to reach the area due to this. A "sponge architecture" approach has been executed - small interventions at the street, building, and open spaces level to counteract this "island" effect and make MRC Nagar more porous and a part of the city during disasters like flooding. The main aim was to frame the toolkit and to explain why and to what extent they are relevant for all the projects, highlighting the differences but also the common elements as well as the initial shared lessons.
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5.1
124
SCENARIO 2: PRESENT - 2019 [PAUSE] The aftermath of the floods of 2015 has led us to explore various strategies and ways to holistically manage water systems in Chennai. The three main water channels - The Adayar river, the Buckingham canal, and the Cooum River and its surrounding areas were majorly affected due to the flat topography of the city. The most affected were the vulnerable communities in these low lying basins of these water channels. In Chapter 5, we take a particular look at the Adayar River Basin. The Adyar river basin has a particular piece of land at its edge called MRC Nagar. This area was deemed as prime real estate before the floods. During the disaster, however, due to its low lying topography and poor urban planning, the entire area was flooded, and since it is surrounded by water on three sides, it virtually became an island and was close to impossible to access the neighborhood. Thousands of residents were stuck in that tiny piece of land without the supply of water or electricity for almost a week. Only after the floods had subsided, the area became accessible. To avoid such situations in the future, drastic measures need to be taken. Some of them involve the addition of new disaster management policies, collaborative design solutions that involve the government as well as the public. MRC Nagar, as we can see, has a plethora of various typologies of buildings. One of the most notable characters of the site is the difference in the height of the buildings. This is because the landuse of the neighborhood is very varied. Along with the fisherman shacks on the shore of the sea to the commercial and institutional buildings on the site, this particular parcel of land is significant and has a peculiar characteristic that cannot be found anywhere else in the city. Due to this factor of height differences and varied landuse, the floods affected each particular part of MRC Nagar differently.
Extent of neighbourhood Primary Circula�on Secondary Circula�on Extent of neighbourhood PrivatePrimary Road Circula�on Extent Secondary of site Circula�on
0.5 km
1 km
Private Road Extent of site
1 km - MRC Nagar Fig0.5 km5.1 Scale of the site
M
M M
M
M
M
M
M M
M
M M M
M
M
M
N
M M
M
M
M
M
Primary Circula�on Secondary Circula�on
Fig 5.2 The aerial view highlights the height differences of the buildings in the site
ry Circula�on dary Circula�on
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126
SCENARIO 2: PRESENT - 2019 Our "testing ground," MRC Nagar due to its varied height differences, the impact due to the floods were varied throughout the site. The view below shows the various landmarks of this peculiar site and how each part of the site was affected during the floods. The worst affected was the low lying vulnerable areas near the shore, and the least was the highest buildings away from the river as well as the sea.
INDIA CEMENTS AMBEDKAR MEMORIAL CHETTINAD VIDYASHRAM
CHETTINAD PALACE
MRC HALL
SUN
MRC HALL
MRC Nagar had high real estate value due to the various landmark buildings present on one strip of land. The Chettinad Palace is the oldest building on site. It was built in the 1800s and is still standing today. Chettinad Vidyashram was also the school set up by the Chettinad family. Over the years, Memorials, media houses, Wedding halls, residences, hotels, and slums have popped up in this area. Slums continue to be the most affected area during any significant disaster as they have not developed areas and have a deficient infrastructure to be able to cope with hazards like cyclones, flooding, etc.
Memorial
Slums
School
Residences
Office
Media House
QUIBBLE ISLAND CEMETRY SUN TV
SRINIVASAPURAM LEELA PALACE HOTEL
Fig 5.3 The aerial view highlights where the landmarks and the flood inundation levels 127
5.2
128
SCENARIO 2: PRESENT - 2019 Sponge Architecture Toolki Water bodies Arrows Railway Neighbourhood Extent of City
Fig 5.4 The flow of water through the basin without any interventions
By mapping the blue-green - grey wiring of the city as well as mapping the hazards faced by the city, we can conclude that sponge architecture can be used as an intervention to facilitate the revitalization of the city's infrastructure as well as provide co-benefits to the stakeholders who help in realizing these sponge architecture interventions. Sponge Architecture is a way by which the city's water systems can be managed. It consists of small and significant interventions in the city that help at the smallest level but make the most significant impacts.
Protect | Store | Recharge | Delay Water bodies Arrows Railway Neighbourhood Extent of City
Fig 5.5 The flow of water through the basin after "Sponge architecture" interventions Chennai's evergrowing population and its growth of urban fabric to accommodate the city's population has harmed its hydrology. The developments have encroached on all the water basins, and the natural flow of the water from its source to the sea has been disturbed.95 To reduce environmental impact and to increase the storage capacity of these water systems, sponge architecture could be implemented.95 There are four water management systems of Sponge Architecture that help, namely PROTECT, DELAY, STORE, AND RELEASE.95 These principles can only be realized through the protection and restoration of Sponge landscapes and the creation of a comprehensive landscape network.95
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130
Protect | Store | Recharge | Delay
Fig 5.6 Strategy - Protect [Source : Author]
PROTECT PROTECT
the city's blue-green grid from encroachment and pollution PROTECT is the most important of the four strategies of Sponge Architecture. "Protect" requires the protection of the city's blue-green infrastructure from encroachment, infrastructure developers, and pollution. This measure also attempts to identify the functioning natural systems, and restore the polluted and degraded water systems. Regulations and Policy measures to tackle encroachment and pollution are also one of the ways to help in the protection of natural systems.95
Protect | Store | Recharge | Delay
Fig 5.7 Strategy -Delay [Source : Author]
DELAY DELAY
stormwater surface run-off into the rivers and sea DELAY is a vital principle to mitigate the risk of flooding after a flooding or hazardous event. This measure requires landscape infrastructure to slow down rainwater runoff. Natural ground cover, tees, and topographic variations along with landscape infrastructure can delay this run-off from overloading stormwater drain inlets, canals, rivers, and other water bodies.95
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Protect | Store | Recharge | Delay
Fig 5.8 Strategy - Store [Source : Author]
STORE STORE
rainwater in basins, reservoirs, tanks etc. STORE is the principle to remove the risk of water scarcity by storing all the excess water from flooding or storms or cyclones. Chennai’s water supply is through a network of reservoirs. The creation of a sponge landscape infrastructure like green roofs, rainwater harvesting systems, detention tanks, ponds, etc. can ensure water availability instead of scarcity. 95
Protect | Store | Recharge | Delay
RELEASE
Fig 5.9 Strategy - Release [Source : Author]
RELEASE
rainwater into the underground aquifiers to recharge the water table RELEASE is the principle that refers to water management of the stormwater runoff which is directed to the aquifer without polluting it. Chennai’s households run on aquifiers for drinking water. This system, along with diverting runoff into the aquifer, the protection of natural aquifer- zones, ensuring groundwater is pollution-free, also includes avoiding the overexploitation of groundwater.95
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PROTECT OPEN SPACES DELAY BUILDINGS STORE STREETS RELEASE
Fig 5.10 Basic scheme of Principles of water management implementation
The four principles of water management can be implemented in three levels across the city - Sponge open spaces, Sponge Buildings, and Sponge Streets. These urban morphological elements help in the enhancement of water quality and provide various co-benefits to the key stakeholders. As these interventions are at three different levels, the effectivity of these interventions will be at a higher level. Sponge Open Spaces - Open Spaces can be categorized into two - small and large. Small Open Spaces include institutional courtyards, private building courtyards, and public parks. Large Open spaces will be considered if the area is around 5- 10 acres, and significant interventions like constructed wetlands can be cultivated. Sponge Streets - Making Streets more permeable and using them as a space for filtering and storing stormwater runoff is an effective way of Water management. Sponge Buildings - Rainwater Harvesting systems constitute a significant part of a sponge infrastructure in terms of Buildings. In 2001, Chennai made rainwater harvesting compulsory for various areas to store the excessive water from hazardous events such as storms or flooding. This helps when the city is underwater scarcity.95 Protect
Delay
Store
Release
S B S o K
OPEN SPACES CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS Sites for Considera�on : Large Open Spaces Key Stakeholders Emergency Spillway
Inflow
Safety bench Forebay
Greater Chennai Corp. Parks Dept. Storm Water Drain Dept
Govt of TN CRRT PWD
Consultants
G
Low Marsh
Landscape Architects Civil Engineers Ecologist
High Marsh Island
S Aqua�c bench
Safety bench
Gravel
Embankment 8m buffer from the pond
Developer
Ci�zens
Land Owner
La
Outlet
CONSTRUCTED PONDS Sites for Considera�on : Large Open Spaces
C S si K
Key Stakeholders Embankment
Berm Forebay
Greater Chennai Corp. Parks Dept. Storm Water Drain Dept
Govt of TN CRRT PWD
Consultants
Spillway Temporary Pool
Landscape Architects Civil Engineers Ecologist
Gravel
Embankment Aqua�c bench
G
Safety bench 8m buffer from the pond
Developer
Land Owner
Ci�zens
S
BIOFILTRATION BASIN Sites for Considera�on : Large Open Spaces with infiltra�on Key Stakeholders
L Emergency Spillway
Inflow
Parks Dept. Storm Water Drain Dept
Govt of TN CRRT PWD
Consultants
P
Ou�all
Forebay
Greater Chennai Corp.
