ProAgri Zambia 24 by ProAgri

ProAgri technology for the farmer

Z a m b i a

No 24

AgriFocus is ready for 2018

Free

Tiger Feeds: Chickens thrive on clean water

& promises effortless spraying

had the opportunity to visit the Czech Republic recently on an agricultural tour through the country, courtesy of AgriServe Agro. I also had the privilege of meeting the Czech Minister of Agriculture, Marian Jurečka (picture). He is very passionate about Africa and does his best to support trade and agricultural development in Zambia. He sees it as part of his duties to support the Zambian farmers. It also struck me with how much passion and vigour the Czech farmers and service providers were driving agriculture in all the sectors to lift it out of the weak position caused by communism under the Soviet Union. In some respects they are already on par with the Western world which embraced a free market system for many decades. They have first-hand experience in how

Content

Farm smartly! Du Preez de Villiers dupreez@proagri.co.za

Manage your water supply with Tiger feeds

Breeding Impulse: Top genetics from Europe to Africa

Novatek: It is feeding time in Mpongwe

Sheep farming made easy: Part 1

Meat without animals to hit shelves in 2021

Processing of oil seeds: Part 1

Spray to protect your crops: Part 1

Reap rich benefits from mechanisation planning

ETG offers the products, support and know-how to advance farmers

AgriFocus takes a close look at the 2017/2018 maize season

Soil: The farmer’s most important asset: Part 21

ProAgri technology for the farmer

Z a m b i a

No 24

Free

AgriFocus is ready for 2018

Cover

Letter from the Editor I

it feels when government do their day to day planning for them and they are determined to ensure that it will never happen again. The Czech Republic has strong trade relations with Zambia, dating back from the 1960’s when the former Czechoslovakia developed a keen interest in our former Northern Rhodesia’s natural resources, especially copper. The expansion of trade already exceeded 60 million Czech Krone in the early 60’s. The products involved included agricultural machines like the Zetor tractor. After independence in 1964, the trade intensified and Czechoslovakia opened an embassy in Lusaka in 1965. After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989, trade slowed down, but in 2007 it was kicked into shape again and it is growing stronger by the day. Read the story in this edition about the close trade relations between Breeding Cooporative Impuls in the Czech Republic and the one in Zambia. Recently, the president opened the Novatek feed plant in Mpongwe and AgriFocus reveals their plans for the 2018 planting season. We also started off with new series on sheep handling, oil seed processing and one on spraying techniques.

Tiger Feeds: Chickens thrive on clean water

& promises effortless spraying

BHBW is the proud distributor of Hardi spraying equipment and the Hardi hitch sprayer series will fit any medium sized farming operation like a glove. (Photo: agrodirect.ru)

ProAgri technology for the farmer

Z a m b i a

Office no. 3 Fens Investment Building Lusaka Show Grounds +26 (0)96-216-9801 www.proagri.co.za Copyright © 2013. All rights r eserved. No m aterial, text or p hotographs may be r eproduced, copied or in any other way t ransmitted without the written consent of the publisher. O pinions expressed are not n ecessarily those of the publisher or of the e ditor. We recognise all trademarks and logos as the sole property of their r espective o wners. ProAgri shall not be liable for any errors or for any actions in reliance thereon.

ProAgri Zambia Editor Du Preez de Villiers > +27 82-598-7329 dupreez@proagri.co.za General Manager and Distribution Zambia Quintus Grobler > +26-096-216-9801 (WA only) South Africa + 27-078-978-6339 quintus@proagri.co.za Reporters Annemarie Bremner > +27 82-320-3642 annemarie@proagri.co.za Benine Cronjé > +27 73-105-6938 benine@proagri.co.za Senior Production Manager: Zainab Pandor > +26 97-769-9786 zainab@proagri.co.za Marketing Xander Pieterse > +27 79-524-0934 xander@proagri.co.za Stefan van Wyk > +27 82-381-7563 stefan@agritrader.co.za Tiny Smith > +27 79-531-0024 tiny@proagri.co.za Munyinda Nambula > +26 97-742-6564 munyinda@proagri.co.za Riaan Oosthuizen > +27 72-321-3690 riaan@proagri.co.za Jeffrey Erasmus > +27 72-996-5627 jeffrey@proagri.co.za Design Marina Mentz > marina@elemintcreative.co.za Enquiries Lize du Plooy > +27 12-803-0667 lize@proagri.co.za Engela Botha > +27 12-803-0667 engela@proagri.co.za Accounts Ronel Keet > +27 12-803-0667 accounts@proagri.co.za Business Manager George Grobler

ProAgri Zambia 24

Indian River Broiler Pocket Guide: Housing and Environment Objective To provide an environment that permits the bird to achieve optimum performance in growth rate, uniformity, feed efficiency and yield, while ensuring that the health and welfare of the bird is not compromised. Principles Ventilation is the main means of controlling the bird’s environment. Ventilation maintains acceptable air quality in the house while keeping the birds within their comfort temperature. Ventilation provides adequate fresh air, removes excess moisture, and limits the build-up of potentially harmful gasses and airborne by-products. During the early stages of the bird’s life, ventilation supplies heat into the house to keep the birds warm and comfortable, and provides sufficient fresh air to maintain an acceptable air quality in the house. As the birds grow and start to produce more heat, higher ventilation rates are needed to remove heat and the products of respiration (moisture) from the house. Monitoring bird behaviour and adjusting ventilation in response to bird behaviour to ensure that bird comfort and activity is maintained, is key. Air The main contaminants of air within the house environment are dust, ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and excess water vapour. Levels of these contaminants must be kept within legal limits at all times. Continued and excessive exposure to these contaminants can: • Damage the respiratory tract. • Decrease the efficiency of respiration. • Trigger disease (e.g. ascites or chronic respiratory disease). • Affect temperature regulation. • Contribute to poor litter quality. • Reduce bird performance (Table 24).

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above 32°C when compared to 21°C. The rule of thumb for water intake is usually 1,5 to 2 times feed intake. Tables A and B provide data on typical water consumption levels for layers and broilers, respectively.

cycle. The subsequent procedure is a guideline for cleaning water systems. Procedure for cleaning water systems • Drain pipes and header tanks • Flush lines with clean water • Physically scrub header tanks to remove scale and biofilm deposits. • Drain tank to the exterior of the house • Refill tank with fresh water and add an approved water sanitiser • Run the sanitiser solution through the drinker lines from header tank, ensuring there are no air locks • Fill up header tank to normal operating level with additional sanitiser solution to the appropriate strength. Replace lid. Allow disinfectant to remain for a minimum of four hours • Drain and rinse with fresh water • Refill with fresh water prior to chick arrival

Table A. Typical daily water consumption for layers, at 21°C (litres per 1 000 birds)

Production stage Age/rate of production

Layer pullet Laying hens

21°C

4 weeks

100

12 weeks

160

18 weeks

200

50% production

220

90% production

270

290

330

355

Water intake

245

Age (weeks)

