Branches- Volume VIII

BRANCHES THE MCGILL UNDERGRADUATE ENVIRONMENT JOURNAL VOLUME 08

. WINTER 2019

Cover photo by Julia Spicer. Taken in spring 2018 at a pond near her home in Copetown, Ontario.

BRANCHES THE MCGILL UNDERGRADUATE ENVIRONMENT JOURNAL VOLUME 08 . WINTER 2019

McGill University

Montreal, Canada

Bra nc hes acknowledges th a t McG ill is o n t radit io n al Haud enosaunee t err it o ry .

BRANCHES THE MCGILL UNDERGRADUATE ENVIRONMENT JOURNAL

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Emma Sutherland UNDERGRADUATE EDITORS Alexis Newman Caroline Lou Charlotte Aubrac Gwenyth Wren Maha Asad Maya Lew Mikayla Salmon-Beitel Rachel Takasaki Sarah Chamberland-Fontaine Scarlett Xiao DESIGN EDITOR Thomas King

Acknowledgements Copyright ÂŠ Branches: The McGill Undergraduate Environment Journal, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, 2019. Editorial selection, compilation and material ÂŠ by the Editorial Board of Branches and its contributors. Branches is an academic journal of McGill University with submissions by students. Printed and bound in Canada by Solutions Rubiks Inc. All rights reserved. Except for brief passages quoted and cited from external authors, no part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any way of form without the permission in writing from the publisher. Special thanks to the Arts Undergraduate Society of McGill University and the Environmental Residence Council for enabling the publication of this journal. Cover photo by Julia Spicer. V i si t u s on Fac eboo k at McG i l l Branches.

Table of Contents

Letter from the Editor

Elegy for Madison County

Les armes chimiques sous les mers

A Case Against Growth

National Parks on Fire: Conservation in the Anthropocene

Urban Rewilding: A Policy Analysis

Urban Song Adaptations in Birds

Coral Disease and Diversity in Barbados

Diversity and Trophic Niche of Native Stingless Bees in Achiote, ColĂłn

Kody Crowell

Ă&#x2030;lise Guerrero

Sarah Chamberland-Fontaine, Audrey Dulon, Mathis Schilling, Talor Wald, Shanil Wijeshinghe Philippa Roots

Caroline Dunaux Kristen Lalla

Myrah Graham

Aimy Wang and Caitlin Belz

About the Contributors

108

About the Editors

112

Photo by Julia Spicer

Letter from the Editor I’m so excited that the eighth edition of Branches is printed and bound at last. For the past few years, this journal has provided a platform for McGill undergraduate students to showcase their work related to environmental sciences and environmental studies. For this issue we once again kept our submission criteria open-ended, and students sent us primary research, essays, poems, art and photography. As the editorial board gathered to select papers for publication, we found ourselves having the same discussions that often arise in our Environment classes: Where does this field begin and end? Can we really separate the natural world from the world built and inhabited by humans? Have we not touched, managed and benefitted from almost every natural ecosystem on Earth? Can we separate the environment from human health? Economic systems? International policy? We did our best to select a list of papers that represented some of the many facets of Environment at McGill, where students learn and research on the downtown campus in Montreal and the Macdonald campus in Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, as well as the university’s many affiliated research stations and field courses. This year, we were all reminded of environmental struggles near and far. On October 30th 2018, the WWF Living Planet Report asserted that wildlife population sizes have declined by 70% between 1970 and 2014. On October 9th, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change released a special report stating that global temperatures will almost certainly reach 1.5 degrees above pre-industrial levels before the year 2032. In December, a report found that mercury poisoning of the local river was causing a range of health issues in Grassy Narrows First Nation in Ontario. On January 7th 2019, the RCMP conducted a raid to allow pipeline company Coastal GasLink access to Wet’suwet’en territory in British Columbia. As of March 11th, 59 long-term drinking water advisories remained in place on reserves across Canada. On March 15th, approximately 150 000 people marched through Montreal in the name of climate justice. In Canada and beyond, we must be aware of the structural barriers to environmental justice, and of the role many of us play in upholding them. We cannot talk about our relationship to our environment without situating ourselves in relation to the land we work and live on. As McGill students, we each possess a degree of responsibility to work within and beyond our institutions to move towards a socially and environmentally sustainable future. Within the McGill School of Environment and the broader McGill community, there are countless individuals who work tirelessly to bridge knowledge gaps, organize in their communities and advocate for structural changes. We are excited to be featuring some of these voices in this issue of Branches. This journal is a team effort and would not exist without the work of many talented and dedicated people. Our Design Editor Thomas tirelessly placed the layout of each page. Our Undergraduate Editors reviewed every paper extensively, and our contributors graciously put their work in our hands to edit and critique. We hope you enjoy the result. Emma Sutherland

