THE VERTICAL NEIGHBORHOOD In a Wooden High-rise
Mathias Mellergaard Nielsen. Trine Sofie Dusine Schmidt Nielsen. Master Thesis, 2018. Aalborg University.
Colophon Thesis title Wooden High-Rise Theme Sustainability Authors Mathias Mellergaard Nielsen Trine Sofie Dusine Schmidt Nielsen
Special thanks to Camilla Morville Severinsen. Key Account Manager - Civil Engineer. Lilleheden, Hirtshals. RenĂŠ Bech. Team Leader Authority / Operative. Nordjylland Fire Department.
Project module MA-thesis 2018
Charlotte Helene Refstrup. Indoor Environment and Energy Engineer. Erasmus & Partnere.
Project period 3rd of February - 23th May 2018
Supervisors Lars Brorson Fich and Chen Zhang.
Group number 23
For guidance and counselling in the process of designing this wooden highrise.
Semester MSc04 Arch Supervisors Associate Professor, Lars Brorson Fich Assistant Professor, Chen Zhang Institution Aalborg University Department of Architecture, Design and Media Technology Number of pages 124 Number of prints 6 Attachments Appendix Drawing folder
Additionally, a thanks to Vandkunsten for allowing us to use their pictures.
Abstract
Abstrakt
This master thesis is based on a new phenomenon of tall wooden buildings. Explorations within the subject and several studies are made both structural but also sustainable to gain insight into the possibility of this.
Dette afgangsprojekt tager afsæt i et nyt fænomen med at bygge højhuse i træ. Der udforskes indenfor emnet og laves flere undersøgelser både strukturelle men også bæredygtige for at få indblik i muligheden i dette.
The project is located at Nordhavn in Copenhagen, a newly developed sustainable district that is DGNB certified.
Projektet er lokaliseret på Nordhavn i København, en ny bæredygtig bydel der er DGNB certificeret.
Our motivation for this project is to challenge the Danish Building Regulations and clarify the possibility of working with wood as a bearing system in high-rise buildings, but also to challenge the way we build and live in the big city. Social sustainability has been a dominant driving force of the project and the way to handle the current urbanization in the metropolitan areas. The project deals with a typology of townhouses in high-density buildings. Between the houses is the design of an unheated outdoor space behind a glass facade protected from wind and water. With this design, it is possible to extend the season for outdoor stays.
Vores motivation for dette projekt er at udfordre det Danske Bygningsreglement og tydeliggøre muligheden i at arbejde både med træ som bærende system i højhuse men også måden vi bygger og lever på i storbyen. Social bæredygtighed har været en stor drivkraft for projektet og måden at håndtere den nuværende urbanisering i storbyerne. Projektet beskæftiger sig med en typologi af rækkehuse i høj-tæt bebyggelse. Mellem husene er designet et uopvarmet uderum der bag en glasfacade er beskyttet mod vind og vand. Med dette design er det muligt at forlænge sæsonen for udeophold.
Reader’s guide This thesis is created on the basis of an interest in wooden buildings in a highdense urban context. Early in the process research questions were asked and in this thesis they are answered through analysis and case studies. Lastly a design proposal is created on the basis of the knowledge gained through answering of the research questions. The report is build up on 12 chapters. An prologue (1), methodology (2), analysis (3, 4, 5, 6), programme (7), presentation (8), initiatives and strategies (9, 10), ideation (11) and Epilogue (12). The analysis is created on basis of the ‘three dimensions’ of sustainability. Each section is written with a focus on one of the three aspects inspired by the DGNB certification system. Each section is analyzed with a description of the topic, as well as case studies that support the theory we have. The analysis section is divided into three sections; (3) ’Environmental aspects’, (4) ’Social aspects’ and (5) ’Economic aspects’. Additionally, an analysis of the context (6) is also presented with focus on the genius logi and the climate-conditions on site. All references in the report are done according to Harvard method. Attached to this thesis report is a separate binder for appendix and a drawing folder with drawings printed in a larger format than presented in this report.
List of content CHAPTER 1: PROLOGUE 1.1 Problem definition 1.2 Motivation
CHAPTER 7: CONTEXT 2 4
Urban Density
32
Urban Tendency
7.2 Nordhavn
Wood qualities
33
History
High Density and Mixed Use
Vision of Nordhavn
Sustainable Tectonics Architecture
1.3 Limitations
7.1 Copenhagen
6
7.3 Århusgadekvarteret 7.4 Climate conditions
34 35
Wind Sun
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
Humidity / precipitation Noise
2.1 Approach 2.2 Research questions 2.3 Working method 2.4 Theory and method of Le Corbusier
8 8 9 10
Arrival to site / parking
7.5 A Sense of Place
37
CHAPTER 8: PROGRAMME CHAPTER 3: ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 3.1 Definition 3.2 Climate aspect 3.3 Wood for construction
12 14 15
8.1 Introduction 8.2 User profile 8.3 Building Programme 8.4 One building group
40 41 42 43
Temperature
Insulations properties
Daylight
Lightweight and strong
CO2-level
Fire
Relative Humidity
Moisture
Air Change
Acoustics
3.4 Case studies
17
CHAPTER 9: PRESENTATION
Wooden skyscraper - C.F. Møller The Mjøsa Tower - Voll Architects
CHAPTER 4: SOCIAL ANALYSIS 4.1 Definition 4.2 Neighborhood / Baugruppen 4.3 High-density housing 4.4 Case studies
20 21 22 23
Townhouses in the sky - Santiago Calatrava
9.1 Concept 9.2 Masterplan 9.3 Elevation 9.4 Market square 9.5 Workshop spaces 9.6 Urban high-dense communities
48 50 51 58 60 62
Communities
9.7 Building groups and flexibility 9.8 Plan
63 67
Tinggården - Vandkunsten
CHAPTER 10: SUSTAINABLE INITIATIVES CHAPTER 5: ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 5.1 Definition 5.2 Flexible architecture 5.3 Case studies
26 27 28
880-860 Lake Shore Drive - Mies Van Der Rohe
10.1 Introduction 10.2 Sustainable high-rise 10.3 Facade 10.4 Daylight Transom light
10.5 Atrium 10.6 Indoor Environment
CHAPTER 6: PARTIAL CONCLUSION
Temperature CO2 level
6.1 Partial Conclusion
72 73 75 78
30
Relative humidity Air Change
79 81
10.7 Energy Balance
85
CHAPTER 13: EPILOGUE
Building envelope
13.1 Conclusion 13.2 Reflection / further investigations
Double facade Solar panels Transmission loss
10.8 LCA 10.9 DGNB
114 115
Le Corbusier
86 87
Baugruppen Maintenance Passive strategies
CHAPTER 11: STRUCTURAL INITIATIVES
Daylight LCA Ventilation
11.1 Introduction 11.2 Bearing system 11.3 Loads and regulations
90 92 93
Parametric design
11.4 Fire dimensionering
97
Double facade Foundation
11.6 Construction details
100
Joint Sound
CHAPTER 12: IDEATION 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Iteration 1
102 103
Research Form Sustainability Structure Cluster
12.3 Iteration 2
105
Research Form Plan / Sustainability Structure
12.4 Iteration 3
107
Research Form Plan Sustainability Structure Midterm
12.5 Iteration 4
109
Research Form / Sustainability Plan Structure
12.6 Iteration 5 Research Form Plan Sustainability Structure Cluster 2
Material Context The city today, tomorrow and in the future
95
Alternative fire protection
11.5 Exploded model
Solar cells
111
13.3 Bibliography 13.4 List of illustrations
117 121
CHAPTER 01
PROLOGUE
content index 1.1 Problem definition
2
1.2 Motivation
4
Wood qualities Urban Density High Density and Mixed Use Sustainable Tectonics Architecture
1.3 Limitations
Page 1
6
1.1 Problem definition People are moving to the larger cities to get closer to their work, schools and public facilities. The pressure is on the architects, engineers, and the urban developers to create betterliving criteria on smaller spaces and footprints. Requirements made by the Danish government are also higher, both regarding the energy framework of buildings but also the environmental impact caused by the building industry. Therefore we would like to work on a new tendency for high-rise buildings constructed in wood. With environmental and social sustainability in focus, we want to create better-living spaces in a more dense context.
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FOREST PRODUCTION TRANSPORT OF LOGS (50 KM) TRANSPORT OF LOGS (300 KM) SPRUCE AS A STORE OF ENERGY
CONVERSION
KILM DRYING
Ill. 1.2 Energy balance of dried sawn timber.
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1.2 Motivation Wood Qualities Wooden buildings are historically a part of the Scandinavian building traditions but have been down prioritized as other materials got influence on the market and in the building industry. It has high relevance to bring wood into the discussion of the climate crisis and carbon footprint of the building industry, as wood is the material with the least carbon footprint that we can build larger buildings with. Not only is it a good idea to bring in the material, but it is also a tendency that other architectural practices have gotten an interest in making this subject even more relevant for our master thesis. Currently, Denmark is producing more forest than what is being cut down and used productively. (Pefc.dk, 2018) The building industry can use and benefit from this and at the same time prevent monoculture, use a wider variety of species and at the same time recreate nature in its purest form. Trees can grow up to 70 meters tall in Europa, and the world’s largest tree is from Redwood National Park in California measuring 115.7 meters tall. (Science and Earth, 2018) This illustrates the potential and structural quality of wood. Wood is grown by the sun, carbon dioxide and nutrition, while growing it stores waste and carbon dioxide. When demolishing wood from buildings, it can be given back to nature where it will decompose, without releasing any pollution into the atmosphere. Alternative materials, such as concrete and steel, are dug up from the ground using limited materials that release pollution and processed to a stage where it is not possible to reuse or decompose the material. (Green and Taggart, 2017 p. 8.)
Urban Density Reality is that our population is rising and people are moving to larger cities such as Copenhagen where the population has grown by 20% in the last ten years. (KK.dk, 2017, a) This puts significant pressure on the infrastructure as well as space requirement for housing people as they move to the city. To ensure a vertical and not only horizontal expansion, but methods as Urban Infill and Transformation of abandoned areas also become relevant in this expansion of the city.
technical quality and site quality. (Green Building Council, 2016) Combining this with knowledge about Permaculture, Human Ecology, Passive and Active strategies we will try to create a Sustainable Wooden High-rise. “Architecture can’t force people to connect, it can only plan the crossing points, remove barriers, and make the meeting places useful and attractive.” Denise Scott Brown. (Dushkes, 2012 p. 132.)
High Density and Mixed Use High dense architecture can help to fit more people on a smaller footprint, a great response to a city development in expansion and with the immediate need of dwellings. By implementing other functions, and creating mixed-use architecture, it is possible to create small communities in which people live, work and exist. Sustainable Tectonics Architecture Architecture can awake emotions through its tactility and shape, creating a place to stay, live and thrive. It tells stories, hold and create memories and experiences. It can be inspirational and create space for living as well as improving the health and life qualities of its residents. Sustainable architecture can be interpreted in many ways. The most known are Three Pillars in which sustainability rise: Social, Economic and Environmental. These are today often measured through methods such as Deutsches Gütesiegel Nachhaltiges Bauen, also called DGNB. The method focuses on six main areas: Sociocultural and functional quality, economic quality, environmental quality, process quality,
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1.3 Limitations Development of a high-rise building consists of many aspects both structural and sustainable. Sustainability has been a driving factor in the approach to this project both environmental, social and economic perspectives. The primary focus has been to look at environmental aspects of wood as material and social sustainability. Economic perspectives are investigated in the scope of working with a flexible building, but no calculations of economics are developed. The environmental aspects of this project are focused on the climate aspects of building high-rise buildings with wood as the only material. Tools like LCA are used to give an understanding of the carbon emission in comparison to concrete. The calculation does not take into account that the wood is reusable at the end of life stage and the results are therefore a result of this. It has not been possible to calculate an LCA where the factor for reusable wood is implemented in the final result. Additionally, a DGNB certification has been made where all 45 criteria have been evaluated and explored. Some aspects are not evaluated such as public participation, plumbing amongst others that are beyond the scope of the focus areas explored in this master.
for an alternative calculation where the system of mechanical ventilation was functioning as natural ventilation. These were discussed with the technical supervisor. The best efforts are made to create a simulation with realistic results. The structural considerations are calculated and explored through Robot Structural Analysis, and the result takes stability, displacement, and stresses of elements into consideration. The building is dimensioned according to fire as this is dominant in designing a wooden highrise. However, as wood is an organic material, it will settle over time and due to the pressure as the construction sets in. This project does not consider factors like these and is therefore not further accounted for in this report. Technical rooms and shafts with room for water piping and mechanical ventilation system are not dimensioned precisely but based on assumptions and experiences. The focus has been to strategically place the mechanical ventilation system and integrate the exhaust air to consider the placement of these to avoid discomfort for people moving or living nearby.
Social sustainability is explored with the focus on the indoor environment and creating housing communities with relation to baugruppen principles. Organisational matters concerning building groups are not developed. The indoor environment is explored through simulations in BSim, where different strategies are explored concerning the choice of windows and solar shading. Limitations in the programme, due to the choice of window, has caused
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CHAPTER 02
METHODOLOGY
content index 2.1 Approach
8
2.2 Research questions
8
2.3 Working method
9
2.4 Theory and method of Le Corbusier
10
Page 7
2.1 Approch
Ill. 2.1 Sustainability.
The questions asked in the development of this project are rooted in the ‘Three Dimensions of Sustainability’ known from the Brundtland Report by United Nations from 1987 (Brundtland, 1987). The report describes the overall expression as: “Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (Brundtland, 1987. P. 37). ‘The Three Dimensions’ has inspired the research questions of this project and define categories in which elaborated question appear. The purpose of this project is to challenge the ‘Danish Building Regulations’ (Bygningsreglementet.dk, 2018, a), their demands and requirements that help to define the Danish Building Industry. The focus will rely mostly on the environmental and social aspects of sustainability with an awareness of the economics. DGNB will help to define the measures taken when approaching the project. (Guide til DGNB for bygninger, 2017)
2.2 Research questions Environmental aspects: Is wood usable to build within a high-dense urban architecture? Social aspects: Can the qualities of the horizontal neighborhood be transformed into a high-density architecture? And Can living, leisure, work, community, social equity, and responsibilities be conducted within the framework of a high-dense urban environment? Economic aspect: Can flexible and mixed-use architecture assure a future in which the current needs can evolve and adapt to future needs and ways of living?
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2.3 Working method The focus is to design a sustainable building where technical factors, as well as social qualities, are prioritized and impact the aesthetics of the building without compromising the architectural qualities. The design will go through an iterative process of evidence-based research, theories and analyses of the topic Wooden High-Rise. The project is developed with a focus on working with IDP, Integrated Design Process, a method by MaryAnn Knudstrup. (Hansen, H. T. R., & Knudstrup, M-A. 2005) To asure a process of moving back and forth between iterations, a working document have been developed. Chapter 12 ideation, describes the design process in a shorter and simplified manner to ensure a presentable and understandable section for the reader. It is important to state that the process in this master thesis has been undergoing several iterations, where the question of ‘what the material could do’ and ‘what the building could do’ have been asked moving from one iteration to another, while also moving back and forth in the development of the project.
PROBLEM / IDEA
ANALYSIS
SKETCHING
SYNTHESIS
PRESENTATION
Ill. 2.3 Integrated Design Process.