180

Table B. Typical daily water consumption for broilers, at 20°C (litres per 1 000 mixed sex birds)

120

t is almost impossible to overemphasise the importance of good quality water for poultry flocks. A chicken consists of 70 percent water; a loss of only 10 percent of that water will result in the bird’s death. And, a single day without water will cause a layer to stop laying. Water molecules consist of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. But contaminated water is a mixture of a variety of substances dissolved or suspended in it, and these added materials can drastically affect flock performance. Water should be clear, odourless, tasteless and sterile for the poultry flock. Water is a major component of blood and plays a major role in transporting nutrients to the cells and carrying waste away. Water is also a primary element in three of the most important processes that occur in chickens – digestion and respiration, which is key to thermoregulation, and eliminating body wastes. Good quality, fresh water should be flowing through the drinking system before day old chicks are placed in the chicken house. Providing adequate, good quality water to the growing flocks is critical to achieve good performance. Water makes 70% of a grown chicken’s body weight and 85% of the weight of a chick; therefore it is essential to maintain the bird’s water weight. In layers, in order to achieve good hen days at the end of the cycle, birds must have a constant supply of good quality water. Water is an essential nutrient for life. Consumption may be limited if water is too hot or contaminated with excess minerals. Water and food consumption rates are interdependent, so reduced water intake will also lead to reduced food intake. Apart from temperature, there are other factors that affect water intake. For example, a chicken drinks between 30 and 50% more water when the environmental temperature is

The temperature of drinking water should be between 10°C and 15°C for the most comfortable consumption by mature birds, but some studies have indicated that water temperature of about 25°C reduces mortality in chicks. Temperatures over 30°C will reduce water consumption. Birds will refuse to drink if water temperatures are over 44°C, thus resulting in growth retardation in broilers and decreased egg production in layers. Another factor is the type of drinkers used. A bird’s water requirement increases by 6,5% per degree Celsius over 21°C. Therefore, it is imperative that the drinking equipment used should meet the demanding needs for that bird. It is important to have a clean water system before the beginning of each

Water is the most essential nutrient birds receive, yet the quality of bird drinking water is often taken for granted. Providing flocks with a clean, wholesome supply can make a difference in performance. Should water be the suspect for flock problems, have water tested for total bacteria numbers as well as for mineral content. Although total aerobic plate count will not specify what exactly is in the water, it is an indicator of excessive levels of bacteria that should be addressed. By promoting a regular water sanitation programme on a farm, producers can prevent the elements in water systems that could lead to poor bird performance. Poultry producers who want to optimise their flock performance would be well advised to spend time evaluating the quality and quantity of water provided to their birds. REMEMBER: Birds will tend not to eat if there is no water available.

ProAgri Zambia 24

Breeding Cooperative Impuls: Top genetics from Europe to Africa

by Du Preez de Villiers

AgriServe Agro and Breeding Impuls Zambia recently invited a number of Zambian farmers to the Czech Republic to see for themselves what genetics this country has to offer.

fter the fall of communism in 1989, the former Czechoslovakia had big challenges to overcome. The sudden shift to a free market system caused confusion among the citizens and had a serious impact on the productivity of the country. Luckily the government had the vision to prevent famine and paid subsidies to farmers to import as many different livestock breeds as possible. Serious breeding could commence and today, the Czech Republic can boast among the best cattle genetics in the world. It is therefore no wonder that the Czech Republic is a renowned exporter of cattle genetics today. Many countries around the world benefitted from their efforts over many years and one of these privileged countries is Zambia. This initiative to export embryos and semen to Zambia was initiated by Michal BasovnĂk, a consultant at Breeding Cooperative Impuls in the town BobrovĂĄ in the centre of the Czech Republic. Breeding Impuls is a cooperation formed in 2001 by six Fleckvieh farmers who were unsatisfied with the way the huge genetics companies conducted business. Today they have 104 active members and a combined genetic pool of 40 000

Michal BasovnĂk can get access to the milk production as well as all the necessary breeding data of every animal on their database through an app on his smart device.

ProAgri Zambia 24

The top Fleckvieh breeding bull is displayed on the wall of the offices of the Fleckvieh Breeders Association in the Czech Republic. Michal Basovník believes that the Fleckvieh breed is the best you can get, and his cooperation, Breeding Cooperative Impuls, trades only in Fleckvieh genetics. “The Fleckvieh Association actually belongs to Breeding Cooperative Impuls,” he jokes.

Kasakova Nikola, a student of the Czech University of life sciences in Prague and also Miss Agro 2017, is very impressed with LA Lanslide, the top Fleckvieh bull from Breeding Cooperative Impuls. He is their most successful bull ever and they sell his semen to Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, the Ukraine and Turkey.

meat production. If a farmer can milk his cows and if the muscling is on par with other beef breeds, the animal is profitable twice. This is also the reason why this will work in Zambia. The small-scale farmer can utilise the milk as well as the meat and opposed to milk breeds, he can utilise the bull calves effectively. Renier van Vuuren is the managing director of Breeding Impuls Zambia and his passion for cattle breeding is evident in all the projects he is involved with in Zambia. He shares the same vision as Michal. “The possibilities with cross breeding and terminal crosses with our local breeds are endless", Renier says. "As soon as we introduce the Fleckvieh genetics, the A two month old heifer calf born in Mwandi, Western Province, from a Boran type small-scale farmers will also cow and Fleckvieh bull. improve their meat and milk production. This is how you on food security for future expansions cows. The cooperation owns a tapping alleviate poverty." station with 100 bulls. They tap most and wanted to keep records on the Breeding Impuls Zambia and Agriof the bulls on order and currently they available food for his soldiers. After the Serve Agro have for the last years have to tap twice a week due to the Soviet Union took over, Moscow also educated farmers on the principals of demanded the data for effective central huge demand. Breeding Impuls also dairy ranching which focuses on genetic planning,” he says. employs five consultants like Michal improvement, pasture development and who travel around the country, collectIn 2013, Breeding Cooperative proactive herd health management. Impuls joined forces with the local ing data and giving advice to Fleckvieh “We have experienced an aggressive farmers. company, AgriServe Agro, who formed uptake by farmers for genetic improveBreeding Impuls Zambia. They started Breeding Cooperative Impuls is also ment. Within a period of five years we importing straws of semen and conway ahead with the collection of milk have grown the market to a total of figures and all possible breeding value ducted AI and embryo transplants with 12 000 artificial inseminations per year. data. “On our database, we have the huge success. In 2014, Brent Stubbs, Poverty elevation takes a holistic apa farmer near Mazabuka bought the daily milk records of all the cows where proach to livestock production,” Renier first Fleckvieh bull which was conceived we do milk recording. Data of 95% of says. via an embryo transplant by Breeding the cows in our country are collected regularly, compared to 50% in the Impuls Zambia. Contact Renier van Vuuren at Michal says: “We are promoting the USA,” Michal says. Their database is renier@agriserveagro.com or Fleckvieh very strongly since it is a also available for public use. +26(0) 96-849-3432 to enhance "This culture came from policies imdual purpose animal. It makes sense your cattle herd. posed by Hitler who focussed strongly to keep a balance between milk and ProAgri Zambia 24

