ProAgri Zambia 25 by ProAgri

ProAgri technology for the farmer

Z a m b i a No 25

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Turner turns potatoes into profit

Zetor is ready for Zambia

Admire Land Roverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s heavyweights

THE PROFIT CENTER

STORAGE + CONDITIONING + MATERIAL HANDLING + STRUCTURES

124 Ridge Road, Laser Park, Honeydew, Ext 15, Gauteng PO Box 4012, Honeydew, 2040, South Africa Phone: +27 (011) 794-4455 Fax: +27 (011) 794-4515 Email: sales@gsiafrica.co.za | Website: www.gsiafrica.co.za

THE PROFIT CENTER

Cover

Letter from the Editor

Holidays and off-road fun go hand in hand, and Land Rover captures the imagination with their Velar on the front cover and inside back cover, and their Discovery 5 on page 16.

ProAgri technology for the farmer

or many of us, it is time of year to leave the farm. That is if you are fortunate enough to have the time and money and reliable managers to look after your interests while you enjoy your well-deserved holiday. But as a rule, the beginning of the year is not a good time to put a long distance between you and your farm, especially for crop farmers. Some of the soy bean and maize plants are still very young and fragile, and need intensive care. If you are one of the lucky ones, please drive safely. We can’t afford to lose one farmer or a farmer out of action for too long. 2018 will be full of new challenges. African swine flu and fall army worm again surprised us with their presence. The battle for better grain prices still continues and we can only hope that the FRA (Food Reserve Agency) and the FISP (Farmer Input Support Programme) will

pay out all the maize farmers before it is hopelessly too late to start planting. Agriserve Agro and I also visited the Zetor factory in the Czech Republic during our recent tour and they invited me to drive their FORTERRA 150 HD (picture). On page 14, you can read more about the Zetor brand and this magnificent machine which is imported to serve Zambian farmers. This month, Bonnox tells us more about their game fencing and we ogled Land Rover’s Discovery 5. Turnerland Manufacturing, with their Turner brand, is ready to assist you in all your potato needs. Our regular sheep farming, oil seed processing, soil and spraying techniques series also offer valuable information. Farm smartly! Du Preez de Villiers dupreez@proagri.co.za

Protect your precious possessions with Bonnox

Sheep farming made easy: Part 2

Seed Co is your all-in-one seed solution

ETG offers the products, support and know-how to advance

Content

farmers 13

Turner turns potatoes into profit

Zetor: The perfect tractor for Zambian farmers

Land Rover Discovery kicks compromise into touch

Spray to protect your crops: Part 2

Processing of oil seeds: Part 2

Soil: The farmer’s most important asset: Part 22

ProAgri Zambia 25

Z a m b i a

Office no. 3 Fens Investment Building Lusaka Show Grounds +26 (0)96-216-9801 www.proagri.co.za Copyright © 2018. All rights r eserved. No m aterial, text or p hotographs may be r eproduced, copied or in any other way t ransmitted without the written consent of the publisher. O pinions expressed are not n ecessarily those of the publisher or of the e ditor. We recognise all trademarks and logos as the sole property of their r espective o wners. ProAgri shall not be liable for any errors or for any actions in reliance thereon.

ProAgri Zambia

Editor Du Preez de Villiers > +27 82-598-7329 dupreez@proagri.co.za General Manager and Distribution Zambia Quintus Grobler > +26-(0)96-216-9801 (WA only) South Africa + 27-078-978-6339 quintus@proagri.co.za Reporters Annemarie Bremner > +27 82-320-3642 annemarie@proagri.co.za Benine Cronjé > +27 73-105-6938 benine@proagri.co.za Senior Production Manager: Zainab Pandor > +26 (0)97-769-9786 zainab@proagri.co.za Marketing Xander Pieterse > +27 79-524-0934 xander@proagri.co.za Stefan van Wyk > +27 82-381-7563 stefan@agritrader.co.za Tiny Smith > +27 79-531-0024 tiny@proagri.co.za Riaan Oosthuizen > +27 72-321-3690 riaan@proagri.co.za Jeffrey Erasmus > +27 72-996-5627 jeffrey@proagri.co.za Design Otto M Ueckermann > +27 76 821 8437 info@ottograph.co.za Enquiries Lize du Plooy > +27 12-803-0667 lize@proagri.co.za Engela Botha > +27 12-803-0667 engela@proagri.co.za Accounts Ronel Keet > +27 12-803-0667 accounts@proagri.co.za Business Manager George Grobler

Protect your precious possessions with Bonnox

ne’s possessions are important to you because building up and amassing something in life is hard work. When your possessions are also the source of your income, only the best protection is good enough. At El Shaddai Stables just outside Carletonville in South Africa, André van Zyl made sure his daughter, Amanda Johnstone, and her team can continue with the things that are important to them without worries. At the riding school, riders are trained to handle their horses with great skill, ride therapy for the disabled riders gives them a better chance in life, and the team of grand horses perform regularly at national level in dressage and racing performances. A complete training and show complex with overnight facilities is currently under construction. Part of the attraction of El Shaddai is also the game kept in camps. For easy management and control

Two workers are sufficient to erect the 2,4-meter high fence at El Shaddai Stables.

of the precious animals, the entire complex and all camps on the farm are Bonnoxed. With ProAgri’s visit, a team of workers was also busy Bonnoxing the outside fence behind the stables. “With the Bonnox fence, the horses can roam freely outside in their camps without fear of them being hurt or getting lost,” Amanda says. The 2,4 m high game wire with its 100 by 100 mm squares is high enough to discourage even the most eager jumper, and the squares are small enough to keep out most dangerous and unwelcome predators. She says they always have a roll of Bonnox ready to quickly make a temporary camp if animals are to be separated from each other or if work is to be done in a camp. Why specifically Bonnox? “Their service is excellent,” says André. “I’ve already recommended Bonnox to many people and they all agree with me: When you call, the phone is answered promptly and kindly, you receive the right advice for the task at hand and your order is always exactly right and ready when you arrive to pick it up.” André manufactures mining equipment in the Rustenburg area and his relationship with Bonnox started three years ago when he sought a fence that he could quickly put up around his work area. “It’s so fast and easy to put up Bonnox, more and more mines use it for fencing and even to cordon off certain areas within mines.” Uneven terrain and slopes are no problem for Bonnox. The registered Ringlok® trademark in Bonnox’s FLEXI FENCE allows you to plant the poles and droppers straight up while the wire

adapts to the slope. André says with the right equipment like the clamps and wire pullers that Bonnox can also provide, you do not have to use your entire team of workers to erect the fence and you can continue normal production. If your poles are planted firmly and correctly, it is very easy. It’s no wonder he decided to use Bonnox when they started developing El Shaddai. Another feature of the wire is that it is firm, but it can nevertheless absorb impacts if an animal runs or jumps into the fence, so that the animal does not get hurt. This feature is very important for game and horses. “I will not use any other fencing than Bonnox,” says André. Amanda Johnstone (right) and her daughter, Caelee, at the impressive entrance to El Shaddai the only part of the fence that is not Bonnox.