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2.4 Theory and method of Le Corbusier The theory and methods behind Le Corbusier and his perception of creating architecture are to be found in an interplay between the engineer and the architect. The harmony appears in the poetics of mathematics created by the engineer, and the form that affects our senses created by the architect. He continues, in his book; ‘Towards a New Architecture’, to describes three reminders to all architects; (1) Mass, (2) Surface and (3) Plan. (Le Corbusier and Etchells, 1965) He ‘claims that the building is first and foremost a construction and only later an abstract discourse based on surface, volume and plan’. (Frampton, 1996. p. 2) Villa Savoye is an example of a piece where the engineering work shapes the foundation of the architectural expression. By lifting the building over its pillars and designing a free flexible plan and facade, the horizontal windows band can appear and as well as an exceptional possibility to work with a programme that shifts at every floor. He also explains the importance of giving back, what is taken on the footprint of the building, hereby integrating gardens on the roof of buildings. Corbusier created a space not only for living but also sensing through the simplest shape of the architecture (Sbriglio, 2008)
Corbusier introduced his thoughts on living in a high-dense architecture, on a small footprint, with untouched greenery surrounding, in “La Ville radieuse” from 1935. He describes it like: “Here are ‘artificial sites’, vertical garden cities. Everything has been gathered here: space, sun, view; means of immediate communication, both vertical and horizontal; (...). The architectural aspect is stunning! The most absolute diversity, within unity. Every architect will build his villa as he likes; what does it matter to the whole if a Moorish-style villa flanks another in Louis XVIth or in Italian Renaissance? (...) The artificial lots are created first: highway + flooring of the substructure. And these sites are put up for sale as villas with a garden and limitless view.” (Schittich, 2004, p. 13-14)
Another work of Corbusier’s Unite d’Habitation, an example of high-dense architecture with integrated work, leisure and living in one building. He designed the building as a multi-family residential housing project with a focus on communal living. He wanted to bring the villa into a larger volume where each apartment had an outdoor space, and the common spaces were for eating, shopping, playing, exercising and gatherings. (Sbriglio, 2004)
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CHAPTER 03
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS Environmental aspects: Is wood usable to build within a high-dense urban architecture?
content index 3.1 Definition
12
3.2 Climate aspect
14
3.3 Wood for construction
15
Insulations properties Lightweight and strong Fire Moisture Acoustics
3.4 Case studies Wooden skyscraper - C.F. Møller The Mjøsa Tower - Voll Architects
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17
3.1 Defintion DGNB official definition of environmental sustainability state the importance of both the global and local environment. It evaluates the energy efficiency, resources of the area, renewable energy and a reduction in the impact of biodiversity. (Guide til DGNB for bygninger, 2017)
Page 12
Ill. 3.2 Carbon emission comparison.
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3.2 Climate aspect As the 21st century unfolds, architecture stands at a crossroad. The last 200 years the CO2 pollution in the air have been rising dramatically and is now exceeding a concentrate beyond 400 ppm, which have not been seen on earth for millions of years. This indicates that we need to find alternatives to the ongoing pollution. (Green and Taggart, 2017 p. 8.) The building industry is currently contributing with 40% of the carbon dioxide, CO2, released into our atmosphere and is, therefore, a real threat to the environment in which we live. (Beyer, 2012) The materials we use for construction, mainly concrete and steel, both have a significant effect on the environment in several phases of their life cycle. Life Cycle Assessment, LCA, can be used to measure the impact of the building in regards to materials, construction, use, and demolition by measuring the embodied energy, released emissions and resource consumption. (Beyer, 2012) In comparison concrete posses 12.5 MJ/kg embodied energy, steel 10,5 MJ/kg, and wood 2 MJ/kg. (Hsu, 2010) In a multi-story building, studies show that wood reduces the emissions of CO2 by approximately half compared to concrete. (Swedish Wood, 2018) Wood has the advantages of growing partially from the pollution in the air and storing it while growing, functioning as a carbon bank, and when demolished, it will root and leave the carbon bound to the earth for other plants to obtain it. Whereas concrete and steel use large amounts of energy that are never given back to the environment. (Green and Taggart, 2017)
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3.3 Wood for construction Wood often referred to as timber in the building industry, is a versatile material. It is often used for furniture, interior, windows, doors, outdoor decking as well as a construction material. The most known in a Danish context is spruce, Picea abies, and pine, Pinus sylvestris. These are available in most Scandinavian and European countries. (Swedish Wood, 2018) As a construction material wood is often referred to as Glue Laminated Timber, glulam, and Cross Laminated Timber, CLT. Glulam is a flexible material formed with several timber strips that are glued together to improve the strength of the material. Creating both glulam pillars and beams variating in dimensions is possible. (Lilleheden.co.uk, 2018) CLT is massive wood elements suitable for internal and external walls, ceilings and roofs. One substantial advantage of using CLT in construction is that the element is precut and easy to manage on a construction site. (Buildingandliving. storaenso.com, 2018)
Insulation properties Wood is a natural thermal insulator due to the millions of tiny air pockets within its cellular structure. Softwood consists of half the thermal insulating ability of a similar thickness of fiberglass batt insulation. Since wood possesses great thermal performance compared to other often used structural materials, it helps to minimize thermal bridges. Furthermore, wood does not transfer cold and heat as fast as many other materials, such as steel and concrete, and therefore the material would not feel cold with direct contact. (Cwc.ca, 2018)
Ill. 3.3.1
Lightweight and strong Wood has great potential as a building material for both structural and loadbearing properties. Different species of wood equals different strength abilities. Some species can tolerate more water, some functions as better insulation, and others have natural pest control among others. Common for wood is a high structural strength compared to the low weight of the elements. Different wood species can be mixed in a structural system to achieve the most optimal overall construction. (Cwc.ca, 2018) On construction site wood is a much better material for workers to handle. It helps to create a better environment on site, and it is with its lightness easy to assemble and make final adjustments onto. Time can be saved as the construction is less demanding. (TrĂŚ.dk, 2018, a)
Ill. 3.3.2
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Fire The biggest concern when building with wood is fire as it is a burnable material. A large wooden beam is extremely hard to ignite, and when ignited it burns slow and predictable. Large wooden beams have the advantages of the mass and the moisture content as these factors slow down the fire. It will take fire around 1 hour to burn 40mm into a solid wooden beam which varies compared to the type of wood. When burning, moisture from the wood will move to where the fire is, slowing it down. Also, the fire needs oxygen, which will be limited the longer into the wood it burns. (Green and Taggart, 2017 p.42) Studies have been made by Sweco, in association with building Mjøsa Tower in Norway, the highest wooden building currently constructed. Testings show that a pillar of 405x460 mm burns 50 mm in 95 minutes. The studies show that the fire stops on its own after 70 mm, and according to the report, there is no need for active fire extinguishing. (Limtreforeningen.no, 2018)
Moisture Wood is hygroscopic material, which means it absorbs water. The moisture content in wood is generally between 8-25%, depending on the relative humidity of the air. When the moisture content exceeds 20% for more extended periods of time, wood will start to mold in incidents of relative humidity above 80%. Relative humidity above 70% can be critical, and above 90% the wood will begin to rot. The fungus will not lower the strength, as the fungus only will be on the surface and not profoundly penetrated into the wood. (Wood Products, 2018) As wood dries the strength properties improve, and it is, therefore, essential to take aspects as moisture and relative humidity into consideration. The compression and bending strength are at it are best from 12-15% where the tensile strength is most excellent at 6-12%. (Wood Products, 2018) If wood exceeds its fiber saturation point, which can be between 25-35%, it will start to lose strength, for every 1% it exceeds it will lose up to 3% in strength. If the moisture content drops, it will recover the original strength again. (TrĂŚ.dk, 2018, b)
Acoustics The acoustic ability of wood can be a challenge as it is a light material. One benefit, compared to other materials, is that the air pockets within the material can help to reduce sound and therefore improve the air quality. (Cwc.ca, 2018) In multi-story buildings sound absorption in walls and floors is necessary, to reduce the impact of airborne sound - this can be done through the usage of fiberglass or mineral fiber in the construction. (Green and Taggart, 2017 p. 43) As an interior material wood contributes to a better indoor environment. The surface can reflect, scatter and absorb sound. The acoustic properties of scattering sound, spreading sound, in comparison to concrete is less noisy and therefore historically often used in housing. (Naturallywood.com, 2018)
Ill. 3.3.5
Ill. 3.3.3 Ill. 3.3.4
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3.4 Case studies Project name: Wooden skyscraper Architect: C.F. Møller Category: Housing Location: Stockholm, Sweden Year: 2023 Height: 34 floors, approx. 136 meters The project is a hybrid of a concrete core with wooden construction. The structural system is beams and pillars made of solid wood, and inside the apartments ceilings, floors and walls are made of wood as well. The minimalistic approach and choice of working with only three materials, the third being glass, is smart as the materials and their tactility promote the atmosphere of living in a wooden building. Both are associating it with a sustainable solution but also ensuring a good indoor climate both regarding acoustics but also, its ability of self-regulating temperatures. (C.F. Møller, 2018) Social and environmental sustainability has been the two driving forces in this project. Working with an energy-saving glass-covered veranda, the facade is promoting another approach in architecture. This way of introducing a new typology in high-density housing, where each apartment has a veranda outside all windows, is interesting as it brings down the scale and the promote direct contract to outdoor spaces - one often missing in high-rise buildings. They also introduce flexibility by using beams and pillars to create an open plan, where it is possible to re-arrange walls on each floor to adapt its users over time. (C.F. Møller, 2018)
Ill. 3.4.1 Sketch of C.F Møllers Wooden Skyscraper.
Ill. 3.4.2 Sketch of the plansolution.
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3.4 Case studies Project name: The Mjøsa Tower Architect: Voll Architects Category: Housing Location: Brumunddal, Norway Year: 2019 Height: 18 floors, 81 meters The building will be world tallest building made entirely of wood only with steel in connections. The 11,300 square meter building includes apartments, hotel, offices, restaurants, and common rooms, besides, a 4,700 square meter large swimming hall. Construction has already begun and expected to be done in 2019.
Ill. 3.4.3 Sketch of Mjøsa Tower.
The building will be made entirely of wood even the elevator shaft will also be in CLT. The construction will be made on the ground and hoisted up in place. There have been done several tests on different parameters for the building and published that can benefit wood build enthusiasts. One of the tests shows that large glulam columns will selfextinguish in case of fire and prevent the building from collapsing. Which is also mentioned on the previous page in chapter 3.3, Wooden Construction, Fire. (Moelven.com, 2018)
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CHAPTER 04
SOCIAL ANALYSIS Social aspects: Can the qualities of the horizontal neighborhood be transformed into a high-density architecture? And Can living, leisure, work, community, social equity, and responsibilities be conducted within the framework of a high-dense urban environment?
content index 4.1 Definition
20
4.2 Neighborhood / Baugruppen
21
4.3 High-density housing
22
4.4 Case studies
23
Townhouses in the sky - Santiago Calatrava TinggĂĽrden - Vandkunsten
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4.1 Defintion DGNB official definition of social sustainability evolves around user satisfaction and liveability. Factors as indoor environment, availability, safety, health, comfort, function and aesthetics define the social aspect. (Guide til DGNB for bygninger, 2017)
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4.2 Neighborhood / Baugruppen Throughout life’s journey, we have all lived in a neighborhood. Whether we are a part of it or not, whether it is big or small, high or low, it exists everywhere we go. Shared existence has to be designed sensibly as our home is our ‘haven’. Socialising in ‘greenscapes’ and ‘streetscapes’ are less of a ‘haven’ and can often fulfill requirements of the few instead of the majority, and thereby decrease the responsibility of these spaces. (Nelson, 2018) Designing a neighborhood with joint visions, coliving, and collaborative housing is the most sustainable and safe form of neighborhoods. Baugruppen, building groups, is a selfinitiated community-oriented concept of co-living where responsibility is shared. Initially from Berlin, where urban pioneers started to fill out empty voids in the city, providing them with a programme of co-ops such as co-living and co-working. The motivation behind the initiative was lack of alternative solutions and freedom in the environment in which they live. (Kristien Ring, 2013 p. 10-13.) Baugruppen is created through a planning process of partners invested in the project and has the mentality of ‘people over profits’. (Eliason, 2018, b) Often an architect is hired, if there is no architect in the building group. The process is cost-effective concerning inhabitant having the possibility to tailor the specific needs together with the communal spaces, by creating just the neighborhood and community they wish to create. Opposite to this the developer projects fine-tuning of projects often are directed towards the most common user, therefore lacking identity in large developer projects. (Eliason, 2018, a)
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Ill. 4.2 Sketch of neighborhood.
4.3 High-density housing High-density housing is described by housing blocks that consist of higher population density than average. It often remains anonymous because the future users rarely are known.
Ill. 4.3 Sketch of high-density housing.
Urban development and planning of cities set demands for alternative ways of creating high-density housing. Configurations were social groups, and apartments respond to the changes in society, can answer to the current urbanization. There seems to be a need for newly developed apartments, which fit changing in life circumstances. If the building itself is tailored to the inhabitants, the identity is created by them and their individual needs. The floor plan must, for this to happen, be able to adapt over time to shifting needs and contemporary lifestyles. (Schittich, 2004) High-density housing began in 1950’s with Bellahøj in Copenhagen. The two architects designed Bellahøj with the vision of Le Corbusier; living in a highrise in the city with untouched greenery surrounding.
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4.4 Case studies Project name: Townhouses in the sky Architect: Santiago Calatrava Category: Housing Location: Manhattan, New York Year: 2007 Number of units: 12 homes Townhouses in the sky by Calatrava is a conceptual project designed by Santiago Calatrava. It consists of twelve glazed cubes of four stories each, all attached to a vertical concrete core. The tower is 300 meters high and designed as luxury homes. The design of the spaces are conceptual as well, but the townhouse feeling of having double height rooms, designed according to current needs, and the possibility to walk outside on the terrasse are key design features. (Nycarchitecture.com, 2018)
Ill. 4.4.1 Handsketch of �Townhouses of in the sky�
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4.4 Case studies Project name: Tinggaarden Architect: Vandkunsten Category: Housing Location: Herfølge, Denmark Year: 1971 - 1978 Number of units: 78 homes, one community house, six family units with a common house Tinggaarden emerged from a competition held in 1971 by the Danish Building Research Institute, SBI, for an alternative housing form of flexible architecture at eye level as a contrast to high-rise as well as suburban singlefamily-house developments. It is a low-rise, high-density architecture with a focus on the local community. One of the primary focus was to give the residents influence in the designing of the architecture, their lives, and homes. The construction allows change over time, where added rooms in between apartments are possible. The average floor area is 78 square meters per home where 10% accounted for the shared space. The planning consisted of six family clusters with 13 family homes and one common building for each cluster - used for shared meals and other activities - together with one common larger hall for all residents. The homes have both direct access and a short distance to the common house, squares and gathering places. On the opposite side of the homes, the landscape create a calmer and more private atmosphere. (Vandkunsten.com, 2018)
Ill. 4.4.2 Images of TinggĂĽrden. Credits: Tegnestuen Vandkunsten.
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CHAPTER 05
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Economic aspect: Can flexible and mixed-use architecture assure a future in which the current needs can evolve and adapt to future needs and ways of living?
content index 5.1 Definition
26
5.2 Flexible architecture
27
5.3 Case studies
28
880-860 Lake Shore Drive - Mies Van Der Rohe
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5.1 Defintion DGNB official definition of economic sustainability is evaluated on LCA/ LCC, stability and its potential for economic development and robustness. The purpose is to optimize the value of the building by optimizing the flexibility and adaptability. (Guide til DGNB for bygninger, 2017)
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5.2 Flexible architecture We, as humans, are flexible and dynamic - the architecture should be too. Creating flexible architecture where a shift in lifestyles and life situations can adapt and extend the lifetime in which we live in our homes. Society is created from the knowledge and reliability we have towards each other - which is developed over time. Sustainable development where shared values and responsibilities can be traced back to the architectural qualities in which we as dynamic creatures and modify our circumstances in which we live. To ensure a robust high-dense architecture, the structural elements have to be as flexible as possible, so different programmes can appear on all floors, as social conditions are changing over time. When mentioning flexible architecture, it is essential to state the importance of sensitivity. Creating spaces that could change programme or size. A working space, could turn into a bedroom and then into a reading room. (Schittich, 2004. P. 11)
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5.3 Case Study Project name: Lake Shore Drive Architect: Mies Van Der Rohe Category: Housing Location: Chicago Year: 1949-51 Number of units: 238
Ill. 5.3.1 Sketch of Lake Shore Drive 880.
