UNESCO IHP background papers

THE IMPACT OF GLACIER RETREAT IN THE ANDES:

International Multidisciplinary Network for Adaptation Strategies BACKGROUND PAPERS

on climate change adaptation practices, national policies, research needs and education

Wouter Buytaert, Staycie Domzalski Patricio Crespo Coello Raquel Guaita Llabata Elma Montaña

The Back ground papers were developed in the framework of the project “Managing Water Resources in Arid and Semi Arid Regions of Latin America and Caribbean” (MWAR-LAC), executed by the International Hydrological Programme of UNESCO (IHP) and supported through the Flanders UNESCO Science Trust Fund (FUST).

Published in 2016 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France © UNESCO 2016

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Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of UNESCO or FUST. Acknowledgements Comments from the UNESCO IHP Secretariat staff are gratefully acknowledged.

This brochure was prepared under the coordination of Anil Mishra, International Hydrological Programme, Division of Water Sciences, UNESCO Paris Koen Verbist, International Hydrological Programme, Division of Water Sciences, UNESCO Santiago With assistance of Bárbara Ávila Design and layout: MH Design / Maro Haas Typeset: MH Design / Maro Haas Photographs: Cover: © Gerben van Heijnongen n p.3: © shutterstock/Iano Anibal Trejo n p.21: © Miguel Vera Léon n p.45: © shutterstock/Jules Kitano n p.61: © Gerben van Heijnongen

CONTENT BACKGROUND PAPERS

1.

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES IN THE TROPICAL ANDES: Prioritizing scientific research for developing adaptation policies 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 6 2. STATE OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND GAPS................................................................... 6 2.1. Water supply ............................................................................................................. 6 2.2. Water demand .........................................................................................................12 2.3. Some noteworthy research activities ........................................................................13 3. CURRENT ADAPTATION STRATEGIES AND BOTTLENECKS (REGIONAL, NATIONAL, LOCAL) ..................................................................................... 13 4. CURRENT SCIENCE POLICY IN THE ANDEAN COUNTRIES................................................ 16 4.1. Current global and local funding opportunities ..........................................................16 4.2. Constraints for science policy implementation .........................................................16 5. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PRIORITIES FOR DEVELOPING ADAPTATION POLICIES ................. 17 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................... 18

BACKGROUND PAPERS

2.

EDUCATION, CLIMATE CHANGE, WATER AND GLACIERS 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 22 2. WATER’S PLACE IN THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ................................. 22 3. EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATION ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND WATER ....................... 24 3.1. Murky or clear water................................................................................................ 24 3.2. The international framework ................................................................................... 25 3.3. Laws, education programs and climate change strategies ....................................... 26 3.4. Some advances in education and communication on climate change ..................... 30 3.5. Some additional conclusions about education and communication processes ....... 33 4. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION ON CLIMATE CHANGE, WATER AND GLACIERS........................ 34 4.1. Elements of critical reflection .................................................................................. 39 5. THE CHALLENGES ......................................................................................................... 40 6. POSSIBLE FUTURE ACTIONS............................................................................................ 41 6.1. In education.............................................................................................................. 41 6.2. Capacity building ..................................................................................................... 41 6.3. Public awareness..................................................................................................... 42 6.4. Access to public information................................................................................... 42 6.5. International cooperation........................................................................................ 42 BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................43

BACKGROUND PAPERS

3.

ADAPTING TO SHRINKING ANDEAN GLACIERS. SCIENCE, POLICY AND SOCIETY POWER GAMES 1. ANDEANS GLACIERS ARE SHRINKING............................................................................. 46 2. ANDEAN ECOSYSTEM SERVICES: THREATS AND ARGUMENTS FOR GLACIER CONSERVATION.............................................................................................................. 47 3. ANDEAN COUNTRIES APPROACHES TO GLACIER CONSERVATION................................... 50 4. ENHANCING SCIENCE-POLICY LINKS AMIDST SOCIAL POWER GAMES.............................55 5. RENEWED ROLES FOR POLICY MAKERS, SCIENTISTS AND FOUNDING AGENCIES............ 56 REFERENCES....................................................................................................................... 58

BACKGROUND PAPERS

4.

CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION LOCAL PRACTICES IN THE ANDEAN REGION: An overview 1. ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... 62 2. EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE ANDEAN REGION................................................ 63 3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK............................................................................................ 64 4. CCA LOCAL PRACTICES IN THE ANDEAN REGION............................................................ 65 4.1. Water Resources management................................................................................. 67 4.2. Agricultural production systems .............................................................................. 69 4.3. Biodiversity ............................................................................................................... 71 4.4. Adaptation or development?.....................................................................................72 5. ANALYSIS OF TRENDS IN ADAPTATION PRACTICE OVER TIME...........................................74 6. REVIEW OF PUBLIC POLICIES AT REGIONAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVEL......................75 6.1. National CCA policies in Andean countries ............................................................... 76 6.2. Institutions, Initiatives and Networks at regional level.............................................. 76 7. CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES FOR IMPLEMENTATION...............................................78 8. OPPORTUNITIES IDENTIFIED............................................................................................ 79 9. ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION................................................................................................. 80 BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................................................81

1.

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES IN THE TROPICAL ANDES: Prioritizing scientific research for developing adaptation policies Wouter Buytaert, Staycie Domzalski Imperial College London, London, UK

6 BACKGROUND PAPERS 1 ] Climate change impacts on water resources in the tropical Andes: prioritizing scientific research for developing adaptation policies ________

1. INTRODUCTION THIS PAPER REVIEWS THE STATE OF KNOWLEDGE ON THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER RESOURCES IN THE TROPICAL ANDES, IDENTIFIES CURRENT KNOWLEDGE GAPS, AND REVIEWS THE CURRENT ACTIONS THAT ARE TAKEN BY DIFFERENT ACTORS TO ADDRESS THESE KNOWLEDGE GAPS. THE PAPER AIMS TO BE A FIRST ATTEMPT TO RAISE AWARENESS AMONG POLICY MAKERS TO ENHANCE CAPACITIES TO ASSES, MONITOR AND COMMUNICATE THE IMPACTS OF AND RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE NATURAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENTS AT LOCAL, NATIONAL, AND REGIONAL LEVELS. IT IS INTENDED AS A WORKING DOCUMENT TO DEVELOP STRATEGIES AND POLICY GUIDELINES CONSIDERING VULNERABILITIES, OPPORTUNITIES AND POTENTIAL FOR ADAPTATION. POTENTIAL ACTION POINTS CAN BE THE ARTICULATION IN NETWORKS, STRENGTHENING ON-GOING RESEARCH AND ADAPTATION ACTIVITIES IN THE REGION, IDENTIFICATION OF CURRICULA NEEDS FOR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION, AND LEARNING FROM BEST PRACTICES APPLIED IN LOCAL ADAPTATION PROJECTS.

2. STATE OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND GAPS 2.1. WATER SUPPLY 2.1.1. Precipitation Spatiotemporal climate patterns in the tropical Andes govern the input of water in the terrestrial water cycle. These patterns are extremely complex, and driven by both large-scale circulations, and local interactions between these circulations and local topography. A recent, extensive overview of the Andean climate and weather is given by Garreaud (2009), and only a short summary is presented here.

Various circulation patterns and synoptic climate processes govern the climate of the tropical Andes.

The North-easternmost slopes of the Andes in Venezuela and Colombia are marked by a unimodal climate governed by north-easterly trade winds coming from over the tropical Atlantic. Further south along the eastern slopes of the Andes, the climate originates from an easterly low-level jet over the Amazon basin. Its position is influenced by the Intertropical convergence zone and tends to create wet, unimodal climates because of the large quantities of moisture transported and recycled over the Amazon basin (Garreaud, 2009; Espinoza Villar, 2008, Celleri et al., 2007).

The Pacific facing slopes of Colombia and Northern Ecuador are mainly influenced by an Intertropical Convergence Zone over the eastern Pacific (Vuille et al., 2000), which provides continuous moisture in the form of rain, clouds and fog due to the orographic

uplift. Further south, the western slopes of south Ecuador and north Peru are much drier, under the influence of dry and cool air masses from the Humboldt sea current (Garreaud, 2009). This is also the region that is most strongly influenced by the ENSO oscillation, during which it experiences a positive precipitation anomaly, while the effect tends to be negative in the rest of the Andean highlands.

A full overview of the ENSO phenomenon can be found in Wang and Fielder (2006), among others.

Locally, these synoptic patterns are strongly influenced by interactions with the land surface, and topography in particular. The irregular topography and the large differences in slope, exposure and elevation give rise to strong gradients in temperature and precipitation, shading effects and local microclimates. This effect is particularly strong in the inter-Andean valleys between the western and the eastern mountain range. These regions undergo a varying influence from oceanic and continental air masses, often resulting in complex, distribution (e.g., Célleri et al., 2007). On the outer slope the effects of orographic uplift are particularly noticeable but can create different effects depending on local conditions. For instance, in Venezuela and Colombia trade wind inversions result in a peak precipitation at intermediate elevation, declining towards the mountain ridge (Espinoza Villar et al., 2008). Further south, the elevation of maximum precipitation is found in the Amazonian lowlands, and precipitation decreases monotonously with increasing altitude (Bookhagen and Strecker, 2008).

These spatiotemporal precipitation patterns largely drive local water availability in the tropical Andes, especially in the upper regions, where storage,

7 BACKGROUND PAPERS 1 ] Climate change impacts on water resources in the

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regulation and transport of water are severely limited by the steep topography and small catchment areas.

Still, many of the precipitation dynamics are poorly understood. First, the low density of conventional precipitation measurement networks, and their bias towards highly populated regions, valley bottoms and lowland regions results in a very poor coverage of the upper Andes. Figure 1 shows that most of the upper regions have a rain gauge density that is an order of magnitude below the WMO guidelines of 1 rain gauge every 100 – 250km2. Moreover, the impact of rain shading and other orographic effects complicate the interpolation of point rain gauge data and thus the generation of spatially averaged precipitation inputs (e.g., Buytaert et al., 2006; Espinoza Villar, 2008; among many others). These uncertainties jeopardize catchment water balance calculations, which is the principal tool for assessing surface water availability in hydrological systems.

FIGURE 1

Precipitation stations registered in the Global Historical Climatology Network. The size of the grey dots around each station is 250km2, which is the lower end of the WMO recommended density range of rain gauges in complex mountain terrain.

Similarly, the poor characterisation of hydrological soil properties such as infiltration and water retention and the underlying geology results in even larger uncertainties with regard to groundwater availability, transit times, and recharge.

2.1.2. Storage and regulation While precipitation is the major input of water in the hydrological system, water availability is further determined by local water storage and flow regulation mechanisms. Again, the extraordinary spatial and temporal variations in topography, vegetation, soils, and geology (refs) gives rise to a wide range of hydrological responses and transit times of Andean river basins.

In the upper Andes, water storage is dominated by surface features, such as glaciers, lakes, wetlands and soils. The mass balance and resulting hydrological attenuating effect of tropical glaciers is relatively well documented at a regional scale, even though the behaviour of individual glaciers needs further attention (e.g., Vuille et al., 2008; Kaser et al., 2009; Rabatel et al., 2013). Similarly, the understanding of the hydrological behaviour of upper Andean wetlands in the so-called pĂĄramo wet- and grasslands of the northern Andes (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru) has increased significantly over the last decade (Buytaert et al., 2006; Buytaert et al., 2013). Yet, the equivalent upper Andean ecosystems of central and southern Peru, and the Bolivian Altiplano, such as Jalca and Puna,

remain virtually unstudied. The very few studies that exist on the hydrology of the Peruvian Puna highlight the importance of local lakes and wetlands for water storage and regulation (ref). But the exact processes are little known, and extrapolation from other biomes such as the paramos is problematic because of the very different precipitation regime, soils, geology, and vegetation (Gibbon et al., 2010, Buytaert et al., 2011).

Hydrological systems located further downslope tend to be somewhat better studied, even though large gaps in knowledge about spatiotemporal variability are still present. For instance, a large body of global research on tropical mountain cloud forests has highlighted their idiosyncratic hydrological behaviour including the potentially significant contribution of cloud interception and their extraordinarily large water storage in the canopy (Bruijnzeel et al., 2005; 2010; Foster et al., 2001; PeĂąa Arancibia et al., 2010). Nevertheless

8 BACKGROUND PAPERS 1 ] Climate change impacts on water resources in the tropical Andes: prioritizing scientific research for developing adaptation policies ________

the actual contribution of these processes and in particular cloud interception is notoriously difficult to quantify, and may range between 0 and >100% of precipitation, depending on local climatic conditions and forest composition as well as local topographical influence on the microclimate (Holwerda et al., 2006; Villegas, 2008).

Most Andean river basins are composed of a patchwork of different hydrological systems, including groundwater reservoirs.

While groundwater contribution to streamflow is typically limited in the upper Andes, it can be significant further downslope, where most of the actual water use takes place. For instance, Baraer et al. (2009) quantified the contributions of glacier melt and groundwater during the dry season in the Cordillera Blanca and found groundwater contributions of almost 50% in some basins.

An analysis of the type performed by Baraer et al.

(2009), which backtraces streamflow contributions to different hydrological systems and attributes the hydrological response to the attenuation characteristics of each of them, is a prerequisite for understanding water resources systems’ vulnerability to environmental change. However, such studies are extremely scarce. One of the major stumble blocks is often the lack of streamflow data from small, first order catchments with homogeneous land-use that are required to understand the hydrological response of individual land-use, soil, and topography types (see e.g., Buytaert et al., 2007, for an example of a pairwise catchment experiment), before aggregated impacts can be assessed.

2.1.3. Water quality As well as water availability, water quality in the Andes is undergoing dramatic changes, which go largely undocumented. This section paraphrases Buytaert and Breuer (2013).

Diffuse sources of pollution are largely determined by patterns of land-use change, and especially conversion to agricultural land and changing agricultural practices. The gross of agricultural production systems in the Andes is characterized by low intensities, as a larger share is attributable to subsistence farming. Yet, intensification and modernization of agricultural production is on the rise, and associated with it is the increased use of agrochemicals for production, such as fertilizers (N

and P leading to eutrophication of surface waters, NO3- and NO2- impacting drinking water quality) and pesticides. These lead to an increase in nutrient inputs and contamination of surface water resources, and potentially in the long-term also subsurface water resources.

Associated with these land use changes are nutrient losses through conversion (Da Silva et al., 2007) and additional nutrient inputs through industrialized agricultural production (Zeilhofer et al., 2006).

Associated with land use change are often the further establishment of additional point sources: sewage from increased population growth and resulting urbanization; installation of feedlots where nutrient enriched water potentially leaches to the groundwater or where surface runoff promotes erosion and pollutes surface water bodies with nutrients or fecal microorganisms (Chagas et al., 2007, García et al., 2012); process water from industrial complexes that process food, feed or biofuel (Gunkel et al., 2007).

Irrigation agriculture is gaining more and more importance, dominating on the western slopes of the Andes. Effects on water quality are mainly occurring on the local to regional scale due to the size of irrigation structures. Ribbe et al. (2008) further noted in their Chilean case study that “nitrate concentrations… do not reach alarming levels yet; the impact of irrigation agriculture on surface water quality is obvious and makes a case for introduction of best management practices to avoid aggravation of contamination”.

As a major driver of the economic growth of the region, industrial activity has expanded rapidly, and with it the pressures on the local environment.

Most of these are common to emerging economies worldwide and are typically aggravated by a lack of adequate legislation, and poor institutionalisation and enforcement of legislation. However, some industries are particularly relevant for the tropical Andes.

The biggest of such industries is mining, accounting for over 10% of GDP in countries such as Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Venezuela, and Chile (Fig. 2). In 2010, Chile and Peru were respectively the largest and second largest mine producer of copper, while Peru also features in the top 5 of the world’s largest producers of silver (2nd), lead (4th), and gold (5th) (Brown et al., 2012). While social conflicts about mining activities typically focus on water use by mines (e.g.,

9 BACKGROUND PAPERS 1 ] Climate change impacts on water resources in the

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Although specific studies are scarce, Smolders et al. (2003) studied the levels of lead, cadmium, copper, and zinc in water, filtered water, sediment, and chironomid larvae from the upper Pilcomayo river in Bolivia, which is affected by drainage water from mine tailings from the Potosi area. They found concentrations of these heavy metals up to 1000 times above the local background levels. At the same time, strong reductions were found in the diversity of benthic macro-invertebrate community. Further downstream, the degree of contamination was much lower because of dilution of both water and natural sediments. Yet, the introduction of the flotation process in the mining industry around 1985 could be detected in sediment cores from the Ibibobo floodplain, in the form of a sudden increase of heavy metal concentrations.

FIGURE 2

Mining as share of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in representative Latin American countries for the years 2000 and 2010 (data source: CEPALSTAT, 2013).

Venezuela Peru

Country

Bebbington et al., 2008), such issues are strongly related to water quality.

Most of this water is released back into the environment as grey water, potentially contaminated with heavy metals and other waste products, as well as chemicals used in the extraction process.

Ecuador

year

2010

Colombia

2000

Chile Bolivia Argentina 0

10

20

Mining and quarrying as share of GDP [%]

FIGURE 3

Temporal dynamics of the international gold price, annual mercury imports in Peru, and forest conversion to mining area in the Madre de Dios region, south Peru (Swenson et al., 2011)

Contamination by chemicals used in the extraction process is particularly problematic in the case of informal gold mining, which uses large amounts of mercury.

Especially in Peru, where informal gold mining is particularly prevalent in the headwaters of the Amazon basin, it is estimated that 95% of the total mercury import is used in artificial gold mining (Swenson et al., 2011). Although very little official information is available, the fact that such mining typically occurs along streams and rivers because of the occurrence of deposits and the availability of water required for extraction, suggests that much of the consumed mercury is released in surface waters.

The recent increase in the gold price has stimulated these informal mining activities, which is reflected in the growing import of mercury in Peru (Fig. 3).

Another industry with potentially large impacts on water quality is aquaculture. The practice is

widespread in the upper Andes, where smallscale subsistence fishing is gradually replaced by larger fish farms. Only a few native species have commercial value, of which the Argentinean pejerrey (Odontesthes bonariensis) is the most widespread, and is now also produced in Brazil, Uruguay, Bolivia, Chile and Peru, for instance in lake Titicaca. In most countries, the introduced brown trout and rainbow trout are the most important (Petr, 2003). From a water quality perspective, a disadvantage of this type of aquaculture is its location in the mountain headwaters, such that potential contamination (e.g., nutrients and fertilizers) may propagate downstream. However, very little research has been reported in the scientific literature.

Of a much larger scale is the salmon aquaculture in the southern Chile, which has only started 2 decades

10 BACKGROUND PAPERS 1 ] Climate change impacts on water resources in the tropical Andes: prioritizing scientific research for developing adaptation policies ________

ago but represents a $3 billion-a-year industry nowadays. Although the impacts on local hydrology have thus far received little attention in the scientific literature, there is increasing concern about water pollution and loss of biodiversity.

Additional to industrial growth, the dramatic growth of mega cities entails specific issues of both clean water supply and pollution, especially in view of rapid population growth and urbanization (Table 1). Although the issue of water supply for cities is receiving increasing attention (e.g., McDonald et al. 2011), evidence of the impact of raw wastewater release in the peri-urban environment of Andean cities is still very scarce and anecdotal (e.g., Pompeu et al., 2005). Nevertheless, it is generally considered to be a significant threat to coastal and freshwater ecosystems, as well as food security and human health (Corcoran et al. 2010).

FIGURE 4

2.1.4. Future changes Climate change is expected to have direct impacts on the hydrological response of terrestrial systems by changing the climatic and meteorological boundary conditions (e.g., precipitation, temperature, humidity, Vuille et al., 2003; Buytaert and De Bièvre, 2012), as well as driving internal changes in each of the systems (e.g., vegetation, soils, land-use; Tovar et al., 2013).

Direct impacts on the meteorological boundary conditions are expected to have the largest impact on the short term. A major issue with these impacts concerns the large uncertainties in future projections of climate change. Figure 2 gives an overview of the expected trends in temperature and precipitation in the tropical Andes, as well as the related uncertainties.

Overview of the CMIP3 projections of future changes in temperature and precipitation for the tropical Andes. A & E: Range between the models in representing the past climate (20C3M scenario, 1961-1990). B & F: Ensemble median of the projected anomalies in precipitation [%] and temperature [°C] for the SRES A1B emission scenario for the period 2040-2069. C & G: CMIP3 model ensemble range of the projected anomalies in precipitation [%] and temperature [°C] for the SRES A1B emission scenario for the period 2040-2069. D & H: Areas (in gray) where 80% of more of the models agree on the direction of the change (from Buytaert and De Bièvre, 2012).

11 BACKGROUND PAPERS 1 ] Climate change impacts on water resources in the

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As for temperature changes, the pattern of the median of future projections is following regional trends, with stronger warming over the continental land mass compared to the oceans. The expected stronger warming at high altitudes, which is predicted by the law of Clausius Clapeyron and observed in high-resolution regional climate simulations (Bradley et al., 2006) is not visible, most likely because of the coarse resolution of the CMIP3 GCMs. In fact, the large discrepancy between the models with regard to the representation of the 20C3M temperature (Figure 4A) around the Andean massif of southern Peru and Bolivia is most likely the result of different GCM uncertainties and consequently their representation of local topography.

FIGURE 5

Dissection of the drivers of the future change [%] in effective precipitation for the tropical Andes and the surrounding areas, using the median of the CMIP3 ensemble.

(Top) Impact of the change in precipitation keeping the temperature at 1961 – 1990 levels; (Mid) Impact of increasing temperature, keeping precipitation at 1961 – 1990 levels; (Bottom) Combined impact of precipitation and temperature change. White areas have a current yearly average precipitation of 0 mm year-1 and therefore an undefined relative change (Buytaert and De Bièvre, 2012).

Precipitation projections show the large-scale pattern of wetting in the inner tropics and drying in the outer tropics, which is attributed to an intensification of the Hadley cell.

However, in the case of precipitation, the tropical Andes clearly stand out as a region of high uncertainties, highlighting the GCMs’ inability to represent the interaction between climate and topography.

The impact of these changes on water resources is twofold. An increase in temperature will typically lead to an increase in evapotranspiration because of the increased availability of energy for evaporation. A regional assessment of the combination of both impacts is given in Fig. 5, from Buytaert and De Bièvre (2012).

The regional trends in climate change (Figure 4) are also reflected in the patterns of Fig. 5, and tend to lead

to a lower water availability, except in regions where the expected increase in precipitation exceeds the increase in evapotranspiration (e.g., Amazon slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes).

Nevertheless, quantifying these impacts on a scale relevant for water resources is extremely complicated.

A first bottleneck is the coarse resolution of global climate models, which requires further downscaling of the model projections. Downscaling in itself is complex, and a wide variety of methods is available, each of which has their own set of assumptions and simplifications that needs to be assessed carefully (Maraun et al., 2010). Additionally, all but the simplest

12 BACKGROUND PAPERS 1 ] Climate change impacts on water resources in the tropical Andes: prioritizing scientific research for developing adaptation policies ________

methods require a level of data availability, which is typically not available in the Andes (Maraun et al., 2010).

Additionally, the local partitioning of precipitation into evapotranspiration and runoff will depend on several factors, such as the transpiration characteristics of the vegetation, soil water infiltration and percolation characteristics, and any changes in water availability for evaporation caused by changes in the precipitation regime.

On the long term, these issues are further aggravated by changes in the local ecosystems induced by global climate change. In regions with steep topographical and climatic gradients such as the Andes, these changes will be much higher than in most lowlands.

Without going into further detail, Figure 6 from Tovar et al. (2013) highlights the potential severity of ecosystem change in the tropical Andes.

2.2. WATER DEMAND A major driver of water-related issues in the Andes is the fast increase of water demand, underpinned by rapid economic and demographic growths rates.

For 2011, demographic growth averaged 1.1% over the South American continent (ECLAC, 2012) but strong geographical differences exist. Yet, more important than the regional differences is the general trend towards urbanization. Nearly all major cities in and around the Andes are consistently growing faster than the national average, thus putting severe pressure on often underdeveloped water capture and distribution systems. This often leads to water shortages, as well as water quality degradation because of the use of suboptimal water sources and contamination in the distribution system.

In addition to demographic growth, South American economic growth has focused strongly on industries that are at the same time highly water intensive and polluting, in particular agriculture and mining. Overall, agriculture consumes around 70% of available waFIGURE 6 ter resources in South Ame Median change in the area of potential biomes versus remnant biomes for A1B scenario period 2010–2039 and 2040–2069. In dark grey the lost areas (the biome will be rica, which is well in agreereplaced by another biome), in grey stable areas (areas that remained unchanged) and in ment with global average. In light grey new or emerging areas (the biome is projected to occur in the future but not in the rural areas, agriculture can present). Black lines represent the minimum and maximum values of all models. The sum of have an even higher share the stable and lost areas represent the present area, while the sum of the stable and emerging of net water withdrawal as areas represent the future projected area (Tovar et al., 2013). domestic use and industry have a relatively low annual consumption. Water requirements for hydropower and mining might represent an important share of gross water resources requirements but have a negligible net consumption rate according to Aquastat (FAO, 2000).

Hotspots of pressure on gross water resources from industrial activities include the Peruvian coast (agriculture), the tropical Andes (mining), and northern Chile and Bolivia (mining).

13 BACKGROUND PAPERS 1 ] Climate change impacts on water resources in the

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2.3. SOME NOTEWORTHY RESEARCH ACTIVITIES Table 1 gives an overview of some relevant research activities in the wide realm of climate change adaptation with significant focus on the Andean region. While not exhaustive, the examples provide some insights in the nature of recent activities and initiatives in the region, highlighting their diversity and wide-ranging nature.

This observation was confirmed during the Quito workshop, where the need for a better identification and inventory of existing research activities and networks was emphasized, as well as the need for

TABLE 1

further strengthening of existing networks to improve coordination and complementarity between research activities.

3. CURRENT ADAPTATION STRATEGIES AND BOTTLENECKS (REGIONAL, NATIONAL, LOCAL) As a full analysis of adaptation strategies is beyond the scope of this document, our analysis has focused on Peru, as a case study to identify particular

Examples of relevant research activities and initiatives in the Andes.