Photo by Julia Spicer

Elegy for Madison County by Kody Crowell Look at the farmer on his combine (big machine) riding along a south-easterly track of wheat in the fields of Madison county. His brow is sweaty, the fresh circulation of summer pollen fills his lungs that in addition, are filled with: Anthem Flex, Axial Star, Peak, Pulsar, Foxfire, as well as Curtail, Maverick, Huskie, Olympus, Orion, to which is added, Leverage, Warrior, Mustang, Stinger, Stratego, (who came up with these names?) that billow and bloom from the tails of low-flying aeroplanes. Who’s flying those planes? Red soft winter (wheat type) seeded in red orange fall (season) is used to bake muffins, delicious and moist with crunchy tops. The muffin is full atrazine, 2,4-D, (petrochemical) (dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) and its bottom is soft, it melts under the weight of the top until only the crunch remains. Muffins are great in a pinch: You can eat them in the morning, grab one to-go on your way out of the office, have one with a coffee or tea, bake them for a special event, eat one with your special other, feed them to your children, feed them to your children. But we have to feed the children, dammit! what are we going to do if we can’t shove them full of apple-cran chocolate-chip banana bran bars topped with frosty frosted flakes and flecks until they’re stuffed and bloated in the corner, their legs collapsing from underneath them?

Les armes chimiques sous les mers Ou les mers à la moutarde par Élise Guerrero

INTRODUCTION: Après les Première et Seconde Guerres mondiales, d’immenses quan-

tités d’armes chimiques ont été jetées dans les mers du globe (Sanderson, 2010; Brewer et Nakayama, 2008; Helcom, 1994). Les problématiques liées à ce sujet seront explorées, sur la base d’études menées en Europe et au Canada. On observera plus en détails les réactions chimiques et les dangers liés à deux types d’agents chimiques les plus souvent retrouvés sous l’eau. Afin de mieux comprendre les débats qui divisent la communauté scientifique, les gouvernements et les citoyens, on se demandera s’il vaut mieux laisser les armes où elles sont ou les retirer. Le but de ce projet est de tenter d’établir un verdict quant aux actions à entreprendre au vu des conséquences environnementales de ces dépôts d’armes chimiques. Brève historique La Première Guerre mondiale a parfois été nommée la Grande Guerre chimique, et pour cause : dès 1915, des offensives au gaz sont lancées sur le territoire européen. La première, à Ypres, en Belgique, devra rester dans les mémoires : elle donnera son nom à la substance utilisée (ypérite), aussi appelée « gaz moutarde » à cause de son odeur. Durant cette guerre, près de 900 000 morts dus à ce produit chimique sont dénombrés (Curry, 2016). Durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, 12

l’URSS, l’Allemagne, les États-Unis, le Japon et le Canada ont tous produit de grandes quantités d’armes chimiques, quoique ces agents n’aient pas été utilisés sur le champ de bataille (Chemsea, 2016; Henriet et Missiaen, 2015). Parmi ces agents chimiques, l’ypérite figure parmi les plus importants en termes de production (40% de la production allemande entre 1935 et 1945); mais de nombreux autres sont également mis au point et produits massivement (Chemsea, 2016). Au cours de la Seconde Guerre mondiale et pendant la guerre froide, les grandes puissances mondiales mènent une course à l’armement

Photo by D. D.