Some of the most iconic high-rises, are the 880-860 Lake shore drive by Mies Van Der Rohe. He designed 26 stories overlocking a beautiful waterfront view in Chicago. The design is simple and consists of an internal bearing structure of pillars and slabs in between. What, from a distance, looks like a curtain wall is a prefabricated grid of painted steel plates and i-sections that are afterward infilled with aluminum windows. (Ctbuh.org, 2018) The ground floor is beautifully constructed - the pillars continue to the ground as the floors stop on the first floor. Making an ordinarily tall and heavy building look light as only the pillars carry it. Both buildings have light glass boxes underneath the buildings that support the expression of a light bottom floor.
Ill. 5.3.1 Plan, apartments.
8
The focus for Mies was to design a residence with floor to ceiling windows and airy spaces. The apartments could easily change over time, as the floor plan layout is independent of the bearing construction. (860880lakeshoredrive. com, 2018) Through illustration 5.3.23 the different combinations show the flexibility in the plan layout.
Ill. 5.3.1 Plan, 4 apartments.
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CHAPTER 06
PARTIAL CONCLUSION
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Using the theory and methods from Le Corbusier described earlier in the report, chapter 2.4, together with knowledge gained through the analysis of the ‘three dimensions of sustainability’. We have defined sustainability, for this project, as care for earth, care for people and care for economy. Care for the earth Through studies of Mjøsa tower and ‘Tall Wooden Buildings’ by Michael Green, wood seems suitable to build high-rises. Further calculations should be made, to ensure that the final design archive the same stability and safety as the ones investigated. However, from the analysis, it is clear that the most sustainable material to build tall with is wood.
These questions should help to create a community with a focus on liveability, social support, and social responsibilities. Care for economy Studies of an open plan solution show good flexible opportunities, which will allow the program to change over time. This will lower the cost for changes during the lifetime of the building. The flexibilities offer users to adapt individually and as a community, and offer possibilities to share common facilities. Sharing facilities can be implemented both for the building users and for the nearby community.
Implementing passive strategies and creating a building that is not only of wood but has more sustainable solutions should be attempted in the design process. C.F. Møller’s skyscraper has a glass-covered veranda that allows for outdoor terraces, which improve the living qualities for the inhabitant but is also helps to save energy in the building. Care for people Through studies of the traditional neighborhood, high-density housing and case studies of Calatrava’s ‘Townhouses in the sky’ and ‘Tinggården’ by Vandkunsten, we ask:
Ill. 6.1
Could the ideas from Tinggården and Baugruppen, joint visions, social responsibility, and care for each other help to shape a new dense housing typology? Would it be possible to realize the visions of Calatrava of having a townhouse in the sky?
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CHAPTER 07
CONTEXT
content index 7.1 Copenhagen
32
Urban Tendency
7.2 Nordhavn
33
History Vision of Nordhavn
7.3 Ă…rhusgadekvarteret
34
7.4 Climate conditions
35
Wind Sun Humidity / precipitation Noise Arrival to site / parking
7.5 A Sense of Place
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37
7.1 Copenhagen Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, has several climate and environment goals, one is to be CO2-neutral by 2025 together with being the first carbon neutral capital in the world. (KK.dk, 2017, a) The focus is on the energy consumption, energy production, and green mobility. Copenhagen is leading the way for promoting bikes and public transport, and have for the second year in a row in 2017 taking the price for being world’s best bicycle city, in their campaign of reducing cars on the street. (KK.dk, 2017, b) Ill. 7.1 Satellite photo of Denmark, Copenhagen .
Urban tendency The tendency in Nordic countries is that the population move towards larger cities. Since 1995 Copenhagen have faced a growth of 28% - it is expected that the growth continues. Copenhagen is a city of younger people, and it has the lowest average age of 35,9 years in all of Denmark. (KK.dk, 2017, a) Apartments in Copenhagen have become an item that is either hard to find or hard to pay. As square meters prices are rising and the population is growing, developers are building intensively both social housing as well as student housing.
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7.2 Nordhavn As Nordhavn is a newly developed area it has a high possibility to meet requirements of the today - both regarding urban planning but especially architecture. It is possible to create sustainable architecture that stands out and serves it functions to the best ability while fulfilling the need of dwellings in all sizes for different user groups. History The inner part of Nordhavn was established in the late 1800s when other major areas of Copenhagen harbor was filled up, to accommodate space requirements from a growing harbor industry and an increase of shipping. The area has grown the past 150 years through refills, and by the middle of the 19th century, many small local ports appeared along the coast of Nordhavn. The primary operation still took place within, Toldbodbommen, the first harbor of Copenhagen, but the harbor grew northward and established the areas that are now being developed. (Nordhavn.dk, 2018, a) In the years 1891-1894 the first stage of, Frihavnen, was established. The location of the Frihavnen was motivated by the German decision to establish a channel between Kiel and Elben. The Kiel Canal would connect Hamburg with the Baltic Sea, thus making Hamburg a severe competitor to Copenhagen in facilitating the Baltic Sea’s transit trade. The idea of Frihavnen was that, in particular, transit traffic could be maintained in the intensified competition because the goods should not be cleared as long as they remained in the Frihavn area. At the same time, the harbor was equipped with modern buildings, cranes, etc. (Nordhavn.dk, 2018, a)
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Vision of Nordhavn Nordhavn will, as a new district in Copenhagen, set standards for environmental, social and sustainable development - both architecturally but also regarding urban planning. The entire area will house 40.000 inhabitants as well as new working facilities. The vision for the area is to create a sustainable city, which strengthens the identity of Copenhagen. This calls for new measures in the creation of architecture, where innovative solutions as well as an integration of renewable energy, among others, will contribute to making this a pioneer city for sustainable urban development and sustainable architecture. (Nordhavn.dk, 2018, b) Creating a sustainable city call for variety in dwellings, as well as an integration of mixed functions in the architecture. This, mixed user group, will enhance life on the street, waterfront and in the buildings at different times a day. The development will transform on a period of 30-50 years, and the first part of the development is starting in Ă…rhusgadekvarteret.
Ill. 7.2 Nordhavn, 2017
7.3 Århusgadekvarteret Århusgadekvarterets character is based on a strong identity of the area and its history. The planning of the urban spaces, the unique architecture and the location with its qualities create a district with strong contrasts and uniqueness. New meets Old. Small meets Big. Closed meets Open. The refined meets the robust. The City meets the Water. (Nordhavnen.dk, 2018, c) Ill. 7.3 Århusgadekvarteret.
The raw character of the harbor, with its rugged materials and constructions, are a supplement to the refined details as well as materials. The way the harbor meets new aesthetics is continued in the creation of robust and refined architecture and city planning. The buildings create diversity as the scale and expression of these will vary throughout the district. Materials in the area are inspired by the harbor’s tradition and are therefore mainly concrete, asphalt, brick, wood, and steel. (Nordhavnen.dk, 2018, c) There will be both transformation of the old industrial buildings and an introduction to new buildings - some are icon buildings that stand out other will be more toned down fulfilling their function to their best ability. This will contribute to a district with its unique character. The focus is to create a dense city with mostly 5-6 story buildings with some iconic projects, such as high-rises. This will put Nordhavn on the city map and into the modest skyline of Copenhagen as a city. It is expected that the area will contribute with 3000 inhabitants and 7000 working facilities. (Nordhavnen. dk, 2018, c)
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7.4 Climate Conditions
Ill. 7.4.1
Ill. 7.4.2
Ill. 7.4.3
Wind
Sun
Humidity/precipitation
The Dominant wind is coming from West-Southwest, with an average speed of 8-10 m/s, This is equivalent to a fresh breeze, which makes small trees sway a little. These measurements will probably be higher when we are moving vertically further away from the ground and will, therefore, have a higher impact, the higher the building is.
Sun is a significant factor for the Nordic building design. The sun can contribute with light and energy, and the energy can both be used as heating and electricity. The surrounding architecture will in some cases shade as Nordhavn is a dense district.
Notable is the Humidity, especially since we are planning to do a wooden building. Almost half of the year the outside humidity exceed 80% which could be too much for wooden construction.
Vegetation can be used to absorb the energy from the wind and therefore slow it down, while an unmoving structure will act as a blockade and force the wind to travel other directions, this can force the wind to a higher speed or even make turbulence.
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In the summer the sun will stand high and offer good sun, while in the winter there can be some trouble with large shadows from the surrounding buildings. Even with the shadows, there is good potential for using the energy from the sun, this could be an advantage during the winter to heat up the building, but it could also mean that there is a need for integrating strategies during the summer to lower a large amount of heat the direct sunlight will affect the building.
The site is not in danger from flood even to the ground have a high fortification level. Due to it is located near the water and therefore the rain is easily lead away from the site.
Ill. 7.4.5
Ill. 7.4.6
Noise
Arrival to site/parking
The site has a relatively low noise affection doing to it is placed in Copenhagen. The site is located near a more extensive road but is screened from it by other buildings, and therefore are not affected by it. The roads around the site are smaller and only leads to a few housing units and apartment blocks. Furthermore, there is parking on the other side of the road, and it is planned to make it to a park, this could further reduce the noise level due to the fewer cars passing the site. So the noise is rated below 55 dB. In the plans for the area, there should be made bike parking on each building plot, to support and promote biking and public transportation.
The site is accessible from Kalkbranderisgade which is a major road, with much traffic, from there, two roads to enter Ă…rhusgade which the plot is located on. In the surroundings, there are many parking lots, some of which will later be removed and replaced with a park. There is a big parking house close to the site, and two more will come to supply the area with the necessary parking lots. When the area is finished, you will always be within 200 meters of a parking house. A new metro station is under construction 350 meters from the site and will together with the bus service offers excellent public transport to the whole city. The metro offers fast transport to the whole city when it is finished since many new stations are under construction. Besides, the site will be close to a new water bus that will sail around in the channels around Nordhavnen.
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7.5 Sense of place This architecture is a mix of old historical buildings, as well as the new experimental building that holds many unique details. The red brick houses have lots of personality and characterize the area. Wooden constructions appearing on the heavy brick buildings, create possibilities for apartments with outdoor terraces, adding a modern and current architectural expression to the old buildings. The area is clearly new in its transformation, and even though it still is a construction site, small businesses are getting comfortable in their office spaces. The high-rise buildings in the area are contributing to a sense of individualism, and they stand out in comparison to the old as well as the new red brick buildings. ‘Frihavnstårnet’ stands out with its white concrete pillars that create a scaffolding expression to the east, south and west facade. ‘The Silo’ has clear reference to the industrial programme of the area, and it mainly consists of concrete and steel. Glossy perforated steel balconies define the very iconic facade. ‘Portland towers’ is, together with the silo, an explicit reference to the old harbor industry of the area, as it stands in its purest form for 24 meters before the add-on office spaces. Moving through the area on a cold day in February, small shops are starting to open as the light hits the street combined with the smell of coffee, as the doors open to the warm coffee/open office space. The open floor plan with glass boxes for meetings, tables for working and lounge furniture for relaxing has a unique atmosphere. The barista makes us a coffee as we sit and watch at Nordhavn through the large windows in the facade - currently, a large pool of frozen water, creating an ice rink, soon to be an urban space with our wooden high-rise.
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Along the waterfront activities as kayak, bathing facilities and cafes with outdoor dining are mixed with apartments and their garden and terraces. It is clear that the city planning of the area has had a focus on creating a city that is both interesting as you move through it, not only because of the flow but also due to the active facades that dominate the city in eye-level. This mixed programme of living and services help to create a safe environment as these functions often are used at different times of the day. The infrastructure is highly efficient in the area, people and bikes dominate the streets. Not a lot cars are parked on the streets in the area, and the parking house, Konditaget Lüders, is not just an inefficient building with cars. It holds a playground on the roof that adds value to the area as it is both a playground and fitness with one of the most beautiful views of Copenhagen city and the harbor.
Ill. 7.5 Photos from Nordhavn.
The Silo.
The Silo and Frihavnstårnet.
Portland towers.
Frihavnstårnet.
Konditaget Lüders
Skyline of Nordhavn.
Wooden addition.
Kronløbshuset .
Wooden bench and bicycle rack.
Detailing of gutter.
Meeting of different Brick materialities.
Red Brick.
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CHAPTER 08
PROGRAMME
content index 8.1 Introduction
40
8.2 User profile
41
8.3 Building Programme
42
8.4 One building group
43
Temperature Daylight CO2-level Relative Humidity Air Change
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8.1 Introduction The following chapter introduces the programme created from knowledge gained in the analysis of both context, environmental-, social- and economic aspects of sustainability. The programme will introduce users and building programme.
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8.2 User profile Today there is officially 37 different family types in Denmark. (Infogram. com, 2018) The most common family form is still mom, dad, and kids, but there are many other combinations than the traditional one. According to Municipality of Copenhagen, 25% of the population is between 20-29 years, and 18% is 30-39 years (Ill. 8.2.2). This number is the highest in comparison to the rest of Denmark, and from this knowledge, the younger segment of families is chosen as the primary segment to design for. (KK.dk, 2018, c) Building groups also referred to as baugruppen in chapter 4.2, is a great concept in which families and younger couples can join together with shared visions and create a home and space where safety and trust in neighbors are highly prioritized. In a high-dense urban environment, it would be possible to implement theories from baugruppen where inhabitants design their space. There is more of a tendency of wanting to share more but still having its private sphere. The typical apartment often relies on arrangements of living space, kitchen, bathroom/restroom, extra room for children or office space. Beside these functions there are tendencies, in smaller communities such as TinggĂĽrden by Vandkunsten, described in chapter 4.4, to share common areas with neighbors while owning your own private house.
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Ill. 8.2.1 User groups.
Ill. 8.2.2 Statics.
8.3 Building programme
SEMI-PRIVATE. Recreational social area for the inhabitants of the building / technical room.
The focus is to design a high-rise that contributes and adapt to its surroundings with a particular focus on social sustainability. The apartments will vary depending on the building groups and their individual need for space, but the span presented in this report will be between 90-135 m2. The span of apartment types is created with inspiration in a competition folder from the area (By og Havn, 2016). The area is exclusive and modern which opens the possibility of creating a unique selection of apartment typologies. Nordhavn is defined by having active facades in the streets eye level, whether it is living spaces, exhibition spaces or dining. These contribute to a safer environment amongst the people living in the area. It is essential, as the chosen site for this assignment is located centrally in Nordhavn, to create a space where functions and services that serve all inhabitants in Nordhavn. The programme is based on a mapping analysis and a brainstorm of possible functions in the area, both documented and further described in Appendix.
PRIVATE. Apartments. three floor segments of buildings groups. Each group have an outdoor space protected by a double facade.
SEMI-PUBLIC. Workshop area. PUBLIC. Entrance, package delivery, bike parking/ workshop.
It is illustrated in 8.3.1. how the building is divided into segments of three floors all connected through the elevator core. These segments are designed as small communities where different building groups designing and manage their space.
PRIVATE. Basement, Technical room.
Ill. 8.3.1 Building programme.