TITLE

FUNDER

CONSORTIUM

TYPE

Economic Impact of Climate Change in Peru (EIECCP)

IADB

Practical Action Peru and Pontifical Catholic University of Peru

National study of climate change impacts on well-being and economic productivity

IPCC 5th assessment report

IPCC

IPCC

Impact assessment, chapter on Latin America

Glacier Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction Project in the Cordilleras of Peru

Swiss Agency for Development Meteodat, EPF Lausanne and Cooperation / Ministry of Environment, Peru / CARE

International research project

PACC: Climate Change Adaptation Project Peru

Swiss Agency for Development MeteoSwiss, Meteodat, and Cooperation / Ministry of Agroscope, WSL, University of Environment, Peru / Helvetas- Geneva.

Swiss Intercooperation

International research project

Adaptive Governance of Mountain Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation enabled by Environmental Virtual Observatories

UK ESPA

Imperial College London / University of Birmingham / Wageningen University / University of Antwerp / University of Berlin / CONDESAN/ UCA / University of Cornell

Research project

Managing water resources in Arid and Semi-arid regions of Latin America and the Caribbean (MWAR-LAC)

UNESCO Flemish Trust Fund

UNESCO IHP

Research project / Policy impact

The impact of glacier retreat in the Andes: International Network for Adaptation Strategies

UNESCO Flemish Trust Fund

UNESCO IHP

Research project / Policy impact

GREAT ICE

IRD

IRD/Escuela PolitĂŠcnica Nacional de Quito

Research programme

Interamerican Institute for Global Change Research

19 member countries in the Americas

N/A

Intergovernmental instrument

14 BACKGROUND PAPERS 1 ] Climate change impacts on water resources in the tropical Andes: prioritizing scientific research for developing adaptation policies ________

TABLE 2

Summary of the major bottlenecks to climate change adaptation identified from interviews with policy actors in Peru, discussion of their causes, and potential recommendations.

RESULTS

CAUSES

RECOMMENDATIONS

Lack of consensus on terminology and framework for “vulnerability” and “adaptive capacity”

“One size fits all” labels

Only use term “vulnerability” in the sense of “identifying vulnerable people” Avoid term “measuring vulnerability”misguiding

Wicked problem

Clumsy solutions

In psychoanalysis: Anxiety and sense of threat can lead to apathy and indecision

Create safe spaces for supportive communication in policy

Difficulty to identify collaborators and adaptation projects

Lack of transparency and global communication

A single official online platform to gather adaptation projects and associations

Failure of some adaptation strategies

Risk perception at local level is shaped by multiple interconnected factors (e.g. economic security, political power, cultural beliefs) which were not considered together

Emphasis on stakeholder engagement and participation- local risk perceptions are crucial to project success

Adaptation uncertainties offer opportunities

Adaptation is unexplored territory and there are no existing proven strategies

Opportunities for cost-benefit analysis to select “win-win” or “no regrets” projects

Inconsistent and limited approach to water resources management in climate change context

Privatization of water services favour national elite and demands of globalised markets

Water tax introduction

No cross-sector water use quantified and mapped

Use water footprinting as a tool

research needs. Table 2 presents an overview of the results of analysis of existing adaptation strategies based upon a literature review and direct interviews of stakeholders, complemented in Table 3 by a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats). More details on the analysis are presented in the annex Report 2. Vulnerability and resilience.

The Quito workshop identified the interface between science and policy, and social science in general, as a major gap in current climate-related research in the Andes that need to be addressed urgently. There is an urgent need for a more interdisciplinary approach to addressing research questions that need to be guided as much from social science disciplines than from natural sciences. Currently, the latter dominates the research arena.

Similarly, the science – policy interface, i.e. the communication and interaction between on the one hand scientist of different disciplines, and on the other hand politicians and policy makers, needs to be explored in much more detail. Not only the scientific bases for science – policy interaction

Develop clear water rights

needs to be addressed, but it is also recommended to create incentives for researchers to be involved in activities of research dissemination such as nonscientific publications, but also wider dissemination and policy support. Social responsibility of scientists should be placed higher on the agenda, and rewarded much more strongly than is currently the case.

Scientists should be motivated to leave their comfort zone and participate more actively in the design and implementation of solutions.

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TABLE 3

SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and threats) analysis of climate change adaptation in Peru.

STRENGTHS

OPPORTUNITIES

Establish a functioning insurance market Develop clear water markets

User water footprinting as a tool

Establish more bridging organisations and intermediaries to facilitate horizontal and vertical communication

Pluridisciplinary cooperation and facilitating both horizontal and vertical communication

Water tax introduction

Development of onand offline platforms for communication of adaptation projects and associations

Opportunities for cost-benefit analysis to select “win – win” or “no regret” projects

Rapid set-up and investment in the development of a national and regional adaptation strategies in comparison with other countries – builds needed foundations for urgent actions

Use proper uncertainty quantification as an opportunity to identify research priorities and noregret approaches

Clumsy solutions

Create safe spaces for supportive communication in policy

“One size fits all” approaches and labels

“Wicked” problems with no obvious solutions

Difficulties to identify collaborators and adaptation projects

Failure of some adaptation strategies

Privatization of water services favoured national elite and globalised markets demands – sector partiality

Inconsistent and limited approaches to water resources management in climate change context

Risk perception at local level shaped by multiple interconnected factors (e.g., economic security, political power, cultural beliefs) which are not considered together

No cross-sector water use quantified and mapped

Lack of stakeholder engagement and participation – local risk perceptions are crucial to project success

Anxiety and sense of threat induce apathy, indecision, and inaction

Lack of transparency and global communication

Lack of consensus on terminology and framework for “vulnerability” and “adaptive capacity”

Careful and appropriate use of term “vulnerability”

Lack of criteria and guidelines on definition and quantification of vulnerability

Unclear horizontal No existing proven (cross ministry) bridges strategies for for action adaptation WEAKNESSES

THREATS

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4. CURRENT SCIENCE POLICY IN THE ANDEAN COUNTRIES 4.1. CURRENT GLOBAL AND LOCAL FUNDING OPPORTUNITIES See Table 4.

4.2. CONSTRAINTS FOR SCIENCE POLICY IMPLEMENTATION We identify the following constraints for policy implementation: Lack of access to scientific research results.

While there is a general trend towards publishing in open access scientific journals, a lot of scientific research is still published in journals that require subscription fees and are typically not available to decision makers.

Lack of access to scientific data. Even though scientific publications are increasingly open access, the publications themselves typically do not include any datasets that can be analysed or applied in a policy context, such as spreadsheets with raw data, maps in GIS format, computer

implementations of processing routines, and simulation models, among others. There is a clear need to improve further the dissemination of digital research results to allow their use in policy implementation. Some useful activities are ongoing, such as the establishment of open access data archives, databases of metadata, web portals to datasets, standardization of data formats and access, web services, among others (see e.g., Buytaert et al., 2012 for an overview). However, many of these efforts are in a very preliminary stage and currently not adopted by relevant policy makers.

Lack of understanding of scientific research results. Scientific research is published in peerreviewed journals, but these are aimed at a scientific audience and therefore require a level of expertise in a scientific field that policy makers do not tend to have. There is little incentive within the scientific community to publish outside the peer-reviewed literature, because of the lack of recognition or credit. In the case of the Andes, the language barrier further impedes dissemination of research results beyond the scientific community.

Lack of relevance of scientific research. Science and policy may have very different agendas which can be difficult to reconcile. This is particularly

TABLE 4

Examples of global and local funding opportunities for scientific research oriented towards global change and adaptation strategies.

TITLE

SOURCE

TYPE

Horizon2020

European Commission

Research programme

FONDECYT

CONCYTEC (Peruvian government)

Research funding (studentships, postdoctoral fellowships, research and innovation projects)

National and International studentships

CENECSYT

Funding for Ecuadorian MSc and PhD students

Research project funding

CENECSYT

Funding for Ecuadorian MSc and PhD students

Prometeo

CENECSYT (Ecuadorian government)

Funding for overseas researchers to

CDKN project calls

CDKN (Climate and Development Knowledge Network)

Targeted funding

IAI project calls

Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research

Targeted funding

N/A

US National Science Foundation; USAID

Responsive mode research funding

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problematic in remote, data scarce regions such as the tropical Andes, where data scarcity prevents the application of state-of-the art methods and analysis techniques, thus not forming an attractive region of research for high-level international research. For instance, after participating in the II Meeting of Environmental Researchers in the city of Arequipa, Peru (3-5 July 2013), organized by the Environmental Researchers Network, hosted by the Ministry of the Environment, Devenish (2013) notes that: “The majority of the papers presented in the biodiversity and ecosystems session did not coincide with the needs outlined by the regional governments. Research needs were centred on environmental issues, such as waste management, water availability, river pollution and ecosystem degradation. In contrast, the papers were overwhelmingly focused on basic ecology, for example, species presence and distribution, state of conservation, and some on ecological restoration.

Although the regional government’s research needs were not exclusively focused on biodiversity, this divergence, in part, reflects the way in which each group sets out its own research agenda without effective consultation or coordination”.

5. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PRIORITIES FOR DEVELOPING ADAPTATION POLICIES A gap-analysis to identify the policy-relevant issues that are not currently included or not given priority, resulted in the following priorities for scientific research for developing adaptation policies at the national and regional levels: Considering the importance of a data-based approach to adaptation, data collection is of primordial importance and should be given unconditional priority. Current deficiencies in monitoring networks are seen as a principal bottleneck to advance adaptation-relevant science.

The design of monitoring networks requires further integration of efforts from governmental institutions, universities and NGOs. This would not only optimise resource allocation, but also allows better tuning of monitoring requirements between different actors. Data collection and processing should pursue improved compatibility, comparability and exchange of information at

national and regional level. Data collection should be tailored better for decision-making, which has implications for the design of monitoring networks.

Understanding the processes driving changes in the water cycle. Arguably the largest change in water availability is due to changes in water demand (e.g., Buytaert et al., 2012), due to population growth, urbanization, industrial growth, and expansion and industrialisation of agriculture. Scientific literature on this topic is extremely scarce for the Andes.

Regionalisation and interpolation of process understanding. The density and state of knowledge of hydrological processes in the Andes is extremely variable, with clear “hotspots” of scientific activity. This process tends to be selfreinforcing, as scientific activity tends to attract further research, either because of practical considerations (investments in instrumentation and facilities) or to build upon the existing body of research. Repetition of experiments in other locations tends to generate little scientific glamour, while other regions are practically too difficult to work to justify scientific investments from a purely scientific perspective.

Modelling, simulation and scenario analysis targeted to decision-making remains a bottleneck.

The large majority of environmental models has been developed for different environments, processes, and data availability. This leads to suboptimal predictive capacity, and large uncertainties. Even though uncertainty analysis has become standard practice in many branches of environmental prediction (e.g., Beven, 2009), the use of uncertainty analysis in policy-oriented scenario analysis is still in very early stages (e.g., Brugnach et al., 2008). Specific targets of scientific research include (1) evaluation of models (at the level of region or country), ensemble modelling, model intercomparison, and communication of model assumptions and their relation to scientific evidence.

Improved tailoring of environmental models to decision-making. Participants at the Quito workshop perceived a discrepancy between the level of complexity of models, and the level of complexity of decision-making. Complex solutions should be provided for complex problems, and easy solutions to easy problems.

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Visualisation and communication of scientific results, especially computer simulations.

New technologies of web-services, mobile communication and cloud computing are driving the development of a new era of infographics (Spiegelhalter et al., 2011), which have the potential to reduce the gap between the scientific discipline of environmental model development and the policy application of model simulations.

Especially in regions of high uncertainties, this can help avoiding high and unrealistic expectations regarding scientific knowledge and

environmental models, as well as that they are seen as clear-cut cases for particular policies.

Lastly, robust decision making and the pursuit of no-regret strategies has been explored as a potential strategy to deal with the large uncertainties related to predicting the impact of climate change on water resources (e.g. Dessai and Hulme, 2007). The exploration and application of these concepts in the tropical Andes is still very much in its infancy.

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Célleri, R., Willems, P., Buytaert, W., & Feyen, J. (2007). Spacetime variability of rainfall in the Paute River basin of South Ecuador.

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Da Silva, D. M. L., Ometto, J. P. H. B., Araujo Lobo, G. de, Paula Lima, W. de, Scaranello, M. A., Mazzi, E. & da Rocha, H. R. (2007) Can land use changes alter carbon, nitrogen and major ion transport in subtropical Brazilian streams? Sci. Agric. 64(4), 317–324.

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Assessing the robustness of adaptation decisions to climate change uncertainties: A case study on water resources management in the East of England. Global Environmental Change, 17, 59–72.

Devenish, C. (2013). Closing the gap between researchers and the public sector. MRI Blog, http:// mri.scnatweb.ch/fr/easyblog/ entry/closing-the-gap-betweenresearchers-and-the-public-sector (accessed 10/08/2013) ECLAC (2013). CEPALSTAT Databases and Statistical Publications. Available from: http://estadisticas.cepal.org/ cepalstat/ (accessed 03/10/2013).

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Naziano, F., Lavado, W., De Oliveira, E., Pombosa, R., Vauchel, P. (2008).

Spatio-temporal rainfall variability in the Amazon basin countries (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, and Ecuador). International Journal of Climatology, 1594, 1574–1594.

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Foster, P. (2001). The potential negative impacts of global climate change on tropical montane cloud forests. Earth-Science Reviews, 55, 73–106.

García, A. R., Maisonnave, R., Massobrio, M. J. & Fabrizio de Iorio, A. R. (2012) Field-Scale Evaluation of Water Fluxes and Manure Solution Leaching in Feedlot Pen Soils. Journal of Environmental Quality 41(5), 1591.

Garreaud, R. D. (2009). The Andes climate and weather. Advances in Geosciences, 1–9.

Gibbon, A., Silman, M. R., Malhi, Y., Fisher, J. B., Meir, P., Zimmermann, M., et al. (2010). Ecosystem Carbon Storage Across the Grassland-Forest Transition in the High Andes of Manu National Park, Peru. Ecosystems, 13, 1097–1111.

Gunkel, G., Kosmol, J., Sobral, M., Rohn, H., Montenegro, S. & Aureliano, J. (2007) Sugar cane industry as a source of water pollution–Case study on the situation in Ipojuca River, Pernambuco, Brazil.

Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 180(1), 261–269.

Holwerda, F., Scatena, F. N., & Bruijnzeel, L. A. (2006). Throughfall in a Puerto Rican lower montane rain forest: A comparison of sampling strategies. Journal of Hydrology, 327, 592–602.

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potential of glaciers to water availability in different climate regimes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(47), 20223– 20227.

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(2010). Precipitation downscaling under climate change. Recent developments to bridge the gap between dynamical models and the end user. Reviews of Geophysics, 48, RG3003.

Peña-Arancibia, J. L., van Dijk, A. I. J. M., Mulligan, M., & Bruijnzeel, L. A. (2010). The role of climatic and terrain attributes in estimating baseflow recession in tropical catchments. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 14, 2193–2205. doi:10.5194/hess-14-2193-2010 Rabatel, A., Francou, B., Soruco, A., Gomez, J., Cáceres, B., Ceballos, J. L., et al. (2013). Current state of glaciers in the tropical Andes: a multi-century perspective on glacier evolution and climate change. The Cryosphere, 7(1), 81–102. doi:10.5194/tc-7-81-2013 Ribbe, L., Delgado, P., Salgado, E. & Flügel, W.-A. (2008) Nitrate pollution of surface water induced by agricultural non-point pollution in the Pocochay watershed, Chile.

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Smolders, a J. P., Lock, R. a C., Van der Velde, G., Medina Hoyos, R. I., & Roelofs, J. G. M. (2003). Effects of mining activities on heavy metal concentrations in water, sediment, and macroinvertebrates in different reaches of the Pilcomayo River, South America. Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology, 44(3), 314–23.

Tovar, C., Arnillas, C.A., Cuesta, F., Buytaert, W. (2013). Diverging responses of Tropical Andean biomes under future climate conditions.

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Villegas, J. C., Tobón, C., & Breshears, D. D. (2008). Fog interception by non-vascular epiphytes in tropical montane cloud forests: dependencies on gauge type and meteorological conditions.

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Vuille, M., Bradley, R. S., & Keimig, F. (2000). Climate variability in the Andes of Ecuador and its relation to tropical Pacific and Atlantic sea surface temperature anomalies.

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Vuille, M., Bradley, R. S., Werner, M., & Keimig, F. (2003). 20th century climate change in the tropical Andes: observations and model results.

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Vuille, M., Francou, B., Wagnon, P., Juen, I., Kaser, G., Mark, B. G., & Bradley, R. S. (2008). Climate change and tropical Andean glaciers: Past, present and future. EarthScience Reviews, 89, 79–96.

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ENSO variability and the eastern tropical Pacific: A review. Progress in Oceanography, 69, 239–266.

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2.

EDUCATION, CLIMATE CHANGE, WATER AND GLACIERS Patricio Crespo Coello UNESCO consultant

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1. INTRODUCTION THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION, CLIMATE CHANGE, WATER AND GLACIERS IS, IN ADDITION TO BEING COMPLEX, RELATIVELY NEW. IT ENTAILS A REVIEW OF THE EDUCATIONAL OFFERING OF SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES, AT BOTH THE UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE LEVELS IN THE COUNTRIES OF THE TROPICAL ANDES; THAT IS, VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR, PERU AND BOLIVIA. AND WITH A LOOK AT THE EDUCATIONAL OFFERING AT THE GRADUATE LEVEL IN THE BROADER CONTEXT OF ARTICULATION BETWEEN THE ANDEAN REGION AND OTHER COUNTRIES ON THE CONTINENT AND IN EUROPE. WITHIN THIS FRAMEWORK, THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION FOR EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND CULTURE (UNESCO), FROM ITS REGIONAL OFFICE IN SANTIAGO, CHILE, PROMOTES THE REGIONAL PROGRAM ON CLIMATE CHANGE EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN. THIS PROGRAM FALLS WITHIN THE BROAD CONCEPT OF EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (ESD) THAT, FOLLOWING RIO 92, PROGRESSIVELY REPLACED THE POSSIBLY MORE RESTRICTIVE CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION.

W

ith ESD, UNESCO highlights the role of education as a tool for societies to change their reality for the purpose of improving the capacities of vulnerable populations in Latin America and the Caribbean for dealing with the negative effects of climate change, building civil decision-making capacity, promoting social tolerance and shaping a work force that is adaptable to new challenges1.

This article does not establish the state of the art on the subject, as that would have required more in-depth research. It only identifies some points for reflection and critical analysis that may serve as a basis for new studies. It should also be noted that the document analyzes the supply of education more than the demand for it.

Based on discussions and commitments of the international community regarding the issue of climate change and education, especially the UNFCCC, Conference of the Parties (COP), UNESCO, and contributions of the IPCC2, this document is intended as an interpretative and analytical first approach to dealing with bottlenecks and challenges in the relationship between education, climate change, water and glaciers.

Water’s place in the evolution of environmental issues Education and communication on climate change and water University education on climate change, water and glaciers The challenges Possible future actions

In order to perform the work, it was decided to conduct in-depth interviews and to review some books and sources available on the Internet. The individuals who contributed their knowledge and experience on the subject were Bert de Bievre, Miguel Saravia, Marco Villacís, Vicente Favier, Luis Maisincho, Mathias Vuille, Mauricio Villazón, Astrid Hollander and Koen Verbist. The author wishes to express his gratitude to all of them.

1. Proposal for a Regional Program on Climate Change Education for Sustainable Development in Latin America and the Caribbean, UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean (OREALC/UNESCO Santiago).

2. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

The text comprises the following five sections:

The last chapter on high priority actions that should be fostered in the coming years is a product of the workshop on climate change, water and glaciers held in Quito in the latter part of November 2013.

2. WATER’S PLACE IN THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Legend has it that upon reaching the highest stage of enlightenment, a Zen disciple exclaimed, “Oh wondrous marvel! I chop wood! I draw water from the well!” Trees and water are partly what this story is about.

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In its broadest environmental dimension, water becomes a critical issue only when large sectors of the population become aware of its potential scarcity. Thirst is the argument with the greatest mobilizing effect to make water an environmental priority, and “the global water crisis” has been particularly relevant over the last two decades. With regard to glaciers, it can also be said that the turning point is the “retreat of glaciers”, which has been discussed with greater emphasis over the last ten years. Therefore, scarcity and retreat are the words that generally describe global concerns about water and glaciers in recent years. However, all of this is part of a complex process.

With regard to the Andean region, the environmental issue began to be discussed in academic circles in the 70s, but it was in the 80s when it progressively gained relevance. At that time, a catastrophic line of discourse permeated some early trends in environmental education. Soon a concept of sustainable development emerged that tried to reconcile global economic growth trends with conservation policies and environmental management. Large-scale forestry programs with exotic species such as pine and eucalyptus were a key characteristic of public environmental action through the 80s.

Simultaneously, progress was made in regional planning that considered drainage basins as key elements of the organization of space. In a sense, Large-scale forestry programs were based on a concept of conservation of basins and protection of water sources. In those days, studies on the relationship between trees and water had not yet determined the limits and risks of this development strategy.

This period of large-scale regional development programs, such as the Comprehensive Rural Development (DRI) projects in Ecuador, coincided in some Andean countries with large-scale water projects associated with power generation and public irrigation projects. These were important civil works where water was seen in its kinetic function for electricity generation and in its productive function for channeling it where it was needed to increase agricultural and industrial production. It was a time marked by import substitution promoted

by ECLAC, in which civil and hydraulic engineers had a relevant role laying the foundation for regional economic development. In this context, water was an ally, a resource thought to be inexhaustible that

could be used for widely diverse purposes. National irrigation, meteorology and agricultural research institutions came into being and grew strong. Some examples of these are the Institute of Agricultural Research (INIA), National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology (INAMHI), and the Ecuadorian Institute of Water Resources (INERHI).

However, following this golden era of civil works related to water and large-scale forestry, as stated before, in the 80s there were some changes to this approach. The crisis of 1982 would place countries in the region in a situation in which it was impossible to invest in major works as they had in the 70s. Public investment tended to decrease in relative terms and, at the same time, the environmental discourse and approaches based on decentralization, fighting poverty and social participation gained strength. In the 80s and 90s, large-scale regional infrastructure programs gave way to the concept of territorial and community projects, where social agroforestry and rural irrigation projects were given priority.

It was a period of social management of irrigation, with critique not lacking in reductionism of the more classic and conventional backgrounds of hydraulic engineers and hydrologists. In a way, during this time the specific subject of water from a hydrological perspective was diluted, with emphasis only on its function in rural irrigation. From the forestry perspective, emphasis was placed on the relationship between trees and people, the function of trees on rural plots of land.

At the same time, the biodiversity approach would gradually position itself within the environmental issue, displacing somewhat the priority given to forestry resources in terms of planting trees and the function of trees in the second half of the 90s.

However, with the biodiversity approach, there was a return to a more integrated ecosystem concept.

That is, the ecological function of forests and water resources is more highly valued in an integrated vision, since they are reservoirs of biodiversity.

Forests such as the Amazon Jungle gained great relevance during those years.

In the last two decades, the climate change issue has tended to be the focus of the world’s attention, along with issues related to GHG and, specifically, to carbon. REDD+ mechanisms are the international community’s main reason for giving priority to carbon deposits. In this manner, forestry issues have made a strong comeback, although from a different

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perspective, with a concept geared more toward forest masses containing large amounts of carbon more than a functional concept of trees on plots of land, as in preceding years.

Likely, the precedence of carbon in international discussions on climate change has led to a separation between forests and water, as well as high priority for biomass. It is as if now only forests are considered. In a sense, water has returned to the world scene along with climate change, but with a concept geared more toward glacier retreat and extreme events. In part, with climate change, public opinion sees water in its devastating function; for example, when there is an excess of it in floods or when it is lacking in droughts.

Therefore, in Sustainable Forestry Management (SFM), there is limited emphasis on water. It is as if only biomass were of interest, and not that which makes it possible, as photosynthesis cannot take place without water, and without photosynthesis, forests would not exist. However, this relationship is not clear in international agreements or in discussions on carbon.

In spite of it all, we know that life depends on water and that water does not depend on life. That is, the prerequisite has been ignored due to the functional priority of carbon, and the consideration that without water there would be no carbon seems abstract and distant. Perhaps in the planetary awareness of the relationship between water and carbon, there is a similar perception of the relationship between solar energy and carbon. In other words, the relationship is taken for granted. It could be said that it is too obvious for consideration.

This might be understandable in the case of solar energy, but definitely not in the case of water.

Throughout this succinctly described process, water sciences have been given different emphasis, without particularly denying preceding conclusions, but rather accumulating them in consolidated scientific knowledge.

A physical and statistical view of water as a productive resource, where fluid dynamics (for energy, for example) and plant, animal and human nutrition were of interest, with emphasis on flow studies, gave way to a more integrated, drainage basin vision. Subsequently, traditions involving social management of water emerged, and recently, integrated water resource management.

In order to approach the complex relationships between water, snow and glaciers and the atmosphere and ecosystems, as well as anthropogenic relationships at the planetary, regional and local levels from a scientific perspective rather than only a resource management perspective in recent years. And all this with water sciences supported by scientific models that make use of mathematics, ecology, geography, astronomy, super computers, satellite information and, in general, a complex combination of disciplines and theoretical frameworks.

The certainties that hydraulic and civil engineers had in the 70s about the construction of a gigantic hydroelectric power station have given way to the challenges and uncertainties that hydrologists face in dealing with complex interpretation systems and in responding to urgent questions for which they may not have a clear answer.

3. EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATION ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND WATER 3.1. MURKY OR CLEAR WATER Education and communication are essentially optimistic strategies, as they are geared toward changing people’s behavior in order to solve certain problems. If climate change has an anthropogenic origin, human practices must change. How can this be done? The quick answer is always “Through education and communication!”, since these processes are involved in individuals’ knowledge, attitudes and skills.

However, to succeed in education, communication and public information processes, it is essential to start with a detailed analysis of the population’s knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP studies) regarding a specific subject, in order to use the results to design education, training or public awareness raising strategies. A preliminary perception of the situation in the Andean countries is that these studies have not been conducted on scales that could be called representative. Therefore, educational offerings have been planned more as “packages” of standardized information on climate change disseminated, particularly, in relation to international commitments on the issue.

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Educating and communicating without first knowing people’s preconceived perceptions and ideas on a particular issue is the first step toward failure, submerging education in murky waters.

A thorough understanding of Andean populations’ knowledge, attitudes and practices on some of the following topics is necessary: What is understood by climate change and what is known about its relationship with water and glaciers?

What importance is given to climate change, water and glaciers compared to the problems people face in their daily lives?

How does climate change and its relationship with water and glaciers affect the daily lives of individuals, families, communities and institutions?

What has been done and what can be done to deal with these problems?