chimique : c’est à qui développera le plus rapidement la toxine la plus efficace. Durant cette période, le IIIe Reich, les États-Unis et l’URSS s’affrontent secrètement à coup de kidnapping de chimistes afin de développer de nouveaux agents chimiques de guerre ou d’en produire en quantités industrielles dans des usines au nom codé. Une opération de ce genre menée par le gouvernement américain, connue sous le nom « Opération Paperclip, » se déroule de 1945 à 1952. Des scientifiques au service des nazis pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale sont amenés aux États-Unis afin que leur expertise dans les domaines des agents chimiques de guerre profite à l’armée américaine (Jacobsen, 2014). Peu avant la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le IIIe Reich détient de grands stocks d’armes chimiques. Pour éviter que les Alliés les saisissent une fois la guerre terminée, Hitler commande l’opération Zunft, ayant pour but de cacher ces agents chimiques de guerre. Excepté quelques accidents, la majorité n’a toujours pas été retrouvée (Riche, 2011). Au Japon s’est déroulée une opération du même genre, pour éviter que les Chinois ne s’approprient les armes chimiques en même temps que le territoire japonais.

de charger leurs cargaisons de produits chimiques à bord de navires et de prendre la route vers les sites de dépôts. Cependant, et de là une première source d’incertitude par rapport à la localisation des munitions immergées, les bateaux dévient souvent largement des routes prévues. En outre, au lieu de les déverser aux endroits prévus, une grande quantité (inconnue) d’armes chimiques est jetée par-dessus bord, tout au long du trajet. Ces agents chimiques sont contenus dans des barils, des bombes, des ogives de missiles ou parfois des caisses en bois (Curry, 2016). Comme le bois flotte, ces caisses dérivent au gré des courants au lieu de couler directement sur le sol océanique. Certaines boîtes ont été retrouvées sur les côtes suédoises et celles de l’île de Bornholm (HELCOM, 1994). Les produits chimiques ont pu se retrouver au fond des océans d’une autre façon : des bateaux entiers sont coulés, entraînant avec eux leur cargaison d’armes chimiques.

Les principales étendues d’eau concernées par les dépôts d’armes chimiques sont l’océan Atlantique (principalement les côtes canadiennes et américaines), la mer Adriatique, la mer Baltique, la mer Méditerranée et les côtes japonaises et australiennes. Notons que d’autres mers et lacs ont aussi fait office de sites de décharge À la fin des deux guerres mondiales, et que grand nombre de munitions d’immenses stocks d’armes chimiques ont été enfouies dans le sol terrestre. diverses restent encore dans différents pays. Dans le but de décider comment s’en Le gaz moutarde débarrasser, les états concernés se réunissent gaz moutarde, ou ypérite lors de la conférence de Potsdam. Les Le scientifiques pensent alors que les produits (1-chloro-2-(2-chloroéthylsulfanyl)éthane), chimiques se désintégreront rapidement n’est pas un gaz à proprement parler. dans l’eau sans causer de dommages au C’est en effet une substance liquide qui est milieu marin et le largage dans la mer vaporisée dans l’atmosphère à l’aide d’un est jugé la meilleure méthode (et la moins explosif. Notons que chez les substances coûteuse) pour se débarrasser des armes vésicantes, comme l’ypérite, la forme chimiques. Les états s’empressent donc liquide est beaucoup plus dangereuse que 14