S�lling Basin
Landscape Architects Civil Engineers Ecologist
Embankment
S
Flat basin floor with grass turf
K
8m buffer from the pond
Developer
Land Owner
Ci�zens
G
SUNKEN PLAZA
S
Sites for Considera�on : Small Open Spaces like courtyards or school grounds
La
Key Stakeholders
Inflet Seater
Sunken Court
Outlet
Consultants
Landscape Architects Civil Engineers Architects
Protect
Developer
Land Owner
Ci�zens Earth
Delay
Store
Release
Filter
Fig 5.11 Sponge Open Spaces -Scheme
Tree trenches are excellent stormwater drainage systems as they work as soil infiltra�on, se�ling, evapora�on, vegeta-
*Figures are sourced from the Sponge Handbook and modified according to our site
135
136
STREETS BIOSWALE CHANNELS Sites for Considera�on : Medians, narrow open spaces Key Stakeholders
Curb cut
Curb & Gu�er
Na�ve Plants
Gravel & sand bed
Greater Chennai For Private Roads Parks Dept. Corp. Parks Dept. Storm Water Drain Dept Roads Dept
Private/Public Developer Land Owner
Govt of TN PWD Soil Mixture
Earth
Gravel Pipe bed
Pipe connected to Outlet or basin
Consultants
Landscape Architects Civil Engineers
Ci�zens
CURB BULBOUTS Sites for Considera�on : Intersec�ons at sidewalk curb Key Stakeholders
Na�ve Plants
Road
Curb
Sidewalk Pavement
Curb Cut
Greater Chennai For Private Roads Parks Dept. Corp. Parks Dept. Storm Water Drain Dept Roads Dept
Private/Public Developer Land Owner
Govt of TN PWD
Curb Ramp
Earth
Soil mixture
Gravel bed
Consultants
Landscape Architects Civil Engineers
Ci�zens
POROUS PAVEMENTS Sites for Considera�on : All pavements Key Stakeholders Greater Chennai For Private Roads Parks Dept. Corp. Parks Dept. Storm Water Drain Dept Roads Dept
Private/Public Developer Land Owner
Govt of TN PWD
Na�ve Plants Sidewalk Pavement
Na�ve Plants
Sidewalk Pavement
Sidewalk Pavement
Consultants
Landscape Architects Civil Engineers
Protect
Soil mixture
Ci�zens
Gravel bed
Earth
Delay
Store
Release
Filter
Fig 5.12 Sponge Streets -Scheme
RAI Site bui one
TREE TRENCHES Sites for Considera�on : Pavements with adequate width for pedestrians Key Stakeholders
Key Sidewalk
Greater Chennai For Private Roads Parks Dept. Corp.
Govt of TN PWD
Private/Public Developer Land Owner
Parks Dept. Storm Water Drain Dept Roads Dept
P Own Tree Pit
Gravel
Consultants
Ci�zens
Landscape Architects Civil Engineers
Pipe to Outlet
BUILDINGS GREEN ROOF Sites for Considera�on :Buildings with a flat roof Key Stakeholders
Plant level
Soil Filter Sheet Drainage Layer Protec�on Layer
Property Owner/Tenant
Consultants
Landscape Architects Architects
Private/Public Developer Water proofing Root Construc�on
Ci�zens
RAINWATER HARVESTING Sites for Considera�on :In all RAINWATER HARVESTING buildings, especially ins�tu�onal Sites for Considera�on :In all ones buildings, especially ins�tu�onal ones Key Stakeholders
Roof Downspout
Roof Downspout
Key Stakeholders
Property Private/Public Ci�zens Owner/Tenant Developer
Property Private/Public Ci�zens Owner/Tenant Developer
Planter Splash Pod
Planter Splash Pod Overflow Drain
Plan�ng Soil
Overflow Drain
Plan�ng Soil
Deten�on Tank
Deten�on Tank
el
ilter Sheet
Drainage Layer Protec�on Layer
Protect
Delay
Store
Release
Filter
Fig 5.13 Sponge Building -Scheme
*Figures are sourced from the Sponge Handbook and modified according to our site
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5.3
138
Extent of neighbourhood Primary Circula�on Secondary Circula�on Private Road Selected Sites
Extent of neighbourhood Primary Circula�on Secondary Circula�on Private Road Selected Sites
Extent of neighbourhood
0.5 km
0.5 km
Primary Circula�on 1 km Secondary Circula�on Private Road Fig 5.14 Selected Selected Sites
1 km
1 km
0.5 km
N
Sites in MRC Nagar for Sponge Interventions N
N
Selected sites and why? These particular sites to work on the design were selected due to various characters of each parcel of land, and if sponge architecture strategies were to be implemented here, it would work here the best. Neighborhood 1 consists of small open spaces - they are in particular residential courtyards and can be used for the catchment of water and its storage. Neighborhood 2 consists of a parcel of open land close to the river and can be converted into a constructed wetland to delay the surface runoff and to store and recharge the water table. Neighborhood 3 consists of a small open ground near a memorial and a school playground. These spaces can be transformed into water plazas as they will act both as public spaces as well as spaces to store and replenish the water table. Neighborhood 4 consists of an abandoned open ground close to the residential part of the site and thus can be converted into a pond and the water can be stored and used for the purpose of the residents.
Fig 5.15 MRC Nagar - Satelite Image -2019
Fig 5.16 MRC Nagar - Satelite Image -2019
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5.4 Neighbourhood 3 : Small Open Space A small open ground has been converted to a detention basin as it in located in a residential zone and the water can be stored and used for the people living around the area.
Neighbourhood 4 : A cluster of 3 small open spaces The bigger open space is a school courtyard which has also been converted into a sunken plaza as well as a filteration garden. Helps in the interaction of school students, while the plaza acts as the public space. An open ground near the memorial has been converted to a detention basin and a small plaza space. The ground behing the Ayyapan temple has been divided into two sections- a traditional temple tank to store water as well as a filteration garden will could also act as an open, public space.
Fig 5.17 Proposal for the selected sites in MRC Nagar 140
Neighbourhood design - Large Scale
Neighbourhood 1 : A cluster of 4 Small Open Spaces Two of these have been converted to detention basins for storing and replenishing the water table. The other two spaces have been converted into sunken plazas which can be used in multiple ways. It is used as a public space when it doesn't rain and during the raiiny season it is used as a catchement area.
Neighbourhood 2: A Pond and a residential courtyard The bigger open space has been converted to a constructed pond in order to delay the early run - off of stormwater and also act as a storage space. The residential courtyard consists of a sunken plaza as well as filtration gardens so that the water can seep into the ground easily.