Remove the headache from fencing. Contact Bonnox at +27 (0)76-169-9068 or +27 (0)12-666-8717, send an e-mail to gerda@bonnox.co.za, linda@bonnox.co.za or zane@bonnox.co.za, or visit their website at www.bonnox.co.za.

ProAgri Zambia 25

A pig production enterprise involves the use of quality stock feeds from creep to finisher, hence Animal feeds produces certified pig feeds ranging from pig creep, pig weaner, pig grower, pig finisher, pig sow and boar and pig lactating sow. These feeds are available both in complete feeds and concentrates for farmers with farm maize.

The remaining range of Pig Feeds are fed during the period of growth where the management practices are aimed at fast economical growth of pig meat and for this reason feeding is on a generous scale. It is important to not mix any other feeds with these balanced feeds as this will result in lower performance. Reducing stress during this period is critical. Overcrowding in particular causes high stress. Supplying clean and cool drinking water together with feed is essential.

Sheep farming made easy Part 2: P roduction systems and facilities

horough planning is the key to success and since a lot of money is invested in the design of production systems, it is important to think it through properly. Look before you leap. This month we start with the design of your sheep farming operation. We thank the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering in South Africa who made their manual on sheep production and facilities available to the readers of ProAgri Zambia.

Feed processing complex: • Feed store • feed mixers, hammer mill, feed carts, et cetera Hospital Office Shearing sheds

suit the requirements and possible future expansion. • Identify possible sites. The choice of a site will be discussed, but important factors will include the total size, accessibility, future expansion and natural factors such as topography,

Is your shearing shed close enough to your main operation for ease of management?

You have to think into the future when you design your production system.

(Photo: atlex.com.au)

Design of sheep production facilities An intensive production system consists of the elements as listed below and are mainly determined by the size of the herd: Handling facilities: These elements must make provision for the reception, handling, treatment and dispatch of the sheep. The handling area can include the following: • loading platform • dip • scales • crush • sorting pens • holding pens (reception and dispatch) • adaptation pens • pre-herding corral that allow sheep into the working area in groups. Housing area: • lambing pens • ram pens • lam pens • ewe pens • pens for ewes with lambs

The above elements will be discussed according to the following points: • Planning procedure • Climatic requirements • Choice of a site and zoning • Design norms and space requirements • Ventilation requirements • Waste handling Planning procedure Before detailed designs can be done, certain factors must be quantified and certain decisions must be made. The following procedure can be of assistance with the planning of an intensive production system. •D etermine the type of production system and the number of animals or groups involved. •D ecide on the type of facilities to be incorporated in the production system with regard to the type of system, number of animals, climate, infrastructure and capital. •C alculate the size of each facility and make a scale sketch of each building and camp. If existing facilities will be used, make absolutely sure that it will

gradient and wind directions. If existing buildings will be used, the choice of a site is therefore limited. • Sketch a preliminary lay-out for every possible site. • Discuss the lay-outs with the client and make a combined decision on the “best” choice, taking into consideration other factors, such as construction costs, availability of materials and effectiveness of the lay-out. • Begin with the detailed planning and design and consider the client’s specific requirements, preferences and reservations, as well as the available budget. Flexibility of the final lay-out is very important and ensures effectiveness by making various activities possible at the same time. The importance of client involvement cannot be over-emphasised. The system will be used by the client and the client must be satisfied with it. Expensive features, which are never used, are sometimes built into productions systems. This practice should be avoided. (► p7)

ProAgri Zambia 25

Climate is key in the productivity of your animals

Climatic requirements Although sheep are well adapted to the climatic conditions in Southern Africa, it is important to realise that housing facilities can change these conditions dramatically. These changes can have a significant influence on the feed intake and the occurrence of disease. “Enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) usually occurs during a change in the season or grazing”. The above hypothesis is a free translation from “Intensive fat lamb production in Natal”, Grobbelaar and Botha, and associates the occurrence of a disease to the change in season or environment. This association of environmental conditions to diseases is a common occurrence. Just think of all the causes allotted to the common cold. The physiological processes responsible for the correlation between stress and disease are still not fully understood. It is, however, common knowledge that anxiety, as a result of a change in temperature or environment, can break down the resistance of a person or animal. In such a situation, the relevant person or animal is more susceptible to diseases. Keeping this hypothesis in mind, it can be accepted that cold and hot weather will in turn have an influence on the immunity system of a sheep. The meteorological conditions or parameters with regard to animal diseases can, according to Kelly (1982), be divided into five groups: Direct causes: These include non-contagious diseases or conditions such as sunburn, heat exhaustion or freezing. Pathogen survival: It is common knowledge that the growth and reproduction of microbes are largely determined by meteorological conditions. Some researchers even claim that the weather or a combination of temperature, moisture and microbiological growth has the greatest influence on animal health. Animal behavioural patterns: The behaviour of animals change as

the animals are exposed to lower or higher temperatures. When it is cold, sheep are inclined to huddle together in order to increase or retain body temperature. This huddling together causes environmental moisture, especially as this action restricts ventilation. Diseases are easily transferred from one sheep to another in such an environment. Feed intake: At low temperatures, the feed intake of sheep increases involuntarily in order to maintain their body temperature. A limitation of rations during this period can decrease the resistance of the animal, which increases susceptibility for diseases. • Under warmer conditions, the feed intake decreases because the metabolism is slower, with the same effect as a limitation in the ration during low temperatures. • According to Boshoff (1983), only about 50% of the daily dry material intake is utilised for production. Stress as a result of temperature can be easily underestimated if this fact is not taken into consideration. Immunity or resistance: Experiments proved that temperature has a definite influence on the resistance of the animal against for example streptococci, staphylococci and pasteurelosis. The temperature comfort zone of sheep lies between 5°C and 21°C. Therefore, it can be expected that productivity will be negatively influenced outside these perimeters. The choice of a site can have a great influence on temperature and temperature variations. Factors which influence temperature must therefore be carefully considered when a site is chosen. Choice of a site and zoning The choice of a suitable site is not only important from the perspective of the sheep unit or the specific needs of the sheep. It is also important that a site is chosen in such a way that it complements the entire farm lay-out

ProAgri Zambia 25

and takes other operational activities into account.

Will the location of the site benefit the sheep as well as you? Next month we shall look at the factors that may influence the choice of a site, design norms and space requirements, ventilation requirements and waste handling. Published with acknowledgement to the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering for the use of their Sheep Facilities Manual. Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information.