la forme gazeuse − soit les vapeurs qui dégradation forment une coque insoluble se dégagent du liquide (Ellison, 2007). autour de l’agrégat d’ypérite, ralentissant l’hydrolyse. Le gaz moutarde, ainsi entouré Lorsqu’elle se retrouve au fond des mers, d’une couche de polymères protectrice, l’ypérite forme des agrégats semi-solides peut prendre jusqu’à des décennies à se dont la couche extérieure s’hydrolyse, dégrader. La composition chimique de formant une enveloppe composée des cette croûte varie, mais on y retrouve sous-produits de l’hydrolyse. Ces sous-pro- majoritairement des produits issus de la duits (Mustard Gas Hydrolysis Products, dégradation des épaississants. Les épaissisMGHP en anglais) sont eux-mêmes sants (insolubles), tels que l’alloprène et issus de la dégradation de l’hémimou- le polyméthacrylate de méthyle, qui sont tarde, c’est-à-dire le produit résultant de parfois ajoutés à l’ypérite pour réduire la rupture des liens de l’ion sulfonium sa température de congélation, ont cette (Sanserson, 2010). Par la suite, l’hémimou- propriété de l’empêcher de réagir avec tarde se divise en thiodiglycol (de formule l’eau en formant une enveloppe autour de C4H10O2S) et en acide hydrochlo- l’aggrégat (Hart, 2000). Celle-ci empêche rique (de formule HCl). L’acide chlorhy- en outre la diffusion de l’ypérite (Helcom, drique est neutralisé par l’eau de mer. Le 1994 ; Hart, 2000 ; Salerno, 2017). Peuvent thiodiglycol, comme tous les glycols, est aussi être ajoutés des solvants, tels que le très soluble et est beaucoup moins toxique chlorobenzène, qui ralentissent l’hydrolyse. que l’ypérite elle-même (Missiaen, 2017 ; Les sous-produits de l’hydrolyse ont eux Curry, 2016 ; Helcom, 1994). Comme il aussi une très grande longévité dans l’eau disparaît rapidement dans l’eau, les indica- de mer (Missiaen, 2017 ; Sanderson, 2010; teurs que de l’ypérite a été dégradée sur Hart, 2000). La température de l’eau un site sont généralement le 1,4-oxathiane, influence le taux de dissolution de l’ypérite: le 1,4-dithiane et leurs dérivés, d’autres plus l’eau est chaude, plus la dissolution sous-produits de l’hydrolyse (Sanderson, est rapide (Helcom, 1994). En outre, la 2010 ; Beldowski, 2017). Ces sous-produits salinité et les courants marins influencent varient selon les conditions du milieu : par la vitesse de réaction (Helcom, 1994). exemple, dans la mer Baltique, c’est-à-dire à une température de 2oC et une salinité Bien que l’agrégat de gaz moutarde, entouré de 9 à 13 PSU (Practical Salinity Unit), de polymères, bien moins dangereux, qui dans un environnement alternativement le protègent de l’hydrolyse, semble presque anaérobie et aérobie, les sous-produits inoffensif, un grand nombre de facteurs retrouvés en plus grandes proportions sont en font un produit très dangereux. Par le 1,4-dithiane, le 1,4,5-oxadithiepane exemple, la pêche à la drague, en raclant le et le 1,2,5-trithiepane (Beldowski, 2017). fond de l’océan, abîme l’enveloppe protectrice de l’agrégat ou le contenant dans L’hydrolyse, c’est-à-dire la dégradation de lequel l’ypérite est enfermée. L’ypérite peut l’ypérite par l’eau, peut être ralentie ou de nouveau se trouver libérée et intoxiquer modifiée par plusieurs facteurs. Comme le des organismes vivants (il en sera traité plus taux de dissolution dans l’eau de l’ypérite tard). Les agrégats étant attrapés par les est très bas, l’hydrolyse s’effectue à un filets des pêcheurs, de nombreux incidents rythme ralenti (Beldowski, 2017; IARC, ont lieu lorsque ces derniers y sont exposés. 2012). Tout d’abord, certains produits de En outre, l’ypérite absorbe modérément 15

aux sédiments et autres particules solides en suspension dans l’eau, ce qui a pour effet de permettre son déplacement par l’entremise du mouvement de ces particules dans la colonne d’eau et suivant les courants (National Institute of Health, 2017). Ce phénomène de re-suspension des particules déposées au fond de l’eau est observé lorsque la vitesse du courant dépasse la valeur de la vitesse de friction. Cette vitesse de friction, donc, indique à partir de quelle limite de vitesse du courant de fond les sédiments se remettent en suspension dans la colonne d’eau, d’où ils sont facilement transportés hors du site et peuvent contaminer d’autres bassins (Chemsea, 2016). Certaines études démontrent que des cyanobactéries présentes sur les sites de dépôt d’ypérite ont la capacité de dégrader ses sous-produits et pourraient donc aider à dépolluer les sites (Sanderson, 2010; Medvedeva, 2009). Ces micro-organismes ont particulièrement été étudiés dans la région de la fosse de Bornholm, dans la mer Baltique. Il a été démontré que les micro-organismes résistants aux effets toxiques des sous-produits de l’hydrolyse ont étés retrouvés en plus grande concentration dans les eaux profondes des zones de dépôt d’ypérite (40%) qu’à l’extérieur de ces zones (0% à 3%) (Sanderson, 2010). Les espèces retrouvées étaient non seulement capables de tolérer les sous-produits de l’ypérite (notamment le thiodiglycol), contrairement à d’autres micro-organismes, mais avaient aussi la capacité d’en retirer le carbone et l’énergie dont ils avaient besoin et de métaboliser le thiodiglycol à de très basses températures. Parmi les espèces examinées, citons Achromobacter, Pseudomonas et Arthrobacter (Medvedeva, 2009). La possibilité de les utiliser en bioremédiation serait à explorer. Outre ces micro-organismes, la prolifération de la cyanobac16