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It is feeding time in Mpongwe Mpongwe now has its own state-of-the-art animal feed production plant. The market for animal feed, especially for poultry feed, is showing spectacular growth allowing Novatek, part of the Zambeef group, to build the new plant. The Novatek plant in Lusaka is already running at full capacity.

he plant on the Zambeef Products PLC Mpongwe Farm enjoyed presidential endorsement, being inaugurated by His Excellency Mr Edgar Lungu. At the inauguration, the President commended Zambeef on the investment, stating it was in line with the government’s goal to make agriculture the number one economic activity and ensure food security by working with both commercial and small-scale farmers in the country. This plant has the capacity of producing 20 tonnes of feed an hour, or 130 000 tonnes per year. As part of its ongoing strategic outline, Zambeef set out key priorities for growth with an increased focus on production expansion and its cold chain food products division that has included massive capital reinvestment across various operations. Since Mpongwe also falls inside a huge commercial and emerging farming block, they chose this vicinity to establish the new plant on their farm in the area. Johan Wolhuter, animal nutritionist, was tasked to complete the project. The plant concentrates on producing feed for non-ruminants such as poultry and pigs. For poultry, the whole series of feeds, from day-old chicks to parent stock, will be produced. Feed will be produced either in the form of mash or pellets. The heart of the plant is a batch mixer, delivering two tonnes every four minutes. The rest of the complex

system of raw product silos, transporting and conveyor systems, cleaners, hammer mills, a conditioner, extruders, premix bins, a pelletiser, dryer and finally the final product silos with the bulk filling and bag filling plant is seven storeys high. A full length weighbridge will ensure that every tonne of raw material and every finished product will carry the correct weight label.

At the presidential inauguration of Novatek Animal feeds on the Zambeef Products PLC Mpongwe Farm, His Excellency Mr Edgar Lungu stated that it was in line with the government’s goal to make agriculture the number one economic activity. Novatek receives the maize and wheat bran from the local mills. The premixes and phosphates come from South Africa. The calcium source is feed grade lime coming from a new mine in Mpongwe. Other components like maize and soy beans are locally sourced.

But building a feed plant in Zambia is not about production only. The positive impact on the community is immense. Novatek will create 150 new jobs and part of the project is the building of brand new houses for all their staff. Johan envisaged two small villages close to the plant: “One is for the general workers and the other one for the more senior staff. Every house will have running water and electricity. The need for jobs in Mpongwe is huge and we shall make a big dent in unemployment in this area. Since the plant has a bag-handling facility for smaller-scale farmers, many manual labourers will be required.” In total 31 houses have been finished, with six bigger houses for supervisors in the pipeline for the new year as well as expanding two existing houses. When this is done, more houses will be built to accommodate more people. Herman Potgieter, General Manager, Novatek Mpongwe, says: “Housing and improving living conditions of workers will be an ongoing project, but expansion is progressing very well. The plan is to spend another $223 670 on staff housing in the 2017-18 financial year.”

ProAgri Zambia 24

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ProAgri Zambia 24

Sheep farming made easy Part1: Production cycles and breed choices

Black headed Dorper sheep are becoming very popular in Zambia.

heep production is becoming more popular in Zambia and the prices of small stock are increasing at livestock auctions. This month we start with a brand new series, taking an in-depth look at everything about sheep farming. We thank the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering in South Africa for making their manual on sheep production and facilities available to the readers of ProAgri Zambia. In order to produce mutton economically, it is necessary to comply with certain basic production requirements. Various closely related factors have an influence on the production process. Optimal production is only possible if all these factors assert their influence separately and combined. The design of an intensive production system is discussed according to a planning procedure, the climatic requirements, design specifications and choice of the site based on practical information, especially regarding the layout of the system. The various facilities such as the housing facility, the handling complex and shearing sheds are fully discussed in respect of the layout and existing systems. The most important production requirements are the following: • The provision of efficient and effective holding and handling facilities • The establishment of proven genetic material resulting in proven stock • The provision of a nutritional standard of high quality • A high standard of management • Stable marketing facilities Existing production systems and the production cycle of sheep Existing production systems for mutton production can be divided into two main groups, namely extensive and intensive systems. Other important aspects are the type, placing and construction of fences and gates. Provision must be made for sufficient drinking water and supplementary feeding. Extensive In an extensive production system

sheep live of the veld. Relevant structures therefore consist of drinking troughs, overnight facilities and a handling complex.

In an extensive system, sheep can roam over large areas.

Intensive To prevent any confusion, the term intensive is defined as follows: Intensive sheep production is a system not defined under an extensive system and usually refers to a closed Sheep in an intensive system are kept in a system, or a system smaller and more localised area. which exists in a feeding pen or a production system from planted grazing or a combination thereof. The final choice between the systems will largely depend on the owner or client, and will therefore depend on preference, management level, existing facilities, et cetera. With intensive and risks of the system are usually production systems there are two types high, but the potential income is also of lambing seasons, namely an inhigher. In this system, sheep breeds phase and accelerated lambing season. with a long breeding season is used. The lambs are weaned early (six to In-phase lambing season eight weeks or on approximately 20 In this system each ewe lambs only kg) and the ewes are tupped again imonce a year. The group is, however, mediately. Three lamb harvests in two divided into two, so that the ewes from years are obtained this way. different groups will lamb at different A typical lay-out of an intensive protimes of the year. duction system for both in-phase and Risks are diminished this way, and accelerated lambing season systems lambing pens and feeding pens can can appear as shown in Figure 1. be used more effectively. An existing A number of variations can occur, system can be utilised to its maximum depending on how the planted pasby extending the size of the herd. tures are integrated in the system and the facilities. A schematic lay-out of a Accelerated lambing season system, which uses plenty of planted The accelerated lambing season system grazing and where the ewes lamb on is beginning to become a possibility as the pastures, is presented in Figure 2. the production system is refined. Costs

ProAgri Zambia 24

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Weaned lambs

Ewe and lamb grazing

Lamb feeding complex

Weaned lambs

Lamb grazing

Ewes lamb on grazing Market

Lambing pens

Gestating ewes Dry ewes or replacement ewes

Market Lamb feeding complex

Gestating ewes

Old ewes Feedlot or planted grazing

Figure 1: A schematic presentation of an in-phase or accelerated lambing season production system.

Feedlot or planted grazing

Figure 2: Schematic presentation of a system that includes planted pastures.

Herd structure The herd structure pertains to the percentage of division of breeding ewes, she-lambs, young ewes and wethers. The analysis of the herd structure showed that an increase in breeding ewes has a very important influence on the future mutton production of a herd. Factors such as marketing age, mating age and number of breeding seasons per year - which is directly dependent on the breed - determine the percentage breeding ewes in the herd. The greatest percentage breeding ewes in the herd - and consequently the highest mutton production - is possible with breeds such as mutton, mutton/ wool and fur sheep.