Neria’s Investments Limited Agro Commodity Traders

Quality Fertilizer Urea & D-Compound

NERIA INVESTMENTS LIMITED Saturnis House, Opp. Ndeke Hotel Longacre’s Tel: +260 211 244 505/6 Email: info@neriainvestments.com www.neriainvestments.com

ProAgri Zambia 25

is your all-in-one seed solution

s a research and development company involved in seed production, processing, distribution and marketing, Seed Co Zambia is a major role player in the Zambian agricultural sector. Seed Co’s products include certified maize, hybrid and other seeds such as wheat, soy beans, sorghum, sugar beans, groundnuts and vegetable seeds. Seed Co Zambia is a subsidiary of Seed Co International, which has been in existence since the 1940’s, operating in South Africa, Malawi, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Botswana, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda. They are listed on the Zimbabwe stock exchange. Their main clients are small-scale and emerging farmers, commercial farmers, non-governmental organisations and the government. Seed Co has a footprint of over 700 agro dealers spread across the country, and owns depots in nine provinces, which serve as hubs for seed distribution to the market. With a processing factory which has a capacity to produce 300 tonnes of seed per day, Seed Co distributes seed through its depots located in Lusaka, Choma, Kitwe, Chipata, Mpika, Mkushi, and Kasama. With extension support second to

none, Seed Co ensures that farmers and distribution partners enjoy the best possible advice and seed solutions to derive the best value from their products. Seed Co has been and is still a major contributor to the E-voucher programme run by the Ministry of Agriculture, which was previously called the Food and Input Supplier Programme (FISP). The E-voucher has now been rolled out to all provinces of the country covering all 109 districts. Seed Co is strategically positioned to respond to the needs of over one million farmers earmarked to benefit from this year’s E-voucher programme. Their aim is to ensure that the farmers have access to the best certified seed which enhances farmer productivity and in turn improves the food security situation of communities and the country at large. Apart from serving the domestic market, Seed Co Zambia also exports seed to other countries in the region, including Angola, Tanzania, Malawi, Rwanda, Zimbabwe, Botswana, the DRC, Kenya, Uganda, Swaziland and South Africa. Seed Co pride themselves on the farmers' meetings they organise regularly to transfer information on their leading edge agronomical technology. Their demonstration plots all over the country serve as learning centres for farmers. They are actively teaching farmers about productive methods of agriculture in order to raise productivity – as they strongly believe a knowledgeable farmer is an empowered farmer. Among the maize varieties that

ProAgri Zambia 25

Seed Co provide is SC719, a late white semi dent hybrid variety, tolerant to green leafspot, maize streak virus and northern corn leafspot viruses. It takes between 140 and 148 days to mature and has a potential yield of up to 14 tonnes per hectare or 280 x 50 kg bags. It is recommended for Region II and III of Zambia (which receive an annual rainfall of between 800 and 1 500 mm). In the medium maturity range, they offer varieties like the new SC647, which is a white flint hybrid with very good cob and tassel smut tolerance. It has a good standing ability, takes 130 to 136 days to mature and has a potential yield of up to 10 tonnes per hectare or 200 x 50 kg bags. SC637 is another variety in the medium maturity range; a white semi flint, with low risk of lodging and very good tolerance to maize streak virus. It takes 130 to 136 days to mature and can yield up to 13 tonnes per hectare or 260 x 50 kg bags. The future of Zambian Agriculture is bright. Let us work together, seize the opportunities and make Zambia food sufficient. Follow us on Facebook; e-mail Sales@seedco.co.zm or visit our website at www.seedco.co.zm.

ETG offers the products, support and know-how to advance farmers T

he exciting activities of a new farming season are taking shape in our beautiful country, Zambia. Wherever you go, you can see farmers bustling to get all their inputs right for another successful season. In this process all farmers are firmly supported by ETG Inputs Zambia Limited, a private sector company which provides agricultural inputs such as fertilisers and agro chemicals. With a wide range of agro chemicals such as herbicides, pesticides, fungicides, and grain protectors, ETG plays an important role in Zambia’s agricultural success, and regard themselves as an integral part of the farming community. Apart from excellent products, they also provide expert advice and extension services to farmers across the country. ETG helps farmers to raise and protect their crops with the same care and caution as nurturing a child. This is the reason why ETG came up with a variety of blended as well as soluble fertilisers to provide the best nutrition for every kind of crop and every soil condition.

• Selective • Non selective Selective herbicides are available for pre-emergence, post-emergence, and early post-emergence for specific crops. The needs of small-scale farmers are met with the provision of herbicides and pesticides in smaller packs including 50 ml, 100 ml and up to 1 ℓ. The same applies to fungicides in quantities of 500 g up to 1 kg, including 250 g packets. All products are accompanied by free agronomical information and extension services.

ETG takes pride in growing and developing with farmers, and seeing how their products, services and advice help to advance farmers and the farming industry of Zambia, thereby helping to alleviate the poverty problem. Farmers are advised to take advantage from the FISP (Farmer Input Support Programme) that has drastically improved the lives of many farmers already. Feel free to visit ETG branches across the country for profitable crop production.

Blended fertilisers include: • Crop specific • Soil specific • Lime enriched • Organic enriched Moreover, ETG understands the fact that Zambia is divided into three agricultural regions, to wit: • Region 1, which includes the eastern, southern, and western provinces • Region 2, which includes central, northern and Muchinga province • Region 3, which includes Luapula, north western and western provinces These regions have different soil types, therefore different fertilisers should be applied to ensure optimum production. ETG offers various crop specific fertilisers for all regions, as well as for different crop stages when the plants need different nutrients. All the farmer needs to do, is visit one of the many ETG outlets all over the country. ETG can supply everything needed by a plant to grow well, including a variety of foliar fertilisers to correct deficiencies that can rob you of as much as 25% of your yield if not rectified in time. ETG also provides herbicides that reduce labour and improve yields. These herbicides are also commonly known as weed killers. They are chemical substances used to control unwanted plants/weeds in the field. These herbicides come in two categories, namely: 12

ProAgri Zambia 25

Turner turns potatoes into profit By Annemarie Bremner

Planting

Harvesting

ith the grain industry stuck in a controlled price environment, more farmers in Zambia are diversifying or switching to other crops to optimise their income. Planting potatoes may be your production solution, but be sure to use the best equipment developed in Africa for Africa. Turnerland Manufacturing on the West Coast of South Africa was started in 1997 as a one man business, and has grown over the last twenty years into a full scale production facility incorporating a machine shop, sheet metal component fabrication, hydraulic fitting, machine assembly, belting division, and spray painting. Turnerland also boasts its own in-house 3D CAD (Computer Aided Design) department where machinery is designed and constantly improved, guided by extensive practical experience gained in potato farming and from servicing the potato industry. Turnerland manufactures the TURNER brand of machinery and equipment for the South African and African potato industry and Zambian farmers can now also reap the benefits. TURNER equipment comprises a complete range of solutions for small, medium and large scale potato farmers. The range spans from the TL-280PH two row planter, to the flagship TL-8545-DTS single row trailed potato harvester with a four ton bunker capacity. Additions and improvements to the range are always in development and there are solutions for all applications to suit the small farmer or the larger commercial operation. Solutions range from soil preparation and planting to transportation and almost anything in-between.