térie Microcystis aeruginosa a été observée sur les sites où étaient présents les produits de la dégradation de l’ypérite. La toxicité de cette cyanobactérie est reconnue : elle produit une hépatotoxine (toxine attaquant le foie), et la microcystine-LR (qui peut être fatale à nombre d’espèces animales)(Musée d’histoire naturelle, 2017; Tatyana, 2017; Hemansky et al, 1990). L’ypérite non dégradée a la propriété de pénétrer les cellules d’organismes vivants rapidement. Les molécules entrent en contact avec les molécules de l’ADN et de l’ARN, ainsi qu’avec des protéines reliées à différentes fonctions (Sanderson, 2010). À ce contact s’effectue une réaction d’alkylation endommageant l’ADN des cellules touchées. En bref, chez les humains comme chez les organismes marins, l’exposition au gaz moutarde cause des dommages génétiques à long terme et accroît les risques de cancers du poumon, de l’œsophage et du larynx (Hart, 2000 : voir Sallon, 2013 ; IARC, 2012). En outre, l’ypérite est un vésicant, une substance causant des cloques sur la peau. Chez l’humain, les dégâts sont causés au contact avec la peau ou à l’inhalation; c’est pourquoi de nombreux accidents surviennent lorsque des pêcheurs remontent des agrégats d’ypérite dans leurs filets et y sont exposés (Lepick, 1999). Les produits arséniés Les produits arséniés (notamment le Clark 1 et 2, l’adamsite, la lewisite, le trihydrure d’arsenic) sont ceux qui ont été jetés au fond de l’eau en plus grande quantité (Greenberg, Sexton et Vearrier, 2014). On se concentrera ici sur la lewisite, un composé huileux qui se dérive en lewisite 1 (2-chlorovinyldichlorarsine), lewisite 2 (bis(2-chlorovinyl)chlorarsine) et lewisite 3 (tris(2-chlorovinyl)arsine). La

seule différence entre ces trois composés organiques est le nombre de groupements chlorovinyle (C=C−Cl) remplaçant les atomes de chlore dans la molécule. Dans les munitions, plusieurs de ces composés sont parfois mélangés (AFSSAPS, 2010). La lewisite n’est pas hydrosoluble; cependant, elle est rapidement dégradée dans l’eau. Comme elle est liposoluble, son transport dans le corps est facile et ce qui rend plus facile son accès aux cellules et pour les endommager (Vilensky, 2005). La lewisite cause des mutations génétiques et augmente les risques de cancer; chez les mammifères, elle engendre des aberrations chromosomiques (Trammell, 1992; Watson and Griffin, 1992; Center for Disease Control, 1988; voir Institute of Medicine, 1993). La lewisite est aussi un vésicant, mais les symptômes à la suite d’une exposition apparaissent beaucoup plus rapidement que pour le gaz moutarde (Center for Disease Control, 1988; voir Institute of Medicine, 1993).

l’oxyde de lewisite et l’acide 2-chloro-vinylarsénieux, et d’autres composés arséniés – aussi toxiques du fait de la présence d’arsenic. L’hydrolyse de la lewisite est rapide; les sous-produits sont donc les seuls indicateurs de la présence de lewisite, entièrement disparue, sur un site. L’acide 2-chloro-vinylarsénieux a en outre une grande longévité, de plusieurs dizaines d’années (Sanderson, 2010). En milieu alkalin, de l’acétylène (inoffensive dans l’eau) et de l’acide arsénique (aux propriétés toxiques de l’arsenic inorganique) peuvent être produits à partir de l’oxyde de lewisite (Helcom, 1994). Notons que la mer Baltique et l’océan Atlantique, le long de la côte américaine, sont des milieux alkalins avec un pH d’environ 8. En quoi l’arsenic inorganique est-il un danger pour l’environnement? Les organismes vivants sont incapables d’éliminer l’arsenic, et l’accumulent donc dans leur corps tout au long de leur vie. Lorsque les prédateurs se nourrissent d’un grand nombre de petites proies, ils accumulent l’arsenic préalablement accumulé de tous ces organismes. Ainsi la concentration d’arsenic dans ces organismes augmente avec le niveau trophique: c’est le phénomène de bioamplification. Lorsque l’humain, niveau supérieur du réseau trophique, consomme l’animal originaire de la zone contaminée, il consomme l’arsenic accumulé par tous les organismes dont l’animal s’est nourri. C’est pourquoi ces agents chimiques sont dangereux pour la santé humaine même lorsque l’humain n’est pas directement en contact avec eux. L’arsenic inorganique est cancérigène et mutagène (Sanderson, 2010).