In an in-phase lambing season system, resources can be used more effectively.

This lay-out could be used where ewes lamb in the spring and/or autumn, but it will depend on the climate of the region in question. Regions with a reasonably dry, warm climate will be suitable for this type of lay-out. Choice of breed Under the item accelerated lambing season production system there was mention of breeds with a long breeding season. The specific breed to be used, will therefore also have an influence on the system to be used. The objective of any intensive production system is maximising profit. It is therefore important that the choice of a breed will also be made with maximum profits in mind. The term profit maximising refers to striving towards maximum income from mutton and/or wool produc-

tion per ewe per year. Factors such as a personal preference for a certain breed are therefore excluded from this discussion. In line with the profit maximising objective, the following factors pertaining to choice of breed are important: • Adaptation of a breed to the specific region • A long breeding season • An acceptable carcass • Growth potential • High reproduction tempo • Good maternal characteristics If a certain herd size is accepted, the above factors can be evaluated according to three basic factors for the increase of mutton production, namely: • Herd structure • Age structure • Weaning percentage

Age structure Mutton production consists of the number of lambs and number of ewes marketed annually. An extension of the period that breeding ewes can be used in the herd means a reduction in the replacement tempo, that is the number of lambs to be retained in the herd per year for replacement of productive ewes. A reduction in the replacement tempo will inevitably ensure an increase in the number of marketable lambs per year and hence an increase in income. Factors which influence the production period of breeding ewes are: • The number of lambs weaned, mated per ewe, increasing to the ewe’s age of five years, after which it decreases as the ewe gets older; • The survival age of the ewes remains constant to the age of seven years after which it decreases. An early mating age and longevity of ewes are therefore very important factors to consider in the choice of a breed.

ProAgri Zambia 24

The above factors determine the number of marketable lambs per year. It is, however, also important to look at the factors that influence the total mass of lamb produced per year. These factors are as follows: • Milk production of the ewes: This feature largely determines the preweaning lamb growth and is especially important with a high fecundity characteristic. • Growth potential of the lambs: The growth potential of the lambs is to an extent influenced by the heredity of this feature and varies from breed to breed. • The “type” and carcass quality: has an anticipatory value to predict the

InTable 1, some of the most important differences between the different breeds are quantified.

Dorper

Afrino

Vandor

Dorset Horn

Ilde France

Hampshire

Suffolk

Corriedale

Dormer

Merinolandsheep

S A Mutton merino

Walrich

Letelle

Dohne merino

Merino

percentage fat and percentage good meat cuts of a carcass. The variation of the factors influencing the choice of a breed is sometimes greater within a Pay close attention to the marketing age of your breed of breed as choice. between different breeds. This Carcass quality is a very means that no universal breed can be Weaning percentage important breeding aim. recommended for intensive systems. The weaning percentage directly deterFundamentally, factors such as mines the mutton production and can adaptation potential, fast growth and be increased by: longevity of ewes, determine the • An increase in the lamb percentage, choice of the breed. If the current wool that is the number of lambs born per price is considered, a further determinmated ewe. ing factor, namely the wool production • An increase in fecundity: Under potential, is also important. fecundity (fertility) we understand the number of lambs born per ewe. Wool Wool/Mutton Mutton/wool European Mutton Local Mutton The occurrence of multiple births Table 1 therefore has a positive influence on the meat production. There is, however, a notable weaker growth with multiples compared to single lambs. An increase in fertility must therefore be coupled with selection for better growth potential to be significant. Fecundity can be increased by selection Availability of ewes +3 +2 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +3 within a breed or by crossbreeding. • An improvement in the covering: Breeding season: Short* +1 +1 That is the percentage ewes lambed Intermediate +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 per ewes mated. The fertility of the Long ewes and rams are very important here. Fecundity (Fertility) -1 +2 +1 +1 +2 +2 +2 +1 +2 +2 +2 +1 +1 +1 +2 • An improvement in survival: That is Sexual maturity -1 +1 +1 +1 +2 +1 +2 +1 +3 +3 +2 +2 +1 +1 +3 the number of lambs born per number of lambs weaned. As far as the Marketing age -1 +1 +1 +1 +2 +1 +2 +1 +3 +3 +2 +2 +1 +1 +3 choice of a breed is concerned, the Feed intake +2 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1 -1 +1 +1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 maternal characteristics are imporWool production +3 +2 +2 +2 +1 +1 -1 +1 -2 -2 -1 -1 -1 -1 -2 tant here. • An increase in lambing frequenCross breeding: Ewes +3 +2 +2 +2 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 cies: That is that more coverings are Rams -3 -1 -1 -1 +3 +2 +3 +1 +3 +3 +3 +3 +1 +1 +3 done; three times in every two years instead of the normal annual lambing.

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Next month we shall look at the design of sheep production systems. Published with acknowledgement to the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering for the use of their Sheep Facilities Manual. Visit www. arc.agric.za for more information.

ProAgri Zambia 24

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Meat without animals to hit shelves in 2021 I

t seems meat production will always cause headaches for the environmentally conscious. The latest trend is to produce meat in laboratories. A couple of years ago a Dutch researcher, Mark Post from the Maastricht University, spent $325 000 to create a test tube hamburger. Today, the price has dropped to just over $11. The question arises if it will catch on in Africa and if our consumers will trade a real juicy rump or sirloin steak for this artificial product … Now, a growing number of start-ups are trying to do the same, with a view to addressing concerns about animal welfare and the carbon footprint of meat production. However, Chris Lo, Consumer Analyst at GlobalData, reports that new products will not be ready to hit the shelves until 2021. Lo commented: "Memphis Meats, a 2016 start-up, secured funding from a group of investors, including Bill Gates and Richard Branson, as well as food industry heavyweight Cargill, and former General Electric CEO Jack Welch.

Venture capital group DFJ, which has previously backed Skype, Tesla and Twitter, led the funding." Clean meat Memphis claims their ‘clean meat’ is “identical to the meat we eat, down to the cellular level”. They are competing with Beyond Meat and Impossible Foods, which produce plant-based burgers said to emulate beef burgers more closely than has ever been achieved before. Memphis produces meat by using animal cells, as its products are not meat alternatives. The Silicon Valley based group has produced beef, chicken and duck in its lab and aims towards producing all meats by the same methods. The process works by combining self-producing cells in tanks, or bioreactors with oxygen, sugar and other nutrients. The resulting product is being positioned as a meat that is produced without harming animals or producing methane. No land is wasted and no

excess water used, and no deforestation have to be done for cattle grazing. The resulting ‘clean meat’ will not come from animals treated with antibiotics, or grazed on chemically fertilised soil, nor will the meat be contaminated with anything undesirable in an abattoir. Aiming for commercially sustainable production Lo, added: "The 'meat' is being publicised by its venture capital investors as having a better taste and more nutritional value than real meat. However, the presence of Cargill on the investment roster is significant, signalling that Memphis is firmly aiming for commercially sustainable production: a product that is affordable to the growing Chinese and Indian middle classes. Success will ultimately require a huge amount of trust from consumers and transparency from Memphis."