Extent of neighbourhood Primary Circula�on Secondary Circula�on Private Road Extent of site 0.5 km
1 km
N
141
AKEHOLDERS KEY STAKEHOLDERS AKEHOLDERS nning and ForRegula�ons Planning Regula�ons and Design nning Regula�ons and Design Design nes nesGuidelines
of of
Metro Dev. of Government Metro Dev. Authority TamilNadu Authority
Greater Metro Chennai Dev. Greater Chennai Corpora�on Authority Corpora�on (GCC) (GCC)
ncing For Financing ancing
ovt. GoTN GCC - Budget + - State Govt. ovt. GCC - Budget + Discre�onary Scheme Discre�onary
e sre s
Value Capture Mechanisms
c ic
Storm Water + GoTN Water - Public Storm Parks + Roads+ Works Parks + Roads
Consultants Greater Chennai Consultants Corpora�on (GCC)
Consultants
SPONGE TYPE SPONGE STREET TYPE SPONGE STREET STREET TYPE Bioswale Bioswale Channels Bioswale Channels Channels Curb Curb Bulbouts Curb Bulbouts Bulbouts
Porous Porous Pavements Porous Pavements Pavements Tree Tree Trenches Tree Trenches Trenches
SPO SP Con Co Con Co
Bio Bio Rai Ra Sun Su
Corporate / Civic Corporate / Civic Public/ Private GCC - Budget + Public/ Private Corporate Public/ Private Donor/ Civic Developer Donor Discre�onary Developer Donor Developer
lementa�on For Implementa�on plementa�on
Land Owner Storm Water + Public/ LandPrivate Owner Land Owner Private Developer Parks + Roads Public/ Developer
Public/ Private Developer
Ci�zens
ntainance For Maintainance intainance
+ rs+ ds
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Suitable Suitable Loca�ons Suitable Loca�ons Loca�ons Sidewalks(>/< Sidewalks 3.5m) Sidewalks(>/< Sidewalks 3.5m) Sidewalks(>/< Sidewalks 3.5m) Medians (>/< 2m) Medians Medians (>/< 2m) (>/< 2m) On Shared Streets Shared Streets On SharedOn Streets
Land Owner/ Storm Water + Land Owner/ Tenant ParksTenant + Roads
Protect
Public/ Private Land Owner/ Public/ Private Developer Tenant Developer
Delay
Selected Selected Sites Selected Sites Sites Ci�zens Public/ Private Ci�zens Developer
Store
Release
Ci�zens
Filter
Su Su La La Sm Sm Ins Ins sch sc Pri Pr
SPONGE SPONGE OPEN OPEN SPACE SPACE TYPE TYPE SPONGE OPEN SPACE TYPE
SPONGE SPONGE BUILDING BUILDING TYPE TYPE SPONGE BUILDING TYPE
Constructed Constructed Wetlands Wetlands Constructed Wetlands Constructed Constructed Ponds Ponds Constructed Ponds
Green Green Roof Roof Green Roof Rainwater Rainwater Rainwater Harves�ng Harves�ng Harves�ng
Bioinflira�on Bioinflira�on Basin Basin / // Bioinflira�on Basin Rain Rain Garden Garden Rain Garden Sunken Sunken Plazas Plazas Sunken Plazas
Suitable Suitable Loca�ons Loca�ons Suitable Loca�ons Large Large Open Open Spaces Spaces - 10+ 10+ acres acres Large Open Spaces --10+ acres Small Small Open Open Spaces Spaces - Parks Parks Small Open Spaces --Parks Ins�tu�onal Ins�tu�onal Public Public Spaces Spaces likelike like Ins�tu�onal Public Spaces school school courtyards courtyards school courtyards Private Private Building Building Courtyards Courtyards Private Building Courtyards
Suitable Suitable Loca�ons Loca�ons Suitable Loca�ons Individual Individual Residences Residences Individual Residences Apartments Apartments Apartments Commercial Commercial Ins�tu�ons Ins�tu�ons Commercial Ins�tu�ons Public Public - Private Private Partnerships Partnerships Public --Private Partnerships
Fig 5.18 Key stakeholders for the selected sites in MRC Nagar
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CONCLUSION This chapter answers the question - "Can Chennai 's Streets, Open Spaces, and buildings be more resilient?" By implementing Sponge Infrastructure in various neighborhoods across the Adayar Basin, keeping "MRC Nagar" as our testing ground, Chennai can develop its resiliency towards such disasters. The Adayar Basin will be a small scale intervention of Sponge Architecture when compared to the scale of the metropolitan region of the city. With a networked system of Sponge Streets, Open Spaces, and Buildings in place, the neighborhood is more preÂŹpared for cloudbursts and drought cycles. Sponge Street upgrades slow down water before they are collected by interceptor storage tanks, rain gardens, and sunken plazas. Rainwater harvesting and detention tanks direct water towards storage structure for future consumption or groundwater recharge. A rejuvenated Adayar basin now has a greater capacity to absorb excess rainfall and inflows from various streets and sources. The entire system, from streets to open spaces to buildings and the canal are playing their part in turning the Adayar sub-basin into a Sponge.95 A similar combination of Sponge Infrastructure interventions made at the city -scale, along with changing policies, tactile urbanism, and participatory planning, will lead to a more livable and resilient Chennai.95
144
City Border Railway Testing grounds
Site 1 km
3 km
5 km
N
Fig 5.19 MRC Nagar as a "testing ground" and expansion of the project across the Adayar Basiny
145
146
06
Chapter 6 highlights that resilience can be tackled in various ways. The city strategies in this chapter allow us to explore that possibility. The range of these city strategies are highlighted as follows : Protection - Engineered infrastructure that protects already builtup areas, Accommodation - Project by project modifications of existing buildings and other assets to accommodate occasional flooding in already built-up areas, Avoidance - Restricting new development in potentially vulnerable areas, Retreat - Moving human and built resources out of potentially vulnerable areas, occasionally and Utopia - The efforts to foster climate change resilience must be bundled with efforts to promote urban development and sustainability.
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6.1 BIG U, Lower Manha�an, NY
Lower Manha�an was devastated by the Sandy hurricane in 2016, and the BIGU proposal was developed to protect the area from floodwater, storms, and the other subsequent impacts of climate change. The proposal was regarded as ten con�nuous miles of protec�on tailored to respond to individual neighborhoods as well as community-desired facili�es. There are four zones in the proposal: East River Park, Two Bridges and Chinatown, and the Brooklyn Bridge to The Ba�ery. Each zone has a physically separate flood-protec�on zone, isolated from flooding in other areas, but has been designed while keeping in mind integrated social and community-driven planning. This en�re area has been designed to enhance the coast of the city but also has been designed in order to stand on its own.
Protec�on
Fig 6.1 Proposal
Fig 6.2 Conceptual Ideas
Fig 6.3 Renders
Fig 6.4 Aerial View of BIG-U
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6.2
UROS ISLANDS, PERU
Accomoda�on
The Uro Tribe has a unique way of living. This group ini�ally chose to live on the lake as a measure of self-protec�on, and they consider themselves the owner of the lake and its waters. The islands on which they live have been made from layers of dried totora reeds that are woven together. These islands are made by the Uro Tribe and can last up to 30 years if they are maintained well. As the reeds at the bo�om begin to rot, more layers of these reeds are added on top. The people on the island move every six months to li� and move their houses to add an extra layer of Totora reeds. These reeds help in the buoyancy of the island. These are over 100 islands in Uros and each one is 90 feet wide and about four to eight feet thick.
Fig 6.5 The Uro-Tribe huts
Fig 6.6 The Uros Island
Fig 6.7 The Uros clusters
Fig 6.8 The Uros Islands - An aerial view
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Mexcal�tán Islands, Mexico
The Mexcalitán village was built by the Aztecs and is located in one of the lakes in the north of San Blas in the Mexican state of Nayarit. It is only 400 meters in diameter and can be covered en�rely by foot and can only be reached by boat. The island usually is underwater during the rainy season between September and November and has been nicknamed “The Mexican Venice.” The island has two parallel streets from north to south, and the other two from east to west, and they intersect in the middle to form a piazza.