“Due to all of the foregoing, social research is a prerequisite for pro-environmental communication, for both previous knowledge of the psychological dimensions of the target public for effective design of messages and selection of effective media and support. Matters such as the relevance of climate change as an environmental problem, the level of real knowledge of this problem, the perceived immediacy of the phenomenon and its effects, willingness to change daily practices related to reduction of greenhouse gases, and the assessment of different social actors…, as well as analysis of environmental behavior patterns in this regard (energy consumption, transportation, etc.), are elements that must be incorporated in studies on these characteristics”3.

3.2. THE INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK The main tool countries have for undertaking public education and communication actions on climate change are the commitments established in the UNFCCC and the Conferences of the Parties (COP).

3. Educación ambiental y cambio climático. Respuestas desde la comunicación, educación y participación ambiental. Francisco HERAS, María SINTES, Araceli SERANTES, Carlos VALES, Verónica CAMPOS (coordinators), Documentos para la Educación Ambiental, CEIDA No. 4, Galicia, Spain, 2010.

Two are worth noting: article 6 of the convention and the program amended in New Delhi.

Article 6 of the UNFCCC establishes the following: “In carrying out their commitments under Article 4, paragraph 1(i), the Parties shall: (a) Promote and facilitate at the national and, as appropriate, subregional and regional levels, and in accordance with national laws and regulations, and within their respective capacities: (i) The development and implementation of educational and public awareness programs on climate change and its effects; (ii) Public access to information on climate change and its effects; (iii) Public participation in addressing climate change and its effects and developing adequate responses; and (iv) Training of scientific, technical and managerial personnel. (b) Cooperate in and promote, at the international level, and, where appropriate, using existing bodies: (i) The development and exchange of educational and public awareness material on climate change and its effects; and (ii) The development and implementation of education and training programs, including the strengthening of national institutions and the exchange or secondment of personnel to train experts in this field, in particular for developing countries”4.

Based on article 6 of the UNFCCC, in New Delhi, the Conference of the Parties established an amended program, organizing actions in the following areas5: “Education: Cooperate in, promote, facilitate, develop and implement education and training programs focused on climate change, targeting youth in particular, and including exchange or secondment of personnel to train experts.

Training: Promote, facilitate, develop and implement training programs focused on climate 4. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/convsp.pdf 5. COP, New Delhi, Amended program, Art. 6, UNFCCC.

26 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change, water and glaciers ________

change for scientific, technical and managerial personnel at the national and, as appropriate, subregional, regional and international levels.

Technical skills and knowledge provide an opportunity to adequately address and respond to climate change issues.

Public awareness: Promote, facilitate, develop and implement awareness programs on climate change and its effects at the national and, as appropriate, subregional, regional and international levels by, inter alia, encouraging contributions and personal action in addressing climate change, supporting climate-friendly policies and fostering behavioral changes, including by using popular media.

Public access to information: Facilitate public access to data and information, by providing the information on climate change initiatives, policies and results of actions that is needed by the public and other stakeholders to understand, address and respond to climate change, taking into account local and national circumstances such as quality of Internet access, literacy and language issues.

Public participation: Promote public participation in addressing climate change and its effects and in developing adequate responses, by facilitating feedback, debate and partnership in climate change activities and in governance.

International cooperation: Subregional, regional and international cooperation in undertaking activities within the scope of the work program can enhance the collective ability of Parties to implement the Convention, and the efforts of intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations can also contribute to its implementation. Such cooperation can further enhance synergies between conventions and improve the effectiveness of all sustainable development efforts”.

In the area of education, the relationship between climate change and water and glaciers is not specified. This exclusion surely affects countries’ possibilities of clarifying their relationship with water through their ministries of education, since formal commitments tend to be strictly adhered to at the institutional level for the purpose of reporting advances on the international level.

3.3. LAWS, EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND CLIMATE CHANGE STRATEGIES Another input that should be considered is each country’s legal framework with regard to educational programs, to see whether or not it highlights the climate change issue and its relationship with water and glaciers. Therefore, the analysis was made contrasting a review of laws on education and general education programs in the Andean countries and national climate change strategies. Given the very limited information obtained in this manner despite the fact that detail searches were conducted, a review was made of other indirect media such as educational materials and the presence of the climate change issue in public opinion and its potential impact on formal education establishments. Combining these, a few conclusions were systematized.

The following paragraphs make brief references to laws and education programs in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, from which some interpretations can be inferred.

In the case of Venezuela, in the national Bolivarian curriculum for general education, there is a statement that explains the environmental education approach and content: “Treat environmental education as a holistic process that includes human beings with regard to their physical, mental and spiritual health and that makes it possible to value the environment as a dynamic whole in which humans are enveloped and make decisions leading to rational, responsible utilization of current and future sociocultural heritage/natural resources, as well as to minimize natural physical risks and threats, improving quality of life as the basis of social welfare.”6 In addition, article 107 of the Venezuelan Constitution, which refers to the mandatory nature of environmental education, and article 127 of the same document, where citizens’ environmental rights are established, can be reviewed. As a complement, guidelines on environmental education are established in article 35 of the Organic Environmental Law, and article 34 states the purposes of environmental education7.

In the case of Colombia, according to the General Education Law, Law 115 of 1994, one of the purposes of education (Art.5) is “Awareness of conservation and protection of the environment.” Art. 13 states 6. Source: http://alexismm27.jimdo.com/curriculo-nacionalbolivariano-socialista-leyes-educativas/ 7. Source: http://alexismm27.jimdo.com/curriculo-nacionalbolivariano-socialista-leyes-educativas/

27 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change,

water and glaciers ________

that “In every official or private establishment offering formal education, inclusion of the subjects of ecology and protection of the environment and natural resources is mandatory at all levels of education: preschool, basic and secondary.” Article 23 of the same law states, “The mandatory and fundamental subjects that comprise at least 80% of the curriculum are the following (among others): natural sciences and environmental education.”8 In Ecuador for the year 2010, environmental education and environmental protection were included in basic general education programs as cross-curricular themes. The interpretation of environmental problems and their implications regarding survival of the species, human interaction with nature and strategies for its conservation and protection9.

In Peru, the General Education Law (Art. 8, paragraph h) states, “Environmental awareness, which inspires respect, protection and conservation of the environment to guarantee the future of life.”10 Lastly, in Bolivia, the document titled “Curriculo base del sistema educativo plurinacional” (Basic curriculum for the plurinational education system) states, “Basis of social, community and productive education (…) with regard to economics: education corresponds to the mixed economic model established in the Bolivian Constitution, which entails education that promotes an impact on the country’s productive infrastructure, as well as recovery and encouragement of adequate and longlasting use of all natural and strategic resources.

This requires education according to local, regional and national production potential and needs, based on practices and experiences in the protection and conservation of resources in harmony with life, mother earth and the cosmos. The articulated lines of action are intracultural, intercultural and plurilingual education; education on social and community values; education in harmony with mother earth and community health; and education for production. Education for production is based on the principle of balance between the community, mother earth and the cosmos. It applies to both tangible and intangible production11.

8. Source: www.slideshare.net/polozapata/diseo-curricular-desdeel-marco-legal-colombiano 9. Source: http://educacion.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/ downloads/2012/08/Ejes_Traversales_EGB.pdf

None of these references include the issue of climate change, much less water, snow and glaciers, although it would not be realistic to expect a specific mention of the relationship between climate change and water in curricula and educational programs12.

Taking into account the flexibility of curricular design, it is likely that if the problem is perceived at the local level, the issue will be included in educational programs. It would be necessary to make a detailed review of curricular models for environmental education in order to find specific references to this content. Unfortunately, on the Internet it was not possible to identify this content.

Just detecting general elements of environmental education in these countries required a significant search effort.

In any case, it is clear that environmental education is the area of education where the climate change issue and water should be included. Secondly, the approach to environmental education is crosscurricular. In other words, in all 5 countries, environmental education is not a specific course, but rather it is covered in a cross-curricular manner in different courses, undoubtedly with greater emphasis in natural sciences and biology.

The lack of formal specification of climate change in laws on education and in environmental education programs may be due to the newness of the issue.

In other words, because the legal frameworks for education are, in some cases, from several years ago, the issues of climate change, water and glaciers have not been included.

The same is not true in the case of climate change strategies in several countries in the region. These strategies, almost all of which were formulated in the first decade of the 21st century, explicitly include national commitments on education and communication on climate change, in order to comply with obligations established in the UNFCCC. Let’s explore some examples.

The “Education and development of institutional capacities” chapter of the 2009 National Forest and Climate Change Strategy of the Plurinational State of Bolivia, through the Vice Ministry of Environment, Biodiversity and Climate Change under the Ministry of Environment and Water, establishes the following guidelines:

10. Source: www.slideshare.net/sisari/diseo-curricular-nacional-peru 11. Source: http://file.minedu.gob.bo/ves/ves_6.pdf

12. Critical contribution by Astrid Hollander, UNESCO Chile.

28 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change, water and glaciers ________

“Dealing with the challenges and problems of climate change requires adequate awareness of the same and institutional capacity building in state entities in every sphere of activity, as well as in social organizations in all of their hierarchical structures.

Main actions: Build capacity of national government entities and community organizations for the implementation of climate change actions: contribute to the development of national capacities so that the actions identified in this strategy will be implemented transparently, effectively, efficiently and equitably, and organize a transfer system for potential REDD resources and a process geared toward the systematization of experiences with demonstration projects.

Development of education and communication processes on forests and climate change: foster training and dissemination of existing information on the benefits of forests and the impacts of climate change among local actors, decision makers and the general public.

Specialized and applied research that includes local participants: Support the establishment of an inclusive, pragmatic research program, taking into account the systematization of traditional knowledge of comprehensive forest and territorial management and adaptation to climate change.

Systematization of information and results of research related to forests and climate change: Promote the creation of a data bank including results of research related to REDD+ accessible to everyone.

Support improvement in the role of universities and their research institutes: Identify needs and strengthen the university system, in order to promote research on deforestation, degradation, comprehensive forest management, monitoring, climate change and other matters to make it possible to improve territorial management and low-impact production mechanisms for more vulnerable ecosystems.”13 As can be noted, in relation to education, the emphasis of the strategy is on the relationship between climate change, forests and carbon, without 13.

Estrategia nacional bosque y cambio Plurinacional de Bolivia, La Paz, 2009.

climático,

Estado

references to the relationship with water, snow and glaciers. It could even be said that the strategy as a whole only considers the water issue in a very limited manner. There are two brief mentions of it.

One of them, from the chapter on education, makes reference to the paragraph on the effects of climate change: “To date, as a result of climate change, a significant retreat of glaciers has been noted (for example, the disappearance of the Chacaltaya glacier and the shrinking of the Tuni Condoriri glacier), with implications for water supply systems of densely populated cities such as El Alto and La Paz, as well as irrigation and power generation.”14 In Peru, the national climate change strategy formulated in the year 2002 under the leadership of CONAM establishes a strategic objective and three specific goals: “Strategic objective 5.2: Strengthen and support education, training and public awareness with regard to vulnerability, adaptation and mitigation, stimulating the broadest possible participation (public sector and private sector).

Goal 5.2.1: National education system strengthened regarding the issue of climate change.

Goal 5.2.2: Main groups trained on the issue of climate change.

Goal 5.2.3: Public awareness on the issue of climate change through specialized and mass media.”15 Although the section of Peru’s climate change strategy on education does not specify its relationship with water and glaciers, it does highlight this issue in the section on vulnerabilities, dedicating a special chapter to “high mountain water resources.” This chapter covers the problems of glacier retreat and thawing, identifying “hanging” lakes and glaciers as one of the consequences16.

The most distinctive case in terms of public education policy is Colombia,17 which has a national strategy for education, training and public awareness on climate change, formulated in the year 2010 under the leadership of the Ministry of Environment, Housing 14.

Estrategia nacional bosque y cambio Plurinacional de Bolivia, La Paz, 2009.

climático,

Estado

15. Estrategia de cambio climático, CONAM, Lima, Peru, 2002.

16. Estrategia de cambio climático, CONAM, Lima, Peru, 2002.

17. It is possible that the other countries (Peru, Ecuador and Venezuela) also have specific strategies, but unfortunately, it was not possible to identify them.

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water and glaciers ________

and Territorial Development (as mentioned further on in relation to experiences, Bolivia also has a strategy for education on climate change, but unfortunately, we do not have the respective document).

The strategy gives a historical summary, summarizes the Colombian process in relation to national communications to the UNFCCC, shows what the country has done in relation to the program amended in New Delhi, and makes an assessment of advances in terms of information and education on climate change, of the general university offering and of international cooperation on the issue. It also makes a SWOT analysis of educational capacities and weaknesses in the sector. It formulates principles and strategies; it establishes objectives and goals; and, in general, it can be stated that the strategy consistently provides for education and communication processes required for the country18.

Despite the very detailed presentation of macro educational programming, it does not specify the relationship between climate change and water and glaciers. It deals with the climate change problem overall, without any breakdown of its implications.

Ecuador’s 2012-2025 national climate change strategy (ENCC), formulated by the Ministry of Environment in the year 2012, establishes the objective of “fostering awareness among Ecuadorians on the challenges of climate change through knowledge management.”19 It also establishes two strategic programs: the Awareness Raising, Communication and Involvement Program and the Program to Build Human and Institutional Capacities. The strategy does not list more elements of education and climate change; nor does it establish the relationship with water, snow and glaciers.

However, among priority sectors, it does identify water resources (independently of education or communication processes):

tourism; (8) infrastructure; and (9) low-income neighborhoods.”20 A sub-chapter of the strategy makes specific reference to “water heritage”, emphasizing vulnerability and increases in the variability of precipitation, for example. Based on this approach, some of the specific objectives of the strategy propose: “Manage water heritage with a comprehensive, integrated approach by hydrographic unit, in order to ensure the availability, sustainable use and quality of water resources for different human and natural uses, in the face of the impacts of climate change.”

The following are established as lines of action through 2017: “Foster actions for employees at every level of public and private sector institutions, as well as actors involved in the country’s priority sectors, to know and understand the implications of climate change in Ecuador.

Foster actions for citizens to have access to understandable information on climate change that enables them to relate the issue to their daily lives in such a way that it contributes to a change of attitude.

Foster the development of formal education modules on climate change for inclusion in regular academic programs at all educational institutions.

Foster the development of informal education modules on climate change for the general public, including applicability and impact criteria for different audiences, as well as intercultural criteria.”21 Following this brief review of international agreements, national legal frameworks and climate change strategies, some general and provisional conclusions can be drawn:

“The priority sectors for adaptation to climate change in Ecuador are: (1) agriculture, ranching and food sovereignty; (2) fisheries and aquaculture; (3) health; (4) water resources; (5) natural ecosystems; (6) vulnerable human groups; (7)

In national climate change strategies, there are references to formal education, communication, information and professional education. However, no mention of climate change, much less its

18. Estrategia nacional de educación, formación y sensibilización de públicos sobre cambio climático, Ministry of Environment, Housing and Territorial Development, Bogotá, Colombia, 2010.

20. Estrategia Nacional de Cambio Climático (ENCC), 2012-2025, MAE, Quito, Ecuador, 2012.

19. Estrategia Nacional de Cambio Climático (ENCC), 2012-2025, MAE, Quito, Ecuador, 2012.

21. Estrategia Nacional de Cambio Climático (ENCC), 2012-2025, MAE, Quito, Ecuador, 2012.

30 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change, water and glaciers ________

relationship with water, snow and glaciers, can be found in legal frameworks on education or in macrocurricular designs for schools’ educational programs. That is, there is still a great distance between the countries’ national climate change strategies and their formal education programs.

However, the consultant is under the impression that this situation does not mean that the issue is not covered in schools. It may be touched upon in natural sciences or in environmental education, but from a more communicational perspective.

That is, the greenhouse effect, the carbon cycle, etc. are presented in informative terms in a short television program. This is because education systems are immersed in the world of communication, and messages on climate change have spread quickly, particularly on television.

In national climate change strategies, despite differences in degree, high priority for issues related to water resources has not been noted. The emphasis is still on the issue of forestry resources.

From a formal perspective (legal and macrocurricular frameworks), in the educational programs of Andean countries, climate change topics are dealt with in a very marginal manner, and issues related to water and glaciers are not covered.

In the Andean region, it was not possible to find detailed national assessments in the form of KAP surveys (knowledge, attitudes and practices) in relation to climate change, and much less to its connection to water, snow and glaciers.

Nor was it possible to find a study for Andean countries that makes an overall assessment of education on climate change, water and glaciers.

A general study was found for Latin America and the Caribbean which highlights some experiences, but without taking more than a tangential look at the relationship with water resources22.

However, as mentioned previously, the fact that explicit references to education on climate change cannot be found in diverse education policies does not mean that the issue is not discussed in schools.

22. Experiencias de educación, formación y sensibilización del público para la adaptación al cambio climático y la Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres in América Latina y el Caribe, Government of the Dominican Republic, UNFCCC, UNESCO, ISDR, Government of Spain and FUNGLODE, Dominican Republic, November 2010.

3.4. SOME ADVANCES IN EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATION ON CLIMATE CHANGE The issue of climate change has drawn global public attention. In the case of the Andean countries, there is also wide dissemination of the problem, due in large part to the mass media. Generally speaking, it is a defined set of information that is repeated over and over. It has the merit that many people know of it (presumably), but the information load and level of understanding appear to be limited.

In communicational terms, it is likely that a catastrophic approach, which to some extent also reaches education processes, prevails. Among YouTube videos, there are many documentaries in which this approach was taken that could even give rise to skepticism.

It is the consultant’s opinion, which is not based on empirical evidence, that likely what is taking place with climate change and water in formal education is what occurred with environmental education in its beginnings: an exclusively informative and conceptual approach is being taken. That is, education is limited to a basic explanation of what climate change is, how the carbon cycle and GHG work, how they affect global temperature (the greenhouse effect) and potential consequences regarding the global water regime (more evaporation, more rain, and also more extreme events such as floods and droughts).

It is basic, conceptual, informative education, which can be explained during a class period.

Internet access for teachers, as well as students, makes broader dissemination of climate change possible, and it could be that educational institutions, teachers and students lack the intellectual filters required to distinguish between good and poor quality information. On climate change, one finds all kinds, from deniers to doomsayers, and this can produce confusion and mistrust in the educational community.

“Climate change defenders and detractors are waging a battle in U.S. classrooms to decide whether science classes should cover what climate change is, what the causes are, and how it can be avoided. They are also saying that if deniers dispute whether global warming exists and can be brought on by man, they should be given equal weight as scientists who have proven that to be true. Scientific education is once again under attack,” denounces the National Center of

31 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change,

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Scientific Education (NCSE), a not-for-profit group of scientists and teachers that for decades has defended the teaching of the theory of evolution in school in the United States, and which now advocates teaching about climate change in the classroom as well.”23 If these discussions took place in the scientific community at one time, one can imagine the variety of positions to be found on the Internet and in the media. The potential negative impact of contradictory and frequently unfounded information should not be underestimated.

Taking into account that the informative content of education on climate change can be covered in a 3-minute video or in 10 minutes of class time by a teacher who is not an expert on the issue, and that treatment of the relationship between climate change, water, snow and glaciers is more marginal still, the treatment of the subject is stereotyped and simplified, encapsulating education in a few common places such as an illustration of the planet burning up because of the greenhouse effect.

This is in sharp contrast to the scientific knowledge of climatologists, hydrologists, and glaciologists who, using mathematical models, complex language and a large quantity of information processed by super computers, show “incremental chains of uncertainty.”

There is a cognitive dissonance between education / general communication reduced to a stereotyped outline, and a vast, complex, specialized theoretical, experimental and scientific body of knowledge. It would seem that there is a need for an educational process capable of closing the gap between opinionbased knowledge and scientific knowledge.

Additionally, as educational efforts are limited to general messages about global warming, they lose sight of situations at regional and local scales that affect citizens directly, and the message may lose impact and significant understanding.

Despite these critical elements, in addition to a profusion of basic information, there are also more solid programs being promoted in the region, frequently with the support of international cooperation or in relation to climate change projects.

The book titled Experiencias de educación, formación y sensibilización del público para la adaptación 23. www.publico.es/417400/la-batalla-del-cambio-climatico-llega-alas-aulas

al Cambio Climático y la Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres en América Latina y el Caribe (Experiences in education, training and public awareness raising for adaptation to climate change and disaster risk reduction in Latin America and the Caribbean) published by the government of the Dominican Republic, UNFCCC, UNESCO, ISDR, the government of Spain and FUNGLODE in November 2010 presents diverse experiences, some of which correspond to Andean countries.

Peru: Environmental education and adaptation to climate change modules for preschool, primary and secondary school teachers in the Apurí¬mac region (PACC)24 The responsible entity is the Climate Change Adaptation Program Peru (PACC), in coordination with the Natural Resources and Environmental Management of the Regional Government of Apurímac and the Regional Directorate of Education, which in turn have prepared and financed modules.

This work was performed in the year 2009.

The objective was “To strengthen the capacities of educators in the Apurímac region, in order to impart knowledge on climate change and promote the development of positive attitudes toward adaptation to and mitigation of climate change among students, as part of environmental education within the education system at the preschool, primary and secondary school levels.” The direct beneficiaries of the project were preschool, primary and secondary school teachers in Peru’s Apurímac region.

“These modules are designed in accordance with the needs and reality of the Cusco and Apurímac regions, where the main impacts of climate change affect water, food safety and risk management.

Less availability of water, an increase in extreme weather phenomena (landslides and floods), and a reduction in agricultural productivity are expected, to the direct detriment of the poorest and most vulnerable population.

24. Taken and adapted from “Experiencias de educación, formación y sensibilización del público para la adaptación al cambio climático y la Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres in América Latina y el Caribe”, Government of the Dominican Republic, UNFCCC, UNESCO, ISDR, Government of Spain and FUNGLODE, Dominican Republic, November 2010.

32 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change, water and glaciers ________

Ecuador: Public awareness raising project: climate change adaptation management to reduce social, economic and environmental vulnerability25 The entity in charge of the project is the Ecuadorian government through a team from the Undersecretariat of Climate Change at the Ministry of Environment within the framework of the Climate Change Adaptation Management (GACC) project.

This project coordinates with other initiatives at the national level and involves decision makers from both the public and private sectors. The project, which is being executed throughout the country, was launched on January 1, 2010 and is scheduled to end on December 31, 2014.

The objective is “To foster the capacity of natural, social and economic systems to respond to and resist the impacts of climate change, through the implementation of adaptation, mitigation and awareness-raising actions that position Ecuador in mechanisms to fight climate change at the global level.”

The experience includes the production of modules on climate change for inclusion in the formal education system. The final objective of this component is a change of attitude among Ecuadorians on the subject of climate change.

The project is being carried out through a participatory process that has brought together more than 350 people. The National Climate Change Strategy will be used to guide activities on vulnerability, adaptation and mitigation in Ecuador.

Every activity in the project takes place through eminently participatory processes that bring together actors from the public sector as well as civil society. The beneficiaries of the project are residents of the geographic areas most vulnerable to extreme climatic events, as well as the most vulnerable economic sectors: agriculture, fisheries, industry, trade and tourism.

25. Taken and adapted from “Experiencias de educación, formación y sensibilización del público para la adaptación al cambio climático y la Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres in América Latina y el Caribe”, Government of the Dominican Republic, UNFCCC, UNESCO, ISDR, Government of Spain and FUNGLODE, Dominican Republic, November, 2010.

Bolivia: National Education and Communication Strategy on Climate Change26 The entity responsible for the strategy is the Ministry of Environment and Water. The process was carried out within the framework of Bolivia’s Second National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and was financed by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), with resources from the Global Environment Facility.

The objective: “To develop and promote dissemination, awareness raising, education and awarenessraising processes, with planned adaptation and mitigation actions for inclusion of climate change in the formulation and implementation of processes that bring about real and strategic participation of sectoral, social, territorial and community organizations.

The National Climate Change Program (PNCC) has been conducting a consultation process in the education system regarding the issue of climate change and its inclusion in the system. Noteworthy aspects of the process include a national workshop on basic guidelines on the introduction of the climate change issue in education, carried out in the year 2007; seminars and workshops on educational and communicational approaches to climate change carried out in the country’s nine departments in the year 2008, in which local education authorities, departmental directors, technicians and district directors participated; and four regional working groups on education, in which representatives from every department participated, with education actors representing each of the country’s regions, in 2008 and 2009. This process facilitated the validation of the National Education and Communication Strategy on Climate Change. The national committee formed to implement the strategy was composed of two representatives from each of the nine departments of education, four representatives of the Ministry of Education’s primary, secondary, alternate and cabinet areas, and representatives of the Ministry of Environment and Water, Vice Ministry of Environment, Biodiversity and Climate Change, through the National Climate Change Program.

26. Taken and adapted from “Experiencias de educación, formación y sensibilización del público para la adaptación al cambio climático y la Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres in América Latina y el Caribe”, Government of the Dominican Republic, UNFCCC, UNESCO, ISDR, Government of Spain and FUNGLODE, Dominican Republic, November 2010.

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water and glaciers ________

Colombia: National strategy for education, training and public awareness regarding climate change27 The entities in charge of coordinating formulation of the strategy were the Ministry of Environment, Housing and Territorial Development and the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies (IDEAM), with support from national and local public and private sector institutions and financing from the Global Environment Facility through the UNDP. Work on the formulation of the strategy began in the year 2008 within the framework of Colombia’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC. It was published in the month of June 2010.

The objective: “To establish guidelines that contribute to the creation of capacities on the climate change issue at the local, regional and national levels through the implementation, follow-up, accom¬paniment and assessment of measures that promote access to information, and foster public awareness, training, education, research and participation.”

“The strategy defines three stages: dissemination and promotion, the implementation of pilot projects, and the implementation of the strategy in each of the country’s departments. The strategic plan of action is for the 2009-2019 period. Actions carried out from 2009 to 2012 are considered short-term actions; those taking place from 2013 to 2015 are considered medium-term; and those designed for the 2016-2019 period are considered to be long-term. It is expected that by the year 2019, Co¬lombia’s 32 departments will have implemented education, training and public awareness actions on climate change, not only through insertion of the strategy in sectoral and institu¬tional planning, but also through the implementation of climate change adaptation and mitigation programs and projects with citizen participation, adapted to regional needs, reality and capacities.”

In addition to these experiences, the following IDB project merits mention:

education package on climate change, including a curriculum and a “green” school kit of educational materials. The curriculum and the green kit are currently in rough draft form and are being reviewed by a committee of external experts. In 2012, a second phase was approved to finance the promotion of instruments, so that students, schools and education systems in LAC could have greater knowledge on climate change and know how to take actions in response to it28.