La particule la plus dangereuse pour l’environnement marin dans la lewisite est l’arsenic inorganique, tel qu’il est produit par l’hydrolyse. Selon une étude menée dans la mer Baltique l’arsenic se retrouve principalement dans la couche supérieure du sédiment, d’où il est susceptible de contaminer les eaux souterraines et les eaux interstitielles (eau infiltrée entre les particules de sédiments du sol marin) (Sanderson, 2010). L’eau près du fond marin, en revanche, ne contiendrait pas de dérivés arséniés, selon cette étude. Comme pour la plupart des composés, la concentration des sous-produits de l’hydrolyse est plus grande lorsqu’on s’approche des sites de décharges majeurs (quoiqu’il soit possible d’en retrouver à plus de 20 Action ou inaction kilomètres de ceux-ci). Ces sous-produits de l’hydrolyse sont l’acide chlorydrique, Après ce bref survol des dangers et des 17

Photo by Thomas King

enjeux qu’impliquent les armes chimiques disséminées dans les mers, les océans, les lacs (en Suisse et dans les Grands Lacs, par exemple) et les fleuves, on se demande s’il est préférable de retirer ces armes ou de les laisser où elles sont. D’importants débats divisent la communauté scientifique et les citoyens quant à l’avenir des armes chimiques au fond des mers.

(McNeely, 2007; Long, 2016; Noualhat, 2014). Les dommages à l’environnement marin sont également dus aux produits arséniés (lewisite, trihydrure d’arsenic, adamsite, Clark I et Clark II) : comme vu plus tôt, on observe une bioaccumulation qui met même en danger la santé humaine. Encore une fois, éliminer les sources sous-marines d’arsenic préviendrait, à long terme, ce phénomène de bioaccuMais avant même de savoir quoi faire des mulation des agents toxiques chez les munitions immergées, il est important de organismes marins comme chez l’humain. rappeler que la majorité des sites de dépôt ne sont même pas répertoriés. Au Canada, En plus de la contamination de la chaîne par exemple, on sait que de grandes alimentaire, qui représente un contact quantités d’armes gisent le long des côtes de indirect de l’humain avec les armes la Nouvelle-Écosse et de Terre-Neuve, mais chimiques, de nombreux accidents on sait rarement les quantités véritables survenus au cours des dernières années et les lieux précis. Peu d’entre eux sont prouvent que les agents peuvent plus répertoriés sur les cartes ; bien souvent, facilement se retrouver en contact les zones signalées sont très peu précises, direct avec l’humain qu’on ne le pense n’ayant pas été enregistrées au moment Des pêcheurs, notamment, rapportent du dépôt. La navigation dans ces zones régulièrement amasser dans leurs filets est donc très dangereuse, lorsqu’elle n’est des douilles de munitions chimiques pas interdite, particulièrement pour les ou des agrégats de gaz moutarde. Le pêcheurs, qui sont les plus souvent victimes Danemark est le seul pays à offrir une d’accidents à cause des armes chimiques. compensation aux pêcheurs rapportant des armes chimiques (Noualhat, 2014). Pour quelles raisons voudrait-on Les ouvriers travaillant sur des projets près récupérer les agents chimiques du de dépôts d’armes chimiques (comme les fond de l’eau ? pipelines Nord Stream ou l’exploitation pétrolière en Nouvelle-Écosse) courent Tout d’abord, on sait que les contenants donc de graves risques d’accident au d’agents chimiques se corrodent et fuient, contact des armes chimiques (Curry, 2016). et que la diffusion de ces produits toxiques contamine de nombreux êtres vivants. En Ce qui pousse certains à vouloir retirer retirant les munitions de l’eau, donc la les munitions des mers est le manque source des fuites, on s’assure que l’envi- de données que l’on a sur leurs comporronnement marin ne sera plus sujet à tements. On sait que les contenants de constantes fuites chimiques (Katona, se corrodent et fuient, mais on ne sait 2014 ; Beldowski, 2017). Des études pas à quel rythme, et jusqu’à quand ils démontrent que les organismes marins garderont enfermés ces agents chimiques. développent des tumeurs et subissent Impossible de savoir quand et comment des dommages génétiques en raison de seront relâchés dans l’eau les stocks leur exposition à des agents chimiques d’armes chimiques pour l’instant à l’abri 20