Accomoda�on
Main Circula�on Piazza Fig 6.9 Plan of the Island
The only other major street runs around the island in a circle, parallel and not too far away from the water’s edge. The central area of the village has a church, a few shops, a museum, and an administra�ve office. The houses are made out of brick and cement that line the streets and extend to the water’s edge.
Fig 6.10 Aerial View
Fig 6.11 A View of the Island
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6.3 KUMBH MELA, ALLAHABAD
Retreat
The Kumbh Mela, a hindu fes�val is hosted at Allahabad, now called Prayagraj, happens every 12 years at the Triveni Sangam - the mee�ng point of three rivers namely, Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswa�. A ritual dip in the waters marks the fes�val, but it is also a celebra�on of community commerce with numerous fairs, educa�on, religious discourses by saints, mass feedings of monks or the poor, and it is also an entertainment spectacle.
Fig 6.19 Sadhus or Saints in the mela
The Kumbh Mela a�racts millions of pilgrims, for which they build temporary tent-like structures along the banks of the river. Pilgrims come from all sec�ons of Hindu religious life- from sadhus ( holy men ) to naga aghoris ( militant asce�cs ) to large religious organiza�ons, which are social welfare groups as well as poli�cal lobbyists.
Fig 6.20 The Ritual Dip
Fig 6.21 An aerial view of the Temporary tents
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6.4 DA NANG, VIETNAM
Avoidance
The city of Da Nang lies in the area which faces frequent flooding. To tackle changing clima�c disasters, the Vietnam Ins�tute of Urban and Rural Planning (VIUP) made a second master plan in 2013. The first one was made in 2002 but did not give importance to clima�c changes. The 2013 Masterplans has several key points that have been effec�ve in dealing with the changing climate as well as the demand for housing due to the ever-growing popula�on. Some of the cri�cal points have been highlighted below : - Considering climate change, temperatures increase, causing sea-level rise, which will directly affect the river and coastal areas; therefore, the ground level must be considered before building anything in these fragile areas. - The minimum level of eleva�on for construc�on to be that of the river level during the flood with a probability of 5% .
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Fig 6.18 An aerial view of the island
Fig 6.16 Da nang Island
Fig 6.17 Da nang beach
6.5 OCEANIX CITY BIG Architects have created Oceanix City as the world’s first resilient and sustainable floa�ng community for over 10,000 ci�zens spread across 75 hectares. The design concept consists of floa�ng islands that are grouped in numbers of six together to form villages. These islands are modules that are designed to grow, transform and adapt organically over �me, evolving from a neighborhood to a village and ul�mately to a thriving metropolis. Six neighborhoods are clustered around a protected central harbor; larger villages can accommodate up to 1,650 ci�zens. An inner ring has been designed to encourage ci�zens to gather and socialize. Recrea�onal and commercial func�ons are placed around the inner ring. People can walk or take a boat through the city.
Utopia
Fig 6.18 Growth of the “module”
Fig 6.19 Principles of Oceanix City
Fig 6.20 Zero Energy Consump�on Module
Fig 6.21 Aerial View of Oceanix City
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07 Chapter 7 talks about the inference from the each chapter and closing thoughts on concepts discussed in the preceding chapters. The chapter also throws light on the limitations and reviews the scope of the study.
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CONCLUSION
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SCOPE OF THE PROJECT This thesis is a reflective think-piece on Chennai cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perspective on resilience in planning that starts with a certain degree of universal relevance of the perspective and moves to a more regional scale to spatially regionalize the idea. Analyzing any existing and future urban risk which becomes a phenomenon that challenges the urban infrastructure includes studies that looked at single risks on significant events that are recurring [more frequently with time] along with sea-level rise. As a parameter, resilience cannot be quantified, it is more about quality of life which cannot be measured but identified by a decrease in real estate values of highrisk areas, reflects on the market value of properties. It is not easy to draw a boundary around the concept of Resilience; each perspective opens new doors to more research. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES : This book deals with a resilient approach to perfectly normal/Average monsoon weather events and a disaster event to reduce negative externalities of â&#x20AC;&#x153;uncertaintyâ&#x20AC;?. This study requires an acknowledgment that not every considered scenario is ideal (nor even possible). Limitations of the Methodology includes the error present in wide-area elevation datasets, as well as the other limitations described. The risk maps and other preexisting data and considered facts should be regarded as a screening tool to identify places that may require deeper investigation of risk. 1] The global level of knowledge imports/exports between developing countries and developed countries can play a role in providing information, coordinating action, and adapting major infrastructures. This approach of sharing mutual knowledge and global information sources was implemented in the development process of risk mapping, that provided a base map on which local conditions were mapped to further develop a local action plan 2] Contemporary cities are becoming more tolerant of urban risks than resilient since the national policies majorly focuses on economic aspirations than ecological security. This approach helped in narrowing down to considering ecological solutions that had economic co-benefits or vice versa while addressing all the identifies major issues as stated in chapter 1.
3] The response to urban risks has been more episodic and less strategic and integrative as economic resources are often limited. The possibility of connecting the big picture with repetitive solutions for similar condition/ pattern of risks in city-scale opens new opportunities to study further about the translation of pilot ideas to different sites. The zonal body like Resilient city Chennai office as an initiative works towards and allows for the setting of more realistic targets at the regional level to allow Resilience in local conditions. To support the hypothesis, though not a driving aspect but the urban risk peculiar to an area can serve as a starting point to a path towards resilience thinking in urban planning. Remedial actions can hold a certain degree of sustaining resilient as a cobenefit outcome to it. The idea that the existing and predicted future recurring urban risks that challenge the urban infrastructure can become an aspect that can drive a place to the path of resilience was further analyzed by considering city scenarios . CITY AND SCENARIOS The blue-green-grey wiring of the city was mapped to come up with an appropriate solution that would decrease vulnerability in the area/neighborhood. One of these solutions was “Sponge Architecture,” which was an intersection between decreasing vulnerability and increasing resilience. Sponge architecture allows us to intervene at the macro-level in an area. The problems faced by the city are varied, and the causes so uncertain that delving deep into a particular perspective would not be of use. Therefore, the thesis explores a wide range of scenarios, which in turn gives us a particular set of design tools that are in sync with the environment and are not radical. Social Resilience: Setting a scenario in the past has encouraged us to study behavioral patterns of society, which helped us in understanding what issues needed to be addressed to tackle these varied problems faced by the society. Collaborative living and transparent governance were two outcomes of this exercise. De-Centralization: Focusing on the present helps us understand what measures can be taken immediately to tackle the issues at hand and how to deal with them wisely. MRC Nagar was used as a “testing ground” for implementing sponge architecture and thus helped us understand that those small-scale interventions were more effective in maintaining the balance between the built environment and nature as compared to the vast, metropolitan scale solutions. Different testing grounds 157
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with similar urban risks were identified across Adayar Basin by plotting the flood risk map which identifies most of the affected areas [ low -lying areas ] that are naturally prone to flooding in the event of average rainfall based on natural topographic data that has been mapped on QGIS. By doing this crucial step, we have found that our ideas of “sponge architecture interventions” can be implemented in these “testing grounds” which would lead to a more flexible approach. This can be a starting point that helps Chennai City develop a path to being resilient. Urban Planners will be forced to think of implementing and developing a causebased policy than a symptom-based reaction in the future. The solution for a symptom-based reaction will be short-lived if the cause is not addressed. A combination of sponge architecture interventions made at the city level, along with changing policies, tactile urbanism, and participatory planning shows evidence which leads to a resilient coastal city. Even though these measures have been implemented in the city, due to the various factors like extreme climate change, the future is quite uncertain. As the future holds uncertainty, a particular “way of living” cannot be endorsed. Therefore, a wide range of city strategies was studied and narrowed down into five categories in the last part of the thesis. These help in a better understanding of the tools and techniques implemented in coastal city planning. The three scenarios presented in our thesis has helped us better understand urban risk and resilience from a unique perspective. Each scenario is an independent approach to resilience and risk and can be perceived as independent projects which could be a base for the future development of the cities with similar urban risks.