The Turnerland vision is to create sustainability in the African potato industry, by manufacturing a robust brand of equipment to international standards that is developed in Africa for African conditions. Globally food prices are on the rise, impacted more and more by ever increasing fuel, steel, equipment and input costs. These constantly rising costs and the increased use of highly sophisticated electronics in imported equipment also have an adverse effect on empowering the average Southern African potato farmer. One of Turnerlandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main long term goals is to constantly innovate and design, not only more cost effective machinery, but also more efficient farming methods. All equipment is designed with simplicity, durability, ease of use and affordability in mind. The thinking behind this approach is that a farmer can have the best machine on the planet, but if he/she is not using efficient farming methods that compliment what the machine was designed for, then the whole concept of efficient and cost effective farming goes out the window. Turnerland would like to partner with and empower African farmers and businesses in creating a future which not only benefits people on the African continent, but also brings Africa to the world stage as a serious contender that consistently can produce high quality potato harvests to aid in relieving the growing global food crisis. Contact Turnerland on +27 83 258 5083 or +27 22 723 1413 or info@turnerland.co.za. Also visit www.turnerland.co.za to look at the whole range of equipment.

ProAgri Zambia 25

Harvesting

Transport

Sorting and processing With TURNER equipment you can turn around your whole potato production process from beginning to end. 13

Zetor:

The perfect tractor for Zambian farmers by Du Preez de Villiers

The Zetor 25A was one of the first tractors to roll out of the factory in Brno. Today it is displayed in the Zetor Gallery.

rompt action is vital for any farming operation. Soil preparation, planting, haymaking, and even manure removal cannot wait… and for all these important tasks, the farmer needs a dependable, affordable tractor – like Zetor. Just after the Second World War, a tractor was born in the former Czechoslovakia. In those days, there was a desperate need for an inexpensive, mass produced, light tractor to pull the country out of the devastation of the war. In June 1945, after the nationalisation

About 4 000 Zetor tractors are produced every year by stateof-the-art factories in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. 14

of the heavy industries, the National Committee decided that there should only be one state owned tractor manufacturer. They invited a few manufacturers to compete for this appointment. František Musil worked day and night in the Zbrojovka engineering plant in Brno to meet the deadline which was set at six months. With his passion and discipline, he could inspire his team right through the arduous process, despite the low financial remunerations of the post-war period. On 14 November 1945, the final product was presented and that was the birth of the winning tractor - Zetor. The model name was Z 25. The name is a combination of the letter “Z” which is the first letter of Zbrojovka and the last two letters of tractor – “or”. On 15 March 1946, the first three Z 25 tractors were delivered to customers during a small celebration in the Zbrojovka Brno factory. On 17 August 1964, the Chamber of Commerce and Craft registered the name, Zetor. 150 000 of the Z 25-models were build. It could drive at 32 km/h, compared to the 20 km/h average speed of other tractors. It is recorded that some farmers could even reach up to 50 km/h with Zetor tractors! That was very dangerous and the sixth gear had to be blocked.

In 1954, Zetor established their own research and development facility. Their first result was the Zetor Super 35 – a tractor with a 31 kW four-cylinder diesel engine. This model also featured a central axle with blade springs and a spring under the driver’s seat. The driver’s cab was also heated. Between the years 1955 and 1960 21 500 tractors of this model were build. Zetor constantly developed and enhanced their tractors. In 1960, they were the first to introduce the concept of unified elements in their first generation unified tractor series. This concept allowed them to use identical parts for different models. This simplified manufacturing and services, and enabled them to develop a wide range of models and styles. In 1968, Zetor launched the CRYSTAL in their second generation of unified tractors. It was built for heavy operations and featured the first safety cab in the world. For the first time in the world they also equipped their four cylinder engine with balancing spindles. It dropped the noise level in the cab to below 85 decibels. The new torque multiplier allowed for gear selections under load and doubling of the gears when the traction force was increased. The fall of communism in 1989 introduced the age of privatisation. On 1 July 1993, part of the assets of the state owned Zetor was transferred to the joint-stock company Zetor, a.s. whose majority share was held by the Consolidation Bank. In 2002, the Zetor brand was bought by the Slovakian company, HTC Holdings. Zetor is one of the few tractor companies in the world who builds their own engines and transmissions. Since their humble start in 1946, Zetor produced 1,3 million tractors and today they build about 4 000 tractors per year, which are currently exported to 57 countries worldwide. Zetor today The six main models produced by Zetor today are the UTILIX, HORTUS, MAJOR, PROXIMA, FORTERRA and CRYSTAL. They also manufacture a wide range of front-end loaders and material handling machines. In November this year, Zetor launched their futuristic Major HS80. It was launched at the huge trade show, AgriTechnica, in Hanover, Germany, in November. This attractive tractor introduces the company’s new styling and was designed by Pininfarina studio, who designed many trains, buses and cars, including Ferrari. Zetor in Zambia Zetor is an aggressive exporter and this year they introduced their tractors to Kenya, the Philippines, Uzbekistan and Zambia. But this is not the first time Zetors

ProAgri Zambia 25

The Czech Minister of Agriculture, Marian Jurečka, hands over the keys of one of the newly acquired Zetor tractors to Stuart Cooke, a farmer near Chisamba. Willem van Zyl, Technical Director of AgriServe Agro, and Milan Mackovich, Head, International Business Development, Zetor Tractors, are very impressed with their partnership. A new look for Zetor is on the horizon. This concept design was done by the famous Pininfarina studio. are sold in Zambia. Between 1979 and 2000, nearly 700 tractors were exported to Zambia before it was interrupted. In 2017, AgriServe Agro picked up the reigns again when they sealed a deal with Zetor at AgriTech show in Chisamba. The Czech Minister of Agriculture, Marian Jurečka, attended the show himself to hand over the newly bought tractors to their owners. “The Zetor tractor has a very good reputation in Zambia as a very reliable machine and we believe in this product. We’ve invested a lot of resources to establish and support this brand,” Willem van Zyl, Technical Director of AgriServe Agro, says. AgriServe Agro and Zetor decided to introduce the PROXIMA and FORTERRA series to Zambia as they will suit the local circumstances and tough conditions. Zambian farmers prefer versatile and reliable tractors which are easy to maintain. The PROXIMA series is a basic tractor and consists of three models, the CL, GP and HS. They all have four cylinder Zetor engines and mechanical transmissions. The CL delivers 60 to 74 kW, the GP 60 to 82 kW, and the HS 60 to 90 kW. The FORTERRA series consists of three models. The basic CL is equipped with a four cylinder engine with a power range of 72 to 101 kW and a 24/18 gearbox. Unlike the basic model, the HSX is equipped with a more modern 30/30 gearbox with a hydraulic reverser. The highest model, the HD, delivers up to 110 kW. It has a more robust body, suspended axle and multifunctional control panel. AgriServe Agro intends to employ Czech technicians from Zetor who will transfer their skills and train their

Zambian colleagues over the next two years. “We have invested in a strong after sales service team as well as a qualified technical team from the Czech Republic to support our clients,” Willem says. AgriServe Agro is also developing a Czech Centre of Excellence in Kasisi, where demonstrations and training will be offered to farmers and farm workers. ► His honourable President Edgar Lungu was very impressed with the Zetor PROXIMA at the AgriTech show in Chisamba this year.