Additionally, in many places in the region, ongoing training is provided for educators, in addition to a wide variety of educational experiences with students. For example, in Chile’s BioBío region, more than 130 educators, parents and guardians from different educational institutions in the region’s four provinces have received training on environmental education on climate change. During the sessions, participants learn and discuss how to become a sustainable educational community, methodologies for measuring their carbon footprint, energy efficiency and adaptation to climate change. In addition, they receive material that can be used in the classroom29.

3.5. SOME ADDITIONAL CONCLUSIONS ABOUT EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATION PROCESSES Based on analysis of some of the aforementioned points, the following general conclusions are proposed: Between climate change strategies and climate change education strategies, with regard to specific public policy instruments on formal education, there is a wide gap that needs to be closed.

The treatment of the relationship between climate change, water, snow and glaciers is still very limited in education systems and in general in communication spheres.

In Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), the IDB has the Climate Friendly Education Phase II project (RG-T2129) that includes the development of an

The design of education policies on climate change, water, snow and glaciers requires prior assessment of the knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of Andean populations on these issues.

27. Taken and adapted from “Experiencias de educación, formación y sensibilización del público para la adaptación al cambio climático y la Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres in América Latina y el Caribe”, Government of the Dominican Republic, UNFCCC, UNESCO, ISDR, Government of Spain and FUNGLODE, Dominican Republic, November 2010.

28. www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303. html?id=RG-T2129 29. www.eduglobal.cl/2013/09/05/biobio-profesores-y-apoderados-secapacitaron-in-educacion-ambiental-in-cambio-climatico/

34 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change, water and glaciers ________

The main barriers to the implementation of training activities are the lack of financing and adequate human resources. Participants felt that training of trainers, workshops and courses with a “learn by doing” approach were the most appropriate methods for dealing with training priorities.

(Uzzell, 2000; deus and García, 2001; García, Real and Romay, 2005): the population’s tendency to attribute greater seriousness to environmental problems when they occur farther away – or are perceived that way – while the weight of their potential threat decreases as they are associated with nearer settings.”32

Among the key messages countries use to promote awareness of climate change are: a) climate change is happening and it is a real threat, and b) there are specific actions that citizens can take to reduce emissions and adapt to the adverse effects of climate change.”30

The foregoing has to do with two important confirmations from an educational perspective.

Climate change appears to be a planetary problem about which there is almost nothing an individual can do, and broad sectors of the population see climate change as a future problem, a bit like a science fiction challenge. The relationship with water and glaciers is precisely the way to bring home the point that climate change is in the “here and now”. That is, education has a key ally in water for raising awareness about the territorial effects of climate change and their contemporary nature.

“With regard to international cooperation, it was acknowledged that the financial support received is primarily to support the preparation of national communications, as well as adaptation and mitigation projects. However, article 6 projects have received very little support from international cooperation.”31 Climate change is global, but it is precisely the factor of water and its vulnerability that differentiates its impact on one area from its impact on another. This situation should be taken into account in education and communication strategies, as well as in the prioritization of publics.

Particularly in the case of farm families, the rural population has a more direct relationship with water resources and climate change.

Urban populations may feel the effects less. For this reason, in education and communication strategies regarding the relationship with water resources, snow and glaciers, it may be appropriate to place emphasis on communities living in rural, mountainous, riverbank and coastline areas.

In the study on perceptions of climate change conducted in Spain, it was established that the larger the territorial scale, the greater the priority given to climate change. At smaller territorial scales, problems closer to the people are given more priority. However, it is clear that climate change has received increasing public attention. “This pattern may be due to a variant which in social psychology is called environmental hyperopia 30. Regional workshop for Latin America and the Caribbean, Application of article 6 of the UNFCCC, Dominican Republic, 2010.

31. Regional workshop for Latin America and the Caribbean, Application of article 6 of the UNFCCC, Dominican Republic, 2010.

“Kates (2007: XIV) suggests that at least four conditions are required for society to react to CC: collectively experiencing relevant events; the existence of structures and organizations that catalyze and drive action; the availability of applicable solutions to problems that require change; and, above all, significant changes in the population´s values and attitudes. Two more conditions could be added to these four. First, an adjustment to the social representation of CC with institutional response actions at different levels at which they are formulated (global and local, in the collective and personal sphere, in the short and medium term, etc.). Second, the need to make existing and future CC response policies more visible to the citizenry, building competencies for the individual and collective action required to maximize the possibility of success.”33

32. Educación ambiental y cambio climático. Respuestas desde la comunicación, educación y participación ambiental. Francisco HERAS, María SINTES, Araceli SERANTES, Carlos VALES, Verónica CAMPOS (coordinators), Documentos para la Educación Ambiental, CEIDA No. 4, Galicia, Spain, 2010.

33. Educación ambiental y cambio climático. Respuestas desde la comunicación, educación y participación ambiental. Francisco HERAS, María SINTES, Araceli SERANTES, Carlos VALES, Verónica CAMPOS (coordinators), Documentos para la Educación Ambiental, CEIDA No. 4, Galicia, Spa, 2010.

35 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change,

water and glaciers ________

4. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION ON CLIMATE CHANGE, WATER AND GLACIERS Interviews were the main source of information for analysis of university education on the issue. The analysis is only intended as a means of identifying the main advances, trends, and some bottlenecks, in order to consolidate a few conclusions.

Perhaps the first conclusion is that it is necessary to establish that the training of climate change adaptation and mitigation managers, professionals and scientific researchers on this subject is heterogeneous and comprises different complex elements34.

In the range of analysis options, it is appropriate to consider undergraduate and graduate education. At a somewhat intermediate level, specialization courses and national or international certificate programs, as well as non-degree short courses, offered by universities may be considered.

With regard to potential target participants, with graduate profiles in mind, the grouping could include the following35: Training of development managers for climate change, water, snow and glaciers, with emphasis on management of climate change adaptation and mitigation. These would be individuals with higher education in different disciplines, generally at the undergraduate level.

Training of professionals, that is individuals trained especially for the working world that do not necessarily fall within the concept of “managers”.

Training of researchers and scientists, especially at the master’s and doctoral level.

With regard to disciplines, the following are considered:

and even individuals with a background in social sciences, such as sociologists and anthropologists.

In the case of professionals: civil engineers, hydraulic engineers, hydrologists and ecologists.

Scientists and researchers can be from almost as broad a range as a graduate program desires: climatologists, hydrologists specializing in climatology, hydraulic engineers specializing in climate change and glaciers, glaciologists, specialists in permafrost, specialists in paleontoecology applied to glaciers, climate statisticians, specialists in atmospheric sciences, geographers specializing in climate, water and glaciers, specialists in the chemistry and biology of water resources, specialists in extreme events, specialists in mathematical modeling, etc.

Based on these introductory and general notions, let’s review the countries’ progress36.

One of the countries in the region that has made the most progress in the training of human resources is Chile37. In Chile, there is a 10 to 15 year process involving the training of a generation of scientists and professionals on climate change adaptation and mitigation. Young professionals earn master’s and doctoral degrees in Europe and in the U.S.A., and then return to Chile for at least 5 years (many remain in the country) to promote teaching, research and projects at universities and companies. Therefore, it can be stated that the situation is good in Chile, as could perhaps be expected for the entire region.

Training is provided especially in atmospheric sciences, glaciology, hydrology, paleontoecology and forestry engineering applied to climate change.

The strongest Chilean universities in these fields are primarily Universidad de Chile, Universidad Católica de Chile, and Universidad de Valdivia. The universities where specialists have studied are mainly the University of Washington, University of Oxford, University of Bristol, University of Montpellier, University of Grenoble, University of Oregon and University of Maine.

In the case of managers: forestry engineers, agricultural engineers, ecologists, geographers, 34. Mathias Vuille.

35. Based on a critical observation by Astrid Hollander from UNESCO Chile, it is fitting to highlight the importance of training educators on university majors. If educational systems lack human resources trained on climate change and water issues, then universities need to train faculty members and include these subjects in their educational offerings.

36. As the following lines show, the countries’ approaches are very different. It should be noted that in the cases of Venezuela, Colombia and Peru, the information still needs to be completed.

However, it should be taken into account that the intention of this preliminary review is only to identify lines of analysis, as well as general challenges and obstacles in university education on the subject. It is not an assessment.

37. Mathias Vuille.

36 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change, water and glaciers ________

The Chilean government’s efforts have also been considerable, and companies have made a contribution as well. This is facilitated by a strong economy that can channel financial, institutional and human resources in this direction.

In addition, the University at Albany offers courses on glaciology in Valdivia, on new techniques for achieving energy balance, for example38.

In the case of Bolivia39, some progress has been made.

In the Civil Engineering program, in the College of Science and Technology and in the College of Agricultural Sciences at Universidad de Saint Simón in Cochabamba, there are some educational offerings on water resources, although with limited emphasis on climate change. In the College of Science and Technology, there is a hydraulics laboratory. Early on in this laboratory, emphasis was placed on physical hydraulic models, but progressively attention has been given to hydrology, climate variability and climate change. There is an undergraduate concentration in hydraulics, and thesis work is performed with the hydraulics laboratory.

The Water Center, which pertains to the College of Agricultural Sciences at the same university, mainly focuses on water resource management, such as the calculation of water supply and demand. It had support from Dutch and Swiss cooperation, but it does not specialize in climate change or glaciers.

The university has also worked with the PROMIC basin management program, initially on management of the microbasins of the city of Cochabamba.

Subsequently, the PROMIC grew at the national level, but was eventually cancelled. The hydraulics laboratory had an agreement with PROMIC for work on basins and management.

In water resources, work has been done in relation to extreme events with an indirect relation to climate change.

The Water Center offers two master’s degree programs on water resources. There is one geared toward agricultural engineers on irrigation, design of hydraulic works, and integrated water resource management.

Levantamiento Espacial/Spatial Uplift Center). This master’s degree program is divided in several sections or courses, one of which is on water resources, and some theses have been done on the subject, but little emphasis has been placed on the relationship with climate change.

In La Paz, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés offers some master’s degree programs, but they are not permanent. However, research projects on glaciers and glacier retreat are carried out by the university’s Institute of Hydraulics and Hydrology.

It can be stated that in Bolivia there are more professionals specializing in water resources, glaciers and climate change, but there is much to be done.

In summary, three Bolivian universities work on related issues: Universidad de Tarija, which has a master’s program in water resources at the national level Universidad Mayor de San Andrés Universidad Saint Simón de Cochabamba40 A serious limitation in Bolivia for the development of human resources specialized on the issue is the level of salaries in the sector and the general economic situation of the country. Many welleducated professionals have not returned to the country because it offers them no opportunities. The situation is precarious and professionals prefer to remain in other countries.

In the case of Ecuador41 the most specialized educational offerings can be found at the Escuela Politécnica Nacional (EPN) and at Universidad de Cuenca. At EPN, there are two undergraduate degree programs (in Civil Engineering) that offer a concentration in Water Resources. EPN also has a master’s degree program in Water Resources with a concentration in Hydraulic Design and another concentration in Environmental Water Management. There is also a master’s degree

38. Argentina also has an ample educational offering. For example, Universidad de Mendoza offers a concentration in climatology.

40. In the specific case of Mauricio Villazón, he earned his master’s and doctoral degrees in Belgium at the University of Leuven and the Free University of Brussels, in the Interuniversity Program in Water Resources Engineering. He did his doctoral work on conceptual models for water resource planning applied to floods, extreme events, droughts, and climate variability. Based on these studies, Mauricio is working on the creation of an early warning system for Bolivia with Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands.

39. Mauricio Villazón.

41. Marcos Villacís, Vicente Favier and Luis Maisincho.

Another master’s degree program offered by the Water Center is the CLAS program (Centro de

37 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change,

water and glaciers ________

program in Environmental Engineering (with a few climate change applications) geared toward shaping professionals with a practical, employment-oriented vision.

With regard to the concepts in which greater emphasis is placed on the relationship between water resources and climate, EPN focuses on the following elements:

Additionally, at EPN, a new project has been planned: a master’s degree program in water resource engineering in cooperation with 4 other universities. In this master’s degree program, work will be done on spatial tools for climate modeling, and in GIS with photography and images to monitor environmental changes. Variables such as temperature and cloudiness will be studied.

All of these tools are important with regard to climate change. For example, dynamic analysis of atmospheric variables.

Extreme events (the somewhat more practical aspect of the training)

Universidad de Cuenca has a doctoral program in water resources, which includes a course on hydrometeorology and climate. The important cooperation relationship that Universidad de Cuenca has had with Belgium for several years is worth noting. This relationship has enabled academics from Belgium to participate in the local educational process, resulting in groups of Ecuadorian professionals educated in Cuenca, with graduate studies in Belgium.

At EPN, the education of professionals is solid at the undergraduate level, but emphasis on the relationship between climate change, water, snow and glaciers is still limited. Now the idea is to improve graduate education, placing emphasis on water and glaciers.

Environmental hydrology and climatology are also studied in the undergraduate Environmental Engineering program at EPN. Here climate change topics are combined, but this is still in progress. In the Prometeo program,42 a Spanish climatologist will come to help strengthen all of these processes.

In Civil Engineering at the undergraduate level, hydrology is studied, but mostly from an engineering and hydraulics point of view: fluid dynamics, construction projects, etc. Work is also performed on certain elements related to extreme events, but tools and models are still needed in relation to climate change, especially for studying rain and drought scenarios in relation to hydraulic works. Probabilistic analysis is performed, but further research is needed.

Climate models (more theoretical).

Retreat of glaciers (more theoretical, but with perhaps with more immediate practical interest than climate models) In Ecuador, only EPN offers glaciology. There is practically no critical mass of professionals trained in Ecuador on climate change, water and glaciers.

However, among professionals trained abroad at EPN and Universidad de Cuenca, there is a national group of high-level professionals that make up a pioneering generation on the issue at the local level.

It is clear that more researchers specializing in water, snow and glaciers are need for work on meteorology and climate.

At ESPOL (Escuela Politécnica del Litoral), there is a master’s degree program on climate change, but it is geared toward management (mitigation and adaptation), and Universidad Andean Simón Bolívar (UASB) has a certificate program on climate change.

In glaciology, in both Ecuador as well as in the region as a whole43, the relationship with the University of Grenoble in France deserves mention. This university has an international glaciology laboratory44. The University of Grenoble is training a group of 15 to 20 professionals from Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia in glaciology. To date, it is possibly the most consistent effort to train specialists on glaciers for these three countries. Grenoble has been focusing on the issue for more than 15 years; it coordinates and receives support from IRD, and works in coordination with EPN and INAMHI. As mentioned previously, Grenoble runs the Observatory for the Sciences of the Universe in collaboration with other institutions (including Fourier University, among others). It also offers master’s and doctoral degrees. The observatory is exclusively for research. It has a scholarship system that works with French institutions such as the IRD, as well as with the Ecuadorian government.

43. Vicente Favier and Luis Maisincho.

42. A government program that invites outstanding professionals from other countries to contribute to training at universities.

44. Luis Maisincho from EPN trained at Grenoble and in the glaciology laboratory, while Professor Vicente Favier is from Grenoble.

38 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change, water and glaciers ________

There is an observatory on the Antisana Volcano called GLACIOCLIM, which is articulated with the Observatory for the Sciences of the Universe in Grenoble; the laboratory in Ecuador is GLACIER 15.

An additional mechanism for observation of the Antisana volcano is the PRAA45. The country’s only observatories of this type are on Antisana.

With regard to glaciology, particularly the following topics are covered: Geophysics, dynamics of glaciers Meteorological measurements Climate modeling Fluid mechanics in the dynamic part Ice, chemical composition, isotopes, aerosols Hydrology Permafrost A macro dimension: earth, universe and environment Teledetection: satellite images of snow and ice (glaciers were snow) Glaciation and deglaciation The relationship with climate: climate variability and climate change Glaciers in an eruption Maps of threats The effects of GHG, the greenhouse effect The EPN collaborated with the PRAA project on the book titled Glaciares tropicales y cambio climático (Tropical Glaciers and Climate Change). Together with the PRAA, it contributed the module on glaciers and climate change.

In general, it can be stated that Ecuador has made greater strides in research than in management, as more information is needed. In Ecuador, we still do not know the vulnerability of glaciers in the context of climate change. Perhaps the closest communities will be those most affected.

Peru has been working on the issues of climate change, glaciers and water for a longer time, at universities as well as in the field. It is a priority for the country, as Peru has approximately 70% of the world’s tropical glaciers. The retreat of glaciers and additional implications are matters of concern to Peruvian professionals and specialized institutions.

management, as well as climate change adaptation and mitigation, with perhaps a more profound vision of the relationship with water and glaciers than other countries in the region.

In Peru, there are solid groups of professionals specializing in the issue, perhaps not at the same level as Chile, but with significant advances. Peru’s advantage may be that it has focused on glaciers and climate change with greater emphasis. For example, in Peru there is a joint certificate program on glaciology offered in the cities of Huaraz (Universidad National Santiago Antunez de Mayolo), Lima (Universidad National Agraria la Molina) and Cusco (Universidad National San Antonio Abad del Cusco), with support from the University of Zurich46. In addition, the graduate school at Universidad National Agraria la Molina offers a Mountain Hydrology and Glaciology course.

In Peru, there is significant public investment by the central government and the regional governments in relation to this issue47, which does not occur to the same extent in Ecuador and Bolivia, as they have depended on international cooperation and contributions from universities in Europe and the U.S.A. There are a number of short programs on glaciology and climatology, for example with COSUDE, in Peru.

They are 2 to 4 week specialization courses in which groups of Peruvian professionals are trained with support from Swiss cooperation, Universidad de Apurimac and Universidad de Huaraz.48 Another example is the University at Albany, with the ACCION program. Training is provided on hydrology, glaciology and climatology with financial support from the U.S. government. Scholarships have been granted to Albany: 2 for students from Peru and one for a student from Ecuador. The idea is that they will return to their countries to continue conducting research and teaching49. Another example is a course on climatology in Lima with SENAMHI, in which 23 students from Andean countries participated. In this course, climatology models were studied in depth. In Peru, The National Water Authority and the National Meteorology and Hydrology Service (SENAMHI) are involved in educational work on water and climate change.

Perhaps for this reason, in Peru there is greater balance between the training of scientists and managers. That is, Peru has teams trained in risk

46. Vicente Favier.

45. Glacier retreat project carried out by the Ministry of Environment.

49. Mathias Vuille.

47. Mathias Vuille.

48. Mathias Vuille.

39 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change,

water and glaciers ________

Colombia has also made significant progress on the training of human resources — although, like Peru, not at the level attained by Chile — and articulation between public institutions in relation to these issues.

Colombia is known for its academic soundness and is likely relatively advanced in this regard compared to other tropical Andean countries.

In the country, specialized professionals work with funding from the IDEAM (meteorology institute), which is a powerful, autonomous institution with strong funding and high technical capacity. The IDEAM has considerable capacity for research.

In Colombia, training in meteorology is provided.

Universidad National de Colombia offers education in hydrology in both Medellín and Bogotá.

Regarding coordination of the work performed in the country, the positive function of France’s IRD in the region should be noted. It has been crucial in this field in both research and education, as well as in articulation of specialists in relation to key projects.

With IRD, there has been emphasis on hydrology and glaciology.

UNESCO makes a substantial contribution through the Working Group on Snow and Ice, a network of scientists throughout South America. It meets annually with the participation of delegates from every country. This network brings together individuals with an academic and scientific background, creating synergies between universities in the region50.

It is also important to note the opportunity provided by scholarships granted by countries in the region for studying, especially at the graduate level, at universities in the U.S.A. and Europe.

Young researchers currently have good options for furthering their education in hydrology, climatology or glaciology within the framework of climate change.

Lastly, opportunities for distance education on climate change on the Internet merit mention. The Fundación Universitaria Iberoamericana (FUNIBER) offers master’s degree programs on climate change, in coordination with different academic institutions51.

It is based in Barcelona and cooperates with 50. Bolívar Cáceres participated representing Ecuador, Wilson Suárez represented Peru, and Jair Ramírez represented Colombia.

51. www.funiber.org/areas-de-conocimiento/medio-ambiente-ydesarrollo-sostenible/master-cambio-climatico/

Universidad de León, Universidad Europea Miguel de Cervantes, Universidad de Alcalá, Universidad International Iberoamericana and Universidad del País Vasco52.

4.1. ELEMENTS OF CRITICAL REFLECTION “If science is a source of truth and its discourse legitimizes numerous practices, that which is doubtful and divided calls into question whether climate change caused by human action is a real phenomenon. The existence of contradictory scientific discourses is interpreted in different ways. On the one hand, interests that may underlie certain data or studies are highlighted. On the other, it may seem that the complexity of the phenomenon impedes the scientific community from clearly understanding what is happening.”53 There is activism on the part of the social and management sectors (agronomists, forest managers, planners, sociologists, project managers, anthropologists) in climate change, but without a well-founded position. Some even believe that information and research aren’t necessary and that it is simply necessary to get to work, because the planet won’t wait, and adaptation and mitigation are essential (without knowing much about what to do and running the risk of repeating the same projects carried out before).

A lack of communication can be detected between mangers with scientific hydrological knowledge and glaciologists. There may even be certain indifference in the relationship, as if to say, “Let them work with their climate and hydrological models. We work with institutions and water users on immediate measures,” while scientists may take an attitude of “They can keep on doing whatever it is they do. We need to conduct demanding scientific research. That’s what we were trained for, not planting trees.”

“Uncertainty occurs in situations in which what is happening in the world is not well defined. It has to do with questions about how to deal with 52. No comments were made about these programs by those interviewed.

53. Educación ambiental y cambio climático. Respuestas desde la comunicación, educación y participación ambiental. Francisco HERAS, María SINTES, Araceli SERANTES, Carlos VALES, Verónica CAMPOS (coordinators), Documentos para la Educación Ambiental do CEIDA No. 4, CEIDA, Galicia, Spain, 2010.

40 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change, water and glaciers ________

unprecedented events or situations. In such cases, observations about the past offer little guidance on the uncertain future. For water professionals, climate change is a source of uncertainty. Current uncertainty about trends and changes in regions and specific basins require management approaches with a greater degree of flexibility. This can be achieved, for example, through the creation of ‘buffers’ based on (artificial) groundwater recharge, reforesting slopes to slow runoff, or restoring wetlands so that they can store flood water.”54

there is a need for scenarios. As global models downscale to territorial scales, uncertainty increases. Nobody knows what will happen with energy production, for example. Who will survive, and who will be most affected? Global models do not allow precise approximations at the regional or local scale. Models are needed to adapt to the territorial or even the basin level. At the regional climate level, the models are very advanced, but how will a specific glacier change? It is very difficult to know.

What happens to our ideas about the future if science confronts us with uncertainty? Is education that reconsiders the idea of a more or less predictable future — which always offers the option of improvement — what is needed?

Lastly, there is science with very high ranges of uncertainty. Both the complexity of factors and the randomness of nature make it impossible to eliminate uncertainty entirely. There is a degree of uncertainty with which it is necessary to cope.

“At one extreme, assuming that the world is completely unpredictable can lead water managers to ignore the issue and simply give up. At the other extreme, risk-averse water managers who believe they are in very uncertain environments could became unable to make decisions. Making systematically prudent strategic decisions under uncertain conditions requires a different approach, one that avoids defeatism as well as paralysis. Despite the challenges posed by uncertainty, water managers should be able to identify a range of potential results or a set of scenarios based on available information with regard to climate models. Reduction of the field of possibilities can be a very powerful tool for reducing the level of uncertainty.”55

The retreat of glaciers can increase the availability of water in rivers in the short term. Adaptation to this situation may lead to greater water use, as if it would continue to increase. However, smaller glaciers do not release the same amount of water as before and the flow decreases in the summer. It is necessary to communicate this in an understandable manner.

There is a lack of communication between managers and scientists. They do not use the same methods, language or management tools.

In the field of science, chains of uncertainties may not respond to the need for certainties in management. Due to the foregoing, further dialogue and cooperation between these two sectors is needed. Water managers should know about the limitations of predictions, and scientists should know about the needs of rural and indigenous populations living near glaciers.

It is like a chain of uncertainties, and the uncertainties continue to accumulate. For example, with regard to the question as to how a flow changes, the answers necessarily include high proportions of uncertainties. Therefore, 54. Climate change, IUCN. 55. Climate change, IUCN.

There are common perceptions and places: that there are more freezes due to climate change and the relationship between climate variability and climate change is not very clear.

5. THE CHALLENGES Taking into account some of the main elements covered in this document, the following challenges for the region are proposed:

The countries’ education programs should consider updates of their macro-curricula in accordance with international commitments and climate change strategies, emphasizing the relationship with water, snow and glaciers.

For the design of specific curricula for training educators and for defining communication strategies, it would be recommendable to conduct studies on populations’ knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding the relationship between climate change, water and glaciers. If this is not possible, educators can quickly learn their

41 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change,

water and glaciers ________

students’ ideas on the issue, in order to build new significant knowledge.

The education offered by schools should surpass the informative approach centered on stereotypes, accessing further information in order to encourage reflection, particularly in the case of action by the educational community in processes that deal with climate change in their communities.

From a methodological perspective, it would be recommendable to aim for cross-curricular integration of the issue through several courses.

Certain competencies should be fostered. For example, foresight, in order to face uncertainty; to work in an inter-disciplinary manner; to examine interrelations and interdependencies; to promote the capacity of feeling empathy, compassion and solidarity; and to consolidate competency for motivating others. New approaches to the learning process should be fostered. For example, discovery learning; participatory learning; problem-based learning; learning based on critical thinking and system thinking; etc56.

From a communication perspective, it is appropriate to challenge the “distant future problem” notion some people have. Water is an excellent vehicle for approaching the here and now of climate change.

It is necessary to deepen the dialogue among the three actors in university education: development project managers, professionals, and researchers and scientists. Bringing positions and approaches closer with regard to climate change management and research is crucial.

Andean countries and their governments should increase their support for undergraduate and graduate education on climate change, water, snow and glaciers, institutionalizing processes in order to avoid excessive dependence on international cooperation.

Each country should form a critical mass of professionals that interact and manage knowledge on different scales: local, national, regional and international.

These communities of professionals and their 56. Adapted from the written contribution of Astrid Hollander, UNESCO Chile.

institutions should influence climate policies at both the international and national levels, in order to give water, snow and glaciers adequate priority in relation to the emphasis placed on forests. Without water, there can be no carbon!

6. POSSIBLE FUTURE ACTIONS This chapter of the document adapts and summarizes the contributions of the workshop held by the UNESCO Working Group on Snow and Ice in Quito in late November 2013. The corresponding session took place on November 20, 201357.