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CHAPTER 2 56. Kumar, G. N. (2016, March 7). Towards Sustainable Chennai from Forced Urban Sprawl. Towards Sustainable Chennai from Forced Urban Sprawl, 66 57. Manohar, Lakshmi; KT, Muthaiah. “Towards resilience in Chennai”. In Carola Hein (ed.) International Planning History Society Proceedings, 17th IPHS Conference, History-Urbanism-Resilience, TUDelft 17-21 July 2016, V.03 p.251, TUDelft Open, 2016. page/Timeline-of-Chennai-history?cr=1 60. Muthiah, S. (2012, November 29). Madras Miscellany: The Battle of the Adyar. Retrieved from https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chenarts/chen-history-and-culture/Madras-Miscellany-TheBattle-of-the-Adyar/article15616870.ece 61. T, M. K. S. (2017, March 29). With three rivers and five wetlands, why is Chennai staring at ecological collapse?: Retrieved from http://chennai.citizenmatters. in/chennai-rivers-wetlands-marsh-environmentheritage-1577 62. Lakshmi, K., & Ramakrishnan, D. H. (2016, August 3). Untreated sewage pollutes waterways. Retrieved from https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/ untreated-sewage-pollutes-waterways/article2496148. ece 63. Risks and Disasters. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// www.un-spider.org/risks-and-disasters 64. Nair, S. S., & Gupta, A. K. (2011, June 10). Urban floods in Bangalore and Chennai: Risk Management Challenges and Lessons for Sustainable Urban Ecology. CURRENT SCIENCE, 8. 65. 100 Resilience Cities ; Greater Chennai Corporation; Resilient Chennai ; OKAPI. (2019). RESILIENT CHENNAI STRATEGY. RESILIENT CHENNAI STRATEGY, 134. 66. Namma Chennai: Citizen Water Survey. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://resilientchennai.com/watersurvey
CHAPTER 3 67.Shaw, R., Joerin, J. and Krishnamurthy, R. (2014), “Making Chennai resilient to climate-related disasters”, Building Resilient Urban Communities (Community, Environment and Disaster Risk Management, Vol. 15), Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 165-188. https://doi.org/10.1108/S2040-726220140000015007 68.Davoudi, S, K Shaw, L J Haider, A E Quinian, G D Peterson, C Wilkinson, H Funfgeld, D McEvoy and L Porter (2012), “Resilience: A Bridging Concept or a Dead End? “Reframing” Resilience: Challenges for Planning
Theory and Practice Interacting Traps: Resilience Assessment of a Pasture Management System in Northern Afghanistan Urban Resilience: What Does it Mean in Planning Practice? Resilience as a Useful Concept for Climate Change Adaptation? The Politics of Resilience for Planning: A Cautionary Note”, Planning Theory & Practice Vol 13, No 2, pages 299–333. 69. Anil K. Gupta, Sreeja S. Nair (2011) Urban floods in Bangalore and Chennai: risk management challenges and lessons for sustainable urban ecology. (n.d.). Current Science, 100(11), 1638–1645. doi: 100(11):1638-1645 70.Mariani, L. (n.d.). URBAN RESILIENCE HUB. Retrieved October 31, 2019, from http://urbanresiliencehub.org/ what-is-urban-resilience/. 71. Chmutina, K., Lizarralde, G., Dainty, A., & Bosher, L. (2016). Unpacking resilience policy discourse. Cities, 58, 70–79. doi: 10.1016/j.cities.2016.05.017 72.Meerow, S., Newell, J. P., & Stults, M. (2016). Defining urban resilience: A review. Landscape and Urban Planning, 147, 38–49. doi: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2015.11.011 73.Framework and Indicators to Measure Urban Resilience. Available from: https://www.researchgate. net/publication/259996559_Framework_and_ Indicators_to_Measure_Urban_Resilience [accessed Nov 01 2019].
CHAPTER 4 74.Governance challenges for critical infrastructure resilience. (2019). Good Governance for Critical Infrastructure Resilience OECD Reviews of Risk Management Policies, 35–43. doi: 10.1787/05338892en 75 Boer, J. D. (2015). Resilience and the Fragile City. Stability: International Journal of Security & Development, 4(1). doi: 10.5334/sta.fk 76. Oberlack, C., & Eisenack, K. (2014). Alleviating barriers to urban climate change adaptation through international cooperation. Global Environmental Change, 24, 349–362. doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.08.016 77. (n.d.). Retrieved November 6, 2019, from https:// www.international-climate-initiative.com/de/nc/ infothek/videos/film/show_video/show/cities_fit_for_ climate_change/. 78. Co-creating cities: future challenges. (n.d.). Urban Strategies for Culture-Driven Growth, 159–168. doi: 10.4337/9781783479382.00020 79.Sampson, R. (2004). Neighbourhood and Community. New Economy, 11(2), 106–113. doi: 10.1111/j.14680041.2004. 00346.x
80. Global data and tools for flood risk assessment. (n.d.). Retrieved November 7, 2019, from https:// www.deltares.nl/en/issues/global-data-tools-flood-riskassessment/. 81. Enabling Delta Life. (1970, November 5). Retrieved from https://www.deltares.nl/en/. 82 83 Srinivasan, V., Seto, K. C., Emerson, R., & Gorelick, S. M. (2013). The impact of urbanization on water vulnerability: A coupled human–environment system approach for Chennai, India. Global Environmental Change, 23(1), 229–239. doi: 10.1016/j. gloenvcha.2012.10.002 84. Chennai floods: Real estate one of the worst hit businesses Read more at: //economictimes. indiatimes.com/articleshow/50049538.cms?utm_ source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_ campaign=cppst. (2015, December 5). Economictimes. Retrieved from https://economictimes.indiatimes. co m / we a l t h / p e rs o n a l -f i n a n c e - n ews /c h e n n a i floods-real-estate-one-of-the-worst-hit-businesses/ articleshow/50049538.cms 85. Flooded Streets. (n.d.). Retrieved July 11, 2019, from https://osm-in.github.io/flood-map/chennai. html#11.65/13.0493/80.2593. 86. Ganesh, Arun. (2015, December 2). Retrieved from https://blog.mapbox.com/crowdsourcing-flood-datafor-chennai-44353378317d 87. Ortiz, P. B. (2019, August 20). BrainClub: India Metropolitan Challenge. Retrieved November 7, 2019, from https://www. facebook.com/groups/743330992718773/ permalink/878458362539368?sfns=mo. 88 Open Ideas Competition. (2019, May 22). Retrieved from https://eyesonthecanal.in/competition/. 89. Urban Design Collective Chennai. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://urbandesigncollective.org/whyudc/.90. The New Chennai Streetscape. (2014, September 26). Retrieved from https://www.itdp.org/2013/12/20 thenew-chennai-streetscape/. 91. Chennai water crisis: A wake-up call for Indian cities. (2019, August 6). DownToEarth. Retrieved from https:// www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/water/chennai-watercrisis-a-wake-up-call-for-indian-cities-66024 92. Muziris Biennale 2018. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://kochimuzirisbiennale.org/. 93. Admin. (2019, November 1). Chennai Archives. Retrieved from https://www.itdp.in/tag/chennai/. 94. Fields of View. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// fieldsofview.in/.