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8.4 One building group Designing dwellings in Denmark, you have to fulfill the requirements made by the Danish Building Regulations. In this project, it is desired to challenge some of these requirements while still fulfilling the requirements for obtaining good living conditions. Firstly it is essential to describe what type of living environment that is created in this high-dense urban environment. As shown in illustration 8.4.1 the building consists of three zones - apartments, core for installations and elevator and the outdoor area enclosed by a glass facade. Temperature Working with outdoor space in combination with a high-dense urban environment creates a new set of rules that are difficult to find within the Danish Building Regulations. It is essential to fulfilling the rights of the inhabitants to design a space in which the temperatures are comfortable for the programme of the space depending on the activity level and the cloth you typically wear in the zone. Daylight According to the Building Regulations 2018, living rooms and kitchen must have access to daylight. This should be documented by having glass area without any shadow corresponding to 10% of the floor area. (Bygningsreglementet.dk - ยง 379, 2018) The method for documenting daylight is in this project VELUX Daylight Visualizer. (Velux.com, 2018) According to the Building Regulation 2015, a daylight factor of at least 2% in half of the room, kitchen and living rooms, is acceptable. Since VELUX Daylight Visualizer is calculating the daylight factor, this is the guidelines chosen to work towards. (Historisk. bygningsreglementet.dk, 2018)
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CO2-level The level of CO2 is decided to be between 600-700 ppm in the apartments, and the atrium should match with the outdoor air quality, CO2 level, of 350400 ppm. (Engineeringtoolbox.com, 2018, a) To fulfill the requirements of building class A, the indoor air quality has to be no more than 700 ppm. (Exhausto.dk, 2018) According to the BR18 regulations, the indoor climate should be documented on a calculation based on the Design Reference Year, DRY 2013. (Bygningsreglementet.dk.dk - ยง 386, 2018) Relative humidity The relative humidity should be from 30-65 to achieve the best possible indoor living conditions. During winter it most frequently will be in the low end and opposite from this in the higher end during summer. (Schmeichel, K. 2018) As wood will be the dominating material, it is essential to be aware of the relative humidity, and additionally, as this design is challenging the indoor and outdoor zones, humidity is another critical factor to explore. Air Change In living spaces, there must always be an outdoor supply of at least 0.30 l/s per m2 heated floor area. The ventilation system inlet should be in the living rooms, and the extraction in the bath, toilet rooms, kitchen and utility room - the ventilation system must have heat recovery. Outside the heating season, natural ventilation through openings in the envelope can replace the mechanical ventilation inflow. In the kitchen, the extraction must be increased to at least 20 l/s. Bathroom with toilet it must be at least 15 l/s, and toilet room without bath, at least 10 l/s. (Bygningsreglementet.dk.dk - ยง 443, 2018)
There are no regulations concerning the air change in an outdoor space like this design presents, but it is essential to be aware of the possibility of the draft and to high wind forces. It is desired that natural ventilation can be the main driving force when ventilating the atrium.
APARTMENTS
OUTDOOR AREA, PROTECTED BY THE FACADE CORE
Ill. 8.4.1 One segment/building group.
APARTMENT
ATRIUM
HEATED
UNHEATED
22-24 째C
18-28 째C
20-22 째C
10-22 째C
Ill. 8.4.2 Indoor Environment.
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CHAPTER 09
PRESENTATION
content index 9.1 Concept
48
9.2 Masterplan
50
9.3 Elevation
51
9.4 Market square
58
9.5 Workshop spaces
60
9.6 Urban high-dense communities
62
Communities
9.7 Building groups and flexibility
63
9.8 Plan
67
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Facts Site Height Floors Heated floor area Energy balance DGNB
40 x 60 m 2400 m2 80 m 22 7066 m2 18 kW/m2 Gold
Use of wood Energy to produce Stored energy
3323 m3 130 ton CO2 2250 ton CO2
Comparison with concrete Energy to produce 1874 ton CO2
Ill. 9.1.1
Ill. 9.1.2.
9.1 Concept
Ill. 9.1.3 Concept.
The concept of this building is to use knowledge gained through the case studies presented previously in the report and create a vertical neighborhood. The high-rise will consist of small neighborhoods as we know them from the horizontal communities. These will be brought into the city and up towards the sky in a wooden highrise, where sustainable choices and social responsibilities are promoted.
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1. PARKING HOUSE. 7 FLOORS. 59 M. 2. THE SILO. 17 FLOORS. 62 M. 3. FRIHANVSTÃ…RNET. 14 FLOORS, 50 M. 4. PORTLAND TOWERS. 4-5 FLOORS, 59 M. 5. WOODEN HIGH-RISE. 22 FLOORS. 80 M.
2
3
1
5
4
Ill. 9.2.1 Masterplan 1:1000.
Ill. 9.2.2 Scale in area.
9.2 Masterplan Surrounding the site are greenscapes and streetscapes that help to define the space in which people are the priority. The scale in the area and how it develops towards portland towers, frihanvstĂĽnet and the silo support the scale of the wooden high-rise. As shown in illustration 9.2.2 the height difference travels from 2 floors to the 22 floors. The belt of high-rises is moving from 14 floors to 22 floors. Ill. 9.2.3 Handsketch of high-rise belt.
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Ill. 9.3.1. 1:500.
9.3 South elevation
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Ill. 9.3.2. 1:500.
9.3 East elevation
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Ill. 9.3.3. 1:500.
9.3 North elevation
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Ill. 9.3.4. 1:500.
9.3 West elevation
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Ill. 9.4.1.
1. MARKET SQUARE. 2. ENTRENCE. 3. WORKSHOP AREA. 4. BIKE PARKING AND WORKSHOP.
3
4 2
1
Ill. 9.4.2 Masterplan and plan 00 1:500.
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9.4 Market sqaure Nordhavn is a newly developed area, that is DGNB certified, it consists of many activities in the area to ensure mixed-use and activity in the street level. Dwellings are dominating the area and surrounding our site is shopping facilities, cafes and exhibition spaces. (See appendix 1 - mapping analysis of area) Therefore we designed a market square where small pub up businesses can sell fresh ecological groceries, fresh fish, and cheese. This helps enhance a robust social sphere where small farmers and fishers can sell out their fresh goods. This market would be active two-three days a week, and the rest of the time the square would be a large area that could be used for other purposes. The entrance is designed with room for the post delivery, both for packages and mail. The workshop area is for the inhabitants, where they can work on projects. It is designed as a wooden-workshop where furniture and other projects can be created while overlooking the market square. It is possible to open the facade, so the area transforms into an open space. The people of Copenhagen use bikes as the primary transportation, and it is therefore preferred that the bikes are parked inside in a safe environment. The pace is designed for 142 bikes, which is above the requirement of the local plan for the area. (See appendix 2 - calculation of bike parking) The space also has a small workshop area for fixing bikes.
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Ill. 9.5.1 Plan 01 1:200.
Ill. 9.5.2 Plan 02 1:200.
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9.5 Workshop spaces Floor 01 and 02 of the high-rise is designed as workshop areas. These can contribute to the inhabitant as a rental area for big events, a common room for art or be rental for organizations like ‘we work’. ‘WeWork’ is a global network of workspaces. They create a dynamic environment for creativity and focus. By designing a space with workstations for people of all profession, they embrace the community created by the users and provide them with the necessity. (wework.com)
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Ill. 9.6.1 Section 1:500.
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9.6 Urban high-dense communities
Ill. 9.6.2 Sketch illustrating the zones in the section.
Every dream of a home begins with the desire of individual happiness followed by the desire to expand, from one till two and maybe even from two to three or four. The home expands together with the family, and the need for space grows in correspondence to this. Often this does not include an apartment in the city, as a garden with a safe place for children to play or a lake in the backyard often fulfill the image of our lives as we move forward in life. This phenomenon is not significantly great for the city, as it needs a diversity of its inhabitants. (Schittich, 2004) Communities Typical townhouses typology defines the communities created in this highrise. The elevator core is horizontal neighborhoods are the spine of the project when you enter your road towards your home. The front yard is shared space with your neighbors, and space in between can be anything you want it to be. Whether you wish to have a playground for the children, an urban garden, a common dining room, etc. The common interest and life situation between the neighbors help to create this space see illustration on next page.
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9.7 Building groups and flexibility Flexibility allows possibilities for change over time, one very essential aspect of sustainable development. The focus has been to design a wooden structure where different volumes can be placed un-accordingly to each other. The Illustration to the right show three different possibilities in combination with the structural system. The townhouses can be designed according to the buildings groups and their individual need. Illustration 9.7.1 shows four different apartment types, all fitting into the space of the section of three floors. The structural system is illustrated in 9.7.2 which also will be the constellation a building group houses. The system is a free system where it is possible to programme it as the user desire - in here it is possible to create a small community with shared visions. Illustration 9.7.3-5 demonstrates three different constellations. Illustration 9.7.3 consist of volumes every 22 square meters placed in the section of three floors. The volumes create different levels of living spaces, with the possibility of switching between the indoor and outdoor space. This way of living is for the more alternative young inhabitant where moving in between levels is not a problem. In this constellation, several square meters are shared - such as a kitchen, couch room, bathroom, etc. Illustration 9.7.4 is an example of townhouses with different architectural shapes. One floor dragged in creates and outdoor terraces. This is most suitable for building groups of families where stair inside the apartment is not a problem either. This building group is
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the one we chose to develop into detail on the following pages. The last illustration 9.7.5 consist of the same typology and is more strict. This is appropriate for families as well as seniors. The segment could consist of 6 apartments, corridors in between and only one floor. This apartment type is incorporated into the plan solutions on the next pages.
Ill. 9.7.1. Example of different apartment types.
Ill. 9.7.2 Structural system.
Ill. 9.7.3.
Ill. 9.7.4.
Ill. 9.7.5.
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Ill. 9.7.6
Ill. 9.8.1 Plan 00 1:200.
9.8 Plans A narrative is written to explain the plan solutions and the atmosphere in the community. “You just picked Marie from the kindergarten; you hurry home as dinnertime approaches. With Marie in one hand and the goods in the other, you take the elevator to the 14th floor where you live. The first thing you meet when you step out is Simon hanging from the playhouse just in front of the elevator. Marie runs towards him while you enjoy the smell of Sara’s cooking. Sara looks out from her townhouse and yells: “Hello, had a nice day?”. You smile and nod while you move towards your townhouse. The first thing you do when you get in the
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door is to put groceries on the kitchen table and open the windows towards the atrium, so it is possible to hear Marie playing just outside. Now it is possible to relax and make dinner.
trees. The facade protects you from the wind that is still quite cold during the evening, and the sun heats the space, so it is possible to sit and eat without a jacket on.
Sara stops by to ask if you want to join her and two other families by the big table in the atrium for dinner. You already planned dinner and bought the groceries, so you will make your own and then join them. While talking to Sara, you remember that you forgot basil for the salat - she reminds you that the garden in the atrium has fresh basil and that it should be ready to pick about now.
Dinner becomes late night snack and maybe a glass of red wine, as Marie and Simon fall asleep on the net just above the dining table and you watch the sunset over Copenhagen with Sara, her family and the rest of the community.
Your wife will be home in an hour, dinner will be ready, and you sit with Sara, her family and two other families eating dinner in the atrium, underneath the two
Ill. 9.8.2 Plan 01 1:200.
Ill. 9.8.3 Plan 02 1:200.
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Ill. 9.8.4
CHAPTER 10
SUSTAINABLE INITIATIVES
content index 10.1 Introduction
72
10.2 Sustainable high-rise
73
10.3 Facade
75
10.4 Daylight
78
Transom light
10.5 Atrium
79
10.6 Indoor Environment
81
Temperature CO2 level Relative humidity Air Change
10.7 Energy Balance
85
Building envelope Double facade Solar panels Transmission loss
10.8 LCA
86
10.9 DGNB
87
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10.1 Introduction Throughout this sustainable chapter initiatives complete the project will be presented. This includes passive and active strategies, and documentation of the results through simulations and calculations.
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10.2 Sustainable high-rise “The principal design factors that are crucial for achieving a tall highperformance building are site context, environment, structure and use of materials, energy consumption, use of water, ecological balance, community development, etc.�(Global.ctbuh.org, 2018) Several of these factors can be met, by making active and passive solutions, these solutions can also improve the indoor quality. The diagram shows the strategies that are considered. Strategies like water harvest systems are left out since the roof area is small compared to the water consumption of the building, instead greywater systems can be implemented. In this way, high rise buildings face some other challenges than lower buildings. (Global.ctbuh.org, 2018) Solar cells have been implemented in the design, on the roof of the covered market square. The solar cells provide energy for the energy balance of the building, not the user consumption. Mechanical ventilation is implemented in the building to fulfill requirements of fresh air contribution to the indoor environment. As a high-rise require a great deal of inlet and exhaust air, we split the aggregate from each other - placing two on the roof and two in the basement. By dividing them, it is possible to exhaust air away from the users, to reduce potential discomfort. In the lower construction, it is possible to exhaust air through the columns, hereby minimizing the snow load during winter as the hot air will help to prevent longterm snow load. (Ill. 10.2.8)
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Hemenway (2015) state when designing sustainable, site and context has a significant factor. If the site is located close to the daily functions transport will be lowered, and public transport hereby increased. Sharing infrastructure is a goal for the area of Nordhavn, they wish to be the 5-minute city, where public transport is at a distance of 5 minutes. (Nordhavn.dk, 2018, d) High-rises have small footprints and are often compact buildings, and benefits are that it is possible to fit more people on a smaller area. Often a significant advantage in the cities that face urbanization. Creating a dynamic design with several testings in wind tunnels can help to reduce the wind loads and pressure that affect the building. It is also possible to use the energy that is generated around a high-rise through natural ventilation - this is often created through a doublelayered wall system. (Rwdimedia.com, 2018)
Ill. 10.2.1 Renewable sources.
Ill. 10.2.2 Natural ventilation.
Ill. 10.2.3 Solar cells.
Ill. 10.2.4 Solar Shading.
Ill. 10.2.5 Mechanical ventilation.
Ill. 10.2.6 Wind.
Ill. 10.2.7 Promoting biking.
Ill. 10.2.8 Exhaust Air on horizontal solar cells.
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10.3 Facade Challenging the way we usually design high-rises by creating a common area, that is unheated, in between apartments is explored in this project. This has created plenty of challenges but also new potential solutions for rethinking the concept of designing high-rises. Using knowledge of passive and active strategies and newly developed technologies it is possible to create an outdoor area with temperatures that are acceptable. Chapter 10.6 Indoor Environment will describe the simulations of the space into detail. The curtain wall glazing is constructed with a window that ventilates by using nature’s forces and act according to the season. (Ill. 10.3.1, 10.3.2) The system helps to avoid condensation and save energy while creating possibilities for a better indoor environment with a constant air flow of natural ventilation and full use of the solar gain.
During summer the window can selfcool. When the outdoor temperature is above 16 degrees, the bypass valve will open automatically and directs fresh outside air will flow into the building. The airflow between the windows is automatically be led outwards. This airflow control cools the windows and gives the ventilation window a distinctive self-cooling function.� (Ventilationvinduet.dk, 2018) By designing an intelligent facade the building will benefit during all seasons, and in incidences of overheating more than half of the facade will be openable. (ill. 10.3.3) As the building suffers from some overheating during the warmest days of the year, solar shading is implemented in the facade. The shades will be implemented in the window as blinds between the glazing.
The following section is a description from the distributor of the product: “During winter when the thermostatic valve at the top of the window detects that the outside air temperature is below 10 degrees, the valve automatically adjusts to deliver a weaker but constant preheated airflow. The colder air mixes with the indoor air comfortably. Measurements made by the Danish Technological Institute and Fraunhofer show that there is no more than 60 cm of the draft from the windows. During spring and fall where the outdoor temperatures are above 10 degrees, the valve automatically sets to provide optimum preheated airflow, which ensures that more substantial airflow compensates the higher humidity in the air.