ProAgri Zambia 24

http://www.bizcommunity.com

Make more from your crop Processing of oil seeds – Part 1

By Theresa Siebert, Petrus Britz, Pr Eng and Agrelek Did the time arrive for farmers to do more with their oil seeds than just to harvest and sell it?

This month we start with a series on the processing of oil seeds. We thank the ARCInstitute for Agricultural Engineering in South Africa, who made their manuals available to the readers of ProAgri Zambia.

The needs and capabilities of every individual processing entrepreneur differ and can only be addressed properly by a team of experts. It will give the interested entrepreneur insight in the extent of operations and the sourcing of relevant designers and suppliers. This series covers the processing of the following oil seeds into the products as described below:

crop farmer can also harvest the secondary process, namely the processing of oil seeds. African farmers facing current economic realities are searching for new methods to survive and expand their operations. One of the many opportunities to increase markets, turnover and profits, is by adding value to farm produce. Options need to be carefully selected according to accurate information and knowledge of the opportunities offered on a regular basis, and considering the strengths and weaknesses of individual farms. The aim of this series is solely to provide the reader with some basic information on food processing in order to realise the extent of the operations involved. This information concentrates on the sequence and steps involved in the processing of the selected product and explain the reason for and necessity of each step.

Oil seed processing can offer different opportunities from the small entrepreneur to the large enterprise.

Soy beans Soy protein concentrate: Defatted soy meal consists of 30 to 35% carbohydrates. By removing the soluble carbohydrate fraction along with some flavour components, the protein concentration of the soy meal is increased. There are three different methods that can be used to concentrate soy meal. • Acid leaching method (pH 4,5) • Aqueous ethanol method (60 to 80%) • Moist heat – water leaching method

Get hold of proper specialists to ensure a headache-free processing operation.

Soy ice cream is classified as paravine, that is non-dairy frozen dessert. It resembles traditional ice cream, but contains soy protein products instead of milk protein. Soy paste is one of the most important Oriental soy products. It is basically prepared from whole or (Cont p18)

ProAgri Zambia 24

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flaked soybeans and other cereals (wheat, rice, barley) that is fermented, mixed with brine and fermented again to produce a salty, tangy condiment or seasoning for meat, fish, and vegetable dishes. It can also be used as a base for sauce to go with meat, seafood, poultry or vegetable dishes and as a stock for soups. It can be further spiced with hot peppers (chilli) to produce “hot soy paste”. Soy sauce is the dark brown liquid extracted from the fermented soywheat mixture. It has a salty taste and sharp flavour. It is used as an all-purpose seasoning. Soy sauce is prepared from soy beans mixed with other cereals such as wheat that undergoes two separate fermentation processes. Soy grits and flour are produced from the defatted soy flakes that are separated from the miscella during oil extraction. It only requires desolventising, grinding and screening to produce a highly nutritional product with wide application possibilities in the food and feed industry.

water soluble impurities that need to be removed by a series of refining operations. Tofu is the soft, white curd prepared by coagulating water soluble soy proteins. It has a gel structure that resembles fresh cheese or firm set yoghurt. Full-fat soy flour is prepared by grinding dehulled soy beans. The soybeans may be given a steam treatment prior to grinding to produce toasted full-fat soy flour. Toasted fullfat soy flour is used in a wide range of baked products and baby formulas.

oil cake (press-cake) is used as animal feed. Sunflower oil – small-scale: The small-scale oil processor can process up to 300 kg of sunflower seed per hour. Sunflower oil – medium-scale: The medium-scale oil processor can process 300 kg to 1 ton of sunflower seed per hour. Sunflower seeds yield between 40 to 60% oil of which 65 to 80% may be extracted using mediumscale oil presses or expellers. The oil is usually cold-pressed and yields high quality oil for frying, salad or shortening purposes. The oil generally retains anti-oxidants better compared to large-scale produced oil. This is important from a health and shelf-life perspective.

A wide variety of valuable and popular products can be extracted out of a sunflower seed.

Soya bean offers a wide variety of consumable products for humans and livestock. Soy yoghurt (soghurt) is a cultured soy milk product produced by fermenting the fortified soy milk with a mixed culture of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. The unflavoured product has a soft, smooth, custard-like consistency and a distinct acid flavour. The composition of formulated soy milk is very similar to dairy milk and therefore the manufacturing of soy yoghurt is the same as dairy yoghurt. Soy milk is the aqueous extract of soybeans. It closely resembles dairy milk in appearance and composition. It has been consumed in Eastern countries for centuries. Soy milk prepared by traditional Eastern methods, has a flavour that is often described as “beany”, “rancid” or “bitter” by consumers of the Western world. Soy oil is a high quality triglyceride ingredient and is used widely in commercial processed foods. The crude soy oil contains both oil soluble and 18

Sunflower Sunflower oil fat spread or margarine is a water-in-fat emulsion which closely resembles butter. It is firm when refrigerated, but melts rapidly in the mouth. It is made from a nondairy fat and water mixture. The fat phase contains oil-soluble ingredients, for example mono and diglycerides, lecithin (optional), colouring agent and vitamins. The aqueous phase (16 to 18%) contains water with or without added edible protein. This "milk" may be prepared by adding dried protein to water and is then pasteurised, except for pastry and kosher margarine where only water is added. Sunflower meal is good source of protein, but has limited application as human food because of the chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid content which causes an unappetising dark green discoloration of the products when the pH increases above a certain point. Milled sunflower seeds has potential use in bread, pastries, cake and as a thickener in various products, but finds its main application in animal and bird feed as a protein supplement. Sunflower oil is an important oil seed crop with good flavour stability, coupled with its high linoleic acid content. Sunflower seeds yield between 40 and 60% oil. The oil can be used as salad and cooking oils, shortening, and margarine. Cold-pressed oil is suitable for table use and hot-pressed oil, which is of lesser value, is used for soap-making, candle-making, lubricants and mixing paints. The residue

A medium-scale oil processor can process 300 kg to 1 ton of sunflower seed per hour. Sunflower snacks: Non-oilseed type sunflower seed can be processed to produce a snack item that can be included as an ingredient in various products, for example muesli mixtures, snack bars or granola products. Small, cracked or partially hulled sunflower seeds are used as bird feed. Defatted sunflower meal: The milled sunflower seeds can be used in bread, pastries, cake and as a thickener in various products. It can be used as a bread supplement that is colourless, bland and a good source of protein. However, the sunflower seeds contain chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid and with pH changes change to an unappetising dark green colour, which renders the products unacceptable for human consumption. This can be overcome with the correct treatment of the seeds, especially for the manufacture of defatted flour. Next month we shall focus on the different soy bean processing methods. Published with the acknowledgement to the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering for the use of their manuals. Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information.