CHAPTER 5 95. Biswas, S.K., Raj, P., R S, L., Balaganesan, B., & KP, S. (2019) ‘The Sponge Handbook: Chennai - Using the Landscape Approach to transform the South Buckingham Canal Area.’ GIZ 96. Achanthodi, S. (2017). Urban Sinks -Decentralising Flood Management. University of Sheffield. 97.Boston Public Works Department. (2018) ‘Climate Resilient Design Standards & Guidelines - For protection of Public Right-of-way.’ 98.Charles River Watershed Association. (2009) ‘Stormwater Management plan for Spruce pond Brook subwatershed.’ 99.Chau, H.F. (2009) ‘Green Infrastructure for Los Angeles: Addressing Urban Runoff and Water Supply through Low Impact Development’ 100.Clean Water Kitsap. (2014) ‘Kitsap Country Green Streets Plan.’ 101.Community Design + Architecture with Nelson/ Nygaard Consulting Associates and PhilipWilliams Associates. (2005) ‘Storm¬water Guidelines for Green, Dense Redevelopment.’ 102.Department of Conservation & Recreation, Virginia. (1999) ‘Virginia Stormwater Management Handbook.’ 103.Department of Environmental Resources The Prince George’s Country, Maryland. (2007) ‘Biorentention Manual.’ 104.Environmental Protection Department. (2017) ‘Standard Designs and guidelines for Green Infrastructure Practices’ 105.EPA - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2014) ‘Boone Boulevard - Green Infrastructure Conceptual Design.’ 106.EPA - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2016) ‘Green Infrastructure and Climate Change.’ 107.Hackensack Meadowlands Commission. (2013) ‘Green Infrastructure in New York City.’ 108.Maryland Department of the Environment. (2010) ‘Maryland Stormwater Design Manual, Volume I and II.’ 109.Boston Public Works Department. (2018) ‘Climate Resilient Design Standards & Guidelines - For protection of Public Right-of-way.’ 110.Charles River Watershed Association. (2009) ‘Stormwater Management plan for Spruce pond Brook subwatershed.’ 111.Chau, H.F. (2009) ‘Green Infrastructure for Los Angeles: Addressing Urban Runoff and Water Supply through Low Impact Development’ 112.Clean Water Kitsap. (2014) ‘Kitsap Country Green Streets Plan.’ 113.Community Design + Architecture with Nelson/
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Nygaard Consulting Associates and PhilipWilliams Associates. (2005) ‘Storm¬water Guidelines for Green, Dense Redevelopment.’ 114.Department of Conservation & Recreation, Virginia. (1999) ‘Virginia Stormwater Management Handbook.’ Department of Environmental Resources - The Prince George’s Country, Maryland. (2007) ‘Biorentention Manual.’ 115.Environmental Protection Department. (2017) ‘Standard Designs and guidelines for Green Infrastructure Practices’ 116.EPA - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2014) ‘Boone Boulevard - Green Infrastructure Conceptual Design.’ 117.EPA - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2016) ‘Green Infrastructure and Climate Change.’ 118.Hackensack Meadowlands Commission. (2013) ‘Green Infrastructure in New York City.’ 119.Maryland Department of the Environment. (2010) ‘Maryland Stormwater Design Manual, Volume I and II.’
CHAPTER 6 120.Kaushik. (n.d.). Mexican Venice: The Island of Mexcaltitán. Retrieved from https://www. amusingplanet.com/2014/11/mexican-venice-islandof-mexcaltitan.html. 121 Kumbh Mela | World news. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/kumbh-mela. 122 Local News & Events. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// www.pvangels.com/news/5281/the-astonishing-manmade-island-city-of-mexcaltitan-nayarit-mexico. 123 Mexcaltitan Island. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.rivieranayaritfun.com/tourist-attractions/ mexcaltitan-island. 124 Mexcaltitán de Uribe. (2019, May 9). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexcaltitán_de_Uribe. Mexcaltitán Mexico - The Mexican Venice of Riviera Nayarit. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www. rivieranayarit.com/destinations/mexcaltitan/. 125.Neely, J. (2014, October 28). Uros Islands. Retrieved from http://jasonneely.com/blog/2014/10/22/urosislands. 126 Otis, C. (2018, June 6). The Magical and Mysterious Floating Uros Islands of Peru. Retrieved from https:// www.thedailybeast.com/the-magical-and-mysteriousfloating-uros-islands-of-peru. 127 Prayag Kumbh Mela. (2019, November 9). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prayag_Kumbh_ Mela. 128 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2019, July 15). Kumbh Mela. Retrieved from https://www. britannica.com/topic/Kumbh-Mela. 129 The Uros People of Lake Titicaca. (2019, October
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24). Retrieved from https://www.peruhop.com/theuros-people-of-lake-titicaca/. 130 Ugc. (2012, July 20). The Uros People of Lake Titicaca. Retrieved from https://www.atlasobscura. com/places/uros-people-lake-titicaca. 131 Uros Floating Islands: A Must See at Lake Titicaca. (2019, October 29). Retrieved from https://www. howtoperu.com/uros-floating-islands-lake-titicaca/. 132 Tyler, S., Tran, V.G.P., Nguyen, T.K.H., Huynh, V.T., Tran, V.D., Nghiem, P.T., Nguyen, N.H., Nguyen, T.A.N., Tran, T.N.H., Le, T.T., Tran, K.D., Nguyen, T.T., Dang, H.L. 2016. Urban Development and Flood Risk in Vietnam: Experience in Three Cities. Report prepared for the Rockefeller Foundation. Hanoi, Vietnam: Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-International. 133 BIG (Bjarke Ingels Group). (2014). The BIG “U” . Rebuild by Design.
CHAPTER 7
Inference from each chapter
TABLE OF FIGURES COVERPAGE * Aerial photography of the site showing southeast coast of chennai [source:beema Falcon https://www. instagram.com/my_shutter_life/]
integrate risk reduction practices for a more sustainable outcome] Source: Urban Risks and Resilience in India [IIHS]53 Fig 1.16: Extreme weather events in 2019, India [Source: Times of India]
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
Fig 1.1: 100 Resilient Cities - Resilience Framework Source: http://www.100resilientcities.org/resources/ Fig 1.2: Perception of resilience strengths and weaknesses in Chennai [Preliminary Resilience Assessment of Chennai By Rockefeller Foundation] Fig 1.3: Baseline Water Stress in Tamilnadu. India. Source: Aqueduct, World Resources Institute Fig 1.4: World Risk Index 2019 [In-depth information available in www.WorldRiskReport.org.] Fig 1.5: Global Climate Risk 2015 [Source: https:// germanwatch.org/en/cri] Fig 1.6: Global Adaptation Risk 2015 [Source: https:// gain.nd.edu/our-work/country-index/] Fig 1.7: India Country Nd-Gain Profile [Source: https:// gain.nd.edu/our-work/country-index/] Fig1.8: Smarter Cities India - The Urban Effect 2015 [Source: https://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/ photo/38837.wss] Fig1.9: Urbanization and increasing Flood risk in India [Source:https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/ urbanisation/chennai-apart-52265] Fig 1.10: Climate change as a driver of concurrent hazards in an urban environment [source:https:// www.downtoearth.org.in/news/urbanisation/chennaiapart-52265] Fig 1.11: Inland Water logging in the urban environment [source: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/ natural-disasters/rain-reign-51939] Fig 1.10: Chennai land use map 1975, 2006 and 2026 showing urbanization over water-bodies 42 Fig 1.11: Chennai – City’s Land Cover during 1997 & 2001 urbanization over potential social / green quality open spaces (Source: Sundaram AM (2009). (MIT, Manipal). GIS model to assess Chennai city’s environmental performance, using green cover as the parameters. Map World Forum. Hyderabad, GIS@development (website) Fig 1.12: Chennai land use map 1975, 2006 and 2026 showing urbanization over waterbodies [source: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7480/iphs.2016.3.1266 ] Fig 1.13: Chennai – City’s Land Cover during 1997 & 2001 urbanization over potential social / green quality open spaces (Source: Sundaram Map, 2009) Fig 1.14: Chennai’s Administrative Setup [source: Author] Fig 1.15: Post-2015 Agenda for Resilient and Sustainable Development [National Programmes that could