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Ill. 10.3.1 Summer.
Ill. 10.3.2 Winter.
Ill. 10.3.3 Cutout of the facade.
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Ill. 10.4.1Daylight factor, level 02. Red line, 8%. Green line, 2%.
Ill. 10.4.2 Daylight factor, level 01. Red line, 8%. Green line, 2%.
Ill. 10.4.3 Daylight factor, level 00. Red line, 8%. Green line, 2%.
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10.4 Daylight Attention, in the field of Danish housing architecture, is mostly on designing great living rooms and kitchens and tendencies lean towards working with outdoor spaces. (Jensen, 2018).
Ill. 10.4.4
Ill. 10.4.5
Ill. 10.4.6
Ill. 10.4.7
Ill. 10.4.8
Ill. 10.4.9
Good daylight conditions help lower the need for artificial lights and help reduce the energy consumption, and it is, therefore, essential to ensure enough light into the building without the risk of overheating. The rooms with a need for higher daylight factor are designed facing towards space with the most daylight factor. Living rooms and kitchens are preferably towards the Atrium, as this is the gathering space of the community, but in conditions where the daylight performance is to low, the rooms are reorganized, so the living room and kitchens are facing directly outwards. Bedrooms have therefore strategically been placed towards the Atrium as these do not have the same requirements for daylight. Transom light To improve the daylight conditions and bring in more light, transom windows are further explored, shown in illustration 10.4.5-8. It is a historical phenomenon from Arts and Crafts and often seen in dutch architecture still today. It helps to admit more natural light to dark hallways and interior rooms, and can also help to circulate air when the doors are closed. (Bobvila.com, 2018)
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10.5 Atrium To promote social sustainability, a common area in the form of an outdoor atrium has been designed and will ad identity to the building, and its building groups, as the common element that travels from segment to segment. The atrium creates flexibilities to the users, and possibilities to form a stronger community with shared responsibilities. The outdoor atrium offers space for everyday activities in the form of a playground for the children, an urban garden, to provide fresh herbs year round due to the controlled temperature, or any other functions the community desire. This also provides a comfortable outdoor space in the winter sheltered from the chilling wind, where temperatures will be above 10 degrees in the daytime. The atrium will work as a connection of the apartments and offers free space, that can be developed into apartments if the community expands. Alternatively, enlarged if the community decides to share more functions and have less private spaces. The atrium act as an outer shell which creates a more stable environment for the apartments, and contributes to the indoor environment of the apartments and lowers the heating consumption. The Atrium will be self-regulating with the possibilities to manually overruled the system so the room will adapt to a particular event or short terms needs, where it will turn back and self-regulate again to ensure a comfortable, stable environment.
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Thermal Zone: 3rd Floor.
Systems: People Load. Infiltration. Ventilation. Eqipment. Heating. Mixing.
Thermal Zone: 2nd Floor. Thermal Zone: 1st Floor.
Thermal Zone: Atrium. Systems: People Load. Infiltration. Ventilation. Mixing.
Ill. 10.6.2. Input in BSim.
10.6 Indoor Environment
Ill. 10.6.1 One segment simulated in BSim.
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ATRIUM
The Atrium is another thermal zone, one that is unheated. Openings allow for one big thermal zone where air can circulate. It is simulated through BSim in winter
The most critical room to explore has been the atrium as it consists of primary glass and is considered to be an outdoor area.
CORE
The model is divided into four thermal zones, illustrated in 10.6.2. Three of the thermal zones are the apartments, these are divided into three to explore the difference of the indoor air quality and heating requirement which is lowered on the third floor in comparison to the first floor. To more detailed description of input into BSim see Appendix 3 BSim input and Appendix 4 - Apartment temperatures.
and summer periods as the windows have heat recovery that is used during the winter. The supply of air and heat recovery is calculated and found through testings. (Heiselberg, P, 2013.)
APARTMENTS
The indoor Environment is simulated through BSim, where the primary focus was to explore the temperatures, CO2 level, air change and relative humidity.
Temperature
Ill. 10.6.3 Atrium in August.
Ill. 10.6.4 Atrium in December.
The Danish Building Regulations consists of both requirements and instructions. According to the instructions, dwellings where it is a possibility to open windows and create ventilation, are often determined by documenting a calculation of the temperatures. The acceptable boundaries are 100 hours above 27 °C and 25 hours above 28 °C, calculated on a yearly basis. The instructions continue to explain that higher temperatures are accepted if it is possible to ventilate properly. The function of the room also plays a big role in deciding if the temperatures are acceptable. (Bygningsreglementet - § 385 - § 392, 2018) The temperatures in the apartments are stable and move in the specter of 20-24 °C, (appendix 3 Apartments temperatures). The graph illustrates the most critical days in the Atrium - highest and lowest temperature. The highest temperature is near 32 °C as the graph illustrates it is only a peak in the curve. Hours above 28 °C, on the 9th August, approximately 4. (Ill. 10.6.3) During these hours the air change is approximately 11 (/h) (Appendix 4 - Air Change on a critical day). Natural ventilation of the atrium will help to avoid several hours of overheating. As the atrium is primarily glass and unheated, months with low temperature will affect the area. Using the heat recovery from the windows (Heiselberg, P, 2013.), it is possible to create a simulation where heat recovery happens through ventilation. Results are that the temperatures stay above 10 °C, with 40 hours below only exceeding to 7 °C. (Appendix 5 - Yearly Average) The most critical day is illustrated in the graph. (Ill. 10.6.1.4)
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CO2 level The level of CO2 is decided to be between 600-700 ppm. The outdoor air quality, CO2 level, is 350-400 ppm. (Engineeringtoolbox.com, 2018, a) To fulfill the requirements of building class A, the indoor air quality has to be no more than 700 ppm. (Exhausto.dk, 2018) As shown in the graph the CO2 level is kept below 700 PPM and fulfills the requirements of building class A. (Ill. 10.6.5) Initiatives such as natural ventilation help to prevent a high concentration of CO2.
Ill. 10.6.5 CO2 level.
Relative humidity As wood will be the dominating material, it is essential to be aware of the relative humidity. Through a BSim simulation, the relative humidity is found between 25-65%. (Ill. 10.6.6) As 25% is below the recommended the most critical month, March, is explored. Regarding mold, natural aging of the material and the dew point it is not at risk. (Appendix 6 - Dewpoint calculations) (Dpcalc.org, 2018) Regarding the indoor environment, the air can be harsh and dry for a more extended stay, as it usually is during winter.
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Ill. 10.6.6 Relative Humidity.
Air Change
Ill. 10.6.7 Air Change.
Air Change is achieved by ventilation and is in this project essential to ensure good indoor environment. Due to the design of the facade and choice of window, it is possible to use natural ventilation all year. Through a dynamic simulation in BSim, it is possible to explore the air change in the Atrium. The graph shows a yearly mean value of the air change. (Ill. 10.6.7) As the temperature rise in the atrium, the air change will exceed as more windows will open to permit natural cooling caused by natural ventilation. The supply of natural ventilation is 3.5 m3/s during winter and ten m3/s during summer. This is equivalent to an air change of 9 /h. This is calculated from what the ventilation window is expected to perform. (Appendix 7 - calculation of fresh air supply and performance window) To achieve enough heat recovery to assure temperature of 10 degrees, the current air change has to be this high. In comparison to the level of air change in an auditorium is typically the span of 8-15 /h. (Engineeringtoolbox. com, 2018, b)
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10.7 Energy Balance The overall energy balance is calculated through Be18, a calculation created on the monthly average for the whole building, but only the heated areas and therefore not the outdoor area. (Appendix 8 - Be18 Energy Balance) The calculation is used to prove that the building complies with the energy framework in the Building Regulations energy regulations. (SBI.dk, 2018, a) By implementing strategies of a double facade, solar shading, natural ventilation and solar panels early in the design process the results of the energy frame ended up being 18 kWh/m2 year. The energy frame is only reachable with the implementation of these. Building envelope The building envelope is designed with a focus on minimizing the materials and achieving a construction that fulfills the requirements of the building regulations. U-values are kept below 0,20 W/m2K in all elements. The building envelope is designed with other percussions such as acoustics and fire, and it is described more in detail in Chapter 11.6 Construction details. Double facade In Be18, since the calculation only applies to the heated areas the double facade is illustrated through the category of ‘unheated areas’. Solar heat is supplied to the heated area from the unheated area through either direct sunlight or indirect solar heat. The solar heat help to raise the temperature in the unheated area, so the heat loss for the heated building parts is reduced.
They are located on the roof of the market square and are in total 450 m2. The panels are placed horizontally and function as shading for the market square. The architectural aesthetic value in these elements is weighed higher than the performance. The difference in output, whether they are located at an angle of 0 or 20 degrees is small in comparison to the compromises it would cause to the architectural desired expression. Besides, it is not necessary to change the angle from 0 to 20 degrees to stay within the energy frame. (Appendix 8 Be18 Energy Balance) The architectural quality of these elements as shading for wind, sun, and rain also contribute to a square with a more intimate sphere. Transmission loss The heating requirement is low as the calculation takes solar shading and heat recovery into account. The double facade creates lots of heat on its own and helps to lower the need for heating. The transmission loss of the building is 4,3 W/m2, which does not exceed the 6 W/ m2 described in the building regulations. (Bygningsreglementet.dk, § 264, 2018)
Ill. 10.7.1 Solar panels, angle 0.
Solar panels The implementation of solar panels contribute to the operation of the building, and not the user consumption. Ill. 10.7.2 Solar panels, angle 20.
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10.8 LCA Life-cycle assessment is a method to calculate the environmental impact of the building - from raw material to disposal or recycling. All stages in between, processing, manufacturing, distribution, use, maintenance, and repair are all taken into account when calculating the LCA. (Sbi.dk, 2018, b) The calculation has eight categories in which the result are found, the one chosen to look further into is the GWP, Global Warming Potential, kg/CO2. (Appendix 9 - LCA) The amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere affect the climate changes happening worldwide and is one of the primary driving factors in this project. Focus has been, from the beginning of the project, to look into the embodied energy and the amount of CO2 buildings use/release. A calculation has been made for the building in both wood and concrete, to compare the impact and explore whether the impact is more substantial in concrete than wood. (Ill. 10.8.1) The same amount of cubic meters of wood and concrete is compared. Results from the calculation show that, in a lifetime of 120 years, the wooden building has less of an impact on the environment than the concrete building. Illustration (Ill. 10.8.2) shows a comparison between the two materials in three categories; construction, replacement and end of life. As wood obtain CO2, it has less of an impact on the environment in the construction of the material whereas the end of life cost a great deal on the environment as wood often will burn in the demolishment of the material. The calculation does not take into account that wood can be reused, due to limitations in the programme used for the calculation of LCA. Stora Enso is exploring wood
and breaking it down into microfibrils where it is usable for paper. (Storaenso. com, 2018) Concrete, on the other hand, has the most substantial impact on the environment in the construction phase.
Ill. 10.8.1 CO2 impact on environment.
Ill. 10.8.2 Comparisment of impact in three phases.
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10.9 DGNB A goal from the beginning of the project has been to use DGNB as a tool for designing. The certification system consists of many areas that highlight the importance of the process, environmental, economic, social, technical and site values/aspects. The result is shown in illustration 10.9.1 (Appendix 10 - Excel sheet for DGNB certification) The empty topics in the diagramme are not taken into account when calculating the certification as they differ from the focus taken in this project. Sustainable urban development and a high requirement for the client that build in the area is a high priority for By and Havn, that is responsible for the development of Nordhavn. Therefore it is interesting to make an effort to meet the same requirements other building owners and clients have to fulfill to be able to build in Nordhavn. All buildings in Nordhavn have to fulfill a requirement of at least bronze level in the certification. This sets a requirement of better insulation which then can help to bring down the operation cost. Great possibility for public transport and easy accessibility, use of rainwater, access to recreational areas and environmentally friendly buildings are a few of what defines the area and its character as sustainable urban development. The city is designed for humans and bikes, not cars, so the suction of trash is underneath the ground to avoid trucks to invade the small streets. The certification of Nordhavn is Gold and at this moment a beacon for sustainable development both nationally and internationally. (Nordhavn.dk, 2018, e)
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The total performance index of our building is 72,3% and reaches Gold. Limit for reaching Gold certification is 65%. (DGNB-system.de, 2018)
Ill. 10.9.1 DGNB.
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CHAPTER 11
STRUCTURAL INITIATIVES
content index 11.1 Introduction
90
11.2 Bearing system
92
11.3 Loads and regulations
93
Parametric design
11.4 Fire dimensionering
95
Alternative fire protection
11.5 Exploded model
97
Double facade Foundation
11.6 Construction details Joint Sound
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100
11.1 Introduction Historical wood is a well-used material, but concrete and steel have in the modern day become a preferred material for tall buildings. Does that mean wood is not sufficient for building tall? The following chapter will describe the construction in the presented design.
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Ill. 11.2.1 Structural systems.
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11.2 Bearing system High rise buildings typically use a structural system of slabs and columns to be able to create a stable structure rising high up into the air. For this project, it has been essential to design a flexible floor plan, which has led to studies of different structural systems shown in illustration 11.2.1. The system chosen for further development is the column and beams, which maximize the flexibility in the floor plan horizontally, as well as vertically. This system is optimal for taking large vertical forces with a small amount of material. The system lack stability in vertical forces, for this reason, there is a need for stabilizing elements. Triangular shapes can achieve this or introducing plates. For this purpose plate was chosen to make a core of plates, which also will function as elevator shaft and staircase.
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11.3 Loads and regulations A multi-story high-rise building has to achieve the highest safety classifications in Denmark. For dimensioning the structural system, loads and regulations have been found and calculation from the Danish Building Regulations, Danish standards, and Teknisk St책bi. (Bygningsreglementet.dk, 2018, b) (Ds. dk, 2018) (Teknisk St책bi, 2015) Calculations of loads are created in grasshopper and are shown in the appendix. (Appendix 11 - Load calculations Grasshopper) For the live load and the self-load, the standards have been used, and are calculated to figure out how much load each beam is carrying. The live load is set to 1,5 kN/ m2, while the self-load is set to 0,8 kN/ m2, which is the standard for lightweight construction. (Teknisk st책bi p. 129.) (Hollaway, 1990 p. 128.) For a detailed description of the structural systems and an understanding of each element and how it reacts to the forces the programme Robot Structural Analysis from Autodesk is used. The wind-load is calculated with the formulas in Teknisk St책bi (Appendix 11 - Load calculations Grasshopper). For this calculation, the highest wind exposure is chosen, and the surroundings have been set as a city environment in shelter from nearby buildings. For this project, the wind has been calculated to a pressure of 1,068 kN/m2. Since it is a high-rise it is assumed that the wind load is the dominant one - illustration 11.3.1 and 11.3.2 confirm the theory. The displacement of the building is illustrated in 11.3.3 and is on a maximum of 91 mm which is, at a distance of 80 meters, a bending curve of 0.0001%. The bottom levels of the construction are the ones that are under the most stress as they
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carry the highest load, this is shown in illustration 11.3.4. Parametric design The structural system has been modulated in Grasshopper which is a tool that enables parametric design by coding. The programme allows for a process where the structural system could quickly change and adapt to new knowledge gained during all iterations of the project. It was also possible to combine this with Robot Structural Analysis from Autodesk and with this achieve quick results when changing small factors like the size of the elements in the building. It was possible to reduce some of the elements and get an overall understanding of the behavior of the building. Illustration 11.3.5 shows the input and output in/of grasshopper.
Ill. 11.3.5 Parametric investigations.
Ill. 11.3.1 Force diagram, dominant live load, max force 715 kN/m2.
Ill. 11.3.2 Force diagram, dominant wind load, max force 1687 kN/m2.