ProAgri Zambia 24

Agri-Wes is a well-established company within the agricultural environment, it focuses on delivering a wide range of services to the farming community in Zambia. Since 1995 Agri-Wes have been specialising in Agrochemicals and seed. In 2012 we started to supply VADERSTAD equipment, and in 2014 we expanded into providing Zambian farmers with CLAAS machinery. Recently we have been given the opportunity to distribute Stara sprayers and spreaders including the self-propelled machines in Zambia.

LEXION 700 SERIES Awarded Machine of the year in 2016 in the combine harvester division at Agritechnica

A knapsack sprayer is used in conjunction with a mobile spray box to prevent loss through wind blow.

Part 1: Spray to protect your crops Compiled be J Fuls Pr Eng

who made this series available to the ance among the pests, causing heavy rofit margins for farming are tight, readers of ProAgri Zambia. outbreaks which lead to an increase and no farmer can afford to share his crops or inputs with pests or weeds. Weeds compete with desirable plants in production costs and heavy crop losses. Therefore farmers have to apply pesfor food and water, while insects, ticides and herbicides to protect their mites, worms and other invisible pests Insecticides come in various formulalike fungi and microbes damage plants. tions, such as dusts, wettable powders, valuable plants. Spraying is a method used on large seed dressers, emulsions and granules. Chemical control of weeds and pests can be easy, effective and profitable scale for direct control of weeds and Sometimes spraying is also used to apply plant foods to be taken up if the right equipment and techniques pests. In these methods, chemicals through the leaves. are employed. In order to help farmthat kill the weeds or pests are used. These chemicals are called herbicides, ers and emerging farmers to get the most out of chemical control, ProAgri pesticides or insecticides. The chemical Coarse or fine droplets Properties of coarse spray and fine plans to publish a series of articles on method is effective and quicker than spray the basic principles of sprayers and other methods, but it can be hazardous â&#x20AC;˘ Coarse spray takes longer to evapospraying techniques, starting right here to the environment if it is not applied rate in the sun than fine spray. and now. strictly according to the instructions. We thank the ARC-Institute for AgImproper use of chemicals may ricultural Engineering in South Africa, lead to the development of resistA knapsack sprayer is used in conjunction with a mobile spray box to prevent loss through wind blow. ProAgri Zambia 24

䄀瀀瀀爀漀瘀攀搀䄀最爀椀挀甀氀琀甀爀愀氀䄀猀猀攀琀匀甀瀀瀀氀椀攀爀唀渀搀攀爀倀唀䈀䰀䤀䌀匀䔀刀嘀䤀䌀䔀䴀䤀䌀刀伀䘀䤀一䄀一䌀䔀䌀伀䴀倀䄀一夀 ⴀ 䌀䤀嘀䤀䰀匀䔀刀嘀䄀一吀匀 ⴀ 倀伀䰀䤀䌀䔀䄀一䐀䌀伀刀刀䔀䌀吀䤀伀一䄀䰀匀䔀刀嘀䤀䌀䔀匀匀吀䄀䘀䘀 ⴀ 䴀䄀夀伀刀匀Ⰰ 䌀伀唀一䌀䤀䰀䌀䠀䄀䤀刀䴀䔀一Ⰰ 吀伀圀一䌀䰀䔀刀䬀匀 ⴀ 䨀唀䐀䤀䌀䤀䄀刀夀匀吀䄀䘀䘀

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ᰠᰠᰠᰠᰠ ᴠ

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• Coarse spray falls down faster, and fine spray gets blown away in wind, like rain and clouds.

(ii) Correct population (consult with extension officer)

When to use coarse spray and or fine spray Coarse spray • To keep the leaves wet for a longer time so that the plant can absorb the sprayed substance. • Weed poison will then kill the plant and insect poison will kill the insects eating the plant.

When not to spray (i) Not just before rain

Fine spray • To cover the insect or pest as thoroughly as possible. • Poison will kill the insect or pest when taken up through its skin.

(ii) Not in strong wind

When to spray Weeds: (i) Young weeds take up a lot of the plant’s food to grow fast (consult with extension officer) Insects: (i) At the correct time of its life (consult with extension officer)

ProAgri Zambia 24

Specgiathle! three

llin We are se prayers on a s g remainin asis. Contact b e m o first c r Patrick Andrew o

ProAgri Zambia 23

How strong is the wind? May I spray?

â&#x20AC;˘ By the shape of the hole

One can change the form of the spray (the spray pattern) and the size of the droplets by moving your thumb position. Nozzles Just like one can change the spray pattern on a hose pipe, different nozzles are shaped to produce different spray patterns. Various nozzles and nozzle sizes are available. Two different nozzle types may even look alike. The hollow cone spray nozzle may look like a solid cone nozzle.

Do not spray during mid-day in summer, rather spray when it is cool Different types of nozzles

Only by knowing the marking code on the nozzle, one can be sure what kind of nozzle it is. For this one needs to consult the nozzle book of the manufacturer of the specific nozzle. Your extension officer may be able to help. One can, however, do some test sprays onto a dry surface to get an idea of what the nozzle does. Carefully observe the patterns you get and judge whether a fine spray or course spray is produced:

The knapsack sprayer How are droplets formed? â&#x20AC;˘ By pressure

Next month we shall take a closer look at nozzles and also look at pumping mechanisms. Published with the acknowledgement to the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering for the use of their manuals. Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information.

ProAgri Zambia 24

AFRICA, THE HEARTBEAT OF OUR FUTURE

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Reap rich benefits from mechanisation planning M

echanisation helps a farmer to grow by enabling him to do more work and work larger areas. However, proper planning of mechanisation is essential to reduce costs and to meaningfully integrate farming operations. We thank the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering in South Africa who made their mechanisation manuals available to the readers of ProAgri Zambia. Some of the factors that may affect a mechanisation system are: • the working hours per day • lost time per day • distances between the grain silo and the farm and between farm and farmlands • road conditions • farmland size and shape • soil type and condition • the kind of crops produced • the correct tractor to implement choices • time available for different cultivation actions The efficiency of mechanisation will depend on the size of farmland and the delays caused by actions such as turning around at the headlands. Although sandy soils can provide more traction problems and therefore create a need for 4 wheel drive, clay soil may require more engine power than sandy soil. Thus soil type can af-

fect the choice of tractors and implements. When making the tractor-to-implement choice, many factors must be kept in mind, and it is best to consult a reputable dealer and to listen to experienced neighbours. The tractor must be strong and heavy enough to draw the implement in question without excessive wheel slip, but it should not demand too much diesel for the job to be done. Cultivating practices such as no-till, min-till and crop rotation also play a role in mechanisation planning. To help farmers with their decisions, the Institute provides a publication as well as a computer model as a tool for mechanisation planning. A Mechanisation Guide can also be ordered from the ARC.