Fig 2.1 : Chennai in 1734 [ Source : Author] Fig 2.2 : Chennai in 1800s [ Source : Author] Fig 2.3 : Chennai in 1930s [ Source : Author] Fig 2.4 : Chennai in 1950s [ Source : Author] Fig 2.5 : Chennai in 1990s [ Source : Author] Fig 2.6 : Chennai Today [ Source : Author] Fig 2.7 : 2001 - MRC Nagar [ Source : Google Earth ] Fig 2.8 : 2009 - MRC Nagar [ Source : Google Earth ] Fig 2.9 : 2015 - MRC Nagar [ Source : Google Earth ] Fig 2.10 Aerial View of MRC Nagar - Today [ Source : The Hindu - https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/ chennai/finding-ones-luxury-perch/article7394839.ece] Fig 2.11: MRC Nagar in 2001 [ Source : Author] Fig 2.12: MRC Nagar in 2005 [ Source : Author] Fig 2.13: MRC Nagar in 2009 [ Source : Author] Fig 2.14: MRC Nagar in 2019 [ Source : Author] Fig 2.15 : Waterbodies of Chennai - Present day [ Source : Author] Fig 2.16 : Waterbodies of Chennai -16th Century [ Source : Author] Fig 2.17 : Ancient Water Management System [ Source : Dinamalar - https://www.dinamalar.com/news_detail. asp?id=1405288] Fig 2.18 : Chennai’s Waste Water Management Map [ Source : https://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/ water/why-better-sewage-management-in-chennaiwill-help-fight-floods-51993] Fig 2.19 : Chennai’s Water Sources [ Source : https:// maps-chennai.com/chennai-water-map] Fig 2.20 : Buckingham Canal - 1961 [ Source : The Hindu Archives] Fig 2.21 : Buckingham Canal - Today [ Source : http://chennai.citizenmatters.in/new-research-onbuckingham-canal-relevance-for-chennai-2279] Fig 2.22 : Chembarambakkam Lake 2018 [ Source : COPERNICUS SENTINEL-2 SATELLITE IMAGE / MAXAR TECHNOLOGIES VIA AP] Fig 2.23 : Chembarambakkam Lake - Today [ Source : COPERNICUS SENTINEL-2 SATELLITE IMAGE / MAXAR TECHNOLOGIES VIA AP] Fig 2.24: Flood prone areas in Chennai [ Source : Author] Fig 2.25 :Flood prone areas - MRC Nagar [ Source : Author] Fig 2.26: Vulnerable Communnities in and around MRC Nagar [ Source : Author ] Fig 2.27 :Disasters in Chennai over the years [source from
to left to right https://timesofislamabad.com/20-Aug-2017/floods-playhavoc-in-india-crores-of-people-hit-hard-times-of-india: https://www.
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indiatoday.in/magazine/up-front/story/20190708-drought-in-a-floodprone-city-1557065-2019-06-28: https://www.newsx.com/national/ chennai-rain-brings-some-respite-water-crisis-still-looms-large.html : https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/chennai-floods]
Fig 2.28 :Disaster timeline of Chennai Fig 2.29 The design area and urban risk [Theoritical framework] Fraglity Factor & Resilience Factor at city level
CHAPTER 3 Fig 3.1 : A simplified conceptual schematic of the urban system [Note: Schematic design inspired by Dicken (2011). Fig 3.2 : Question to be considered for urban resilience building process [S.Meerow et al,2016] Fig 3.3 : Scheme showing the Framing of the Approach [source: Author] Fig 3.4 : Urban System Scheme [source: Author, inspired by 164] Fig 3.5 : Resilience Assessment of five dimensions [source: Community, Environment and Disaster Risk Management, Vol. 15 67] Fig 3.6 : Overall resilience in all 10 Zones [Source : Author] Fig 3.7 : Overall CDRI resilience index mapping for all zones [Source : Author] Fig 3.8 :A Modified framework for city urban resilience index [Source : Author] [*Illustration made by author with the use fo Datas and statistics gathered from various openly available various public repository ] Fig 3.9 : Measurable: Urban City Resilience Index for Zone 10[Source : Author] Fig 3.10 : Measurable: Urban City Resilience Index for Zone 9[Source : Author] Fig 3.11 : Urban resilience index mapping for Zone 9[Source : Author] Fig 3.12 : Urban resilience index mapping for Zone 10[Source : Author] Fig 3.13: Scales of Assessment [Source : Author] [Illustration made by author with the use fo Datas and statistics gathered from various openly available various public repository and global climate data websites and elevation data from SRTM illustrated on openstreet basemap of the city and overlap maps are generated with QGIS ] Fig 3.14 : characteristics of Major neighborhood along the adyar river[Source : Author] Fig 3.15 : Urban System: The Spatial Assessment [ SWOT Map ] Strength & Opportunity[Source : Author] Fig 3.16: Urban System: The Spatial Assessment [ SWOT Map ] Weakness & Threat[Source : Author] Fig 3.17 : Chennai rainfall and temperature fluctuations over the years [2002-2016] Fig 3.18 : Inland Contour Map [ Natural topography when sealevel rise is +0 m ] Fig 3.19 : Projected sealevel rise due to global warming
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[sealevel rise is +1 m & +2m] Fig 3.20 : Projected flood risk map [overlapping] [Source : Author] Fig 3.21: Blue wire [Natural Topography] [Source : Author] Fig 3.22 : Patterns of the City with drainage sewers line and road pattern [Source : Author] Fig 3.23 : Map and Graph showing green wiring of the site [Source : Author] Fig 3.24 : Map and Graph showing Road Pattern orientation in the context [Source : Author]with the bars indicate the direction that more roads point to than any other direction.[Generated using by releasing a free tool created by Geoff Boeing] Fig 3.25 :Existing Water and sewage water collection flow direction [Source : Author] Fig 3.26 : Map showing settlement pattern of the precinct [Source : Author] Fig 3.27 :Map showing traffic pattern of the precinct [Source : Author] Fig 3.28 :Mapping infrastructure characteristics and oppurtunities in the precinct [Source : Author]
CHAPTER 4 Fig 4.1 : OCED Toolkit to integrate resilience into Planning and designs [ source : OCED] FIG 4.2: urban risk [Theoritical framework] SPECIFIC for the city [inspired from Conceptualizing City Fragility and Resilience indicators proposed by John de Boer et.al,2016] FIG 4.3: Framework for scenarios- Decision making in Scenario [Generic] Fig 4.4 : Question considered for urban resilience building process for the site Fig 4.5 : Screenshot of flooded street map website [ source[https://osm-in.github.io/flood-map/chennai. html] Fig 4.6 : Screenshot offacebook page [ source :https:// www.facebook.com/pedro.b.ortiz} Fig 4.7 : Screenshot of Eye on Canal website [ source :https://eyesonthecanal.in/} Fig 4.8 : Best practices of types of engagements [ source: various websites mentioned inlist of figure]
CHAPTER 5 Fig 5.1 Scale of the site - MRC Nagar Fig 5.2 The aerial view highlights the height differences of the buildings in the site Fig 5.3 The aerial view highlights where the landmarks and the flood inundation levels Fig 5.4 The flow of water through the basin without any interventions Fig 5.5 The flow of water through the basin after â&#x20AC;&#x153;Sponge architectureâ&#x20AC;? interventions
[*Figures are sourced from the Sponge Handbook and modified according to our site] Fig 5.6 Strategy - Protect [Source : Author] Fig 5.7 Strategy -Delay [Source : Author] Fig 5.8 Strategy - Store [Source : Author] Fig 5.9 Strategy - Release [Source : Author] Fig 5.10 Basic scheme of Principles of water management implementation Fig 5.11 Sponge Open Spaces -Scheme Fig 5.12 Sponge Streets -Scheme Fig 5.13 Sponge Building -Scheme Fig 5.14 Selected Sites in MRC Nagar for Sponge Interventions Fig 5.15 MRC Nagar - Satelite Image -2019 Fig 5.16 MRC Nagar - Satelite Image -2019 Fig 5.17 Proposal for the selected sites in MRC Nagar Fig 5.18 Key stakeholders for the selected sites in MRC Nagar [Source : Author] Fig 5.19 MRC Nagar as a “testing ground” and expansion of the project across the Adayar Basin [Source : Author]
CHAPTER 6 Fig 6.1 Proposal: Wilson, R., Levy, A., Ogorodnikov, V., & Bindelglass, E. (2016, February 19). One Architecture Archives. Retrieved from https://www.yimbynews.com/ tag/one-architecture. Fig 6.2 Conceptual Ideas: LafargeHolcim Foundation for Sustainable Construction. (n.d.). The Dryline: Urban flood protection infrastructure, New. Retrieved from https://www.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/projects/ the-dryline?show=d9bb8e48-d869-4215-a69c93d12a84d9c3. Fig 6.3 Renders: Week 01: Inspiration. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://dah710rockhamptondesign.blogspot. com/2016/03/week-01-inspiration.html. ArchiloversCom. (n.d.). The Dryline: BIG - Bjarke Ingels Group. Retrieved from https://www.archilovers.com/ projects/161181/the-dryline.html. Fig 6.4 Aerial View of BIG-U: (n.d.). Retrieved from https://the-dots.com/projects/the-dryline-91037. Fig 6.5 The Uro-Tribe huts: Cindy Otis. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.thedailybeast.com/author/cindyotis. Fig 6.6 The Uros Island : Cindy Otis. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.thedailybeast.com/author/cindyotis. Fig 6.7 The Uros clusters : Peru. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.thedailybeast.com/keyword/peru. Fig 6.8 The Uros Islands - An aerial view : (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.novalandtours.com/peru/ family-kids-friendly-tours/9-days-lima-cusco-vallesagrado-machu-picchu-puno.html. Fig 6.9 Plan of the Island : Mazatlan Post. (2018, September 29). Mexcatitlan: myth or truth? Retrieved from https://themazatlanpost.com/2018/09/29/ mexcatitlan-myth-or-truth/.