Ill. 11.3.3 Maximum displacement 91mm.
Ill. 11.3.4 Stresses.
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11.4 Fire dimensioning Fire is the most discussed aspect of building wooden constructions. The Danish regulations do not accept wood in the highest classification due to it being a burnable material, but for all other purposes there are no restrictions against wood, as long it live up to the regulations. (Frederiksen, Clasen and Virén, 2018) Studies have not been made in Denmark while several tests have been made in especial Norway and Sweden. (Building Green Conference, 2018) Mjøstårnet in Norway, described in chapter 3.4, is currently the tallest wooden high-rise. ‘Sweco’ and ‘Norske Limtreprodusenters forening’ have made a document describing the complete course of several varieties of glulam pillars exposed to fire, dimensions where 405x460 mm. The registrations are different in Norway than Danmark, as they only have to prove that the element can stand for 90 minutes. (Limtreforeningen.no, 2018) In Denmark, the regulations state that our buildings have to fulfill a fire resistance in 120 minutes. (Expan.dk, 2018) What is interesting, and documented in the report, is that when the glulam pillar reaches 70 mm the speed is reduced. It takes around 165 min. for the fire to burn into the first 70 mm of the pillar and another 165 min. to burn from 70 to 75 mm. This testing also proves that the wood is burning slower than expected and the temperature in the center of the pillar remains constant until 253 min. where it rises from 25 to 41 degrees. The conclusion of the report states that it is possible to dimension a wooden construction to undergo a complete fire without any active extinct system. Dimensioning a wooden element, it has to last for a specified duration of fire exposure. It can be calculated with
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how far, the fire will burn into the wood each minute. Michael Green describes an estimate of wood burning 40mm per hour. (Green and Taggart, 2017 p. 42.) For this project, it is estimated that the timber members will have a reduction of 80mm from either one side, or all sides, compared to the exposure of the element. Illustrations 11.4.1 and 11.4.2 demonstrate the beams being exposed to fire and as a result of this reduced from the underside, while the pillars are calculated as exposed to all sides. To prevent the fire from spreading to the entire building, every third level has a floor that meets the facade, dividing the building into an overall of 7 large fire zones. This will keep the fire and the smoke, in the segment it started in for at least 120 minutes. The double facade is mechanical control and will open in case of fire, and let the smoke out. One segments will, therefore, be able to contain the fire inside, without spreading to the other segments while avoiding an active system to put out the fire. Alternative fire protection There are different ways to protect against fire in a wooden building, the one chosen in this project is fire-dimensioning the structural system. Other alternatives are fire protection painting, that will expand and work as an insulation layer when exposed to high temperature, Gypsum, another alternative, is a non-burnable material and will delay the fire. A more sustainable choice could be clay. Clay has almost equal fire protection as gypsum, but it comes with other qualities since it can help regulate humidity, without transferring any moisture to the material behind it. (Isoleringdanmark.dk, 2018) Another method, referred to previously as active fire protection, is sprinklers.
In this project, the wooden tactility was highly prioritized. Dimensioning against fire is, therefore, the method was chosen as the qualities of the wooden structure still will be exposed. Additionally, the strength of the building is improved, in comparison to adding huge loads from gypsum or clay that would cause enlargement of elements.
80 mm
Ill 11.4.1 Carbonising of pillar.
80 mm
Ill 11.4.2 Carbonising of floor seperation.
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11.5 Explosion model Illustration 11.5.1 show an explosion of one segment. Firstly from the top down, the structural system of pillars and a grid of beams. Then a showing the different apartment separations, these are not load bearing and can be placed accordingly to the building groups need. Next is the double facade glazing which is a fixed element in the building. Double facade The building will have an exterior envelope for several purposes, some have already been discussed in earlier chapters. However, when it comes to the structural system, there is other benefits and reasons to why this is important. The double facade act as a protecting membrane for both water and wind. This will make the inside construction last longer since it will not be exposed to direct water, or to particle abrasion due to high wind speed. The facade is a curtain wall and thereby self-caring, but connected to the primary structure, to achieve stability and distribute the wind load. Foundation The base of the building is exposed to different factors than the rest of the building. When making a foundation, the construction will have contact with a moisturized soil. This will cause issues using wood, even when there are various techniques with the possibilities to solve or partially solve this. Wood has another disadvantage when having to create a stabilized construction, which is often a problem for light and tall constructions. Therefore a concrete basement is made to add mass to the construction and anchor it better to the ground.
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Ill.11.5.1 Exploded segment.
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Ill. 11.6.1 Detail 1:20. Apartment partition wall.
Ill. 11.6.2 Detail1:20. Apartment seperation floor.
Ill. 11.6.3 Detail 1:20. Pillar meets foundation.
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11.6 Construction detail Different details have been made to get an idea of insulation properties, wall thickness, sound absorption and fire resistance. There is a detail for three crucial parts of the building, regarding the perception of space, regulations and fire safety. Joints Joints often consist of steel, since this is a durable material, but steel will weaken when exposed to heat; therefore caution should be made. This issue can be solved by inserting the steel connection deep into the wooden members and use the wood as insulation. (Green and Taggart, 2017 p. 42.) Even bolts should be well protected from the wood, and drilled into the beam and sealed with a wooden dowel. The detail on illustration 11.6.3 of the pillar meets the ground shows how the joint can be placed inside. Sound Wood has good acoustic performance, but not good sound absorption properties. Shown in the illustration 11.6.1 the detail of an apartment partition wall, implemented is two insulation layers and airspace, this is to achieve the needed sound reduction. On the floor separation detail on illustration 11.6.2 there is a sound and impact absorption insulation layer underneath the floor layer. (Rockwool.dk, 2018) Large constrained elements help reduce the reverberation time, here the massive CLT elements will have a positive effect. (Enso, 2018 p. 18-19.)
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CHAPTER 12
IDEATION
content index 12.1 Introduction
102
12.2 Iteration 1
103
Research Form Sustainability Structure Cluster
12.3 Iteration 2
105
Research Form Plan / Sustainability Structure
12.4 Iteration 3
107
Research Form Plan Sustainability Structure Midterm
12.5 Iteration 4
109
Research Form / Sustainability Plan Structure
12.6 Iteration 5 Research Form Plan Sustainability Structure Cluster 2
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111
Ill. 12.1 Stages of design process.
12.1 Introduction Through the project from after the handin of the programme, the process has been documented in a shared document, where all knowledge gained and development of the project is described. The document is more than 250 pages and is therefore compressed to the following pages. Illustration 12.1 is describing how the different iterations are divided into phases, depending on the most essential and relevant decisions taken during the iterations. The five different categories are describing the overall subjects and focus areas that have dominated the decisions taken during the process.
The process has undergone many iterations where the different categories have shifted in being the dominating factor in which the development could go further with the current shape, plan, sustainable or technical strategies or research-based knowledge. The integration of all aspects has been implemented to obtain a design with both aesthetics, technical and functional architectural qualities. The whole process document will be available to the exam due to missing copyrights.
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12.2 Iteration 1 Research The research started with an investigation of wood and all its possibilities and limitations, to make sure the material would be used with respect and in the most efficient way. Along these studies reference projects were researched, both to understand how wood has been used historically, but also how it is used now, and how the intentions are to use wood for upcoming high rise buildings. Form The start of the ideation leads to many different building shapes. Most were explored and evaluated from their shadow impact. The possibilities of making two slim towers and connecting them to optimize daylight were also investigated, they could then be connected with a double facade and create a large indoor space for shared functions. Early in the process simple physical models where made, together with a physical model of the site and context to get a better understanding of the spacial possibilities. Sustainability From the beginning the focus has been to design a sustainable building, this creates a demand for how energy efficient the building will be. An implementation of passive strategies has therefore been a focus to integrate into the building design. Research of other high-rise buildings and passive initiatives were therefore made. The Wooden Skyscraper by C.F. Møller has been a big inspiration at the beginning of the project. The Veranda, previously described in chapter 3.4 inspired us to look into a double skin facade and what possibilities this had in a high-rise design.
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Sustainability is also creating an environment that relates to people and makes them feel comfortable. Jan Gehl has inspired us to work with the human scale. The wish for an economic building that can adapt to the inhabitants leads us to investigate and open plan solution. Lake Shore Drive by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe was a great example of how a plan solution could quickly adapt to new needs of the inhabitants. Structure Initial structural studies where made in Grasshopper and Robot to get a basic understanding on how wood behave in large constructions, and which forces will have the most significant impact on the building, this have been giving us design parameters for further development of the building. The analyses resulted in the most significant force being the wind load. It is therefore essential to have a core to stabilize the structure. After getting a rough idea of the dimension of the elements needed to carry a high-rise building, we went on to find a potential fabric that could deliver the elements. Research on how they produce the wood, where it comes from and what qualities their form of production add to the building material to implement that in the further design. Cluster The first iteration ended with a cluster seminar where our primary focus points where: The vertical residential road in a high-rise, potentials for open floor plan and integrating surrounding urban spaces. Some of the feedback we received was to create a space where working facilities, such as ‘we work’, these could help to create a mixed-use building. Another comment where to
divide the building into smaller segments to form communities up to 12 families, with open urban gardens and outdoor terraces by using the depth of the climate screen.
1.1
PHASE
1.2
1.3
Shadow impact. FORM
Flexibility. PLAN
SUSTAINABILTY
Social sustainability.
Forestry in Denmark and nearby contries.
Human Scale Jan Gehl.
STRUCTURE
Grasshopper. Bindingsvæk (timbered buildings) Robot.
Mjøsa Tower - Voll Architects.
Passive strategies. RESEARCH
Wood as a building material
Tinggården, Vandkunsten.
Le Corbusier.
Timber buildings. Lilleheden products. Wooden Skyscraper - C.F Møller.
Lake Shore Drive Mies Van Der Rohe. CLUSTER 1.
Ill. 12.2 Design process, iteration 1.
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12.3 Iteration 2 Research The cluster at the end of iteration 1, lead to new research on how to form communities in a high rise building and how to create associations to the vertical villa road which is a common goal to achieve for the Danish family. Rethinking and obtaining this feeling could hopefully lead to families gain responsibility towards the building and the community and therefore anchor here instead of the suburban areas.
to ensure minimal impact on the surroundings, every form where tested in Flow Design in a wind simulation, additionally, a shadow analyzes were also made. The focus was to minimize wind turbulence and even try to slow it down and create quite sheltered places. The inner form was also explored to create interesting spaces behind the outer facade. This could create a depth to the large monotone double facade, but also show the flexibility in the plan design.
Implementing other functions in the building were also researched, ‘we work’ and ‘we live’, could be beneficial for not only the inhabitants of the building, but also offer facilities to the surrounding community, and help create a more active building and mixed building.
Plan / sustainability The plan developed from the two tower building form and back to a single tower solution, due to the large material used compared to the gained efficient floor area. The plan then developed to create large shared areas where a single community can adapt the room to their need. Each apartment also has large balconies on both sides of their apartment to create private outdoor space, at the same time the balcony will act as solar protection due to the overhang of the apartment underneath, and block the warm summer sun, while letting the low winter sun inside. This will help to promote the social sustainability and help create bonds between families, through these a more safe environment is created.
The double facade was investigated and discussed whether it was sustainable with enough passive achievements compared to the material spend on construction a double facade. For us, the double facade gave more than just energy benefits that for example is achieved with ventilation and sun radiation control, but also construction benefits due to the choice of building in wood, where the facade will protect the wooden elements. Another important feature is the created outdoor living space, that has potential to raise the quality of living in a high-dense environment. Plan requirements were explored to figure out where the building could be compromised to enlarge the social rooms and give space to common rooms so that a small apartment would feel large due to the shared facilities. Form The form was explored in many shapes
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The plan composition is also evaluated to optimize efficiency daylight to specific rooms, and organized to enhance social interaction with the neighbors. A description of DGNB was looked through to understand what design parameters could be implemented early in the design. It was essential for us to understand which aspects of the certification that could have a significant impact on the evaluation later on.
Structure The visit to Lilleheden made us aware of the Danish fire classes that are divided into ‘BS’ and ‘BC’. ‘BS’ is fireproofed building parts where ‘BC’ is fire retardant building parts. Fireproofed building parts are non-burnable materials such as steel, gypsum, glass, brick, and concrete. Fire retardant building parts are burnable materials such as wood. We were made aware of the facts that these could be one of the main factors to why it is not acceptable to work with wood in buildings higher than four floors. According to the building regulations, when exceeding four floors, the demand for calculations are more difficult to fulfill. Sound insulation was another aspect in which we were made aware of during the meeting and yet another aspect that was explored. The glass was explored as a fireproofing material, when finding alternatives to a solid core, holding the elevators and staircase, since these in some of the designs would block the daylight to penetrate deep into the building.
2.1
PHASE
2.2
2.3
FORM
Wind and shadow simulations
PLAN
Winter
SUSTAINABILTY Concrete adds thermal mass, reflects light and are water robust.
SUMMER
DGNB
Open windows
Shutter to block direct light
Fire.
STRUCTURE
Sound.
RESEARCH
Vertical resisdential road. We Work / We Live. Double Facade.
Visit to Lilleheden.
Common room.
Plan requirements, room sizes.
Ill. 12.3 Design process, iteration 2.
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12.4 Iteration 3 Research This iteration was much more about producing what knowledge we gained from the previous iterations. Knowledge was still gained on passive strategies, integration of solar panels, urban gardens in a high-rise and shared spaces. Form The shape of the building was challenged through grasshopper and parametric design in this iteration. A design, from iteration 1, of extending the wooden pillars towards a covered market square while still keeping a simple overall shape was explored. The shape of the building would then move from the protected glass facade towards outdoor areas and, metaphorically place its roots in Nordhavn. The design showed some great results in the wind simulations, creating a space for shelter. Another design was created where the building was extended in the height of the surrounding context to leed and as a result of this minimize the wind in the urban space - also showing great results regarding the simulations of wind and shadow impact. Plan Different plan solutions were made to different user profiles, to ensure the grid of the structural system were efficiently placed to obtain high flexibility in different scenarios. The technical installations are thought into the design both vertical and horizontally. Sustainability To improve life quality, there has been a focus on bringing green spaces into the building, and integrate it in the shared atrium. The analysis was made in the daylight, with different window settings and apartment types, to figure out if some apartments will perform especially
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good and if some would not perform well enough. The characteristics of wood are explored. The lightweight construction might give issues not containing enough thermal mass. Wood proves to have excellent insulation properties in comparison to concrete and steel. The current building was simulated in Bsim and Be18 to find where the building performed best, and where to improve the building design. Solar cells were implemented to meet the requirement for the energy demands. Structure Structural considerations were made on a more conceptual level, where grasshopper functions as the tool for designing a more “interesting� shape than previously presented. Some different treatment methods of wood have been investigated but have been deselected due to un esthetical and unsustainable reasons. Midterm The midterm brought many great comments, some of which included the idea of creating a new typology of highdense urban environments. Baugruppen was mentioned as a tool for creating these communities - one comment was that it would go wrong if you do not know your neighbors. The midterm seminar we were made aware of to the large shared spaces maybe being too large, together with the balconies. Additionally, the idea of creating a three-floor open plan solution, where it would be possible to buy a rowhouse, seemed revolutionary.
We were, during midterm, encouraged to challenge the building regulation, and challenge wood to be the only bearing material in the construction.
3.1
PHASE
3.2
3.3
FORM
PLAN
Different apartment types.
BSim
Daylight SUSTAINABILTY
Be18
Solar cells
Solar cells
Technical properties of wood.
STRUCTURE
Material appearance.
Market sqaure. RESEARCH
Passive strategies.
Baugruppen.
Itegrated gardens. MIDTERM. Shared spaces.
Ill. 12.4 Design process, iteration 3.