Bohumil Hamršmíd, Deputy Head of the Embassy of the Czech Republic in Lusaka; Poena van Niekerk, Mkushi farmer; Willem van Zyl, Technical Director of AgriServe Agro; Renier Janse van Vuuren, Managing Director of AgriServe Agro; Brent Stubbs, Mazabuka Farmer and Tereza Černá, Ministerial Counsellor of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic, recently visited the Zetor factory in Brno.

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A Zetor tractor is within your reach. Contact Willem van Zyl at +26(0) 96-562-0775, or send an e-mail to willem@agriserveagro.com 15

Land Rover Discovery kicks compromise into touch

By Dirk Gallowitz, dirkgallowitz@gmail.com Pictures by Richard Wiley

and Rover has enjoyed a long association with rugby at the highest level and after spending a couple of days with the All-New Discovery, I suspect the association is rubbing off as the UKbased manufacturer has produced a new model that kicks compromise into touch at almost every level of operation. If anyone believed that luxury and goanywhere ability are mutually exclusive attributes, the new Discovery proves them wrong. For sure, some brand diehards may bemoan the fact that the new model has eschewed the distinctive if boxy styling of the third and fourth generation Discovery models in favour of a more generic mix of Land Rover Sport and Range Rover genes. It is though, the fifth generation of the Discovery that puts a little more emphasis on conquering offroad obstacles. At first sight, the All-New Discovery is a little bigger than expected and the front end in particular is rounder and more muscular than photos might portray. The rear end, with its symmetrical window sitting atop an offset number plate intended to retain at least some element of “traditional” Disco design, is, by contrast, much more vertical to the extent that some described it as rather blunt. The practical, space-liberating benefits of this upright rear window make the

(optional) third row of seats surprisingly habitable in this genuine 7–seat SUV, so it is fair to say that practicality has triumphed over style as far as the rump is concerned. To my eyes though, attention to detail in the form of much tighter panel gaps from front to back is a stand-out feature of the newcomer, along with very well applied, glossy paintwork - elements that collectively endorse the premium credentials of Solihull’s altogether more imposing SUV. Certainly, Land Rover South Africa and sub-Sahara Africa weren’t shy about giving journalists carte blanche in terms

of usage on a two-day adventure that took in billiard table-smooth motorway, simply horrid bush obstacles, narrow and very steep mountain passes, fair to thoroughly indifferent dirt and undulating A-roads in the rural areas. That all adds up to a searching test and it mattered little whether motive power was provided by LR’s familiar 190kW/600Nm TDV6 or by the equally familiar and admired 3,0 Supercharged Si6 (V6) petrol offering peaks of 250kW/450Nm. Four trim levels are offered, these carrying familiar LR nomenclature in the shape of S, HS, HSE or HSE Luxury, but the icing on the cake comes in the form of a short-production-run “First Edition” model which might just become something of a collector’s item. Along the road, the range will be supplemented by a four cylinder 2,0 TD. On the outward journey, I was allocated a 3,0 V6 petrol derivative, thankfully and plushly kitted out in lightish-grey leather which I think looks so much cooler in combination with dark door and dash cappings. Design-wise, you couldn’t be in anything other than a modern Land Rover thanks to the commanding driving position and elegant execution of good quality trim materials combined with slick detailing. As you’d rightfully expect, this Discovery is not short of space, front and rear and that includes the (optional) third row of seats which offers acceptable quarters for two adults for reasonable periods and which also don’t require undue contortions to gain access to tail-end Charlie territory. Remember my earlier remarks about a no-compromise vehicle – here’s practical proof. So too is the provision of near-endless oddments spaces as well as USB ports and power points according to specification ordered.

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Owners will also enjoy a multitude of seat folding, heating and cooling options. Placement of controls along with detail design elements have been tweaked but it’s the significantly upgraded central display that takes pride of place among all the soft-surface panels. The binnacled primary instrument cluster is very Evoque-ish in execution with excellent clarity of display, but for now let’s look at that 10-inch InControl Touch Pro set-up that includes a comprehensive sat nav package. The word “touch” telegraphs that the designers have been able to simplify in-dash switchgear through the provision of easy-to-navigate menus which control infotainment/entertainment packages that include iOS and Android connectivity and a high end (optional) 14-speaker Meridian digital surround sound system. Sadly, and as a consequence of licensing restrictions, not all the functionality of the system can presently be exploited in sub-Sahara Africa so potential owners are encouraged to consult their Land Rover importer on exactly what’s possible in each market. Bear in mind though that the latest screen also relays a host of functional images relating to drive systems, vehicle configuration, camera images and much, much more. Further, the clever waterproof Activity Key is also available for those with a sporting bent who want to carry their key with them at all times. By the time we arrived at a short but extremely testing off-road course, it had become apparent that the All-New Discovery has gained further refinement credentials thanks to truly excellent isolation of wind noise (those tight panel gaps really help), a near absence of mechanical commotion on the cruise and to the cosseting, controlled ride served up by the air suspension which is standard on SE and HSE models. And thanks to a considerable reduction in weight, the Disco also feels wieldier and will doubtless consume less fuel. Variable ride height, which logically assists with off-road work, also makes for simplified trailer hitching (for which an automated system is available) and easier entry/exit from the cabin. Oh, and that off-road work – what this luxury vehicle can do is mind-blowing and in truth, it’s this ability to achieve the apparently impossible that sets the Discovery apart from its premium rivals. Serious off-roaders can specify fulltime 4WD with a two-speed transfer box but for most, I’m sure the full-time 4WD with Torsen Diff and single-speed transfer box will more than do the trick. Bear in mind that Land Rover’s proven and brilliant (next generation) Terrain Response 2 is standard fare and that AllTerrain Progress Control which uses the cruise control switches to set automated crawling speeds is also on hand to take the hard work out of defeating difficult terrain.