Fig 6.10 Aerial View: Murphy, M. (2014, February 10). UN INCREÍBLE SECRETO GUARDADO: ISLA DE MEXCALTITÁN. Retrieved from https://blog. rivieranayarit.com.mx/2014/02/un-increible-secretoguardado-isla-de.html. Fig 6.11 A View of the Island: YAN, R. de. (2019, May 15). Jala un hermoso pueblo mágico. Retrieved from https:// yoamonayarit.com/sigue-la-ruta/jala-un-hermosopueblo-magico/. Fig 6.12 Da nang Island : Law firm in Da Nang. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.antlawyers.vn/tag/lawfirm-in-da-nang. Fig 6.13 Da nang beach: Piacentino, C. (n.d.). Tour Vietnam e Cambogia. Retrieved from https://www. viaggigiovani.it/tour-piccoli-gruppi/vietnam-ecambogia. Fig 6.14 An aerial view of the island: StarsInsider. (2018, March 8). Viajes: ¡todo lo que debes saber sobre Vietnam! Retrieved from https://www.starsinsider. com/es/travel/148059/viajes-todo-lo-que-debessaber-sobre-vietnam. Fig 6.15 Sadhus or Saints in the mela: @bholenath. ke.bhakt, H. A. R. H. A. R. M. A. H. A. D. E. V. (1969, September 1). HAR HAR MAHADEV @bholenath. ke.bhakt Instagram Profile. Retrieved from https:// www.yumpik.com/u/bholenath.ke.bhakt. Fig 6.16 The Ritual Dip : Basant Panchami: 2 crore to take holy dip on Kumbh’s third ‘shahi snan’. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mynation.com/news/ basant-panchami-2-crore-to-take-holy-dip-on-kumbhs-third-shahi-snan--pmp1sx. Fig 6.17 An aerial view of the Temporary tents: বাংলা The News. (2019, January 9). কুম্ভমেলায় বিশ্বরেকর্ড গড়ল যোগীর রাজ্য, তৈরি হল আস্ত একটা শহর. Retrieved from https://www.thenewsbangla.com/ kumbh-mela-2019-prayagraj-to-have-worlds-largesttemporary-city/. Fig 6.18 Growth of the “module” : Lydia, Jessie, Pien, & Roos. (2019, September 19). Oceanix City: de drijvende stad van de toekomst. Retrieved from https://www. voordewereldvanmorgen.nl/duurzame-blogs/oceanixcity-de-drijvende-stad-van-de-toekomst. Fig 6.19 Principles of Oceanix City : Münzner, P., Münzner, P., Münzner, P., Ecourbanhub, University of Freiberg, Ecourbanhub, & University of Freiberg. (n.d.). Self-Sufficient Floating City From BIG Pays Attention to Rising Sea Levels. Retrieved from https://ecourbanhub. com/self-sufficient-floating-city-community-bigoceanix-sea-level/. Fig 6.20 Zero Energy Consumption Module : 丹麥要 造 可 容 納 1萬 人 的 海 上 城 市 ， 這 裡 汽 車 不 用 油 ， 垃圾可堆肥，聯合國都驚動了！. (2019, May 10). Retrieved from https://www.cocohk.me/post/1098815. Fig 6.21 Aerial View of Oceanix City : (n.d.). Retrieved from https://the-dots.com/projects/the-dryline-91037.
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LIST OF ACRONYMS/ ABBREVIATIONS 100RC-100 Resilient Cities ACCCRN - Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network AMRUT- Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation AMRUT- Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation CDRI -Climate Disaster Resilient Index CLRI- Central Leather Research Institute CMA - Chennai Metropolitan Area CMA Chennai Metropolitan Area CMDA - Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority CMWSSB - Chennai Metro Water Supply and Sewerage Board CRU- Climatic Research Unit CRZ - Coastal Regulation Zone DoE- Directorate of Education [India] DRR - Disaster Risk Reduction DRR -Disaster Risk Reduction EU -European Union FMP- Facility Master Plan FoV - Field of view FSI- Floor Space Index GCC - Greater Chennai Corporation GCC- Greater Chennai Corporation GCOE - Global Center of Excellence GCoM -Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy GDMA - Gujarat Disaster Management Authority HFA- Hyogo Framework of Action HPEC - High Powered Expert Committee ICZM-Integrated Coastal Zone Management IELRC - International Environmental Law Research Centre IELRC- International Environmental Law Research Centre IIHS - Indian Institute for Human Settlement IIHS - Indian Institute for Human Settlements IIT- Indian Institute of Technology INDC -Intended nationally determined contributions IPCC -Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISRO-Indian Space Research Organization IT- Infrastructure Technology IUC-International urban cooperation programme LID - Low Impact Development MNCs- Multi-National Corporations MoEFCC - Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change MoEF-Ministry of Environment, Forest MoUD- Ministry of Urban Development MRC Nagar- Mayor Ramanathan Chettiar Nagar NAPCC - National Action Plan for Climate Change ND-GAIN - Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative
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NDMA- National Disaster Management NDMA-National Disaster Management Authority NDMF - National Disaster Mitigation Fund NGOs- Non-Governmental Organization NUA - New Urban Agenda O&M - Operation and Maintenance OCED -Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OMR - Old Mahabalipuram Road OSR - Open Space Reserve PBS - Public Bike-sharing System PMAY - Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojna PMAY- Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojna PPP-Public-Private Partnership RWAs - Residential Welfare Associations RWAs - Residential Welfare Associations RWH - Rainwater Harvesting SBM-U - Swachh Bharat Mission Urban SBM-U Swachh Bharat Mission Urban SDG-Sustainable Development Goals SLB - Service Level Benchmarks (SLBs) SLIP - Service Level Implementation Plan SRTM - Shuttle Radar Topography Mission SuDS - Sustainable Drainage Systems SWOT- Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats TNDMA-Tamil Nadu Disaster Management Authority TNSDMP-Tamil Nadu State Disaster Management TOD- Transit Oriented Development UDC- Urban Design Collective ULB - Urban Local Body UN- United Nations UNDP - United Nations Development Programme UNDRR - United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction UNDRR - United Nations system for disaster risk reduction UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC- UN Framework Convention on Climate Change WRI- World Resources Institute
* Aerial photography of the site showing southeast coast of chennai