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12.5 Iteration 4 Research Clay was investigated as an alternative to fireproofing and showed that it could add several benefits to the building, clay will help stabilize the humidity, it is good at fire retardant, add thermal mass and help reduce low-frequency sound. The issue with the most fireresistant material is their heavy mass that will cause enlarging of the structural system, which will eventually make the structural system dimensioned to resist the fire itself. Studies where made on different row house references to find inspiration in plan solutions and how the issue with only two facade been exposed to the outside where accommodated. Functions that could be implemented in the atrium where once again listed and re-considered, to ensure the atrium would be dimensioned to accommodate different needs in different situations. Possibilities in the floor plan were investigated, a marketplace has been in the considerations from the beginning and was still the most attractive feature together with an open workshop area, so research where made how these should meet each other, the building and the surroundings. Which lead back to researching how to create a sheltered space and how to implement solar cells. Form / sustainability The unusual building forms had their last iterations where they were compared with aesthetical qualities to the functional and sustainable qualities. Here it was clear there would be issues with the technical shafts, and the material used would decline the closer the shape was to being rectangular. Also, the form of the atrium undergo iterations to achieve
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better indoor daylight, this was done in programs but also with physical models. As well did a green wall find its way into the building to bring in nature to the building and make a lunge within the atrium to clean the air and provide oxygen. Plan The midterm pointed us in the direction of row houses since there is a tendency to families moves in this typology, that made us focus on this tendency, and implement it to a high-rise building, so you keep the qualities from the row houses, but enable to implement them in a dense cityscape. Structure Technical drawings were made to find problems with sound and fire eventually, it also gave a good idea of the thickness of all construction members, and enable us to see if some connections would be impossible to solve. So once again the structural system is simulated with updated values and knowledge. Same goes for the treatment of wood, to make sure the right decision was taken and all options were well thought.
4.1
PHASE
4.2
4.3
FORM
PLAN
Design of core and fire staircase.
SUSTAINABILTY
STRUCTURE
RESEARCH
Row houses typology. Market sqaure. Plan solutions.
Fire retardant. Alternative materials.
Rules for plan layout. Bike parking.
Stora Enso.
Ill. 12.5 Design process, iteration 4.
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12.4 Iteration 5 Research The iteration started with a lecture from C.F. Møller about their development of wooden high-rise buildings and Building Green conference in Aarhus, which had each part of the building sector represented. Here the wooden high-rise development in Denmark was discussed, with a focus on why we still do not see any wooden high-rise in Denmark. Form A live 3D program enables us to experience the building, which helped to close the design and its final shape. The final design turned out to be a simple outer shape that elegantly meets the cityscape and the human scale, and at the same time relate to the context without appearing too dominant. The last wind and shadow analyses were made to ensure small changes in the building design would not have a significant impact on the surrounding area. Plan The base floor was developed to contain all the required bike parking indoor together with an indoor workspace to repair the bike. The entrance to the building contains a mailbox system that makes it easy to grab the mail and package on your way up to the apartment. The building is angled 15,8 degrees to optimize the indoor environment in the atrium and get as much area towards the west to allow the evening sun to be available longer in the atrium, but also to optimize and fit into the master plan of Nordhavn. The urban planning around the building has pathways that grab and lead towards other sites in the area with
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long views. The final design and urban planning have great sunny spaces for benches and a market square that can turn into a multi-activity area.
made to ensure the correct understanding of how everything is connected. Finally, the structure again was simulated with the updated program and loads.
In the atrium, the green wall was interfering with the elevators and therefore removed. In cases of 3-floor apartments, it would be possible to implement the green wall above doors to the elevator. The plan solutions where optimized on the base of the last simulations of daylight, to improve the qualities of the apartments where daylight tend to be critical.
Cluster 2 Concerns on who were to run the workshop areas. Since all building groups have their space to take care of, who would take care of the bottom levels of the building as well as the rooftop garden.
Sustainability A facade system was developed with a window that has integrated heat recovery and a passive technology that makes the system self-adjustable. The system was implemented in our facade, where it will function as a moveable element that will be a part of an active facade, that same time will work as fencing from the inside, which will prevent people to fall out. The windows will contain shading lamellas as well to reduce solar radiation in the summer. Finally, we evaluate our building to get a more precise idea of how sustainable the building performs. This was done again with Bsim, Be18, Velux Daylight Visualizer, and the two evaluation tools LCA and DGNB. Structure The dew point for the atrium was analyzed late since it was forgotten earlier in the process, but luckily it does not seems to be an issue for the wooden construction. Again every part of the structure was evaluated to ensure no considerations were left out, and explosion model was
5.1
PHASE
5.2
5.3
FORM
Wind
PLAN
Ventilation system. Natural ventilation. SUSTAINABILTY
Windows.
Neutral plane.
DGNB.
BSim.
Sun radiation.
Be18. BSim.
OLF and CO2. Passive strategies.
LCA.
Be18.
Dew Point.
Daylight.
Structural system.
STRUCTURE
Fire. Exploded model.
We work. Living units.
RESEARCH
Mail system. C.F.Møller - Wooden Skyscraper lecture.
CLUSTER 2. Roof Garden. Double Facade.
Building Green Conference. Ill. 12.5 Design process, iteration 5.
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CHAPTER 12
EPILOGUE
content index 13.1 Conclusion
114
13.2 Reflection / further investigations
115
Le Corbusier Baugruppen Maintenance Passive strategies Daylight LCA Ventilation Solar cells Material Context The city today, tomorrow and in the future
13.3 Bibliography
117
13.4 List of illustrations
121
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13.1 Conclusion Environmental aspects: Is wood usable to build with in a high-dense urban Architecture? Building a high rise in wood is a somewhat new phenomenon due to the prejudices concerning the fire. Today there is well-documented fire investigations, proving that fire is not a more substantial problem when building high-rises in wood than when building with concrete and steel. It is proven that wood is more predictable than steel and concrete buildings in case of fire. Wood is a lightweight material in comparison to concrete and steel, and will not have to carry near the same weight. The wooden construction in this design will weigh almost 1500 tons, while the same construction in concrete will be above 7800 tons. We find that wood is usable for highdense architecture, and in some aspect more suited than steel and concrete. All materials have their advantages, and concrete is better at storing heat by having high thermal mass as well as sound absorption. Whereas wood is a renewable source, allows for easy and better conditions on construction site, has high insulation properties and posses high tactility. Wood is an organic material that needs protection from the weather, which can cause several problems, like fungus or even start to rotten. Furthermore wood needs a stable environment to obtain its strength and durability. In this project, it has been solved by creating an outer facade in glass which is an expensive solution to construct but is turned into a passive strategy for expanding the outdoor season.
Social aspects: Can the qualities of the horizontal neighborhood be transformed into a high-density architecture? And can living, leisure, work, community, social equity and responsibilities be conducted within the framework of a high-dense urban environment? Transforming the horizontal neighborhood into a vertical neighborhood have been achieved by making smaller building groups, which each share are common space that works like the traditional villa road, without cars. This allows you to meet your neighbor on your way home, and your children to play safely with the other children in front of your house. The building design could lack a personal outdoor space beyond the balcony that could act more like a regular yard in the common residential neighborhood. The environment of living on a horizontal residential road allows for much more space for private sphere whereas living in a high-dense environment has less private space. Neighbors are close, and responsibilities towards each other are required to obtain a pleasant atmosphere between all inhabitants. The design still allows private, quiet spaces, where it is possible to move into the townhouse and close the door. However, with a design like this, we find that it is necessary to work in building groups. Each building group would have to design the space and agree on lifestyles and wishes for what type of community is decided. The approach to this building method, require an organization within a building group and will require formal work before being able to start building. Within the building groups, there could occur situations where an agreement cannot be met to adjust the specific construction to new needs or newcomers.
Possible there could also be economic consequences if some families would leave the group. By implementing workshop spaces in the lowers levels of the building it is possible to implement work close to home. The market square is designed to fulfill the needs of living and leisure. A market two times a week can supply food to the inhabitant whereas multitracks and workshop area can fulfill needs of leisure. Economic aspect: Can flexible and mixed use architecture assure a future in which the current needs can evolve and adapt into future needs and ways of living? The report shows that it is possible to make a flexible system, which offers good flexible opportunities for the inhabitants. The structural system offers a large open floor plan that enables users to move internal walls as they wish, with good options for making double or triple height rooms. The core will always be a stable element, where all installations also should be lead to, but the room height ensures it is possible to integrate these in either floor or ceiling to keep them hidden. The broad span between the bearing system also enables other functions than apartments being built. The flexibility allows for buildings groups to create and design their space. One downside to this could be that the design is not handled correctly and accordingly to the ruleset of having two zones, one heated and one unheated. This would remove the positive aspects of the passive initiative made in the design. Another aspect could be the lack of daylight as the zones of living would have to be carefully placed and organized with a great sensibility to daylight conditions.
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13.2 Reflection / further investigations Le Corbusier Le Corbusier has had a significant influence on our project. His vision of living in a high-dense urban environment has been a source of inspiration through the entire project. It is unsettled whether his plans fulfill his idea of living in a high-dense environment. But in this project, his vision has been the driving force to create the design. Qualities and visions from his plan, Unite d’ habitation, has been implemented in our design where the hallways are created with more sensibility. These corridors created in Unite d’habitation, are in our opinion more of a highway than a residential road. In this project, the residential road has been developed into being the communal space where safety and shared facilities fill the room. Windows towards this common space create possibilities of living together but in separate houses. With this assuring a connection and contact between each other. The idea of creating a building where life, leisure, and work are combined has been implemented by designing workshop spaces for organizations of ‘we work’, another possibility would be to implement a kindergarten in one segment of three floors.
groups often depend on an architect to create the community in which they live. Discussions would have to be taken on what specific needs and desired space they wish to have, including the budget for the project. It is possible to create just the community you want to live in, but it demands much planning and shared responsibility. There is a significant personal risk as the building groups - there could be incidents in which the community has conflicts, and these would have to be solved internally. Another aspect could be that a member of the building group no longer would like to be a part of the organization. It is therefore very clear that building groups do have lots of aspects that still could use much more developing that goes beyond the scope of this project.
Baugruppen The project suggests a new way of designing and selling apartments in a dense city. It could be interesting to look into the legalizations and organization on how to sell and buy, and how the process of this will be, to be able to address the customers needs.
Passive strategies At the beginning of the project many passive strategies were investigated, but unfortunately, not all have been implemented in the building design, these and more passive designs would be interesting to examine and applied in the whole structure, or may be individually in the section. This could be grey water use, or it could be a scheduled water and electricity consumption were you as a community have a limited amount of resources. This could help to bring down the consumption level, and in cases of having used it all, you as a community
Baugruppen is implemented in the project to create the horizontal neighborhood in a dense city environment. Building groups demand initiatives taken by partners in the group as the community would be built from scratch. Building
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Maintenance The project does not describe who would take care of the building and how to maintain it. We are not sure how it practical would be most beneficial for everybody, but thoughts have been discussed wherever it should be a janitor, or the social responsibility would be improved to distributed to the inhabitants.
would have to buy more to a more expensive price. Daylight There is more focus on daylight in the new Danish Building Regulations of 2018, and it is, therefore, something that would be interesting to investigate further on. Rules for daylight is not only relevant due to the building regulations, but it has a significant role regarding the perception of the space in which you live. It can have a healing impact to live in an environment with great daylight conditions, and it should, therefore, be an essential factor to all architects. In the report some alternatives to bring in daylight is shortly mentioned, these strategies would be interesting to investigate further, and if possible find even more strategies or even changes in the plan solution to improve the daylight factor. LCA The LCA calculation gives an overview in which phases the CO2 emission find a place. When making an LCA on wood, there is a high CO2 emission in the ‘end of life’ category. This is due to the tool calculate with all wood being burned. Here it would be interesting to investigate what the wood could be used to rather than burn, could it be made to smaller beams and pillars and serve another construction, before it yet again would be prepared to smaller pieces or into wooden board, to a third building, and finally been made into paper to get the most out of the material before it eventually would be burned. Ventilation The mechanical ventilation has been made conceptual on the knowledge and experience obtained in the previous project, and have therefore not been
detailed. It would be interesting to calculate the exact shaft size to optimize the space taken for the aggregates and pipes. When calculating the energy consumption, it is clear that the mechanical ventilation system has a significant role, due to the building regulation they should always be running at a minimum value. It could be interesting to challenge the regulations and see if a good indoor environment could be obtained by decreasing the mechanical ventilation or replace it entirely with natural ventilation. Solar cells The building has integrated solar cells, but this only help to bring the building underneath the energy requirements. Here it could be interesting to find more space for solar cells or other renewable energy sources to make the building a zero energy building or even a plus energy building. Material The studies show different qualities in wood, but also shows where it differs from other materials like concrete and steel. Further research on the combination of these or alternative materials could with our knowledge improve some aspects. Here we especially think on sound and thermal mass. Research on how more mass could affect the building would be an interesting topic to look further investigate. Additionally, it could be relevant to ask the question if it is irresponsible only to use one species of wood for the construction. The amount of materials available on the market, research in this field and the production would be able to answer this question when looking into
the amount of wood. Most buildings are constructed in pine today, but would it be possible to combine other tree sorts with pine to create a structure where each element possess the exact strength needed. Hereby also lowering the demand for a single species, in this case, pine. In the beginning, there were intentions to investigate different types of wood, to find different qualities in them, to organize them where they would be most beneficial in the building but it was not fulfilled in the project. Context Nordhavn was chosen as the site of this project as it is a newly developed area that sets a high standard for city planning. A wooden high-rise will most definitely be a giant step towards creating more sustainable buildings, also in highdense environments. Additionally, the area of Ă…rhusgadekvarteret is the only part of Nordhavn that is built yet, and if this wooden high-rise were to be made, it would help to set a higher standard towards creating sustainable buildings in the area.
They move to cities often to educate themselves, and when they start a family, they move away from the city. Factors as safety, social relations of a suburban area and the house are the main factors that play a role in this decision. This project has introduced a design where it is possible to have these social responsibilities towards each other while rethinking how high-rise building is organized. The possibility of creating an architecture where own initiatives help to give the building an identity of a neighborhood but vertically. We believe that it would be possible to build a structure of mixed-use functions and mixed-use people of all age. WOOD it be possible?
However if Denmark is ready for a wooden high-rise is hard to tell, the regulations do not favor them, even though every part of the building sector says they are prepared to aim for more sustainable buildings.
The City today, tomorrow and in the future Tendencies show that more people are moving towards larger cities as a result of this creating a need for new dwellings. Statics, also presented in chapter 8.2, show that people in the age of 20-40 dominate the area of Copenhagen.
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13.3 Bibliography (860880lakeshoredrive.com, 2018) 860880lakeshoredrive.com. (2018). [online] Available at: http://860880lakeshoredrive.com/flexible-floor-plans/ [Accessed 11 May 2018].
(By og Havn, 2016) By og Havn (2016). PDF. Konkurrence Program - Boligbebyggelser og Parkeringsanlæg på Kronløbsøen og Fortkaj, Nordhavn. By og Havn.
(Beyer, 2012) Beyer, G. (2012). Wood and climate change. Tackle Climate Change. Available at: http://www.softwoodlumber. org/pdfs/Book_Tackle_Climate_Change_Use_Wood_eVersion.pdf [Accessed 24 Apr. 2018].
(Bygningsreglementet.dk , 2018, a) Bygningsreglementet.dk. (2018). BR18. Available at: http://bygningsreglementet.dk[Accessed 11 Apr. 2018].