The group organized its contributions according to the following priority areas of education and communication58:

6.1. IN EDUCATION Need to identify available educational material.

This will make it possible to compile a catalog of available material, with information on where to find it. An analysis of the quality of the material available is also needed.

Make an assessment of the curricula in each country. Are climate change, water and glaciers covered? It should be taken into account that Peru, as well as other countries in the region, is revising its curricula and this could be an opportunity.

Review the program and materials of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), since it has educational activities on climate change.

It is necessary to differentiate education requirements for cities and rural areas.

6.2. CAPACITY BUILDING It is necessary to process technical material for climate change managers, through systematization of good practices in the region, for example.

57. The members of the working group that analyzed the relationship between education, climate change, water and glaciers were Nadine Satzman, Pilar Ycaza, Rafael Ribeiro, Mathias Vuille, Francisca Bown, Bram Willems, Miguel Saravia and Koen Verbist.

58. The majority correspond to sub-topics of education defined by the UNFCCC.

42 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change, water and glaciers ________

Manuals that present case studies at the local level should be produced.

Another good initiative may be to create YouTube videos as quick training courses.

A platform could be created to centralize links to information, manuals, informative material in general, course offerings, etc., in order to improve information.

It is important to produce material and information in Spanish in relation to Andean hydrology, Andean climatology and statistical hydrology.

Inclusion of the subject of hydrogeology is recommended.

6.3. PUBLIC AWARENESS Create an environmental atlas of the region to inform the public about climate change, water and problems related to glaciers.

Develop an Internet application on climate change with reliable, georeferenced information where data and bibliographical and documentary sources can be found.

Contribute scientific analysis of ancestral and traditional knowledge on the issue.

Use the best experiences and contributions from experts to prepare high-quality material for the general public.

Improve the capacity of journalists and the press on the issue.

6.4. ACCESS TO PUBLIC INFORMATION Produce reliable information on the impacts of climate change on glaciers.

UNESCO should play a catalyzing role in the region, facilitating spaces for exchanging information and delving deeper into the issue.

National Mountain Committees can also play an important role in the dissemination of public information.

6.5. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION To strengthen regional professional capacities for dealing with climate change.

Need for an assessment of the number of hydrologists, meteorologists and climatologists each country requires.

Create 2 or 3 focus areas for graduate courses in climatology / hydrology in the region. Bring international experts to the region to teach courses in Spanish.

Finance short stays (10 days to one month) in the U.S.A. and EU countries in order to develop the specific capacities needed in specific areas of work or to complete thesis work.

Support the formation of a critical mass of experts in the region specializing in education and climate change.

Establish ties with international research groups.

Strengthen a critical mass of professionals to avoid brain drain and consolidate a market for these experts.

Need to promote a regional scientific journal in Spanish on the issue.

Analyze existing graduate courses on these subjects in the region.

Explore options related to the European Union’s Erasmus Mundus program, in order to stimulate mobility between groups from universities and researchers in the region and academics from the EU.

43 BACKGROUND PAPERS 2 ] Education, climate change,

water and glaciers ________

BIBLIOGRAPHY Educación ambiental y cambio climático. Respuestas desde la comunicación, educación y participación ambiental. Francisco HERAS, María SINTES, Araceli SERANTES, Carlos VALES, Verónica CAMPOS (coordinators), Documentos para a Educación Ambiental, CEIDA No. 4, Galicia, Spain, 2010.

Estrategia nacional bosque y cambio climático, Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia, La Paz, 2009.

Estrategia de cambio climático, CONAM, Lima, Peru, 2002.

Estrategia nacional de educación, formación y sensibilización de públicos sobre cambio climático, Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial, Bogotá, Colombia, 2010.

UNESCO, ISDR, Government of Spain and FUNGLODE, Dominican Republic, November, 2010.

http://educacion.gob.ec/wpcontent/ uploads/downloads/2012/08/Ejes_ Traversales_EGB.pdf

Proposal for a Regional Program on “Climate Change Education for Sustainable Development in Latin America and the Caribbean”, UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean (OREALC/UNESCO Santiago).

www.slideshare.net/sisari/diseocurricular-nacional-peru

Regional workshop for Latin America and the Caribbean, Application of article 6 of the UNFCCC, Dominican Republic, 2010.

COP, New Delhi, Amended Program, Art. 6, UNFCCC. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/ convkp/convsp.pdf

Estrategia nacional de cambio climático del Ecuador (ENCC), 20122025, MAE, Quito, Ecuador, 2012.

http://alexismm27.jimdo.com/ curriculo-nacional-bolivarianosocialista-leyes-educativas/

Experiencias de educación, formación y sensibilización del público para la adaptación al Cambio Climático y la Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres en América Latina y el Caribe, Government of the Dominican Republic, CMNUCC,

http://alexismm27.jimdo.com/ curriculo-nacional-bolivarianosocialista-leyes-educativas/ www.slideshare.net/polozapata/ diseo-curricular-desde-el-marcolegal-colombiano

http://file.minedu.gob.bo/ves/ves_6. pdf www.publico.es/417400/la-batalladel-cambio-climatico-llega-a-lasaulas www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/ project-information-page,1303. html?id=RG-T2129 www.eduglobal.cl/2013/09/05/ biobio-profesores-y-apoderadosse-capacitaron-en-educacionambiental-en-cambio-climatico/ www.funiber.org/areas-deconocimiento/medio-ambientey-desarrollo-sostenible/mastercambio-climatico/ www.uicn.org Climate change, IUCN.

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3.

ADAPTING TO SHRINKING ANDEAN GLACIERS. SCIENCE, POLICY AND SOCIETY POWER GAMES Elma Montaña InterAmerican Institute of Global Change Research

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THIS IS AN INVITATION TO POLICY MAKERS, SCIENTISTS AND FUNDING AGENCIES TO RETHINK THEIR VIEW OF THE SCIENCE-POLICY INTERFACE IN FAVOR OF GLACIERS PROTECTION. THE RISKS BEING FACED

BY GLACIERS IDENTIFIED, THE PAPER PRESENTS SOME OF THE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES THEY PROVIDE AS ARGUMENTS FOR THEIR CONSERVATION. IT EXAMINES DIVERSE APPROACHES TO GLACIER PROTECTION, DRAWING LESSON FROM CASES IN DIFFERENT AMERICAN COUNTRIES. THE ANALYSIS SHOWS THAT, WHEN INFORMING POLICY MAKING, SCIENTISTS BECAME PART OF TURBULENT SOCIAL PROCESSES MARKED BY POWER STRUGGLES INVOLVING DIFFERENT ACTORS, EACH ONE FAVORING THEIR OWN INTERESTS. FROM THIS PERSPECTIVE, AN EFFECTIVE SCIENCE-POLICY INTERFACE REQUIRES A BROADER CONCEPTION OF RESEARCH UPTAKE THAT GOES BEYOND PROVIDING RELEVANT KNOWLEDGE, CALLING FOR RENEWED ROLES FOR SCIENTISTS, POLICY MAKERS AND SCIENCE FUNDING AGENCIES.

1. ANDEANS GLACIERS ARE SHRINKING The components of the Earth system in the frozen state are called cryosphere. It comprises snow, river and lake ice; sea ice; ice sheets, ice shelves, glaciers and ice caps, and frozen ground. (Vaughan et al, 2013:321). Glaciers form when climate conditions and topographic characteristics allow snow fallen in high altitudes to compress into ice masses. Snow should be able to accumulate over long periods for a glacier to be formed; however, they move imperceptibly downhill under gravity. In lower and warmer areas, processes of ablation are stronger than accumulation, and glaciers melt producing runoff.

When close to the melting point, glaciers are sensitive to changes in climate, especially temperature and precipitations. Global warming is especially pronounced at high altitudes, and glaciers react with changes in length, area, volume and mass. Glaciers respond differently according to their characteristics, such as size, slope, elevation range, distribution of area/elevation, and its surface characteristics (e.g., the amount of debris cover). External factors such as nearby topography and the climatic regime also influence their transformation, as mass balance is directly linked to atmospheric conditions and is modified by topography (e.g., due to shading). Wind and avalanches re-distributing snow can contribute to accumulation or ablation. These factors determine different future developments of glaciers depending on variability from region to region but also among glaciers that are spatially close (Vaughan et al, 2013:345-346).

Andean glaciers can be classified into three regions, from North to South: (a) the Tropical Andes, from the Venezuelan Andes to approx. 23°S latitude, including Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, (b) the Central Andes in eastern Chile and western Argentina,

and (c) the Patagonia Ice Fields (North and South) in southernmost Chile and Argentina, below 46°S (UNEP-GEAS, 2013:2). In spite of a variability related to regions, and different response times and local conditions, annually measured glacier fluctuations show a consistent trend in length reduction, which is confirmed by more geographically focused analyses.

The low latitudes, including the tropical Andes, are identified among the areas with the highest loss rates (Vaughan et al, 2013:338). Smaller glaciers at low elevations without a permanent accumulation zone have been retreating at a pronounced rate and could soon disappear completely (UNEP-GEAS, 2013; Rabatel et al., 2013; Vuille et al., 2008). Example of this, the emblematic Chacaltaya glacier in the Cordillera Real of Bolivia completely disappeared in 2009 (WGMS, 2011), as predicted by Francou et al. (2000).

For the extratropical South America Andean glaciers, between ca. 17° and 55°S (Desert Andes, the Andes of central Chile and Argentina, and the North and South Patagonian Andes) Masiokas et al (2009) recognize a general pattern of glacier recession and significant ice mass losses. Similar results were found by Lopez et al. (2010) for 72 glaciers in the Chilean Northern and Southern Patagonia Icefield and the Cordillera Darwin Icefield. Other generalized observations made on glacier areas concur. The analysis of a large number of published studies on worldwide glacier area changes since IPCC AR4 reveal that total glacier area has decreased in all regions, especially in the recent past. Glaciers volume and mass budgets are consistent with length and area observed changes, showing glaciers shrinking rapidly since the 1980s in the tropical Andes (Vuille, 2015; Rabatel et al., 2013), the extratropical Andes (Masiokas et al (2009), the Patagonian and and Tierra del Fuego Andes (Rabassa, 2009) as well as in other world’s regions (Jiménez Cisneros et al, 2014: 236).

As current glacier extents are out of balance with current climatic conditions, there is high confidence that glaciers will continue to shrink in the future

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even without further temperature increase (Vaughan et al, 2013:319). Small glaciers are more vulnerable, but larger glaciers are also threatened, as it may take decades before they adjust in length, area, volume and mass balance to a temperature stimulus, reduce precipitations or changes in the equilibrium line of altitude. Separately from size and different response times, particular local situations are also expected, some related to specific climate conditions and topographic characteristics affecting accumulation and ablation; others linked to human activities locally affecting glaciers.

2. ANDEAN ECOSYSTEM SERVICES: THREATS AND ARGUMENTS FOR GLACIER CONSERVATION Human well-being depends on the benefits that nature provides, as people’s lives depend on ecosystem-based processes necessary to the creation of the products we use every day. These benefits that nature provides to people are called ecosystem services, “services” meaning that they are useful to someone.

The concept of ecosystem services has been used in the scientific field since the late 90’s (Daily, 1997; de Groot et al., 2002), but its use extended to communities of policy makers, practitioners and decision makers in 2005, when the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment was published. The concept was well received by the non-scientific community because it offers a straightforward way to think about the complex interrelations between nature and society. When linking the capacity of nature to capture, accumulate, store and release water to everyday situations (such as the water or wine we drink, and the wellbeing while sitting in the shade of a tree on a hot day, for instance) the idea of ecosystem services reminds us about the true origin of the products and goods we use in every-day life. The concept also makes evident that human decisions and actions have an impact on nature that will ultimately affect the availability of the resources we use, eventually forcing us to find sometimes costly alternatives for what nature could otherwise provide to us. The relations between ecosystem process, services, and goods is complex, and every human action involves trade-off not easy to assess; still, the idea of ecosystem services is useful to showcase the practical need to conserve

ecosystems and encourages more informed decisions across a wide range of human activities and sectors.

As a major mountain range with significant altitudinal gradients, and stretching along latitudes, the Andes comprise several ecosystems and provide different types of ecosystem goods and services that form the basis for human security, basic material for good life, health, good social relations and freedom of choice and action of people. Glaciers contribute significantly to the ecosystem services that the Andes provide.

Andean ecosystems offer provisioning services such as water, raw materials for construction and fuel including wood from wild and cultivated plant species, food from different types of agricultural systems, medicinal resources and energy. The provision of water is one of the most outstanding ecosystem services, and one to which glaciers relate directly. The Andes have been defined as a “natural water tower” capable of collecting, storing and distributing water from rain and melting snow (Messerli and Ives 1997; Viviroli et al. 2007; Price and Egan, 2014). In the context of hydrology, the water tower image is used for mountain areas that supply disproportional runoff as compared to the adjacent lowland area. The water is used for human consumption, irrigation, industry and hydropower generation activities taking place in the mountainous regions, foothills and lower and flatter lands.

The cryosphere is considered a key element for water provision. Adding to snowmelt, glaciers contribute to water supply, their contribution to runoff varying according to regions, type of glaciers, and seasonal, annual and longer term variabilities, among other factors. They accumulate, retain and storage water that will be used for human consumption, agriculture, industrial and recreational uses downstream.

Providing to water availability, glaciers are key elements in facing water crises, ranked third among the top ten global risks of highest concern identified in 2014 by the World Economic Forum (WEF, 2014:13).

Locally and regionally differentiated changes in temperature, precipitation, snow-cover and glacier mass balance have repercussions in runoffs. Melting glaciers in search of a new balance cause a temporary increase in runoff that masks the underlying problem, as in the case of the La Paz basins, in Bolivia. Soruco et al (2015) estimated that a 15% of the annual supply of water to this city between 1963 and 2006 originated in the 70 glaciers located within the drainage basins

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of La Paz. Runoff at La Paz city between 1963 and 2006 did not change significantly despite the loss of 50% of the glacierized area, showing that increase in ice melt rates compensated for reduction in the surface area of the glaciers. But calculations that assume complete disappearance of the basin’s glaciers and no change in precipitation anticipate a runoff diminution of ~12% at an annual scale, 9% during the wet season and 24% during the dry season. Quito is another Andean city highly reliant on a glacier hydrological system. The two million people living there depend on the Antisana and Cotopaxi glacier basins for supplying not less than half of the city’s drinking water supply (Miralles-Wilhelm and Muñoz Castillo, 2014:13; Vergara et al., 2007). Besides climate change impacts to glacier melting itself, the water and sanitation Quito’s agency is also concerned on the impacts over the páramo, a wetland that provides essential ecosystem services for the natural regulation of the water supply to Quito and surrounding areas (Miralles-Wilhelm and Muñoz Castillo, 2014).

Glacial contributions to runoff are also relevant to hydropower production in the tropical Andes, which accounts for approximately 76% of electricity generation in Colombia, 53% in Ecuador, 30% in Bolivia and 53% of energy in Peru (The World Bank, 2015).

The Andes also provide regulating services, contributing to regional and local climate regulation and air quality. Andean forests store and sequestrate greenhouse gases; healthy Andean ecosystems minimize extreme weather events and dampen environmental disturbances and natural hazards such as storms, avalanches, landslides and floods, reducing their impacts. Trees stabilize slopes of abrupt topographies; vegetation cover prevents soil erosion causing land degradation and desertification, especially in sloping areas; wetlands can soak up flood water. Wetlands as the páramos have an essential role for the natural regulation of the water supply for the Ecuadorian Andes lower lands, as mentioned.

Global change also alters runoff timing. Snowmelt occurs earlier and so are river discharges in many glacial Andean rivers. Glaciers are not only a source of water but also provide a water regulation service, as they contribute to the maintenance of ‘normal’ streamflow by buffering the low extremes in discharge of rivers. This glacier compensation effect (Lang, 1986) is important in drylands and regions with little summer precipitation, where meltwater

from the ice is released when other sources such as snowmelt are depleted. Agriculture and many other human activities downstream develop in sync with river discharge, and alterations in the hydrograph translate into water being abundant when demand is still low and lack of water in times of high consumption. Adaptive measures are then required, extending the supply period (e.g., building a dam) or operating on the water demand by changing to crop species or varieties that suit the new seasonality or are more resistant to variable flows. Overall, variability is to increase, making it harder water planning and preparedness for coping with extremes (Montaña and Boninsegna, forthcoming). Structural water scarcities with amplified seasonal water stress are aggravated by sustained increases in population and water demands along the Andean regions (Montaña, 2012).

The share of glacial water supplying La Paz shows strong seasonality. The contribution of 14% in the wet season is doubled to 28% in the dry one. The role of glaciers in sustaining minimal flows throughout seasons is also relevant for Andean rivers used for hydropower production. Using data from Peru’s power system, Vergara et al (2007) estimated the impact of the reduction of glacial melt water on the power generation capacity of the Cañon del Pato hydropower plant on the Rio Santa, Peru. They conclude that a 50% reduction in glacier runoff would result in a decrease in annual power output of approximately 10% (from 1540 GWh to 1250 GWh). Further, if glaciers melt water disappeared completely, annual power output would be reduced to 970 GWh. If the melting process is accelerate, runoff volume could increase, potentially encouraging new demands induced by this abundance of water that will not be sustained over time (Vuille, 2013). In cases where there are no dams to regulate flow variability, glacial contributions are critical to ensuring power generation throughout the year. But even with regulated rivers water supply is at risk. Having limited storage capacity, reservoirs are useful to face water shortage problems in the short term, while glaciers contribute to increase diminished flows over several years. Higher electricity costs to end users are anticipated as a consequence of investments to be made for increasing water storage capacity and installation of additional power capacity to compensate for the lost glacier’s supply and increased extreme climate events (Vergara et al. (2007).

Andes ecosystems also provide plenty nonmaterial benefits related to culture. Andean indigenous

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communities’ lifestyles and knowledge systems are highly linked to ecosystems, and their spiritual and religious values are often incarnated in nature. Diverse social groups nurture their lifestyle inspiration, social relations, sense of place, aesthetic values, and cultural heritage values in the Andean nature.

Also adding to the cultural services they provide, glaciers are part of landscapes that play an important role in traditional Andean lifestyles in which material and spiritual lives are entangled with the rhythms of the glaciers. Andean rituals include offerings made to the spirits residing in the highest mountain peaks, known as apus. The apus are mountain deities custodial of the eternal ices and snow and of the life-sustaining water. The ceremonies are conducted

by Misayoqs, specialists in Andean rituals that are believed to possess the ability to communicate directly with the mountain spirits and natural forces (Bolin, 1998). Andean mountaintops Mining Activities in Glaciers. were Inca’s shrines in which frozen mommies resulting from human sacrifices practices are being found and studied construction of roads and land clearing areas that these days (Cerrutti, 2015). These cultural ecosystem may alter deposit of snow or the same consolidated services nourish a tourist activity that constitutes an glaciers. Vans, trucks and heavy machinery transit important source of income for the highlands of the raise dust. Exploration drilling requires building Andes. platforms for installing heavy equipment and drilling wells, with direct impacts in the glaciers surface or Glaciers also contribute to aesthetic landscapes the surrounding topography. The exploitation phase valued in associated with pristine natural brings more roads, construction of infrastructure environments. Again, touristic and recreational and facilities, blasting, crushing and transportation sectors also make use of these cultural ecosystem in large trucks, with both direct and indirect services. As the media has put it, shrinking glaciers impacts. Despite mitigation actions, these activities threaten to strip the identity of glaciers natural release particulate matter that is transported by the parks (Wines, 2014). wind and deposits on snow accumulation areas or in the glaciers, darkening and increasing surfaces Global threats to glaciers are important for their temperatures and favoring melting. impacts; but they are difficult to neutralize, and never in the short term. Human activities taking Tourism is a less aggressive activity, but it could also place locally – such as mining and tourism – have have an impact on glaciers. Some high mountain more restricted and localized effects, but are relevant hotspots attract mountain climbers and tourists in to this discussion as they offer the possibility of search for extreme experiences. Their activities are being managed in a way that they don’t compromise limited in the higher areas, but still there are impacts glaciers conservation. arising from building infrastructures ad disturbing the natural topography and vegetation.

Mining impacts vary according to the different activities involved throughout projects. A first phase of prospecting and evaluation of a site includes

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3. ANDEAN COUNTRIES APPROACHES TO GLACIER CONSERVATION Glaciers in Natural Parks The early history of the protection of glaciers refers to general initiatives to protect nature creating natural parks. Most modern parks combine conservation objectives with the development of low-impact human activities, especially those that provide for the subsistence of local communities.

The conception of parks evolve together with the concept of heritage, recognizing the culture of communities as intangible heritage, and adopting an integrated view regarding preservation of the environment and sustainable development. Yet, this is a strategy feasible for relatively few selected areas, and most of the Andean glaciers remain outside them.

Glaciers in Natural Parks. © E. Montaña

Raising Global Awareness on the Value of the Cryosphere Under the paradigm of sustainability and with climate change impacts already being a concern, global environmental organizations contributed to better understand the processes that explain the behavior of the cryosphere, to know about the impacts observed and to raise awareness of its value:

1992. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) “mountain agenda” became the core of ‘chapter 13’ of UNCED Agenda 21.

1992. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change proposed measures, mainly justified in applying the precautionary principle.

2002. The UN General Assembly declared the ‘International Year of Mountains’ and the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) at Johannesburg provided a further opportunity for world leaders to work on the implementation of the Agenda 21, which resulted in the ‘Mountain Partnership’, a voluntary alliance of partners

dedicated to improving the lives of mountain people and protecting mountain environments around the world.

2005. ‘The State of Knowledge Overview of Global Change and Mountain Regions’ (Huber et al, 2005) presented the challenges of mountainous areas facing global environmental change including an ecosystem services perspective and giving full attention to paleoclimatology and cryospheric research.

From 1990 to these days, the IPCC assessment reports have reviewed and assessed the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of the cryosphere under climate change.

UNESCO has paid attention to the glaciers around the world and to the Andean in particular. Glaciers of the Cordillera Blanca, Peru, and from the Los Glaciares Natural Park in Southern Argentina were protected by including them as World Heritage Sites. On phrase here to show UNESCO’s support to glaciers protection: programs, meetings and workshops, policy briefs and papers, etc.

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There is a distance between these initiatives and the actions for the effective protection of glaciers. However, these initiatives are necessary to put glaciers on the governmental agendas and to generate social awareness levels necessary to motivate decision makers and politicians, and to sustain conservation laws and policies.

The Legal Approach In several countries, glaciers are protected through water laws. In Colombia, the Title 1 of the Code of Natural Resources establishes the regulation of non-maritime waters, in all its forms, specifically including mountains and glaciers (Republic of Colombia, 1974: Article 77, letter h). In Ecuador, the Water Law identifies glaciers as sources of water supply and considers them common natural goods (Republic of Ecuador Article 10, letter a).

In 2010, Argentina became the first country in the world to have a law specifically protecting glaciers.

The process started in 2008, when the National Congress passed a law which was vetoed by President Cristina Kirchner shortly after. Intense debates were held in both houses of Congress, in various areas of civil society and in the media. A new text – not very different from the original – was finally approved in September 2010. The law grew out of a long political and social process that included heated debates animated by environmentalist groups, scientists, actors from the mining sector, and governmental representatives joining both sides of confronting arguments.

The passage of the Law 26.639 of “Preservation of Glaciers and Periglacial Environment” (Republic of Argentina, 2010) was a victory celebrated by those promoting conservation, but it soon became clear that there would be many obstacles to overcome in its implementation. One of the first mandates of the law is to make a national inventory of glaciers, to be developed jointly by the National Environment Secretariat (coordination, supervision) and the scientific sector (Instituto Argentino de Nivologia y Glaceologia, IANIGLA, in Mendoza, in the execution).

The inventory aims at identifying, characterizing and monitoring all glaciers and other components of the cryosphere acting as strategic water reserves, identifying environmental factors governing their behavior, and establishing the hydrological relevance of these icy bodies in the Andean runoff.

The information provided by the inventory is an

essential tool for the identification and delimitation of areas to be protected. The inventory advanced, not without problems of implementation. Technical, financial, administrative and institutional issues put the scientists responsible for making the inventory in difficult positions in the context amidst political disputes over glaciers.

A second contentious moment will take place when the information issued from the inventory is applied to the identification of the areas to be protected. The concept of protecting the parts of the glacier and periglacial system that contribute to the formation of river flows is written in the law text and not in question. But conflicts are expected when this general concept takes shape in a map delimitating the areas to be protected, where mining and other activities will be banned. The scientific sector will surely be under pressure in its function to determine which components of the cryosphere contribute to runoff in each case. We can anticipate a scenario in which science, with its “objectivity” and its prestigious social position acts as mediator between mining interests and environmental groups, while different fractions of the state simultaneously play for and against the interests of the actors involved in the dispute.

The inventory of glaciers comprises 37 basin and 79 sub-basin distributed in 12 Argentinean provinces (www.glaciaresargentinos.gob.ar/), but while in some provinces the work is finished, in others it is delayed, particularly in those where mining is more intense.

This is related to another challenge being faced by the law: local resistance to its implementation.

Argentina is a federal country in which the provinces have jurisdiction on their own natural resources.

The law setting mandatory minimum levels of environmental protection is resisted, especially in provinces with big mining projects making the main contribution to the local economy. Some of these provinces have prompted lawsuits before the Supreme Court to resist the application of national law. In San Juan province, were Barrick Gold has the Pascua Lama and Veladero projects, a group of companies – including Barrick –, mining unions and chambers took action against the law, and achieved in 2010 a precautionary measure that suspended the application of the law in the territory of the province.

The Argentinean Supreme Court revoked it in 2012 reestablishing the application of the law (Ventura, 2012); but this is an example on the links between the federal government and the autonomous provinces leaving room to question jurisdictions. Other

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provinces such as Jujuy are dodging the national law by enacting their own provincial standards, more permissive (Jujuy al Momento, 2015).

Argentina also provides the example of a law aiming at protecting the headwaters, but not by promoting conservation but rather by specifically banning the activities that threaten them. Law 7722 from Mendoza province was enacted in June 2007, banning the use of cyanide and other toxic substances in mining, similarly to the 2010 European Union’s interdiction of cyanide mining technologies. Mendoza is a province adjacent to San Juan, but both have taken different positions regarding the recent development of the mining sector in Argentina. Perhaps because of more abundance of mineral resources and fewer other economic alternatives, San Juan has made mining the centerpiece of the provincial development of the recent years. Mendoza has remained committed to the wine industry and agro-industries, which add up at revenues from an oil industry in lowlands.