It is important to match the correct implement with the correct tractor size.

Mechanisation planning is also important when practising conservation cultivation.

Published with acknowledgement to the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering for the use of their mechanisation manuals. Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information. Inquiries can be directed to Johan v Biljon at the ARC Institute of Agricultural Engineering at tel: +27(0)12-842-4049 or Dr Tingmin Yu, +27(0)12-842-4049, e-mail: YuT@arc.agric.za

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ProAgri Zambia 24

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ETG offers the products, support and know-how to advance farmers T

he exciting activities of a new farming season are taking shape in our beautiful country, Zambia. Wherever you go, you can see farmers bustling to get all their inputs right for another successful season. In this process all farmers are firmly supported by ETG Inputs Zambia Limited, a private sector company which provides agricultural inputs such as fertilisers and agro chemicals. With a wide range of agro chemicals such as herbicides, pesticides, fungicides, and grain protectors, ETG plays an important role in Zambia’s agricultural success, and regard themselves as an integral part of the farming community. Apart from excellent products, they also provide expert advice and extension services to farmers across the country. ETG helps farmers to raise and protect their crops with the same care and caution as nurturing a child. This is the reason why ETG came up with a variety of blended as well as soluble fertilisers to provide the best nutrition for every kind of crop and every soil condition. Blended fertilisers include: • Crop specific • Soil specific • Lime enriched • Organic enriched Moreover, ETG understands the fact that Zambia is divided into three agricultural regions, to wit: • Region 1, which includes the eastern, southern, and western provinces • Region 2, which includes central, northern and Muchinga province • Region 3, which includes Luapula, north western and western provinces These regions have different soil types, therefore different fertilisers should be applied to ensure optimum production. ETG offers various crop specific fertilisers for all regions, as well as for different crop stages when the plants need different nutrients. All the farmer needs to do, is visit one of the many ETG outlets all over the country. ETG can supply everything needed by a plant to grow well, including a variety of foliar fertilisers to correct deficiencies that can rob you of as much as 25% of your yield if not rectified in time. ETG also provides herbicides that reduce labour and improve yields. These herbicides are also commonly known as weed killers. They are chemical substances used to control unwanted plants/weeds in the field. These herbicides come in two categories, namely:

• Selective • Non selective Selective herbicides are available for pre-emergence, post-emergence, and early post-emergence for specific crops. The needs of small-scale farmers are met with the provision of herbicides and pesticides in smaller packs including 50 ml, 100 ml and up to 1 ℓ. The same applies to fungicides in quantities of 500 g up to 1 kg, including 250 g packets. All products are accompanied by free agronomical information and extension services.

ETG takes pride in growing and developing with farmers, and seeing how their products, services and advice help to advance farmers and the farming industry of Zambia, thereby helping to alleviate the poverty problem. Farmers are advised to take advantage from the FISP (Farmer input support programme) programme that has drastically improved the lives of many farmers already. Feel free to visit ETG branches across the country for profitable crop production.

ProAgri Zambia 24

AgriFocus takes a close look at the 2017/2018 maize season by AgriFocus Agronomist A fall army worm infestation can terminate your agricultural career if you do not apply timely control measures.

he future for maize remains difficult to predict, and this uncertainty applies especially to commodity prices. Prices remain volatile, and yields are variable. However, there is one certainty, and that is the problems we experienced last season will most definitely be around to plague farmers again this season. However, the experience and know-how gained last year in dealing with these problems will help farmers to cope better this season. Because maize is a staple food, there may be an increase in production, regardless of the expected prices. In addition, most of the maize grown in Zambia is grown by small holder farmers who may not be too price sensitive. One of the surest ways to beat a low maize price is to increase the yield significally. Farmers need to invest in measures which will increase the maize yield, so that they can make a profit, even at the current price levels. A farmer who harvests an average of one tonne of maize per hectare needs to find methods to increase his yields as a matter of urgency. Steps to increase yield of maize a) Variety selection Selecting the correct variety for the relevant region, and time of planting is vital to achieve top yields. (Consult a reputable seed company for the right seed and advice on planting time and cultural practices). 30

b) Liming, fertilisation and placement The maize should then be correctly fertilised. The usual four bags of Dcompound and four bags of urea may not give the desired result to ensure a profit. On the same subject, if the fertiliser application is doubled, the increased yield may be high enough to increase the profit in spite of spending more on fertiliser. Consult with reputable fertiliser companies. In certain instances farmers may have to lime their fields to reduce the effect of a low pH in their soils which will lead to higher yields. c) Weed control Weed control is essential as weeds compete with the crop for light, water, nutrition and space. This is extremely important especially in the first 6 weeks after germination of the crop. Poor early weed control will definitely result in loss of yield. d) Pest (disease and insect) control The maize crop should also be protected against various diseases which can reduce yields. A single application of a fungicide will always result in a significant yield increase. Insects can cause major damage in a maize crop and need to be kept under control. The advent of fall army worm (FAW) in maize raised major challenges, and unfortunately they are here to stay. This is a serious pest and can

cause huge damage to a crop resulting in big yield losses. Against this scenario on maize, farmers will have to prepare for this problem. We believe that failure to plan will be planning to fail. As AgriFocus Ltd, we recommend that farmers plan for this and not wait for government intervention. Our recommendations start with encouraging farmers to ensure that their maize crops are healthy. There are different schools of thought about this, especially when you consider whether a plant is more or less attractive to insects when healthy. It is, however, clear that a healthy plant is more likely to survive an insect attack than an unhealthy plant. Prevention strategies can be maximised by using Recharge, a biological product which reduces incidence of FAW and many other insects when applied at or before planting. Many insect pests pupate in the soil, and by targeting this part of the life cycle we prevent the pupa from reaching maturity. Recharge will control all pests that pupate in the soil, including nematodes. It will also have an effect on certain soil borne diseases. Farmers also need to have pesticides on hand to quickly eliminate any attack by FAW. Early detection is vital so that action can be taken quickly. Detection can be done using pheromone traps to monitor moth numbers. Routine surveys of about 20 plants

ProAgri Zambia 24

Moth Catcher

Sabrex, for improved roots growth, nutrient uptake, health, drought tolerance and general plant health. (selected randomly) from at least five locations in the field must always be done for any pest. In the case of FAW, small larvae cause “window pane” damage to leaves similar to the damage caused by maize stalk borer and may be checked during scouting as an initial indication of the presence of A farmer inspects the damage caused by fall FAW. Look for larvae in the army worm at Mount Makulu Research Station. whorls a few days from the Picture by courtesy and permission of Zambia Agritime the crop emerges up cultural Research Institute. to before tasselling. If older larvae are left uncontrolled it will be pushed out when the tassels emerge. These larvae may attack young ears which will reduce yield. Scouting should be continued to check for these insects until silks begin to dry. If 5% of the crop scouted is showing “window pane” symptoms, one needs to apply control measures immediately. It is estimated that one larvae per plant will lead to about 6% loss in yield if not attended to. An application of Biotrine, Benefit or Alpha Gold should give good control of the pest. Correct placement of the insecticide is critical. A coarse spray application without the use of buffers or wetters will give better control when the pests are still small. Two more applications concentrating on the leaf whorl of maize is recommended. Controlling larger larvae, especially after they are hidden under the frass plug, will be much more difficult. FAW prefers to feed on soft tissues that are actively growing. These tissues include the growing point and new leaves in the plant whorl, tassels as they form, maize silks and the new soft maize kernels. At AgriFocus Ltd we recommend rotating chemicals with a different mode of action to prevent resistance build-up to chemicals. FAW is able to develop a resistance Recharge Packet quickly.