All this tech is backed up by Hill Descent Control, Gradient Release Control, Roll Stability Control and Wade Sensing which telegraphs just how near you might be getting to the incredible 900mm depth limit. While all this tech is on-board to ensure that the Discovery truly will go where most others fear to tread, even in the hands of less experienced drivers, I really do advise potential buyers and new owners to take advantage of Land Rover’s off-road training courses, details of which can be sourced from authorised dealers. I also suggest a visit to a Land Rover website to try and grasp the full extent of the hidden technology and what it can do to ensure that owners really do derive full benefit from the drivetrain engineering. Having been thoroughly impressed by the driving dynamics of the 3,0 Si6 petrol version, and that includes the smoothness and responsiveness of the 8-speed auto with paddle shifters, not to mention the potent brakes and the linear steering, we transferred to a 3,0 TDV6 for the return journey. Diesel knock is barely an issue, even at idle with a cold motor, and open road cruising is effortless and pacey enough to make a mockery of speed limits. Incremental acceleration is also a forte but the accelerator pedal is endowed with long travel which rather exaggerates what appears to be a small dose of low speed lethargy. On reflection though, I believe that long pedal travel may be deliberate to allow for gentle throttle progression at very low engine speeds such as encountered in nasty off-road conditions. Whatever, the petrolpowered model feels more urgent in terms of throttle response but in the mid-range and at walking speeds, the diesel’s early torque plateau makes it the better choice for regular off-roaders and for those who frequently pull laden trailers. The diesel will also drive past more filling stations, but to help you make up your own mind, here are the raw stats and the official combined fuel consumption figures for what the latter are worth given how much real world fuel consumption varies according to vehicle end use:

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TDV6: 209 km/h 0 to 100,8,6 s, 7,8 l/100km 3,0 Si6: 215 km/h 0 to 100,7,1 s, 11,5 l/100km In summary, all versions of the new Discovery are available in so many guises to allow for an unprecedented level of personalisation, that a visit to your local dealer is essential. An hour on an on-line configurator would also be well-rewarded. As a consequence of the huge options listings, the end cost of a vehicle is largely in the individual’s hands but what makes any purchasing decision most reassuring is the fact that this new model is so very, very good at everything. Some may suggest that choice within the growing Land Rover range has been made even more difficult, but bear in mind that with the Discovery, even more emphasis has been placed on stupendously good off-road ability to which you can add excellent refinement and on-ride driving dynamics. And then throw in cosseting comfort levels and exceptional practicality. The Discovery truly has become an all-round vehicle without compromise and the good news doesn’t stop there as the brand is fully supported in the years after purchase thanks to the provision of generous warranty and maintenance terms.

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Spray to protect your crops Part 2: Sprayers and Spraying Techniques Nozzles and pumps

Compiled by J Fuls (Pr Eng)

(â&#x2013;º p21) ProAgri Zambia 25

he mechanics of a pump is very interesting and consists of the basics on which most spraying mechanisms function. It is therefore beneficial for a farmer to know how it works. This month we look closely at nozzles and pumps. We thank the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering in South Africa, who made this article available to the readers of ProAgri Zambia.

Nozzle types and their application

Nozzle markings The markings on the nozzles are very small and one has to have strong eyes to be able to read it. One can however do the following to make the markings more readable:

1. Make your finger a little dirty on muddy soil

2. Wipe your dirty finger over the markings, but be careful not to wipe dirt into the nozzle hole.

3. Carefully wipe the excess dirt off on your hand palm.

One can do much the same with school board chalk if one can get hold of some, especially on a dark nozzle like red. 1. Wipe the chalk over the markings in all directions. This is the result on a nozzle with a dark colour, like red.

This is the result on a nozzle with a light colour, like yellow.

2. Carefully wipe the excess chalk off on your hand palm.

(â&#x2013;ş p23) ProAgri Zambia 25

Pumps

On a tractor sprayer, the pump is outside the tank:

To get the spraying chemicals out of the tank and to the spraying nozzle, one needs a pump. This pump must be able to put pressure on the muti, so that the nozzle can spray as it is supposed to do. (Remember how the bicycle pump made a spray when pumping hard) How do pumps work? A sprayer pump can be compared to a bicycle pump.

This is how the pump works:

When we put the pump together again, it looks like this inside:

The bicycle pump pumps air, but if the whole pump is held under water, it will pump water instead of air. Other pumps work much the same as the bicycle pump. Compare the pump below with the bicycle pump which is connected to the bicycle wheel. Note that it has the same components:

The main differences are that this piston pump has a separate handle to push the push rod, just like the pump of a knapsack sprayer, the wheel valve of the bicycle serves as the outlet valve for the bicycle pump.

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As the piston is moved out by means of the handle, the inlet valve will open to let liquid flow from the tank into the pump. The outlet valve remains closed to stop liquid from returning once it was pushed out. The reverse happens when the handle is moved in for pumping:

Next month we shall look at the different kinds of sprayers. Published with the acknowledgement to the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering for the use of their manuals. Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information.

Make more from your crop Processing of oil seeds â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Part 2

By Theresa Siebert, Petrus Britz, Pr Eng and Agrelek

This month we discuss the different products you can produce from soy beans in detail. We thank the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering in South Africa, who made their series available to the readers of ProAgri Zambia.

is then extruded under high pressure to obtain a fibrous texture.

Soy beans

oy beans dominate the world oilseed production and make up about 50% of the total world oilseed crop. Soy beans are the most important cash crop in the USA and the mainstay of food production in China and Japan, where it is used in various forms. South Africa has traditionally been neglected and even actively suppressed it as a cheaper protein alternative to red meat, but it is becoming more popular and is used by many maize farmers in their crop rotation programmes. In Zambia soy beans are currently preferred above maize by commercial farmers, due to the price fixing of maize by the government. The ongoing research and development to improve processing technology and the acceptability of retail products also ensured that soy bean production is becoming more and more attractive to traditional summer-crop farmers.

Full-fat soy flour

(Image source: brookfarm.com.au)

Full-fat soy flour is prepared by grinding de-hulled soy beans. The soybeans may be given a steam treatment prior to grinding to produce toasted full-fat soy flour. Steaming inactivates the lipoxygenase that is largely responsible for beany off-flavours. Alternatively, enzyme-active full-fat soy flour can be produced by omitting the steam treatment. The enzymes of this type of soy flour are used to bleach wheat flour and act as dough conditioners. Toasted full-fat soy flour is used in a wide range of baked products and baby formulas. It can also be further processed to produce meat substitutes through a thermoplastic extrusion process. Meat substitutes are soy products with a meat-like texture. They are prepared by mixing soy flour, water and additives to form dough. The dough

The production flow process of fullfat soy flour

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Cleaning of soy beans The first step in preparing the soy beans for processing is to remove foreign materials, including plant rests, stones and dust. Cleaning is performed by a series of vibrating screens followed by aspirators and cyclone separators. Steaming of soy beans (optional) The soy beans are steamed under light pressure to inactivate lipoxygenase that catalyses lipid oxidation that leads to the development of off-flavours. This step may be omitted for the production of “Enzyme-active full-fat soy flour”.