(Bobvila.com, 2018) Bobvila.com. (2018). [online] Available at: https://www.bobvila.com/articles/ transom-windows/ [Accessed 15 May 2018]. (Brundtland, 1987) Brundtland, G. (1987). Report of the World Commission on environment and development. [New York]: [United Nations]. (Building Green Conference, 2018) Building Green Conference, 2018. ”Innobyg, debat om højhus i træ”. Nicolai Hommelhoff, Partner, Domis. Stephen Willacy, Stadsarkitekt, Aarhus Kommune. Ola Jonsson, Associate Partner, C.F. Møller Architects. Finn Larsen, Senior Engineer, Fire and Safety, Rambøll. Martin Manthorpe, Strategidirektør, NCC. Peder Fynholm, Netværksgruppeleder, højhuse i træ og sektionsleder, Teknologisk Institut. (Buildingandliving.storaenso.com, 2018) Buildingandliving.storaenso.com. (2018). Cross Laminated Timber | Stora Enso. [online] Available at: http:// buildingandliving.storaenso.com/products-and-services/cross-laminated-timber [Accessed 24 Apr. 2018].
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(Bygningsreglementet.dk, 2018, b) Bygningsreglementet.dk. (2018). BR18. [online] Available at: http://bygningsreglementet.dk/Tekniske-bestemmelser/19/Vejledninger/Termisk-indeklima [Accessed 30 Apr. 2018] (Bygningsreglementet.dk, § 264, 2018) Bygningsreglementet.dk, § 264, (2018). Available at: http://bygningsreglementet.dk/Tekniske-bestemmelser/11/ Krav/261_266[Accessed 7 May 2018]. (Bygningsreglementet.dk - § 379, 2018) Bygningsreglementet.dk. § 379 (2018). BR18. [online] Available at: http:// bygningsreglementet.dk/Tekniske-bestemmelser/18/Krav [Accessed 19 Feb. 2018]. (Bygningsreglementet - § 385 - § 392, 2018) Bygningsreglementet.dk. (2018). BR18. [online] Available at: http://bygningsreglementet.dk/Tekniske-bestemmelser/19/Vejledninger/Termisk-indeklima [Accessed 30 Apr. 2018] (Bygningsreglementet.dk.dk - § 386, 2018) Bygningsreglementet.dk. § 386 (2018). BR18. [online] Available at: http:// bygningsreglementet.dk/Tekniske-bestemmelser/19/Krav [Accessed 19 Feb. 2018].
(Bygningsreglementet.dk.dk - § 443, 2018) Bygningsreglementet.dk. § 443 (2018). BR18. [online] Available at: http:// bygningsreglementet.dk/Tekniske-bestemmelser/22/Krav [Accessed 19 Feb. 2018]. (C.F. Møller, 2018) C.F. Møller. (2018). Wooden Skyscraper - C.F. Møller. [online] Available at: https://www.cfmoller.com/r/wooden-skyscraper-i13265.html [Accessed 13 Apr. 2018]. (DGNB-system.de, 2018) Dgnb.com (2018). Evaluation and awards. [online] Available at: http:// www.dgnb-system.de/en/system/evaluation_and_awards/[Accessed 7 May 2018]. (Dpcalc.org, 2018) Dpcalc.org. (2018). Dew Point Calculator. [online] Available at: http://www. dpcalc.org [Accessed 7 May 2018]. (Ctbuh.org, 2018) Ctbuh.org. (2018). [online] Available at: http://www.ctbuh.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=bj2PrlZp1Q0= [Accessed 11 May 2018]. (Cwc.ca, 2018) Cwc.ca. (2018). [online] Available at: http://cwc.ca/wp-content/uploads/publications-IBS5_Thermal_SMC_v2.pdf [Accessed 12 Feb. 2018]. (Ds.dk, 2018) Ds.dk. (2018). Dansk Standard - Danmarks standardiseringsorganisation Dansk Standard. [online] Available at: https://www.ds.dk/da [Accessed 17 Feb. 2018]. (Dushkes, 2012)
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[Accessed 24 Apr. 2018]. (Hansen, H. T. R., & Knudstrup, M-A., 2005) Hansen, H. T. R., & Knudstrup, M-A. (2005). The Integrated Design Process (IDP): a more holistic approach to sustainable architecture. In S. Murakami, & T. Yashiro (Eds.), Action for sustainability: The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference (pp. 894-901). Tokyo National Conference Board. (Heiselberg, P, 2013.) Heiselberg, P. (Ed.), Larsen, O. K., Liu, M., Zhang, C., Johra, H., Herold, L., ... Heusler, I. (2013). CLIMAWIN: Technical Summary Report. Aalborg: Department of Civil Engineering, Aalborg University. DCE Technical Reports, No. 160 (Hemenway, 2015) Hemenway, T. (2015). The permaculture city. (Historisk.bygningsreglementet.dk, 2018) Historisk.bygningsreglementet.dk. (2018). 6.5.2 Dagslys. [online] Available at: http://historisk.bygningsreglementet.dk/br15_00_id102/0/42 [Accessed 11 May 2018]. (Hollaway, 1990) Hollaway, L. (1990). Polymers and polymer composites in construction. London: Thomas Tefford, p.128. (Hsu, 2010) Hsu, S.L. (2010, June). Life cycle assessment of materials and construction in commercial structures: variability and limitations. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Available at: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi= 10.1.1.1023.2532&rep=rep1&type=pdf
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highrise_buildings_-_negatives_and_ positives.pdf[Accessed 2 May 2018]. (Pefc.dk. 2018) Pefc.dk. (2018). Dansk skovbrug Dansk Skovbrug. [online] Available at: https://www.pefc.dk/baeredygtig-skovdrift/dansk-skovbrug [Accessed 2 Feb. 2018]. (SBI.dk, 2018, a) SBi, O. (2018). Be18 — Hvad er Be18?. [online] Sbi.dk. Available at: https://sbi.dk/beregningsprogrammet/ Pages/Hvad-er-Be18.aspx [Accessed 7 May 2018]. (Sbi.dk, 2018, b) Sbi.dk (2018). LCA-profiler for bygningsdele. Available at: https://sbi.dk/ Assets/LCA-profiler-for-bygningsdele/ lca-profiler-for-bygningsdele-1.pdf [Accessed 2 May 2018]. (Sbriglio, 2004) Sbriglio, J. (2004). Le Corbusier: l’unité d’habitation à Marseille. Basel: Birkhäuser. (Sbriglio, 2008) Sbriglio, J. (2008). Le Corbusier. Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag. (Schmeichel, K. 2018) Schmeichel, K. (2018). Hvor høj må luftfugtigheden være indendørs?. [online] Bolius.dk. Available at: https://www.bolius.dk/hvor-hoej-maa-luftfugtigheden-vaere-indendoers-24946/ [Accessed 19 Feb. 2018]. (Science and Earth, 2018) Science, L. and Earth, P. (2018). What Is the World’s Tallest Tree?. [online] Live Science. https://www.livescience. com/28729-tallest-tree-in-world.html
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13.4 List of Illustrations Ill. 1.2 Energy balance of dried sawn timber. Illustration based on information gained in following book, page 49: Volz, M., Herzog, T., Natterer, J., Schweitzer, R. and Winter, W. (2012). Timber Construction Manual. Basel: De Gruyter. Ill. 2.1 Sustainability. Illustration based on information gained in sustainability: Kahn, M. Ž. 1995. Concepts, definitions, and key issues in sustainable development: the outlook for the future. Proceedings of the 1995 International Sustainable Development Research Conference, Manchester, England, 1995. Knowledge about permaculture: Hemenway, T. (2015). The permaculture city. Ill. 2.3 Integrated Design Process. Illustration based on information gained in Hansen, H. T. R., & Knudstrup, M-A. (2005). The Integrated Design Process (IDP): a more holistic approach to sustainable architecture. In S. Murakami, & T. Yashiro (Eds.), Action for sustainability: The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference (pp. 894-901). Tokyo National Conference Board. And Hvejsel, M.F. (2017) Gesture & Principle: Tectonics as Critical Method in Architecture. In Skriftserie: Arkitektur & Design (A&D Files) (Vol. 108). A&D Skriftserie.
Ill. 3.3.3 - Own illustration. Ill. 3.3.4 - Own illustration. Ill. 3.3.5 - Own illustration. Ill. 3.4.2 Sketch of the plansolution Own illustration. Ill. 3.4.1 Sketch of C.F Møllers Wooden Skyscraper - Own illustration. Ill. 3.4.3 Sketch of Mjøsa Tower - Own illustration. Ill. 4.2 - Own illustration.
Ill. 4.4.1 Sketch of ”Townhouses of in the sky” - Own illustration. Ill. 4.4.2 Images of Tinggaarden by Vandkunsten. Confirmation for copyright gained by Vandkunsten 14. May. 2018. Ill. 5.3.1 Sketch of Lake Shore Drive 880 - Own illustration. Ill. 5.3.2 Plan, 8 apartments - Own illustration. Ill. 5.3.1 Plan, 4 apartments - Own illustration. Ill. 6.1 - Own illustration.
Ill. 3.3.1 - Own illustration.
Ill. 7.2 Nordhavn, 2017. Illustration based on Satellite photo gained from Google Earth. Author: Google.
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Ill. 7.4.1 Wind information illustrated in the wind rose is gathered from: Dmi.dk. (2018). [online] Available at: https://www.dmi.dk/fileadmin/user_ upload/Rapporter/TR/1999/tr99-13.pdf [Accessed 22 Feb. 2018]. Ill. 7.4.2 Sun information illustrated in the diagram is gathered from: KADK. (2018). Overgang. [online] Available at: https://kadk.dk/project/overgang?gallery=4144&image=3147 [Accessed 26 Feb. 2018].
Ill. 4.3 - Own illustration.
Ill. 3.2 Carbon emission comparison. Illustration based on information gained in following book, page 49: Volz, M., Herzog, T., Natterer, J., Schweitzer, R. and Winter, W. (2012). Timber Construction Manual. Basel: De Gruyter.
Ill. 3.3.2 - Own illustration.
Ill. 7.3 Århusgadekvarteret. Illustration based on Satellite photo gained from Google Earth. Author: Google.
Ill. 7.1 Satellite photo of Denmark, Copenhagen. Illustration based on Satellite photo gained from Google Earth. Author: Google.
Ill. 7.4.3 Humidity information illustrated in the diagram is gathered from: Riddersholm Wang, P. (2010). Teknisk Rapport 12-23. [ebook] Danmarks Meteorologiske Institut, pp.15-20. Available at: https://www.dmi.dk/fileadmin/Rapporter/TR/tr12-23.pdf [Accessed 7 Feb. 2018] Ill. 7.4.5 Noise information illustrated in the diagram is gathered from: Københavns Kommune. (2018). Trafikstøj. [online] Available at: https://www. kk.dk/artikel/trafikst%C3%B8j [Accessed 26 Feb. 2018] Ill. 7.4.6 Parking information illustrated in the diagram is gathered from: Nordhavnen.dk. (2018). Parkering i Nordhavn. [online] Available at: http:// www.nordhavnen.dk/nh-parkering/parkering+i+nordhavn.aspx [Accessed 26 Feb. 2018]. Ill. 7.5 Photos from Nordhavn - Own photographs. Ill. 8.2.1 User groups. Illustration based on information gained in Infogram.com
(2018). Der findes 37 familietyper i Danmark. [online] Available at: https:// infogram.com/der-findes-37-familietyper-i-danmark-1gdk8pdrx1dkmq0 [Accessed 11 Feb. 2018] Ill. 8.2.2 Statics. Illustration based on information gained in Kk.dk. (2018) c. [online] Available at: https://www. kk.dk/sites/default/files/2017_befolkningsyramider_kbh_landet.pdf [Accessed 12 Feb. 2018]. Ill. 8.3.1 Building programme - Own illustration. Ill. 8.4.1 One segment/building group Own illustration. Ill. 8.4.2 Indoor Environment - Own illustration Ill. 9.1.1 Own illustration. Ill. 9.1.2. Own illustration.
Own illustration. Ill. 9.5.1 Plan 01 1:200 - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.2.4 Solar Shading - Own illustration. Ill. 10.2.5 Mechanical ventilation - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.5.2 Plan 02 1:200 - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.2.6 Wind - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.6.1 Section 1:500 - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.2.7 Promoting biking - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.6.2 Sketch illustrating the zones in the section - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.2.8 Exhaust Air on horizontal solar cells - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.7.1. Example of different apartment types - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.3.1 Summer - Own illustration. Ill. 10.3.2 Winter - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.7.2 Structural system - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.3.3 Cutout of the facade - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.7.3. Own illustration. Ill. 9.7.4. Own illustration.
Ill. 10.4.1 Daylight factor, level 02. Red line, 8%. Green line, 2% - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.7.5. Own illustration. Ill. 9.1.3 Concept - Own illustration. Ill. 9.7.6. Own illustration. Ill. 9.2.1 Masterplan 1:1000 - Own illustration. Ill. 9.2.2 Scale in area - Own illustration. Ill. 9.2.3 Sketch of high-rise belt - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.8.1 Plan 00 1:200 - Own illustration. Ill. 9.8.2 Plan 01 1:200 - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.4.2 Daylight factor, level 02. Red line, 8%. Green line, 2% - Own illustration. Ill. 10.4.3 Daylight factor, level 02. Red line, 8%. Green line, 2% - Own illustration. Ill. 10.4.4 - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.8.3 Plan 02 1:200 - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.4.5 - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.8.4. Own illustration.
Ill. 10.4.6 - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.2.1 Renewable sources - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.4.7 - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.3.1. 1:500 - Own illustration. Ill. 9.3.2. 1:500 - Own illustration. Ill. 9.3.3. 1:500 - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.4.8 - Own illustration. Ill. 9.3.4. 1:500 - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.2.2 Natural ventilation - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.4.9 - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.2.3 Solar cells - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.5.1 - Own illustration.
Ill. 9.4.1. - Own illustration. Ill. 9.4.2 Masterplan and plan 00 1:500 -
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Ill. 10.6.1 Bsim - Own illustration.
Own illustration.
Ill. 10.6.2 Atrium in August - Own illustration.
Ill 11.4.1 Carbonising of pillar - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.6.3 Atrium in December - Own illustration.
Ill 11.4.2 Carbonising of floor separation - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.6.4 CO2 level- Own illustration.
Ill 11.5.1 Exploded segment - Own illustration.
Ill. 10.6.5 Relative Humidity - Own illustration. Ill. 10.6.6 Air Change - Own illustration. Ill. 10.7.1 Solar panels, angle 0 - Own illustration. Ill. 10.7.2 Solar panels, angle 20 - Own illustration. Ill. 10.8.1 CO2 impact on environment Own illustration. Ill. 10.8.2 Comparisment of impact in three phases - Own illustration.
Ill. 11.6.1 Detail 1:20. Apartment partition wall - Own illustration. Ill. 11.6.2 Detail1:20. Apartment separation floor - Own illustration. Ill. 11.6.3 Detail 1:20. Pillar meets foundation - Own illustration. Ill. 12.1 Stages of design process - Own illustration. Ill. 12.2 Design process, iteration 1 Own illustration. Ill. 12.3 Design process, iteration 2 Own illustration
Ill. 10.9.1 DGNB - Own illustration. Ill. 11.2.1 Structural systems - Own illustration. Ill. 11.3.1 Force diagram, dominant live load, max force 715 kN/m2 - Own illustration.
Ill. 12.4 Design process, iteration 3 Own illustration. Ill. 12.5 Design process, iteration 4 Own illustration. Ill. 12.5 Design process, iteration 5 Own illustration.
Ill. 11.3.2 Force diagram, dominant wind load, max force 1687 kN/m2 Own illustration. Ill. 11.3.3 Maximum displacement 91mm - Own illustration. . Ill. 11.3.4 Stresses - Own illustration. Ill. 11.3.5 Parametric investigations -
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