Biotrine

e) Dry spells and drought mitigation In most seasons there will be dry periods when rainfall stops for a few weeks. These dry periods can affect yield especially if they are prolonged. By applying SABRE EX CORN to the seed before planting, the plant will develop a bigger root system with more root hairs, thus enabling the plant to forage for nutrients and moisture during these stress periods. Sabre Ex will also help reduce certain soil borne diseases. Always read and follow label directions for safe use of any pesticide!

Routine inspections of your crops will prevent sights like this.

ProAgri Zambia 24

Control Solutions

Larvae

Pupa

SOIL: The producer’s most important asset

ProAgri Zambia acknowledges Grain SA for the use of this series which originally appeared in Afrikaans in SA Graan/Grain.

PART 21: Soil degradation (iii) Martiens du Plessis, Soil Scientist, NWK Limited & Prof Cornie van Huyssteen, Lecturer: Soil Science, University of the Free State

Soil is the most fundamental resource for the farmer, without which food and natural fibre cannot be produced. This article forms part of a series to highlight this resource.

oil erosion (or loss of soil) is one of the most important aspects that influence global food security. Sustainable agriculture focuses, inter alia, on the protection of the ability of soil to continually support plant growth. This article focuses on water erosion and forms part of a series that highlights this resource. Water erosion is a serious problem in South Africa, as it removes large volumes of fertile soil. It is particularly on the steeper slopes with soils which develop from shales and mudstone, where serious donga formation is visible. However, water erosion also takes place in the grain areas and is probably not as conspicuous. In all cases, the negative impact remains the same. How does water erosion take place? Water erosion refers to the physical

removal of soil particles by water. It therefore takes place where the water flows rapidly enough over the soil to be able to break the soil particles loose and carry them away. In turn, water that flows over soil, is the result of rainfall intensity which exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil. In this way, the primary cause of water erosion is thus linked to a reduced infiltration rate. Water erosion may be categorised as plate, groove or donga erosion. Donga erosion is the first thought that comes to mind when one refers to water erosion. It entails the formation of deep cuts in the landscape – usually through concentrated water flow. Groove erosion refers to the formation of a multitude of smaller “dongas” by water which does not yet have a concentrated flow. Plate erosion is the process through which a uniform layer of soil is re-

moved from the surface of the soil. It is probably this form of erosion which is the most dangerous, as the reference point is also removed. Sometimes one can spot stones in the landscape which stand upon towers of soil which can be several metres high. These stones represent the original soil surface level. It therefore means that all the soil from that apex to the current soil surface has been removed! Factors that influence water erosion Mother material, from which the soil develops, has a significant influence on the erodibility of soil. It is especially the soils that develop from the shales and mudstones of the Ecca and Beaufort formations, in the Eastern Cape province in South Africa, that are highly erodible. Soils that develop from granite, are usually also highly erodible, as the sand content is high and there is little clay to contribute to aggregation. In contrast, soils that develop from the basic coagulation rocks such as dolerite, diabase, and basalt, are highly resistant to water erosion. In these soils, it is especially the iron and aluminium oxides (therefore red soils) that promote aggregate stability and therefore water infiltration, thus protecting the soil from erosion. Sodium, as measured according to the exchangeable sodium percentage, is largely responsible for the dispersion and thus increase in the vulnerability to water erosion. However, the effect of sodium may be reduced by the presence of iron, aluminium and organic material, while the presence of magnesium will just worsen the process. It is therefore not possible to isolate a single norm for the exchangeable sodium percentage, although a figure of >15% is often used. The erodibility of soils developing from shale, mudstone and granite, may usually be

Serious donga erosion in the Eastern Cape. ProAgri Zambia 24

For further information, please contact the authors on: Martiens du Plessis: 072 285 5414 / martiens@nwk. co.za Prof Cornie van Huyssteen: 051 401 9247 / vhuystc@ ufs.ac.za REFERENCES

Brady, N.C. 1990. The nature and properties of soils. 10th ed. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York. Laker, M.C. 2004. Advances in soil erosion, soil conservation and suitablity and land use planning research in South Africa. South African Magazine for Planting and Soil, 21:345 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 368.

Stabilisation by iron oxides protected this portion of the soil from water erosion. directly ascribed to the high sodium content of the soils, as a result of a high sodium content in the mother material. Organic material serves as a binding material for soil particles. Aggregation and aggregation stability are therefore promoted should there be more organic material present in the soil. Because tilling causes a drastic decrease in the organic material content of the soil, it is therefore logical that the soilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aggregation and water infiltration will decrease which once again will lead to an increase in run-off and thus water erosion. In soils with less than 20% clay, this soil has a higher silt content plus fine sand, making it more vulnerable to water erosion, as these soils are less likely to form stable aggregates. Rainfall intensity, slope, plant coverage and therefore land usage and management naturally play an important role, but are beyond the scope of this article. Consequences of water erosion The great drawback of water erosion is that it is mainly the fine soil particles (clay and organic material) that is eroded. It is these particles that are responsible for the adsorption of cations and retention of water in the soil. The ability of soil to adsorb cations and water thus drops off drastically in soils that have been seriously eroded by water. It also leads to a total reduction in the soil volume which, in turn, leads to a reduction in the soilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s buffer capacity. Furthermore, the soil that is re-

moved from one place, is usually deposited in another. Mainly along river banks or in dams. This leads to a sealing of the soil along the river banks and the silting up (decrease in storage capacity) of dams. Consider, for example, the Beervlei dam in the Eastern Cape province which lost its entire usable water storage capacity! As illustration, we can calculate the mass of soil lost by taking 1 mm of soil loss over one hectare: 0,001 m x 100 m x 100 m x 1 500 kg m-3, thus 15 000 kg per hectare per annum!

Summary Water erosion is a serious problem in Southern Africa. It is especially as a result of highly erodible soil forming from specific rock formations. In addition, certain land practices lead to the exposure of the soil to the destructive energy of raindrops. Surface sealing is the first negative process which leads to the increased run-off and therefore water erosion. Tillage and management practices that are focused on the protection of the soil against raindrop energy and surface sealing, are therefore needed to protect soil against water erosion.

Crust formation as a result of a high sodium content, followed by reduced infiltration and increased run-off, will lead to serious erosion of the soil.

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