Steaming soy beans (Image source: allaboutsushiguide.com)

Whole beans and large fragments are returned to the cracking rollers. The soy fragments (cotyledon) contain about 20% oil while the hull has a negligible oil content. The removal of the hulls by aspiration is optional but has the advantage of producing a defatted soy meal with a higher protein content (48% as opposed to 44% protein of flour containing hulls). Grinding soy beans to produce grits The flakes are ground by a series of rollers into smaller particles (grits) or fine flour. After each pass through the grinding rollers, the grits are screened and classified according to particle size. The coarse particles pass through a no. 10 – 20 screen, the medium particles pass through a no. 20 – 40 mesh screen and the fine particles pass through a no. 40 – 80 mesh screen. Each size class finds specific application in food products. If the grits are too big for the intended use, they are simply transferred back to the grinding rollers. Further grinding of grits to produce soy flour Soy flour is produced by grinding the grits into a fine powder. The flour is screened to ensure that 97% of the flour particles pass through a very fine 100 mesh screen. Because of the high lipid content, the product is difficult to screen. Packaging of soy grits and flour Full-fat soy grits and flour require non-transparent and moisture proof packaging. All precautions should be taken to prevent lipid oxidation.

Different methods of steaming soy beans (Image source: misorecipes.net)

Literature sources Lui, KeShun. 1999. Soybeans: chemistry, technology and utilisation. Gaithersburg: Aspen Publishers, Inc.

Drying of soy beans Drying prior to de-hulling is necessary to reduce the moisture content of the soy beans. A moisture content of 10% is needed to remove the hull effectively. Drying is performed by heated air that is distributed through a bed/layer of soy beans, followed by cooler air, which removes the residual moisture laden air. The dried soy beans are placed for one to five days in tempering bins where the moisture is allowed to equilibrate throughout the beans.

The characteristics of soy grits and flour

Cracking and de-hulling of soy beans The objective of cracking is to break the soy beans into small pieces to achieve de-hulling and to ease flaking. Corrugated or fluted rollers that rotate in opposite directions and at different speeds are used to crack the beans. Cracking rollers are generally 25 cm in diameter and at least 107 cm in length. Cracking reduces the whole soy bean into four to six fragments, loose hulls and some fines (flour particles). The fragments are sized on vibrating screens.

Soy grits (Image source: shreekalkaglobal.com) The soy bean contains approximately 40% protein and 20% oil on a moisture free basis. When soy beans were first processed commercially, the oil was considered as the most valuable component and the defatted soy bean flour as a by-product. But since 1960, the need for alternative protein sources has risen sharply across the globe. Today the flour is a highly sought after component that is mainly used in animal fodder.

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One metric tonne of soy beans yield approximately 180 kg oil and 800 kg flour. Soy beans have long been a major source of protein to the people of the Orient where it is consumed in various forms. The world demand for food protein is increasing sharply along with the ever rising population. Many types of soy protein products have been developed for human use from defatted soy flakes, including soy grits and flour, soy concentrate, soy isolates and textured soy proteins. Apart from economic and health advantages over animal proteins, soy proteins have more functional properties and thus a wider range of applications. It is used in virtually every food system including meat products, dairy products, baking and confectionery, breakfast cereals, infant foods and beverages. Soy grits and flour are produced from the defatted soy flakes that are separated from the miscella during oil extraction. It only requires desolventising, grinding and screening to produce a highly nutritional product with wide application possibilities in the food and feed industry. Desolventising flakes for animal feed The end use of the soy grits or flour determines the type of desolventising process. The method used for flakes intended for animal feed is required to remove the solvent and inactivate anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitors, thus rendering a product that is safe for animals. A steam treatment is used to remove the solvent, followed by toasting at 100°C to 105°C to ensure sufficient heat for inactivation of the toxicants. This high temperature treatment, however, also causes severe protein denaturation, which is unacceptable for products intended for human use. A different method is thus used for flakes intended for food. The hot flakes exiting from the desolventiser-toaster is dried with hot air to reduce the moisture content to 10%. Hot air is followed by cold air to cool the flakes prior to grinding. Desolventising flakes for food The aim of this process is to minimise the heat denaturation inflicted on the soy proteins while effectively removing the solvent. The solubility of the proteins is very important to the functional properties and use of soy proteins in food. Two types of desolventising systems van be used: the vapour system or the flash system. In the vapour desolventising system, superheated hexane vapour is brought in contact with the flakes in agitated containers. This causes extraction of hexane from the flakes. In the flash desolventising system, superheated hexane vapour and flakes are brought in contact with each other in conveying tubes where the residence time of the flakes is kept relatively short. (► p27) 25

In both cases, desolventising is followed by deodorising. A steam unit with controlled pressure is used to deodorise the flakes. Residual solvent is also removed in the process. By controlling the conditions inside the deodorising unit, the flakes with varying protein dispersibility index (PDI) can be produced to suit the specific end use. The PDI can vary from 10 to 90%. The hot flakes exiting from the deodoriser is dried with hot air to reduce the moisture content to 10%. Hot air is followed by cold air to cool the flakes prior to grinding. Grinding soy flakes to produce grits The flakes are ground by a series of rollers into smaller particles (grits) or fine flour. After each pass through the grinding rollers, the grits are screened and classified according to particle size. The coarse particles pass through a 10 - 20 mesh screen, the medium particles pass through a 20 - 40 mesh screen and the fine particles pass through the 40 - 80 mesh screen. Each size class finds specific application in food products. If the grits are too big for the intended use, they are simply transferred back to the grinding rollers. Further grinding of grits to produce soy flour Soy flour is produced by grinding the grits into a fine powder. The flour is screened to ensure that 97% of the flour particles pass through a 100-mesh screen. Packaging of soy grits and flour Soy grits and flour require moisture proof packaging.

The production flow process of soy grits and flour

Final packaging of soy grits (Image source: bobsredmill.com) Uses of defatted soy grits and flour Defatted soy flour is mainly used for animal feed, pet food and for the preparation of protein concentrates. A small quantity is used as human food. Non-food uses include the preparation of antibiotics, vitamins and other medicines.

Literature sources: 1. L ui, KeShun. 1999. Soy beans: Chemistry, Technology and Utilisation. Gaithersburg: Aspen Publishers, Inc. 2. S nyder, H.E. & Kwan, T.W. 1987. Soy bean Utilisation. 3. T anteeratarm, K. 1992. Soy bean Processing for Food Uses.