The sanction of the law in Mendoza resulted as a response to claims of mass demonstrations in the streets and roadblocks in rejection of mining projects that sought provincial approval. These demonstrations were renewed every time there is an attempt to revoke or amend the law, until December 2015, when the Supreme Court of Mendoza, ruled reaffirming the constitutionality of the law that had been questioned by mining companies.

Chile is currently in the process of enacting a law to protect glaciers. The first attempt dates back to 2006, in coincidence with the approval of the Barrick Gold Pascua-Lama mining project that threatened glaciers in the north of the country. The initiative failed and was filed in 2007. In May 2014, a new legal text was proposed by a group of congressmen. The proposal aimed to protect all glaciers in the Chilean territory, banning mining and other activities that might affect them. This initiative was resisted by mining and geothermal companies. The office of the president issued a counterproposal on March 2015. The revised version restricts the protection to the mass of glacier ice disregarding peri-glacial environments and permafrost, is permissive with glaciers outside national parks and

– as reported by social and environmental civil organizations – is ambiguous and shows gaps that could be used in stratagems and subterfuges to intervene glaciers (Gonzales, 2015). These actors consider that the 2015 version of the law is “a political gesture in favor of mining companies” (Correa, 2015).

On the other part, the Chilean Mining Council and Codelco also criticizes it as “it would mean restricting mining in many basins where there are mineral resources and concessions related to new projects or expanding of the existing one” (Portal Minero, 2015). It is a negotiation process showing entrenched positions not easily reconcilable.

It is worth noting that the Chilean context is different from the Argentinean. Chile is the largest copper producer in the world, meeting one third of the world market Mining is the second most important sector of the Chilean economy after services, and copper is the first export product of the country, with 50% of the total of exports (MRE Chile, 2014). In 2006, mining accounted for 21% of the national GDP (SONAMI).

In 2009-2013 mining was the main destination for foreign direct investment, with 45% of the total (CIE Chile, 2016). Private actors of the Chilean mining sector include global companies like Barrick Gold.

Resisting the installation of a gold mine in Uspallata, Mendoza, Argentina, 2011. © Marcelo Giraud

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The State also participates in the activity and the state-owned company Codelco (1976) is the largest copper company in the world. Mining actors in Chile are many and powerful, and the style of development and politics in Chile has traditionally been inspired by private entrepreneurship, competition, profitability, and the rules of free markets. There is a tradition of considering environmental regulations as barriers for economic development.

These economic and political orientations have recently shown a twist. On the one hand, the conditions of the minerals international market, especially copper, and higher domestic energy and wage costs have caused a slowdown of mining. The 21% share of mining in the Chilean GDP was reduced by half in 2014 (SONAMI, 2016). The deactivation of the binational Pascua Lama, one of the world’s largest gold and silver resources, is an example of this. Pascua Lama is an open mine exploitation of gold, silver and copper at 4,500 meters on the Argentine-Chilean border. The project has significantly revitalized the economic sectors involved while growing in the most important mining conflict in the region. The project is resisted in both Argentina and Chile for the use of cyanide for gold extraction and the possibility of contamination of glaciers in close proximity to the extraction zone. After over 10 years of exploration, the project approved its environmental impact assessment. But the low international price of gold, the claims of indigenous communities on water pollution, the costs of complying with environmental regulations and the need for a mining treaty that facilitates the exploitation of a binational reservoir led Barrick to suspend construction of the mine (Hill, 2013; Trefis Team, 2014). In parallel, Chilean public agendas seem to be drifting away from the strict neoliberal model, incorporating education, health, human rights and environmental social demands that hadn’t had political space previously.

The economic and social context here is not a minor issue. The Chilean relative political openness along with the Argentinean precedent may represent a window of opportunity for the values of glaciers recognized by scientists and environmental groups to be considered in a major piece of legislation. A glaciers law would have been unthinkable in Chile 10 years ago. The chances of scientific knowledge to influence this process seem less relevant than the incidence of the political context. Regional, national and subnational initiatives should pay attention to the political and economic environments in which glaciers conservation strategies are being promoted.

These experiences allow extracting some lessons on the limitations of the legal approach to glaciers conservation. The Argentine case shows that law enforcement may be resisted by judicial proceedings.

Even in the case where claims of unconstitutionality are rejected, judicial procedures delay the effective application of the law or limit its scope for a long time. Unlike a law that defines a national park with precise geographical limits, the Argentinean glaciers law – like many other land-use, territory and environmental planning laws – order procedures to be carried out, launching a process. Technical studies will require scientific inputs as well as coordination of a set of human, technical, material, financial and administrative resources. Technical procedures such as identifying different levels of protection for different areas will be subject controversies and disputes between actors with conflicting interests among which scientists may get caught. The sanction of the law is the beginning of a process that will suffer the vicissitudes of the political and administrative lives of the country and sub-national spaces.

Also linked to political models and the balance of power between different interests, there is the possibility that the law is not effective in assuring the conservation of a common natural good. It may be a “bad law” that disregards scientific advice (or uptakes dubious scientific advice), permissive and permeable to economic interests. To some extent, scientific knowledge can provide some “rationality” to discussions about what is good and what is not, what to do and what not to. But ultimately, disputes are of political nature and are settled on social power games.

There is also an issue of governance. The effectiveness of a legal strategy to protect glaciers – or any other environmental good – varies from country to country, given the various governance schemes in the countries of the Americas. Chile is a country in which a neo-liberal economic policy inspired in economic liberalization, privatization, fiscal austerity, deregulation, agent’s competition and free trade, favors a primary export oriented economy ruled by competition (Carruthers 2001). With a centralized administration and predictable administrative procedures, the legal via has more chances to achieve effective protection. Argentina has an existing law, but the federal model and the economic and political manipulation of justice conspire on their effective implementation. To a greater or lesser extent, in these and other countries of the Americas, political tides, traffic of influences and other turbulences of

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the political milieu also affect the efficiency of the legal strategie for glaciers protection.

Styles of development also matter, particularly when involving indigenous communities or traditional cultures. In Bolivia, for instance, indigenous roots are strong and customary institutions and laws with community bottom-up decision making scheme are in force in parallel with modern institutional arrangements (Hoffmann, 2005). The official Bolivian policies have formally adopted the premises of the good living (buen vivir in Spanish) setting aside the restricted visions of development exclusively based on economic growth and proposing an alternative model in which humans must embrace being an integral part of nature. Yet, clashes occur on sensitive issues such as water resources (Berg and Vargas, 2009).

Nonetheless, the legal approach is one of the strongest bases for a regulatory strategy tackling glaciers conservation and a solid base for building conservation policies.

A law does not make a policy A law is a good basis for a policy, but not enough. A law is a rule that must be obeyed; a policy is a broader initiative including propositions, decisions, and the adoption of priorities or guidelines that address a purpose along with a plan to achieve it. Conceived as a process involving different social actors, a conservation policy is a fruitful field for scientists willing to inform actions or services being carried out according to scientific evidence. But the process is driven by the multiple arguments the arguments raised in the actor’s interplay, in which scientists are one among many others.

Social license In addition to legal, scientific and technical considerations, the exploitation-vs-conservation kind of decisions are built upon social acceptance.

Normally, the formal institutions of the state assure the common goods being preserved and the common interest being defended. Institutional structures also channel discrepancies from those who claim for rights that are not being respected. But when social discontent is major and formal institutions fail to drive it, there are no laws or authorizations that could make a mining project viable. A mining project

that does not have some level of social acceptance will be seriously questioned, probably delayed, and its costs increased.

Mining conflicts have arisen in many countries and grow global, in parallel with the globalization of the mining sector. A long history of conflicts has led to lessons learned by the mining actors. Influence exerted on policy makers and regulatory frameworks to make them more permissive can backfire in social conflicts in opposition to projects. On the other hand, communities close the exploitation sites favorable to mining projects have proven to be the best allies when it comes to channel projects through the administration. Mining companies have identified the need of establishing and maintaining a social license to operate (Boutilier and Thomson, 2009; Moffat and Zhang, 2014). Social License to Operate (LSO) refers to the acceptance of mining companies and their projects in local communities. For a LSO it is necessary to develop good relations with all stakeholders, particularly with local communities (Moffat and Zhang, 2014). The idea is to instill credibility for building acceptance and approval, and to develop trust up to achieve the highest level of psychological identification (Thomson & Boutilier, 2011a and b).

As a corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model, LSO is a kind of Corporate Social Responsibility practice that has a potential in integrating social, environmental, ethical and human rights concerns into mining companies operations.

The principle is legitimate, but the terms of the relationship between a global company and a local community are most unequal. The smaller, more isolated and poorer a community is, the fewer options it has for improving living conditions, and the easier it will be to obtain a social license without really meeting the high objectives announced.

Moreover, stakeholders are not limited to these local communities, and LSO strategies are more difficult to implement at broader scales. The idea of social license based on consensus building is valid, but it cannot be fabricated or bought.

To sum up, natural parks work as bubbles protecting selected environments; laws lay the foundation of the rules of the game, and often constitute the backbone of policies involving other components. Mining companies make efforts to get social approval, and promise autoregulation to minimize ecological damage. All tools add to conservation purposes. But finally, decisions on the conservation of glaciers – or

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any other natural common good – are the expression of a particular balance of power between actors with conflicting interests. The state mediates, in safeguard of the common interest. It participates at various levels (national, provincial, local), in its three branches (executive, legislative, judicial) and in the various sectors (water, agriculture, energy, research, etc.), rarely with consistency between these various factions. Political leaders embody the will of the voters, but also exercise their own agendas. Public opinion has the power to remind politicians the need to fulfill its pre-election promises. Social movements are activated when the formal institutions fail to channel turbulent processes. This is the arena of glaciers protection initiatives: complex and dynamic power games involving policy makers, scientists among other actors, their alliances and their hidden agendas.

4. ENHANCING SCIENCEPOLICY LINKS AMIDST SOCIAL POWER GAMES The cases discussed suggest that science-policy links are more complex than it might be supposed. First, it is not just a relationship between two actors: scientists and policymakers. It is naive to think that policies are decided just on the basis of the inputs provided by science, no matter how right they could be. Especially when what is at stake is a common good, there are a number of stakeholders with legitimate interests.

There are groups with specific economic interests (in this case mining and tourism entrepreneurs) and advocates of private sector activity in general.

There are also environmental groups, more or less close to progressive political groups. The state itself is an animal with multiple heads. It unfolds into various factions that sometimes contradict each other, as when the executive branch of the Argentine government vetoed a law passed by Congress, or the Chilean president rejected the congressmen law project. Moreover, each actor has an agenda, and sometimes a hidden agenda as well. There are alliances and also situations which suggest that there may also be collusion. Scientists are one more voice among many others and, unlike politicians, they do not have an explicit social mandate to conduct social and political processes. Scientists can contribute to decision-making with information, analysis, scenarios and other evidence that will lead to more informed decisions; but the choice is not

the scientists. The communities of interest have the right to make the final choices as the sovereignty on natural common goods resides in the whole body of stakeholders. When scientific evidence fails to influence decision, researchers feel it as a failure.

But scientific inputs are not just neglected but considered alongside other ‘evidence’ to inform the decision. Dismissal is a particular way of uptake too.

In fact, if a single scientific organization becomes too influential, it could turn into a technocracy with undue influence over public issues (Mendizabal, 2013).

In this complex scenario, delivering a solid scientific or technical report to a policy maker is just a fraction of what is needed to build an influential sciencepolicy interface. Research uptake is not always ‘up’.

Not all ideas flow ‘upwards’ to ‘policymakers’. It could very well be ‘sidetake’ when science outcomes go to other researchers, to manuals, texbooks and think tanks (Mendizabal, 2013). It is a long term sciencepolicy investment when it is used to build capacity in future generations of decision makers. It is ‘downtake’ when reaches final users, or when used to inform the public opinion.

Each society has mechanisms for the social construction of decisions, environmental and others. In all countries of the Americas the modern state provides rules and procedures at various levels that activate for this purpose. The scientific sector has a place in this process, especially in the case of legislation or policies that require technical and scientific definitions, as the ones dealing with conservation of nature. But when institutions are too weak to contain social demands, or there are marked asymmetries between actors, too dissimilar positions are taken and conflicts grow, turning decision making into a turbulent processes. This is where the reasons provided by science run major risks of getting blurred amidst the game of social powers, making research-uptake more difficult. The chances that scientific arguments are considered depend on the social and political context.

Countries with major components of indigenous people or population living by traditional cultures combine modern decision making mechanisms with customary laws and informal procedures at the level of small communities, which often take precedence over scientific knowledge. Hence, the possibility of scientist to influence decision making also depends on the cultural context.

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Hence, there is the context to be considered (Crewe and Young, 2002); and not only the political and cultural contexts, but also the style of development that defines the specific ways in which human and material resources are organized and assigned with the object of solving such questions as what goods and services to produce, how, and for whom” (Pinto, 2008:80) (i.e., stick to the rules of the global economy or adopt the values of the Mother Earth?) or how to deal with economic structures and interests (i.e., how important is mining in the country/region revenues).

in support of environmental causes. Science is associated with objectivity and method, and investigators may be asked to participate in multistakeholder decision making processes for providing some order or rationality to a heated discussion in a mediation action or even for legitimating the process by being there. For their part, scientists must be aware of the social capital they hold, and manage it ethically.

The incidence of the context relieves scientists from a part of the responsibility for the uptake of scientific knowledge, but investigators should be alert to seize the opportunities that arise, requiring part of their attention to be placed off the scientific field. There is also scientific context affecting the motivations of researchers to pursue “outreach”. Some scientific systems and donors give value to the social impact of research, while others favor performance indicators within the academic world.

5. RENEWED ROLES FOR POLICY MAKERS, SCIENTISTS AND FOUNDING AGENCIES

Worldviews are also part of the context relevant to science-policy links. Shifts in worldviews in favor of the conservation of nature are an opportunity for science to achieve greater influence in conservation decisions, as it could be the case in Chile nowadays.

The initiatives of global climate change, environment and development institutions may seem abstract, but they have a tangible influence in creating contexts of willingness to change towards sustainability, in which scientific arguments take on greater weight.

These changes are slow, though.

Finally, the contribution of science to policy formulation and decision-making goes beyond providing evidence in support of decision making or policy. Sometimes scientific knowledge is needed to define a course of action. But very often the general policy direction or decisions is a matter of common knowledge (perhaps based on scientific knowledge generated in the past), and scientific evidence is just necessary to implement specific measures, as in the case of the law of glaciers in Argentina. The contribution of scientists is not just about making policy recommendations, but could also be about setting the agenda, helping explain a problem, spreading ideas, educating liders, creating and maintaining spaces of debate and deliberation, developing critical thinking capacities, ‘auditing’ public and public institutions, etc. (Mendizabal, 2013).

In countries where political elites are discredited, scientists also contribute with their social prestige

Such a broader view of the science-policy interface taking place in the social arena requires new roles and approaches for scientists, politicians and funders (Mendizabal, 2013; Crewe and Young, 2002) acting in the field of glaciers conservation or any other socially sensitive issue of public concern: Politicians, policy makers and decision makers may fear that working with scientists limit their decisions and their ability to respond to other (non-scientific) interests. But political and scientific objectives may concur, depending on how the situation has been framed. It is a matter of opportunity, but also of policy-makers being capable framing the problem and setting the public agenda in a way that the various stakeholders find a space for joint construction, at least regarding the basics of the issues being discussed. Policy makers could enhance their transformation capacity and foster their technical capacities by calling upon science, especially when the technical capabilities of bureaucracy are not sufficient to address technical issues. Policy makers should also ask for scientific work to be carried out. Research is more likely to be useful if it is commissioned by the policy-makers themselves; it is then easier to get good feedback loops between research, policy, implementation and monitoring.

Unfortunately, it can also happen that politicians take advantage of this situation to promote “scientific work” tailored to their interests. Politicians could also get more out of working together with scientists if they consider that participation by all stakeholders (including researchers and the communities of interest) is crucial for sustainable policy-making (consensus, engagement, commitment) and that science gives legitimacy to political actions.

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Scientists should make an effort to produce understandable and usable science that is problem/ solution oriented. For this, they may need to pushforward their scientific findings to connect with socially relevant issues, so that their contribution would be more directly applied. The more complex the problems being addressed (such as global change issues), there more necessary it becomes to embrace interdisciplinarity to tackle them, posing a challenge for researches as well as for funding agencies. There may even be necessary to practice transdisciplinary science, build mixed teams including stakeholders, and to connect traditional research with participatory methodologies. Making a decision or pushing a policy does not necessarily require full scientific information but sometimes just orientation; but it is needed quickly. Decision making can’t wait for scientific timelines and researchers should be flexible to adjust to this timing, responding in the best possible way with existing knowledge, albeit incomplete or imperfect.

Providing usable scientific knowledge is not the only possible contribution to policy making. Researchers can provide data sets collected, tools, approaches, methods, etc. and also make contributions as part of a multi-stakeholder process. For research uptake (or side-take, or down-take) to be successful there must be a match between what scientists can provide and what the policy demands, so not everything depends on the supply side. Time and efforts should be devoted to understand the context and get to know the actors. Who are the policy-makers?

Researchers should be aware of the different actors in the policy community, their position within it and their relative influence, and let them know about the research team and the scientific work being carried out. Is there policy-maker demand? Is it a demand for knowledge, or is it another contribution what is needed? What are the sources/strengths of resistance? What are the opportunities and timing for input into formal processes? It is necessary that researchers understand the agenda setting process and get a sense of the opinion formation and decision-making timings. It is not that all scientists should develop skills to understand and interact, but different members of a research team may have different roles according to their interests and skills. At some critical point of the decision-making process, there could be a need for scientists willing to play a more active role engaging directly in decision making processes. In complex political and social contexts, scientists should also be aware that the possibility of contributing to policy formulation and decision-making is opportunistic and that it may

require bringing into play particular resources such as networking skills, personal relations, and bonds of trust.

For donors and scientific funding agencies this broad vision of science-policy links presented above is easier to envision and to propose than to implement. When promoting this kind of science, agencies are challenged to balance all these demands made to science without losing the innovative power of excellence in science. Pressures on researchers should be handled carefully, as they are at the frontiers of their scientific field. There is resistance from researchers to get out of their comfort zone, but it is also true that interdisicipline and sciencepolicy links are paths also less traveled in science governance. For promoting interdisciplinarity and orientation towards solutions science funding agencies should develop new evaluation and monitoring competencies.

It is not only researchers that are subjected to new requirements, but also the funding agencies increasingly receive demands for donors to make the most social impact of the resources invested.

Research uptake takes many forms, and the outcomes can take time to show, making it difficult for the funding agencies to justify efforts and investments.

Some limitations are related to the fact that the science-policy ties develop in the interplay of actors, and funding agencies operate only on the side of the scientific offer. Pushing science-policy too hard from the scientific side carries risks and may lead to grey zones or undesirable outcomes. For instance, in socially and politically sensitive matters, research can be better or worse received by policy-makers depending on the results found (e.g., social impact of mining in small Andean communities). Research carried out to close to powerful actors runs the risk of not being independent. Science is not always right and there could also be up-take of “bad science”.

These situations must be considered when asking investigators to pursue research-uptake, especially in the social sciences. Research-uptake cannot be achieved at any cost; the critical approach should be preserved and so are spaces of dissent.

The Andean experiences on glaciers conservation has shown a multifaceted science-policy interface that is rooted in the complexity of society. Regarding glaciers conservation – or any other global change or environmental sensitive issue –, scientists, policy makers, and science funding agencies and

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donors should enlarge the horizons of their roles, not without risk. There seems to be no recipes to overcome the barriers for research uptake or to systematize science-policy links. It is learning by

doing, case by case, program by program, project by project.

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Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Ventura, A. (04 de julio de 2012) La Corte respaldó la plena vigencia de la ley de glaciares. La Nacion. www.lanacion.com.ar/1487532-la-

corte-respaldo-la-plena-vigencia-dela-ley-de-glaciares Vergara, W., Deeb, A. M., Valencia, A. M., Bradley, R. S., Francou, B., Zarzar, A., Grünwaldt, A. & Haeussling, S. M. (2007) Economic impacts of rapid glacier retreat in the Andes. EOS 88(25) 261–264.

Viviroli D, H.H. Dürr, B. Messerli, M. Meybeck and R. Weingartner ( 2007) “Mountains of the world, water towers for humanity: Typology, mapping, and global significance”.

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DOI: 10.1029/2006WR005653 Vuille, M. (2013) Climate Change and Water Resources in the Tropical Andes. Inter-American Development Bank Environmental Safeguards Unit Technical Note, No. IDB-TN-515.

Vuille, M. (2015) Challenges in Sustainable Water Supply in the Tropical Andes due to Climate Change. Policy Brief. Hydrological Systems & Water Scarcity Section, UNESCO International Hydrological Programme (IHP) Vuille, M., Francou, B., Wagnon, P., Irmgard, J., Kaser, G., Mark, B., Bradley, R. (2008) Climate change and tropical Andean glaciers: Past, present and future. Earth Science Reviews. 89, 79-96.

WEF, World Economic Forum (2013) Global Risks 2014, Ninth Edition. www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_ GlobalRisks_Report_2014.pdf WGMS, World Glacier Monitoring Service (2011) Glacier Mass Balance

Bulletin No. 11 (2008–2009) http://wgms.ch/downloads/ wgms_2011_gmbb11.pdf WGMS, World Glacier Monitoring Service (2013) Glacier Mass Balance Bulletin No. 12 (2010–2011) http://wgms.ch/downloads/ wgms_2013_gmbb12.pdf Willis M. J., A.K. Melkonian, M.E. Pritchard, J.M. Ramage (2012) Ice loss rates at the Northern Patagonian Icefield derived using a decade of satellite remote sensing. Remote Sensing of Environment, 117 (2012) 184–198. www.esf.edu/efb/mitchell/ Seminar/Willis_et_al_2012_NPI.pdf Wines, M. (2014) Climate Change Threatens to Strip the Identity of Glacier National Park. The New York Times, Nov. 22th. Retrieved from: www.nytimes.com/2014/11/23/us/ climate-change-threatens-to-stripthe-identity-of-glacier-national-park. html?_r=0 World Bank (2015) Electricity production from hydroelectric sources (% of total). In The Wold Bank Data: http://data.worldbank. org/indicator/EG.ELC.HYRO.ZS. Accessed Jan 2nd, 2015 World Glacier Monitoring System (2008) Global Glacier Changes: facts and figures. Geneva: United Nations Environment Programme, DEWA/ GRID- United Nations Environment Programme, DEWA/GRID-Geneva, 88 p.

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4.

CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION LOCAL PRACTICES IN THE ANDEAN REGION: An overview

Raquel Guaita Llabata

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1. ABSTRACT IN THE ANDEAN REGION, NATURAL PROCESSES, HISTORICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS HAVE SHAPED THE CURRENT COMPLEX AND FRAGILE LANDSCAPE. IN RECENT DECADES, THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ARE ADDING TO THESE PROCESSES, SHARPENING THEM. THE AVERAGE INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE IS ABOUT 0.7°C IN THE LAST SEVEN DECADES (FROM 1939 TO 2006, VUILLE ET AL. 2008 IN CUESTA ET AL, 2012). IN TERMS OF PRECIPITATION, CHANGES DURING THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HAVE BEEN LESS MARKED (VUILLE ET AL. 2003 IN CUESTA ET AL, 2012). FUTURE SCENARIOS ARE FULL OF UNCERTAINTY. MOREOVER, IT IS VERY DIFFICULT TO DISCERN WHAT IS DUE TO CC AND WHAT IS DUE TO DEGRADATION PROCESSES OF LOCAL NATURE.

F

or now, adaptation to CC in the Andean region is more autonomous, reactive and private, rather than planned, anticipated, and public (Doornbos 2009).

As for the local climate change adaptation practices in the Andean region, numerous projects have been developed in recent decades. Regarding the main topics in the Andean countries, adaptation actions have been principally directed to the management of water resources, Agriculture production systems and biodiversity.

Overlaps exist between adaptation and development activities. According to McGray et al. (2007), the range of adaptation activities may be framed as a continuum of responses to climate change, from “pure” development activities on the one hand to very explicit adaptation measures on the other.

In the Andean region, the measures developed by the projects of CCA have been mainly aimed at reducing structural vulnerability, to promote robust and resilient systems and to manage climate risks through appropriate technologies, cheap and locally accessible. These measures are positive in all possible climatic scenarios.

Regarding the implementation of public policies at regional, national and local level, most countries in the region have taken relatively significant steps in recent years in the formulation of policies on climate change and in the development of specific institutions.

However, there is a large deficit in the implementation and execution of these measures of government. Also, there is a weakness in the integration and coordination of climate policies with other sectorial policies and macroeconomic policies. In political terms, although there is a growing attention to the climate problem, the issue still occupies a rather marginal place in the domestic political agenda of most countries in the region (Ryan 2012).

As for the main constraints and challenges in CCA implementation, the fight against climate CC, and in particular adaptation, faces a high degree of uncertainty. In addition, there is a combination of low availability, access, use and inappropriate forms of dissemination of information and knowledge of climate trends (Doornbos, 2009). Despite the presence of the issue on the political agendas of the countries has increased considerably in the last decade, CCA is not a priority. Moreover, the difficulty of articulating fluidly the different scales of CC (global, regional and local), also hinders scaling up good practices in CCA. Finally, one of the biggest challenges of the countries of the Andean Community is to match economic growth with social development, giving a sustainable use of their natural resources and minimizing impacts on the environment (CAN 2007).

So the underlying question in this debate is how compatible is the fight against climate change with economic growth based on an extractive model?

While the problem is serious, every crisis presents opportunities. The CCA is an opportunity to promote environmental projects and tools that put the welfare of people and ecosystems in the center of development. At the regional level, collaboration between the Andean countries in terms of adaptation can be oriented to the generation of knowledge and research, networking and improving coordination between local, subnational, national and regional levels. Likewise, in the field of technical cooperation, the CCA may provide an opportunity to promote triangular cooperation. ***** The Andean region is characterized by the presence of the mountain range that defines the vertical dynamics of the territory. However, it also involves coastal, Amazonian forests, dry valleys and other natural and human systems that are influenced by

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ABBREVIATIONS CAN: Comunidad Andina de Naciones CC: Climate Change CCA: Climate Change Adaptation COP: Conference of Parties DRM: Disaster Risk Management GHG: Greenhouse Gas IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature IWRM: Integrated Water Resources Management LA: Latin America OECD: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development PACC: Programa de Adaptación al Cambio Climático UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

the dynamics imposed by the mountains (Cuesta F. et al, 2012). In this region, natural processes, historical, social and economic factors have shaped the current complex and fragile landscape. In recent decades, the effects of climate change are adding to these processes, sharpening them.

2. EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE ANDEAN REGION Today, the region of the tropical Andes is experiencing a rapid climate change. The most visible signs of this change are the air temperature observations at the surface. The average increase in temperature is about

THE IMPORTANCE OF ANDEAN WETLANDS, THE HIDDEN WATER In general, the options for regulation in mountains are few and fragile. In the zones of the highest altitude, storage and regulation of water exist in the form of snow and ice, while the lakes and lagoons present throughout the highlands also fulfill the function of natural regulation.

But the most significant mechanism of regulation in the high Andean ecosystems (páramo, puna with its wetlands and bogs, locally known as bofedales, and

0.7°C in the last seven decades (from 1939 to 2006, Vuille et al. 2008 in Cuesta et al, 2012). These changes in temperature are enough to cause significant changes in soil water availability and distribution ranges of native species.

In terms of precipitation, changes during the twentieth century have been less marked (Vuille et al. 2003 in Cuesta et al, 2012). Several authors (Vuille et al., 2003, Haylock et al. 2006 in Cuesta et al, 2012) have found an increase of moisture north of 11 ° S, in Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru, and a trend to more arid conditions in the south of the Andes.

(Cuesta et al, 2012). Several studies also suggest changes in rainfall, with an increase of seasonality and greater intensity of precipitation (Doornbos 2012).

However, the discrepancy between the precipitation models is very high, which is attributed to differences in the representation of topography and climate processes on the mountain area. Although the average prediction is an increase in precipitation, several models predict a dramatic decrease, so there is not even agreement about the direction of change in precipitation among climate models.

The implementation of disaggregation methods is necessary to lower the uncertainty of projections (Cuesta et al, 2012).

In addition, knowledge of the future state of water resources is limited largely by important gaps in our current knowledge of the hydrological cycle.

The most visible and documented effect of global warming on the Andean region is undoubtedly

forests where these still remain) is the storage of water in its soils from where it is released to the rivers and streams due to the effects of gravity. The soils with a high organic matter content, preserved vegetation cover and the microtopography formed by the last glacial era, permits storage of great quantities of water on the surface and at shallow depths.

Although the study of the hydrologic processes in the Andean ecosystems still has very little history, in the last 10 years paramo hydrology is being studied

intensively in some places, especially in Cuenca (Ecuador) and Medellin (Colombia). For the puna, practically no research on its hydrological processes exists; although some research projects have begun through the Regional initiative for Hydrological Monitoring of Andean Ecosystems, a network whose goal is the increase and strengthening of knowledge about the hydrology of Andean ecosystems in order to improve their management (De Bièvre, Acosta, 2012).

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the melting of glaciers. In basins fed by glaciers, this means an initial increase of water availability during low water season compared to historical data, but eventually, with the disappearance of the ice, a decrease of dry season flows is predicted, and a loss of the regulatory capacity throughout the year. This will affect water supply in the glacier dependent valleys (Doornbos 2009).

As in other mountain areas in the world with an important presence of glaciers, there are research programs in the Andean region that aim to monitor and model the evolution of glaciers and make projections of future flows. However, the lack of appropriate data and poor Andean ecosystem representation in models, hinders a comprehensive view of the importance of basin-scale glaciers and its interaction with the high Andean ecosystems (eg, páramo, puna, wetlands), (Kaser et al. 2010 in De Bièvre et al, 2012). Therefore, it is necessary to increase attention in Andean ecosystems and its mechanisms of hydrological regulation.

Thus, future scenarios are full of uncertainty and still not reach a resolution that renders them useful for local planning (Doornbos, 2009).

Finally, we should note the difficulty in discerning what is due to CC and what is due to degradation processes of local nature, such as changes in land use in a watershed.

3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK These changes will impact differentially on Andean ecosystems and societies according to their vulnerability.

According to the IPCC (2007), vulnerability to climate change is the degree to which geophysical, biological and socio-economic systems are susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse impacts of climate change including climate variability and extremes.

Vulnerability depends on the nature and degree of exposure of a system to climate-related threat, the degree of sensitivity to the threat and the adaptive capacity of the system. Vulnerability to climate change is related to biophysical, economic, social and cultural issues (Doornbos, 2012).

Adaptive capacity is the combination of the strengths, attributes, and resources available to an individual, community, society, or organization that can be used to prepare for and undertake actions to reduce adverse impacts, moderate harm, or exploit beneficial opportunities.

The Andean countries are characterized by their inherent vulnerability to the effects and impacts of climate change. This vulnerability stems from widespread poverty and extreme poverty (concentrated mainly in rural areas), social inequality, the importance of agriculture in the economy, urbanization in risk-prone areas, high incidence of hydrometeorological extreme events and weak institutions (Doornbos 2009).

The IPCC’s officially used operational definition for adaptation is as follows: Adaptation – Adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploit beneficial opportunities (IPCC, 2001).

Adaptation to climate change takes place through adjustments to reduce vulnerability or enhance resilience in response to observed or expected changes in climate and associated extreme weather events. Adaptation occurs in physical, ecological and human systems. It involves changes in social and environmental processes, perceptions of climate risk, practices and functions to reduce potential damages or to realize new opportunities. Adaptations include anticipatory and reactive actions, private and public initiatives, and can relate to projected changes in temperature and current climate variations and extremes that may be altered with climate change. In practice, adaptations tend to be on-going processes, reflecting many factors or stresses, rather than discrete measures to address climate change specifically (IPCC, 2007).

There are several types of adaptation (IPCC TAR, 2001, Levine et al. 2011): Anticipatory Adaptation: Adaptation that takes place before impacts of climate change are observed. Also referred to as proactive adaptation.

Autonomous Adaptation: Adaptation that does not constitute a conscious response to climatic stimuli but is triggered by ecological changes in natural systems and by market or welfare

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changes in human systems. Also referred to as spontaneous adaptation.

Planned Adaptation: Adaptation that is the result of a deliberate policy decision, based on an awareness that conditions have changed or are about to change and that action is required to return to, maintain, or achieve a desired state.

Private Adaptation: Adaptation that is initiated and implemented by individuals, households or private companies. Private adaptation is usually in the actor’s rational self-interest.

Public Adaptation: Adaptation that is initiated and implemented by governments at all levels.

Public adaptation is usually directed at collective needs.

Reactive Adaptation: Adaptation that takes place after impacts of climate change have been observed Incremental Adaptation: Adaptation that results in small incremental changes, generally aimed at enabling a person or community to maintain its functional objectives under changing conditions.

Transformational Adaptation: Adaptation that results in a change in the individual or community’s primary structure and function Maladaptation: An adaptive response made without consideration for interdependent systems which may, inadvertently, increase risks to other systems that are sensitive to climate change.

For now, adaptation to CC in the Andean region is more autonomous, reactive and private, rather than

planned, anticipated, and public (Doornbos 2009).

Adaptation is now unavoidable. There are no realistic mitigation policies that restrict warming to a level that does not require substantial adaptation (Fankhauser, 2009). The question now is if the rapidity of change will allow humanity to adapt to new climatic conditions.

4. CCA LOCAL PRACTICES IN THE ANDEAN REGION As for the local climate change adaptation practices in the Andean region, numerous projects have been developed in recent decades. There is a large variety of actions, ranging from the local to the international level, although most actions have been executed at local level. A common practice of several programs is to implement pilot actions in order to allow experimentation and methodological learning, and thereafter, scale up the experience to larger levels. Also, most experiences are focused in capacity building, and there is a great influence of the major milestones of the international negotiations on the number of actions implemented in the region. Aid agencies and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) are the main sources of funding for adaptation actions in the Tropical Andes, although investment amounts reported suggest that the financing gap in the region is still very large (Cuesta et al., 2012).

Local CCA actions can be addressed to communities, ecosystems, river basins or territories, cities or sector specific projects (health, agriculture).

WHAT DEFINES A GOOD CCA LOCAL PRACTICE?

It must arise in response to an analysis of local vulnerability.

A good CCA local practice must meet the needs and expectations of the local population

A good CCA local practice should have proved benefits. A strategy to promote the implementation of CCA measures is to quantify the benefits of its application instead of inaction.

It must be Socially, economically and culturally feasible. An important asset for the adoption of a local CCA practice is to have positive results in the short term.

Analysis and strengthening of the institutional dimension of the ACC is critical.

Local actors should be involved in the design, implementation and financing of measures ACC. If the practice is a technological measure, must be accompanied by appropriate management rules.

Source: Workgroup “Best Practices in local adaptation projects”; Science policy workshop Impacts of Global Climate Change on Snow, Glaciers and Water Resources in the Andes: Policy recommendations for Adaptation Strategies, Quito, November 2013

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Regarding the main topics in the Andean countries, adaptation actions have been principally directed to the management of water resources, Agriculture production systems and biodiversity. The following table summarizes the CCA practices developed in the region according to these themes (see table)

These themes and actions are intrinsically interrelated. Thus, measures taken in the field of water management have implications for agriculture and biodiversity, and vice versa. Many ACC projects include actions in several areas to promote synergies and positive impacts.

TOPIC

BACKGROUND STRATEGIES/APROACHES CCA LOCAL PRACTICES

Water Resources management

Research (characterization of vulnerability, threat, risk, adaptive capacity, hydrology, glaciology) IWRM / Watershed Management Capacity Building Recovery of traditional knowledge Information and wareness programs

Water Governance (strengthening traditional organizational forms of water management, irrigation community based organizations, etc) Re/Afforestation Restoration of paramos, pasture and natural forest to promote water retention Increase of storage capacity: rustic dams, storage infrastructure Technological innovations (water treatment, modern techniques of irrigation) Control of water demand: improving distribution networks, installation of water meters, wastewater recycling, irrigation technology, irrigation infrastructure improvement Weather forecasts, early warning systems

Agricultural production systems

Food security

Control of erosion (terraces, windrows, etc)

Recovery of traditional knowledge

Use of resistant varieties to climatic extremes (frost, drought) and pests

Capacity Building Research (climate risk characterization, agricultural research) Diversification of production and activities Promote safe access to productive resources for small producers

Agrobiodiversity / management of genetic diversity of crops and livestock, recovery of local varieties Changes in agricultural calendar (planting time, use of short cycle varieties) Seed Management Promotion of agroecological techniques (agroforestry, organic fertilizers) Greenhouses Conservation and food processing Agricultural insurance against disasters Improving market access for small producers Strengthening local community organization Weather Forecasting through local climatic indicators Early warning systems

Biodiversity

Research (characterization of vulnerability)

Conservation and land management, ecological restoration processes (forest management plans, paramos, protected areas) Creating biological corridors that maximize the coverage of environmental gradients, particularly in mountainous and coastal ecosystems.

Source: Guaita based on Cuesta et al, 2012 and Zeisser et al. 2013

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ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN CITIES Since over 75% of the population in Latin America lives in cities, adaptation to climate change in urban areas is a critical aspect for the continent and the Andean region.

The urban perception of climate change is mainly related to the risk of natural disasters, unlike the rural perception, linked to natural resources and their relationship to livelihoods.

Projects against Climate Change in cities propose actions in both mitigation and adaptation. In urban areas, adaptation and mitigation of CC are related to eco-efficiency, especially in housing construction and infrastructures, urban transport and the patterns of urban growth, solid waste management and water.

In most cities, the main problem is not climate change, but rapid and nonplanned urban growth. Again, the CC is a stress factor of pre-existing problems.

4.1. WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Water is the predominant means through which the impacts of CC will be felt. Today, the growing demand for water for various uses (population, agriculture, energy, industry) has significantly increased the pressure on freshwater resources. In this context, and despite the large degree of uncertainty in the projections, climate change poses a serious threat to the availability and quality of water resources in the future.

Among the actions we can distinguish several types: on the one hand, there are cross-sectorial activities, which correspond more closely to strategies or approaches and on the other, more specific CCA measures or practices.

Among the strategies developed in the field of Water Resources, we highlight the promotion of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). The Global Water Partnership defines IWRM as “a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of ecosystems”.

Facing the CC, learn to better manage water in the present could help reduce future vulnerability.

IWRM is, therefore, a prerequisite to adapt to climate variability, because it means laying the institutional foundations for informed management with equity, efficiency and sustainability (see Kabat et al., 2003, Bates et al., 2008, in Doornbos 2009). However, IWRM is not sufficient to achieve adaptation, the second step would be to promote specific “adaptation”

Among the proposed measures, we can highlight those related to water management as a linking element between urban and rural areas, and land use planning as a framework for the implementation of adaptation and mitigation measures. Planning and land management are properly implemented mechanisms that are strategic for cities to mitigate the causes of climate change and adapt to its effects.

Source: www.ciudadesycambioclimatico.org/

practices, including individual actions with water users and advocacy actions aimed at influencing water managers (Doornbos 2009).

Still in the field of strategies, one main concern to achieve adaptation is to understand the nature of changes and its future evolution. In the case of water resources, and as we have seen above, the current gaps in knowledge of hydrological processes are at the origin of the uncertainty about the future of water resources. Research efforts have been largely directed at characterizing the evolution of glaciers.

Despite its undeniable importance, it is necessary to complete the knowledge of the Andean ecosystems that are related to the glaciers, which are very important for water regulation (such as paramos, montane forests, highlands, etc.), and which still remain unknown elements of the hydrological cycle.

Another important CCA strategy is the recovery of traditional knowledge, based in the millennial experience of rural people in the Tropical Andes and their need to adapt to changing and extreme environmental conditions. On the whole, these practices have enabled the access to a variety of resources, including water resources, during the greater amount of months during the year, minimizing the effects of the daily and interannual fluctuation, preventing frost, cultivating in flooded areas and lessening the effects of water stress (Cuesta et al, 2012). Many of these practices are related to the management of water in agriculture, as for example the use of terraces and windrows, as well as techniques of irrigation and water storage (qochas), and the strengthening of traditional water management institutions.

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Capacity building in water resources management is also a central CCA strategy, mainly addressed to water user organizations and water managers.

Finally, we can quote raising awareness campaigns in order to promote a better and efficient use of water as a common CCA strategy identified in local actions.

As for the actual practices of CCA, Doornbos (2009) quotes Moench and Stapleton (2007: 62), who identified three services that will be particularly important to satisfy the water needs in a context

of increasing climate variability and frequency of extreme events: Storage: the ability to absorb and mitigate fluctuations in water availability.

Examples: increasing the storage capacity by building reservoirs, and increasing moisture in the soil and groundwater by building water harvesting structures, in summary, “reduce the speed of the water that comes out of a basin” (Doornbos, 2009).

WATER HARVESTING EXPERIENCES IN PERU AND BOLIVIA In many CCA projects, water harvesting is the main proposal as a measure of adaptation to climate change in high mountain areas (Puna) with a marked seasonality of rainfall (which is likely to increase with the CC), which will suffer the effects of deglaciation with the consequent loss of water regulation capacity, in addition to increasingly variable precipitation and “veranillos”*.

We can distinguish different types of water harvesting systems according to its construction and main objective: A rustic microdam is a water reservoir built by man, taking advantage of a natural depression in the ground (hollow) or a natural lagoon. To do this, we construct a compacted earth dam to capture and store rainwater that runs off the surface, and / or a nearby water source (Santa Cruz Cárdenas et al. 2008).

An “Atajado” is a reservoir of water, which is characterized by being constructed by earth movements and is fed by surface runoff of rainfall during the wet season.

The stored water is used in the dry season (Goetter et al. 2010).

The rustic microdams have two aims in terms of CCA: On the one hand, they promote water infiltration and * Prolonged interruptions of precipitation during the rainy season, negatively affecting the crops.

groundwater recharge, resulting in the maintenance of wetlands and water springs in the lowlands. On the other hand, they allow surface irrigation of natural grasslands during the months of water scarcity, increasing its production capacity (Zeisser et al.

2013).

Rustic microdam in Huacrahuacho, Cusco, Perú, (photo: PACC PERU)

In the case of atajados, the main purpose is to store water for irrigation.

These structures provide water that can also be used as a watering hole for cattle, for raising fish (protein source). It also generates a microclimate with higher humidity, which allows the development of native plant communities, improving plant cover, increasing biomass production and the emergence of palatable species around the dam, and also helps to preserve and promote biodiversity, recreating the perfect habitat for species characteristic of lakes and wetlands (Zeisser et al. 2013).

As local materials are used in the construction of microdams and atajados, it is not required a large investment.

However, some expertise and experience is required to the appropriate location

Atajados in Cochabamba (GIZ, photo: Edmundo Navia)

of the structure. In the case of atajados, the contention walls must be properly stabilized in order to avoid landslides during the rainy season.

There are several interesting water harvesting experiences in the southern Andes. In Peru, the NGO DESCO has developed a network of rustic dams in the Salinas Aguada Blanca National Reserve; the SDC program “PACC Peru” has built microdams in two watersheds of Cusco and Apurimac. In Bolivia, there are numerous atajados building experiences, developed by GIZ.

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Supply: the ability to supply water to all users, at the right time, in the required quantity and quality required, incorporating considerations of efficiency and use in the definition of “requirement”.

TECHNIFIED IRRIGATION AS A MEASURE OF ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE Today, much of the Andean family agriculture depends on rainfall, using irrigation as a supplementary measure (for example, in Bolivia, 68% of the irrigated agricultural area is irrigated in summer, and only 32% in winter, when there is a greater need of water). In many cases, irrigation systems are by gravity, with a low efficiency in distribution.

Rising seasonality and increasing precipitation variability make necessary increased irrigation to ensure the production of food. Access to irrigation is a key factor in reducing vulnerability to changes in rainfall (ie annual precipitation reductions, delays the onset of the rainy season, veranillos).

Furthermore, the temperature rise in the region means an increased evapotranspiration of vegetation, which leads to increased water requirements for crop production, and therefore a further increase in the demand for water for irrigation (De Bièvre et al, 2012).

So, with this increased demand, it is necessary to improve the efficiency

Examples: Water Demand Management (reduce water use by increasing efficiency) and/or reducing “losses”.

of water use. Whereas the overall efficiency of irrigation in most systems does not exceed 35-40%, and that by irrigation technology can achieve average efficiencies of the order of 50-60% or more, there is considerable scope for adapt to possible changes and increase water security in irrigation systems (Hendriks, 2013).

can, ultimately, increase the total consumption of water resources. This is what has happened in some cases with the introduction of irrigation technology: increased efficiency has led to a reduction in consumption that has led to expand the cultivated area, resulting in an overall increase in water consumption (Zeisser et al. 2013).

Numerous development and CCA projects include among their activities the improvement of irrigation efficiency through the implementation of small irrigation systems (sprinkler, drip). In addition, there are many public programs aimed to promote mechanized irrigation.

However, these programs are usually oriented at the construction of medium and large systems, not considering the development of small systems adapted to the situation of the most vulnerable.

It is therefore necessary that all technological improvement is accompanied by new rules of management and collective monitoring mechanisms in order to guarantee fair access and distribution of water resources, and contribute to the sustainability (environmental, social and economic) of the practice (Doornbos, 2009).

In any technological improvement there is a risk of a rebound effect, also known as “Jevons Paradox”, named after its discoverer William Stanley Jevons, who claims that as technological improvement increases the efficiency with which a resource is used, is more likely to increase the resource consumption than decrease it. Thus, the introduction of more efficient technologies in water consumption

Protection: the ability to avoid damage to livelihoods, infrastructure, environment, etc, when water systems fluctuate.

Examples: water control (expensive and often risky) and/or prevent damage by “giving space to water” (using protected areas as floodplains, build mounds, develop agriculture following the withdrawal of periodic flooding), planning and design of land use and infrastructure, short-term climate forecasts (three months) and early warning systems.

Finally, it is necessary to implement measures to improve irrigation efficiency in articulation with conservation measures of water resources that contribute to the availability of water and water conservation. It is essential that efforts to improve access, use and water management are set within a basin vision and integrated management of water resources.

4.2. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS The improvement of agricultural production systems is a major concern to achieve CCA due to the high dependence on natural resources of Andean rural people’s livelihoods. Moreover, food security in the region depends widely on family farming.

Several studies suggest an altitudinal displacement of some crops, a loss of suitable area for highland crops and an expansion for lowland crops. The literature

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review indicates that Andean production systems historically have responded to environmental, political and social changes through the use of space by vertical control of ecological floors and social capital that has made possible such a pattern of space occupation. Also, Andean production systems are vulnerable to climate change because of their marginalization and poverty.

“Modernization” processes have unstructured social organization, limited access to productive resources, both land and workforce, weakening as a result its adaptive capacity. Finally, a previous condition to adaptation in Andean production systems is the implementation of development models that fosters equity and inclusion, improving live conditions, and public policies that strengthen social organization and production capacity, and provide basic services and infrastructure (Cuesta et al, 2012).

As in the case of water resources, the main strategies used in the CCA projects are research, focused on

TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND CONSERVATION OF AGROBIODIVERSITY Indigenous people have a peculiar mode of appropriation of natural resources on a small scale, with high levels of self-sufficiency, based on the use of local resources, solar energy and biodiversity.

They are intimately connected to nature through their worldviews, knowledge and production activities, carried out by adopting a multiple use of appropriation of nature, a non-materialistic attitude toward the Earth, which they consider sacred, where natural resources are appropriate through a symbolic exchange (Torres Guevara et al., 2012). However, indigenous peoples are among the most vulnerable to CC because they have been marginalized in the development process for years. The Andean countries are part of a group of nations with a strong presence of indigenous peoples.

Currently, several initiatives have been developed, among which stands out the Indigenous Peoples’ Cultural Bio Climate Change Assessment Initiative (IPCCA).

The IPCCA aims to generate indigenous strategies to cope with climate change

finding varieties resistant to climate extremes and pests, and the characterization of vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the rural communities, the recovery of traditional knowledge (agrobiodiversity, seed management, vertical management of landscape, recovery and strengthening of traditional social organization), and capacity building of producers to face new situations. Finally, diversification, of both productive and of activities, is considered as a strategy of CCA, including, for example, the processing and sale of agricultural products, and actions to facilitate market access by small producers.

As actual CCA actions for improvement of productive systems, we can quote the use of resistant varieties to climatic extremes, which in many cases means the recovery of local varieties and seed management. These practices have been accompanied by changes in the agricultural calendar.

Central to improving the production systems and

and to incorporate local indigenous voices into the international climate change science and policy development processes. To this end, under the IPCCA, indigenous peoples of the world develop their own Local Assessments of Climate Change as part of a process that seeks to impact at global and local levels.

In the Andean region, IPCCA carried out the project “Native potatoes, indigenous resilience and Sumaq Kausay in the communities of the Potato Park, Pisaq, Cusco, Peru”. The main objective is to inquire into the mechanisms and consequences of the impacts of climate change on native agrobiodiversity, especially on native potatoes and wild varieties through applying the conceptual framework and methodology of the IPCCA. Agrobiodiversity in the Potato Park is defined as the diversity and variety of plants, animals and microorganisms and the biocultural systems linked to agriculture and food.

The potato is a staple for food security of Andean rural households. Native varieties constitute a gene bank in which the answer to new future climatic threats can be found. The conservation of biodiversity

is directly related to local knowledge and self-sufficiency of families in the area.

The native potato biodiversity is currently threatened by an ongoing process of genetic erosion and loss, due to the presence of modern varieties. There is an increasing incidence of pests and diseases as a direct result of rising temperatures, and a reduction of yield rates due to phenomena such as frost, drought, hail, soil degradation, etc…

Currently, reduction of biodiversity, however, is the main risk facing native potato cultivation (Gutiérrez et al. 2008).

Undoubtedly, the traditional ways of adapting to different weather conditions that still exist are increasingly relevant in the context of climate change (Cuesta et al, 2012). It is necessary to establish a dialogue of knowledge that makes possible the integration of traditional knowledge and scientific knowledge to address the impacts of CC. For this, it is necessary that the scientific and political communities recognize, consider and build bridges to indigenous cultures and knowledge, establishing the conditions for a genuine dialogue, without mystification or preconceived ideas.

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the CCA is to promote agroecological practices such as agroforestry, use of organic fertilizers, resulting in more resilient agricultural systems to climate extremes. Other practices to increase resistance to climatic extremes are cultivation under greenhouses and implementation of Early Warning Systems articulated with improved weather forecasts.

We can find practices intended to strengthen community organization as a means to ensure access and sustainable use of resources. Finally, the implementation of agricultural insurance against disasters can ensure the producers’ resources.

4.3. BIODIVERSITY The Tropical Andes are a priority area for the conservation of global biodiversity, since they have a high concentration of species in a small area of the planet (1%), limited ranges of distribution for a large percentage of these species, and high percentage of endangered species as listed by IUCN (Baillie et al., 2004, Myers et al. 2000 in Cuesta et al. 2012). These features make the Andean systems fragile and susceptible to alteration processes from the effects of global environmental changes, such as changes in climate and changes in the dynamics of land use and natural resources (IPCC 2007, MEA 2005 in Cuesta et al. 2012). The main threats to biodiversity in the Tropical Andes are habitat loss and fragmentation, over-exploitation of natural resources (Mittermeier et al., 1998, Wassenaar et al. 2007 in Cuesta et al. 2012) and climate change (Jetz et al. 2007, Sala et al. 2000 in Cuesta et al. 2012).

Several studies indicate that the effects of climate change will produce changes in the extensions of the areas of occurrence of Andean biomes, regardless of the emission scenario and time period analyzed. In general, studies tend to show a vertical displacement

ALTERNATIVES FOR HANDLING PLANT COVERAGE AS A MEASURE OF CCA Although reforestation is considered mainly a measure to mitigate the CC, in many projects of CCA it has been proposed as a measure to promote the conservation of water sources, seeking

upward, being the paramo the biome that will suffer the greatest loss of its current range area (Cuesta et al, 2012).

Thus, the trend indicates that endemic or species with restricted distribution and located in the highest parts of the Andes would be most affected due to increased contraction of its climatic niche, and many of them would suffer local extinctions. This result supports the findings of other studies in other mountain regions, indicating greater sensitivity of species with highly restricted distribution or specialized (AraĂşjo et al. 2004, Laurance et al., 2011, Raxworthy et al. 2008 Sekercioglu et al. 2008, Thuiller et al. 2005 in Cuesta et al. 2012).

The scientific literature agrees that to address these changes, are expected three possible answers: displacement, adaptation and local extinction (Pearson 2006, Peterson et al. 2001 Sekercioglu et al., 2008, Thuiller et al. 2008 in Cuesta et al. 2012).

Regarding cross-cutting strategies developed in the CCA actions, we can highlight research aimed at improving the current understanding of the functioning of ecosystems and their responses to environmental change, and the potential effects of climate change and climate variability on biodiversity. The information generated has to support the development of adaptation actions and landscape management.