ProAgri Zambia 25

Next month we shall focus on the processing of soy bean oil. Published with the acknowledgement to the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering for the use of their manuals. Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information. 27

PART 22: Soil formation Martiens du Plessis, Soil Scientist, NWK Limited & Prof Cornie van Huyssteen, Lecturer: Soil Science, University of the Free State

Soil does not form by chance, but as a result of the influence of climate, organisms and topography on the mother material over time. The result of these five soil formation factors is the formation of a unique soil type at a specific place.

he soil formation factors control, in turn, the soil formation processes that determine which horizontals (layers in the soil) form in the soil. It is these horizontals that eventually determine a soilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unique properties and thus the land usage. This article focuses on the soil formation factors and forms part of a series that highlights this resource. Mother material Mother material may be regarded as the matrix or the building block of soil, because soil develops out of the unconsolidated, weathering of rocks or sediments. Various mother materials give rise to a variety of weathering products and therefore a variety of (primary) mineral particles which develop into a specific type of soil. The mother material therefore has a major impact on the soil characteristics, especially when the soil is in early development. If the mother material is known, this information can then be used to deduce the probable characteristics of a particular soil. (The various types of rocks, their mineral composition and the influence they have on the soil characteristics, were discussed in Part 2 of this series.) Climate Rainfall and temperature are the most important elements of climate influencing soil formation, as they determine the rate of weathering. In deserts (hot and dry) or the tundra (cold and wet), soil develops slowly, while it develops rapidly in the tropics (hot and wet). When it is hot and dry, the soil is shallow, not significantly alkaline and has a low organic material content. When it is hot and wet, the soil is deeper, more alkaline and contains more organic material. The effect of rainfall on the soil formation process is determined by the type and intensity of the rain, the distribution over seasons, the rate of

evaporation, the aspect of the terrain (for example northern or southern slope) and the porosity of the mother material. The water that is available for soil formation, is determined by the ratio between the average annual rainfall (P, mm) and evaporation (E, mm). The higher the P/E ratio, the greater the leaching and removal of soluble salts and plant nutritional materials from the soil; the more intense the weathering of minerals will be and the greater the amount ofclay that will be leached to the deeper horizons and lower down in the landscape. The rate of weathering and soil formation reactions doubles with about every 10Â°C increase in soil temperature. However, there is a strong relationship between rainfall, temperature and soil formation. Dry, hot desert and cold, wet tundra conditions are not condusive to soil formation, while intense soil formation and weathering occurs under wet, tropical conditions. Organic material will increase with increasing soil wetness, leaching will increase, pH decreases, base saturation decreases, acid saturation increases, clay minerology changes from 2:1 to 1:1, CEC decreases, fertility decreases, underground saturation increases, and more water is available for plant growth. With an increase in temperature, while the rainfall remains constant, the effective rainfall will decrease, organic material content decreases, and weathering of clay minerals will increase from 2:1 to 1:1. Organisms All the organisms living in or on the soil influence soil formation. Plant roots bind soil particles together and, in doing so, lower soil erosion. The same process also helps with the formation of crumbly and granular structure. The thick roots of trees

thicken and therefore mix the soil in this way. Plant roots can also contribute to physical weathering by breaking up the rock. When the roots die, organic material remains behind and when that weathers, it leaves channels which improve aeration and water movement in the soil. Plants also provide the soil with organic material â&#x20AC;&#x201C; on the surface through leaves and in the soil by roots. Although trees provide a lot of organic material when they die, it is the perennial plants such as grasses which provide the most organic material per annum. The plant cover also protects the soil against raindrop impact and, in so doing, limits erosion. It also reduces the soil temperature, thus lowering evaporation. In the natural ecosystem, plants absorb nutritional substances from the soil and replace them with organic material. This is a very delicate balance and may easily happen through the removal of plants via, for example, the exploitation of tropical rain forests, overgrazing or cultivation, where crops are removed from the land. Mesofauna, such as earthworms, nematodes, mites, termites, ants, centipedes and other insects, are normally found in the upper soil, where organic material is concentrated and the soil is well aerated. The majority of these animals cannot survive in wet, water saturated soil. Mesofauna change the soil by secreting organic material and minerals in a digested form. These secretions are usually more stable than the rest of the soil. They therefore lead to an improved soil structure. These animals mix the soil through their constant movement and tunnels that are excavated. The tunnels and structure improve the movement of air and water in the soil. The majority of animals live above the soil, but a small number, such as rats, moles and rabbits remain in the

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Crest Escarpment

Middle slope

Bottom slope Valley floor

Figure 1: Crest, escarpment, middle slope, foothills and valley floor.

soil. These animals can tunnel deeply into the soil and thus mix the soil. They also take organic material into the soil, where they store it as food or nesting material. Animals are therefore responsible for the mixing of the soil, the addition of organic material and improved aeration through tunnels. Uncontrolled utilisation of the plant cover through grazing can lead to the total exhaustion of the plant cover. This leads to reduced water infiltration, increased run-off and therefore increased erosion. People can also influence soil formation through usage thereof, for example through tillage, grazing, urban development, mining and forestry. Tillage mixes the soil, organic material is removed and the fertility changes drastically. People can therefore degrade the soil through overutilisation, but can also artificially create soil through, for example, the reclamation of mine dumps and the sea. Topography Topography refers to the shape of the earth’s outlines. In particular, it is the slope and aspect of the local relief that are important to soil formation. Slope refers to the angle between the earth’s surface and an imaginary horizontal line, while slope position refers to the specific position on the hillside (Figure 1). Aspect is the compass direction of the slope (e.g. north or south), and slope is measured downwards against the vertical on the contour line. Topography influences soil formation by the effect it has on the microclimate, plant growth, mother material and time. The physical shape of the landscape determines how, and how much soil and water is redistributed.

Flat areas are, for example, more susceptible for wind erosion, while water erosion has the greatest impact in steep areas. Soil in crest positions usually forms in situ (right there from the mother material), is older and shows signs of advanced weathering and leaching. Escarpments are too steep for any soil to form as all the soil is lost to erosion. Soils on the middle slopes are usually deep and well-drained. Soils on the foothills are more poorly drained than those on the middle slopes and signs of wetness are common. Poorly drained soils are common on the floors of the valley, where soil forms in alluvial deposits. This succession of soils in a slope is referred to as a catena or an hydrological topo series. Time Soil formation is a very slow process. It can take several thousands or millions of years. The longer a soil is exposed to a specific set of soil formation processes, the more prominently the soil properties develop. The combination of soil formation processes that are dominant, will determine how long the soil takes to become “mature”. Because soil formation is such a slow process, it can take place under a variety of climatic conditions, as the climate has changed a number of times in the past. When the climate changes, the soil will also change. A soil that has developed under a previous climatic cycle, is known as a palaeosol (palaeo = old; sol = soil) or primary soil. A soil reaches maturity when soil formation and soil destruction (erosion) take place at the same rate. The degree and depth of horizon differentiation

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is also an indication of the age of the soil. Summary The five soil formation factors – mother material, climate, organisms, topography and time – control the soil formation processes and thus determine which soil forms in a particular place. In many cases, the type of soil may be deduced from the specific set of soil formation factors. However, this takes experience and should be done with circumspection and should always be verified.

For further information, please contact the authors on: Martiens du Plessis: 072 285 5414 / martiens@nwk.co.za Prof Cornie van Huyssteen: 051 401 9247 / vhuystc@ufs.ac.za REFERENCES

Brady, N.C. 1990. The nature and properties of soils. 10th ed. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.

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