CCA actions developed in the field of biodiversity are intended to facilitate the movement of species through the creation of biological corridors that maximize the coverage of environmental gradients, particularly in mountainous and coastal ecosystems, and the conservation and land management, plans and processes for promoting ecological restoration (forest management plans, paramos, protected areas).

to strengthen the role of watersheds as providers of ecosystem services.

Reforestation has been considered for years and for many development programs a major activity for watershed management. Reforestation is a useful measure to fight against erosion and environmental degradation. It has also

been found buffering effects of trees on extreme weather effects (frost, high winds). However, there are widespread misconceptions in the role played by reforestation in watershed hydrological regulation. In general, the current forest hydrology research indicates that the idea that more trees equals more water (which inspired most of the forests and

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water policy in past decades) is based on an incorrect understanding of the hydrological cycle in ecosystems forest actually consume a large amount of water (Hamilton et al., 2009).

Some projects of CCA have promoted reforestation activities using fast-growing exotic species (pine, eucalyptus), that may result in an increased vulnerability to the effects of CC*. Reforestation means a land use change and therefore, it influences the hydrological characteristics. So, reforestation seems inadequate as an adaptation measure with a conservation water objective in a context of reduction of annual precipitation in closed watersheds (no excess water). To a large extent, probably reduces flow rates (since forest plantations consume more water than, for example, grassland) but may also contribute to better water regulation (ie, the distribution of water discharge over time) of the basin (Zeisser et al. 2013).

* Studies have found that installing reforested areas with exotic species can result in a decrease of up to 50% in the production water of a watershed (Crespo et al., 2010, Buytaert et al., 2007). A 3 year old eucalyptus consumes 20 l / day. During the following years this consumption increases exponentially, and at age 20 the tree will require 200 l / day. Consequently it is wise not to plant evergreen species such as pines and eucalyptus in watersheds with an average rainfall of less than 1600 mm (PNUD, 2013).

In Andean watersheds, páramo and puna areas are fragile ecosystems with unique hydrological characteristics, where the herbaceous and shrub vegetation dominates, with few tree species. Studies have shown that non-degraded natural grasslands do the function of regulating the basin more efficiently than forested areas, as its growth is faster and its water consumption and much lower cost regeneration.

Thus, further research is needed at local level to help understand the hydrological behavior of the Andean river basins, and the influence of the various types of vegetation and land uses.

It is also necessary to identify clearly what is the main objective of the reforestation as a measure of adaptation to climate change, since in some projects, the model followed in the installation of forest areas is clearly inspired by the commercial exploitation of the forests, that is, plantations of a single species of rapid growth, usually exotic (pine, eucalyptus, cypress).

This type of plantation has a clearly commercial objective (production of wood). If the main goal being pursued is the environmental benefit offered by the trees, it would be interesting to investigate other patterns of planting (Zeisser et al. 2013).

4.4. ADAPTATION OR DEVELOPMENT? Overlaps exist between adaptation and development activities. According to McGray et al. (2007), the range of adaptation activities may be framed as a continuum of responses to climate change, from “pure” development activities on the one hand to very explicit adaptation measures on the other. At one far end of the continuum, the most vulnerability-oriented adaptation efforts overlap almost completely with traditional development practice, where activities take little or no account of specific impacts associated with climate change.

At the far opposite end, highly specialized activities exclusively target distinct climate change impacts,

There are other alternatives for adaptation to climate change through the recovery of ecosystem services. In this sense, there are some experiences of CCA (INAP Colombia) based on Participatory Ecological Restoration (PER). To restore ecologically an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed is the process to assist the plant succession to reach again the ecosystem structure and function, using as a frame of reference the original ecosystem and the ecological theory (IDEAM 2011).

Community participation is essential to the success of ecological restoration and is one of the core steps of the process.

PER is a great opportunity for linking local communities in the processes of identification of species, propagation and implementation of strategies, and strengthen the sense of ownership of the land and the ownership of the ecosystem and its resources.

Thus, there is a need to raise awareness and valuing ecosystem, promoting the development of sustainable production systems that reconcile the population demands aimed at economic development with the conservation of natural areas and the promotion of resilience at the local level.

and fall outside the realm of development as we know it. In between lays a broad spectrum of activities with gradations of emphasis on vulnerability and impacts. The continuum can be roughly divided into four types of adaptation efforts (see Figure 1).

In the column on the left we find the measures whose goal is to address the structural vulnerability.

In situations where vulnerability is primarily contextual, adaptation might simply require emphasis on baseline or business-as-usual economic development activities – alleviating poverty and improving nutrition, health care, livelihoods and so on – as these activities will also boost the capacity for coping with climate change (OECD, 2009).

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FIGURE 1 DEVELOPMENT

Adressing drivers of Vulnerability: Activities that reduces poverty and address others limiting capabilities that make people vulnerable to harm

ADAPTATION

Building response capacity: Adaptation activities focus on building robust systems for problem solving

VULNERABILITY FOCUS

Managing Climate Risk: Climate information is incorporated into decisions to reduce negative effects on resources and livelihoods

Confronting impacts of Climate Change: Actions focus almost exclusively on addressing impacts associated with climate change

IMPACT FOCUS

Source: Mc Gray et al. 2007

The second column (left to right) corresponds to the measures which contribute to increasing the resilience of systems, strengthening their response capacity against different threats. These measures help to build adaptive capacity. Such measures are positive in all cases, helping to create robust processes and sustainable development. Examples: agroecological practices, reforestation, pasture management, efficient irrigation technology… These measures are broadly in line with the practices developed during decades by rural development and natural resource management projects.

In the third column, we have measures aimed to manage climatic risk. As examples of these measures we can quote water harvesting measures (dams, aquifer recharge), greenhouses, reliable climate information for informed decision making and better design of systems and infrastructure, climate extreme resistant crops, early warning systems…

Finally, in the extreme right column we find actions that focus almost exclusively on addressing impacts associated with climate change. Typically, these actions target climate risks that are clearly outside of historic climate variability, and have little bearing on risks

that stem from anything other than anthropogenic climate change. For example, communities that relocate in response to sea level rise mainly fall into this category, as do many responses to glacial melting.

Radical or costly policy and technological approaches that address unprecedented levels of climate risk also belong in the highly targeted category. Because measures that are highly targeted at climate change impacts do not address non-climate change challenges, they tend to require new approaches that fall outside of the relatively well-understood set of practices that we might think of as a development “comfort zone.” This level of innovation usually takes the form of a discrete effort, and is often both costly and fundamentally challenging to cultural and political norms (Mc Gray 2007).

What determines the type of adaptation activity?

Two factors appear to predominate in shaping the characterization of an adaptation response: the existing capacity of those responding and the certainty of information about climate impacts (Mc Gray 2007).

Given the high levels of uncertainty about the future climate change in the Andean zone and the structural

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vulnerability present in Andean societies, the CCA must not be addressed through drastic measures (e.g., relocation of housing, permanent abandonment of the high part of the watersheds in anticipation of lower end of temperatures‌) that could be regrettable if climate predictions are not met (Doornbos 2009).

Thus, in the Andean region, the measures developed by the projects of CCA have been mainly aimed at reducing structural vulnerability, to promote robust and resilient systems and to manage climate risks through appropriate technologies, cheap and locally accessible. These measures are positive in all possible climatic scenarios.

5. ANALYSIS OF TRENDS IN ADAPTATION PRACTICE OVER TIME To analyze trends in adaptation practice over time, we will begin by reviewing the history of CC global negotiations and UNFCCC. When the UNFCCC was ratified (1994), the IPCC completed only the First Assessment Report. The uncertainties regarding the expected impacts of CC were high, so the emphasis was on the mitigation of GHG (in industrialized countries) in order to minimize the effects of CC. The adaptation was considered an inherent characteristic of ecosystems and society, which did not require an explicit policy, and countries still had confidence that climate change could be addressed through mitigation.

In UN negotiations on climate, recognition of the need for all countries to take action in the field of adaptation has grown over time, as the effects of climate change become increasingly evident (Schipper et al., 2008).

Thus, adaptation has become increasingly important in the debate, and at COP 10, held in Buenos Aires in 2004, it is recognized the need to equal adaptation to mitigation as strategy to combat CC. This recognition is extended at COP 13, held in Bali in 2007, through the Bali Action Plan, which identified the need for action on adaptation, particularly enhanced action on the provision of financial resources, investment and technology to support action on adaptation.

Moreover, the failure of lasts COP in finding a

global agreement to reduce GHG emissions makes adaptation even more necessary.

To date, the international effort on adaptation has provided information, resources and considerable capacity building. However, progress on adaptation also suffered some of the ambiguities of the regime itself. The UNFCCC does not explicitly define adaptation, but refers to it in the general context of climate change. The way in which adaptation is defined in operational terms has considerable political and financial implications. It can affect the level of funding that can be expected in light of the commitments under the Convention. Therefore, much of the international negotiations carried out to date in the field of adaptation have focused on finance, and there is a lack of agreement on how to address (Schipper et al., 2008).

Thus, efforts to define limits and overlaps between development and adaptation are very important because it will enable access to finance for adaptation.

According to Doornbos (2009), distinction between development and adaptation seems irrelevant in the field, but it can become crucial regarding funding of adaptation. This is because the adaptation funds require being explicit on increased adaptability to a baseline that describes the current climate adaptations already in force because the adaptation funds require. Only this additional cost could be considered for adaptation funds.

This entire global framework has been reflected in particular evolution of projects and local CCA actions in the Andean region. Thus, the first projects of CCA were mostly aimed at generating information at local level, characterizing the climate and vulnerability, giving a major role to local perceptions.

These early experiences have helped to define what adaptation to climate change at local level is. Many of these experiences have been carried out in pilot areas for later scale up of best practices on a larger scale, mainstreaming CCA in development planning at different levels of government.

Finally, at the conceptual level, the concept of resilience has been gaining ground against the concept of vulnerability.

According to Adger et al. (2005), adaptation actions can be used either to build resilience to prevent collapse of a system or to reorganize the system and recover once a shock has caused a collapse.

There are trade-offs between the goals of building

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resilience and reducing vulnerability. Adaptive management approaches that promote resilience seek to learn from failure and promote the ongoing structures and functions of overall systems.

Vulnerability approaches, by contract, focus on the most endangered individuals or ecosystems and seek adaptations that protect those, perhaps at the expense of robustness and resilience of the overall system.

FIGURE 2

However, some authors (Lampis, 2013) are wary of the term resilience, arguing that the concept of resilience, derived from the ecology or the perspective of physics and engineering is dangerous as soon as completely removes the central feature of the vulnerability: its relation to processes of social and political construction of the risk.

The Figure 2, drawn up by Bapna et al. (2009), outlines the evolution of the conceptual framework:

6. REVIEW OF PUBLIC POLICIES AT REGIONAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVEL An interesting overview of the degree of progress in the formulation and implementation of public policies on CC and development on LA region was performed by Latin American climate platform (Ryan, 2012), which records the following conclusions: First, most countries in the region have taken relatively significant steps in recent years in the formulation of policies on climate change and in the development of specific institutions. However, there is a large deficit in the implementation and execution of these measures of government.

Also, there is a weakness in the integration and coordination of climate policies with other sectorial policies and macroeconomic policies. This clearly weakens substantially the potential impact of government policies to mitigate and adapt to climate change, since in many cases the policies of development go in opposite directions.

In political terms, although there is a growing attention to the climate problem, the issue still occupies a rather marginal place in the domestic political agenda of most countries in the region.

In these contexts of low relevance and political

attention, the existence of certain structures within the state bureaucracy, focused on climate issues with technical capabilities and access to international resources have been very important to support projects and lines of work over time and beyond the attention of governments.

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Notwithstanding the above, there are also several new institutional experiences trying to position climate issues, involving planning agencies and ministries of economy.

Finally, this comparative analysis of the different national CC institutional framework also indicates that there is widespread recognition of the importance of citizen participation in the issue. The majority of plans, programs and strategies in the countries studied, provide some kind of mechanism or instances of social participation. However, the features and the relevance of these mechanisms and levels of participation vary significantly from case to case, as well as effective implementation levels.

6.1. NATIONAL CCA POLICIES IN ANDEAN COUNTRIES For the specific case of the Andean countries, Tänzler et al. (2013) review the status of policies and processes at national and regional levels: At national level, the awareness regarding climate change impacts and adaptation needs is growing – mostly due to internationally funded projects in the region and the National Communications.

Bolivia, Colombia and Peru have published their Second National Communication under the UNFCCC in 2009 and 2010. Ecuador has completed its Second National Communication in April 2012.

National adaptation processes, strategies or policies have been developed to a differing degree in the four countries. Peru has issued an Action Plan for Adaptation and Mitigation Against Climate Change (2010). Bolivia has published a National Adaptation Plan (2007) and Colombia has recently developed guidelines for a National Plan Adaptation to Climate Change (2012). Ecuador has developed a Climate Change National Strategy in 2008.

Although the National Communications have been supported by national governments, the political weight of the existing adaptation processes determine the implementation and is usually based on the agendas of governments or major ministries.

In this regard a major constraint, faced by all four countries hindering planning and implementation of adaptation measures are the lack of involvement of important ministries e.g. the ministries of finance

and the ministries of planning as well as by the weak coordination among public institutions.

The following table lists the main national policies relevant to adaptation.

As seen before at LA level, there is little evidence of adaptation mainstreaming and coherent policy integration in the Andean region. Links to climate change, its impact and adaptation needs are rarely integrated into other policies. Analyzing the National Communications prepared under the UNFCCC as well as existing adaptation strategies, sub-national and regional levels are rarely explicitly referred to or included in national strategies.

To prepare for climate change and its adverse consequences and to protect the people, economies and environment of the region, Andean countries need sub-national, national and regional policies to develop and govern adaptation activities at different levels. Bolivia, Columbia, Peru and Ecuador are leaders in Latin America with regard to climate change adaptation. Efforts in Colombia are comparably well developed and more strategically aligned than in other countries in the region. However, in all countries, strategies and implementation activities are just at the outset. Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru have identified and prioritised their adaptation needs but priorities are rarely reflected in other policies so far. While at the national level the interministerial integration of adaptation has started to some extent, this is not the case on the ground in the departments.

Overall, adaptation efforts are mainly driven by external financial and technical support from multilateral institutions under the United Nations.

At this stage, none of the four countries has an accredited National Implementing Entity for the Adaptation Fund.

6.2. INSTITUTIONS, INITIATIVES AND NETWORKS AT REGIONAL LEVEL A considerable number of transnational institutions, initiatives and networks have been identified that are involved with adaptation in the Andean region in one way or another. The table below lists international and regional bodies and commissions, institutions and initiatives, as well as international economic organizations giving an overview of the major actors involved. The transnational institutions named

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BOLIVIA First National UNFCCC Communication (2000) Second National UNFCCC Communication (2009) National Adaptation Plan (2007) National Development Plan (NDP) (2006)

also relevant: Bolivia’s National Climate Change Strategy (BNCCS) (2002), CBA Country Program Strategy (2007), Climate Change National Strategy for Education and Public Awareness (2009), Five-Year Climate Change Action Plan (2004-2009), National Mitigation Strategy (2006), Law on “Food Sovereignty” (2011)

COLOMBIA First National UNFCCC Communication (2001) Second National UNFCCC Communication (2010) Integrated National Adaptation Project (INAP) (2006-2011) National Plan Adaptation to Climate Change (PNACC) (2012)

also relevant: National Development Plan 2002-2006 (PND)

ECUADOR First National UNFCCC Communication (2000) Second National UNFCCC Communication 2012 Estrategia Nacional sobre el CC para el Ecuador (Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador y Dirección de Cambio Climático 2008)

also relevant: Vulnerability, adaptation and mitigation to climate change in Ecuador 2001, National strategy for climate negotiations Ecuador 2008, National Plan for Good Living 2009-2013

PERU First National UNFCCC Communication (2001) Second National UNFCCC Communication (2010) National Climate Change Strategy (2003, 2009) National Guidelines for Climate Change Mitigation (NGCCM) National Adaptation Plan (APCCAM) (2010)

below are responsible for dealing with issues closely related to climate change adaptation, such as water management. Further institutions are implementing programs and projects relevant to adaptation and/ or are referred to in the National Communications / adaptation plans and strategies.

Basin Conservation Initiative or the Initiative for Conservation in the Andean Amazon.

A selection of institutions (transnational institutions, initiatives and networks) that are of particular interest when thinking about adaptation in the Andean region is listed below.

The institutions identified take on different roles, ranging from intergovernmental fora such as the Ibero-American Network of Climate Change Offices (RIOCC) to knowledge hubs and process facilitators such as the Regional Policy Dialogue: Water and Climate Change Adaptation. Those institutions are bundling knowledge about the technical as well as the political dimensions of adaptation.

The engagement of regional governance bodies in the field of climate change appears to be limited so far, although it seems to be growing. As in other world regions, most of the institutions and networks active in the field of adaptation are focused on water issues. A variety of initiatives are directly linked to the conservation of the Amazon, such as the Amazon

also relevant: National Program on Climate Change and Air quality (PROCLIM) 2003- 2005, Climate Change Adaptation Programme (PACC) 2009- 2012, National Plan and Risk Management – Adaptation to the adverse effects of Climate Change in the Agricultural Sector (PLANGRACC, 2012 – 2021)

Andean Community (CAN), www.comunidadandina.org/ The Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregión Andina (CONDESAN), www.condesan.org

Ibero-American Network of Climate Change Offices (RIOCC), www.lariocc.es/ Regional Gateway for Technology Transfer and Climate Change Action (REGATTA), www.climatechange-regatta.org/index.php/en/

Latin American Platform on Climate (LAPC) www.intercambioclimatico.com/en/

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Although a large number of initiatives and networks are already active within the Region their efforts to date remain largely fragmented and isolated suffering from little coordination and limited visibility. Attempts by civil society and research organizations to solve the lack of synchronization have been impeded by the absence of political processes on a regional level.

7. CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES FOR IMPLEMENTATION The challenges of CCA in the Andean region are many and diverse in nature.

First, the fight against climate CC, and in particular adaptation, faces a high degree of uncertainty. There are gaps in the current knowledge on how Andean ecosystems work. Moreover, climate predictions and scenarios also present large ranges of uncertainty, especially at local level, so they are not useful for planning. In addition, there is a combination of low availability, access, use and inappropriate forms of dissemination of information and knowledge of climate trends (Doornbos, 2009).

DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT, CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND LAND-USE MANAGEMENT DRM and CCA are complementary lines of action. Both are designed to reduce the risk faced by the population and its economic, social and environmental systems, for what they consider the vulnerability to current and future occurrence of adverse events related to weather events and concatenated events (PNUD, 2013).

In relation to risk management, the most important effect of climate change is the tendency to consider the progressive increase in the frequency of adverse events from various sources but mainly hydrometeorological. This coupled with environmental degradation and / or transformation of the territory helps trigger, exacerbate or intensify natural

Although knowledge on approaches, methodologies and institutional frameworks to implement CCA measures is still in development, and is the subject of debate at political and technical level, there is growing interest on the part of states and civil society to capitalize learning on adaptation best practices, as well as factors that limit the successful implementation of these actions (Cuesta et al., 2012).

Thus, a major effort to systematize and organize current knowledge must be made in order to facilitate the dissemination and use of information at all levels.

However, the magnitude of the problem requires urgent action. It is not possible to postpone decision making until we have sufficient and reliable information. Thus, several authors (Doornbos 2009, Bates et al., 2008, Zeisser et al., 2013) propose that in the absence of specific information on the effects and local impacts of CC, it is preferable to promote “not regrettable� options to reduce vulnerability of the population and enhance ecosystem resilience.

Another major challenge facing the fight against climate change and adaptation is that, despite the presence of the issue on the political agendas of the countries has increased considerably in the last decade, it is not a priority, nor are environmental issues generally relegated to a second place to

hazards such as landslides, floods, forest fires and drought, among others (Arce Rojas, 2013).

Governments have recognized the importance of coordination of climate change adaptation measures to reduce disaster risks and the need to integrate these considerations in a comprehensive way in the development plans and programs for the eradication of poverty (Arce Rojas, 2013).

Moreover, the link between the Territory and the type of impacts affecting it, is especially relevant because changes in rainfall or temperature patterns can generate different impacts according to the vulnerability of the population, their livelihoods and ecosystems (PNUD, 2013).

In this sense, a policy tool that can provide a framework for coordination

and joint action between CCA and DRM is Land-use Planning, allowing for better land use, according to capabilities in different geographic areas, and providing guidelines for the design of responses to the effects of CC. Finally, to raise policy recommendations is necessary to bear in mind the prodigious diversity and heterogeneity of the environment, ecosystems and the Andean geography. This makes that the impacts of the CC can be differentiated according to the characteristics of each region and locality. This reality raises anew the challenge of moving toward a coherent Land-use planning that will help define the most appropriate use of the territory, and to be able to participate and take into account the effects of CC in the determination of the use of the land (PNUD 2013).

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economic issues. This trend has been further exacerbated since the onset of the global financial crisis, although it has been well circumvented by the Andean countries, has had a negative impact on the availability of funds for development cooperation and the fight against climate change.

Moreover, the difficulty of articulating fluidly the different scales of CC (global, regional and local), also hinders scaling up good practices in CCA. Finally, one of the biggest challenges of the countries of the Andean Community is to match economic growth with social development, giving a sustainable use of their natural resources and minimizing impacts on the environment (CAN 2007). In recent years the Andean countries have experienced high growth rates due to the high prices of raw materials and minerals, which have favored the development of extractive industries in many areas of the region.

However, this development is based on an extractive economic model1, not free from problems, as it brings significant environmental (environmental legacies, ecosystem destruction, pollution, erosion, deforestation) and social (social inequality, displacement of population, migration, problems of public health) impacts that result in increased vulnerability to CC. So the underlying question in this debate is how compatible is the fight against climate change with economic growth based on an extractive model?

Some authors, like Lavell (2011) argue that adaptation must undergo a profound shift in the global economic paradigm: “It’s worrying to think that among certain sectors CCA is seen as the additional cost required to “protect” the development as conceived today, and adjust to the demands of climate change, rather than considering the “adaptation” an intrinsic part of a new model of development with alternative patterns 1. The conventional extractivism is understood as the removal (large volumes and large-scale) of natural resources with little or no processing, that have important social and environmental impacts, as well as economic effects on the territories. This model also has a clear commercial aspect, in the sense that resources are oriented toward export. Extractivism often includes the exploitation of three raw materials: oil, gas and minerals. However, in recent years, extractivism has extended to agriculture based on monoculture and export-oriented, and Previous to the sectors you will be summarily the monoculture of export, as well as the forestry sector (where the forest monoculture are intended to produce wood pulp) and the fishing sector (Calero et al. 2011).

There is also a neoextractivism, which represents an alternative paradigm, developed in some countries (Canada, Australia, Chile, Brazil) that have reached adequate levels of economic growth from a solid mineral exploitation. This new vision suggests that the positive impact of the mining depends on a combination of factors such as the quality of institutions, macroeconomic policy, and policies of human capital formation and technological development (Cárdenas et al., 2013).

of consumption, production, social and territorial division of production and the income distribution.

Adaptation should be seen more in terms of new models of development with reference to changes and adjustments to climate change, per se.”

8. OPPORTUNITIES IDENTIFIED While the problem is serious, every crisis presents opportunities.

The fight against climate has led to global agreements.

However, the solution, maybe if easy to conceive, is politically very difficult to implement.

The CCA is an opportunity to promote environmental projects and tools that put the welfare of people and ecosystems in the center of development. Thus, locally, the ACC may serve to promote processes such as Land Management, IWRM and Compensation for Ecosystemic Services.

At the regional level, collaboration between the Andean countries in terms of adaptation can be oriented to the generation of knowledge and research, networking and improving coordination between local, subnational, national and regional levels through the following actions: To develop synergies in technical and territorial experiences.

To systematize knowledge from existing projects.

Harmonize methods.

To identify new activities, products and best practices.

To disseminate, knowledge.

complement

and

exchange

Likewise, in the field of technical cooperation, the CCA may provide an opportunity to promote triangular cooperation.

In recent years, developing countries have considerably expanded South-South cooperation. It has also increased interest in triangular cooperation.

The triangular cooperation are cooperation projects planned, financed and implemented jointly by DAC

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traditional donor country (ie, an industrialized country that is a member of the Development Assistance Committee of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)), an emerging country that can act as second donor or recipient country, and a third country as recipient beneficiary. Today, the traditional pattern of development cooperation is subject to major changes and bilateral agencies like COSUDE or GIZ are developing pioneering experiences with countries such as Chile, Mexico and Bolivia.

The triangular partnerships provide partners added value with regard to bilateral traditional cooperation.

In the context of learning networks and platforms created for this particular purpose it takes place an important exchange of experience and transfer of relevant technical expertise. In the field of CCA, triangular cooperation could be a great opportunity to strength efforts between Andean countries.

9. ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION The consultancy firm PricewaterhouseCoopers, the largest of the so-called Big Four, published in November 2012 a report which concluded that it was too late to keep future increases in global average temperatures under 2 degrees Celsius. “Now is the time to prepare for a warmer world,” stated the report (WWI 2013).

That same month, the World Bank published “Turn Down the Heat”. In this report, it is exposed why

humankind must avoid a world 4 degrees warmer.

At the same time, in the press stories of emerging catastrophes proliferated: the failure of the Rio +20 negotiations, zombies coral reefs, calls for an increase in the birth rate, reduction of Arctic sea ice, a “change of state” increasingly imminent of the Earth’s biosphere, and other evidence of the pressure which natural systems are subjected, and most of all, evidence of blindness, ignorance and human denial (WWI 2013).

Uncertainty cannot be an excuse for resignation.

The UNFCCC entered a very important line of one of the multilateral environmental treaties that have been most successful in history: the 1987 Montreal Protocol, under which Member states are obliged to act in the interest of human security even in the absence of scientific certainty.

Moreover, we must take into account that adaptation is primarily a local process, which depends widely on the context. There is no one-size-fits-all solution for adaptation, and any successful experience must be carefully rethought prior to its massification.

In conclusion, note that governance is a crucial component of our responses to the “long emergency” that is coming (WWI 2013). Governance should be flexible, and tools to help decision-making in a context of great uncertainty will be needed.

It requires participation, high levels of training, vigorous debate and mutual respect, as well as large doses of creativity: we face an uncertain future, which will require new responses.

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FOR MORE INFORMATION

INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME (IHP) UNESCO / DIVISION OF WATER SCIENCES (SC/HYD) www.unesco.org/new/ihp