de leurs coques métalliques. Ajoutons que dans l’éventualité d’un déclenchement soudain d’un explosif contenant des agents chimiques, il serait impossible de connaître l’étendue ni la gravité des dégâts. Comment ferait-on pour nettoyer les sites de dépôt ? Différentes façons de récupérer les agents chimiques de guerre sont possibles. Certaines comportent des risques d’accident plus importants que d’autres – ces dernières sont souvent plus coûteuses. La technique la plus répandue consiste à incinérer les agents chimiques récupérés comme on le ferait pour d’autres produits chimiques toxiques. On fait brûler dans des fours à très haute température (1400 °C) les agents chimiques, ce qui produit des fumées dont on peut capter les particules toxiques grâce à des filtres adaptés (Dessibourg, 2013 ; Lecompte, 2017 ; Sanderson, 2018). Cette méthode requiert des infrastructures coûteuses qui existent en Europe et aux États-Unis, mais pas au Canada (Long, 2018). Ajoutons que tous les agents chimiques ne peuvent être traités de cette manière : l’agent DF, par exemple, se transforme en fluorure d’hydrogène à la suite du traitement thermique, composé qui corroderait fortement l’infrastructure (Dessibourg, 2013). En outre, la lewisite libère de grandes quantités d’arsenic lorsque soumise à ce procédé. Sous forme de vapeurs, elle récupère ses propriétés vésicantes (Lecompte, 2017). Le fait que l’arsenic ne soit pas éliminé ou transformé par les organismes rend très difficile son traitement une fois les armes arséniées récupérées. Une méthode pour se débarrasser de l’arsenic est le de réintroduire dans une industrie qui l’utilise (Beldowski, 2017). Le recyclage des armes chimiques, en les transformant en produits utiles par une suite de

réactions, permet également de faire de ces armes destructrices des outils pacifiques (McNeely, 2007; Sanderson, 2018). Le sarin et l’ypérite sont deux agents chimiques que l’hydrolyse suffit à rendre inoffensifs. L’hydrolyse de l’ypérite produit majoritairement de l’acide chlorydrique et du thiodiglycol, deux composés peu dangereux et facilement traitables (Dessibourg, 2013). Afin d’accélérer la réaction d’hydrolyse, l’enceinte réactionnelle est chauffée. Cependant, il est impossible de faire réagir complètement le substrat (le sarin ou l’ypérite), comme toute réaction chimique n’est jamais tout à fait complète. Le désavantage majeur de cette méthode est que les sous-produits de l’hydrolyse sont produits en une quantité environ cinq fois supérieure à la quantité initiale (Dessibourg, 2013 ; Lecompte, 2017). À l’heure actuelle, il est cependant impossible de connaître l’emplacement de tous les sites de dépôt et de dispersion des agents et de naufrages de bateaux renfermant des agents chimiques. La possibilité de retirer des munitions s’adresserait donc aux sites répertoriés uniquement. Même dans l’éventualité où les sites seraient pour la plupart répertoriés, leur nombre immense requerrait des ressources démesurées si l’on voulait tous les nettoyer (Piscitelli, 2014 : voir Euronews, 2014; Beldowski, 2017). Uniquement le long de la côte néo-écossaise, les meilleures estimations s’élèvent à 1200 sites (McNeely, 2007). Plusieurs experts recommandent, avant toute action concernant les munitions immergées, une meilleure documentation des sites, des risques, du transport et du comportement des produits chimiques dans l’eau (Sanderson, 2018 ; Helcom, 1994 ; Salat, 2004 ; Pratt, 2004 ; Missiaen, 2017). 21

Pour quelles raisons voudrait-on laisser les agents chimiques au fond de l’eau ? Certains recommandent de laisser les armes chimiques là où elles sont. Cette option peut sembler étonnante au vu de la toxicité pour l’environnement et de la dangerosité des agents chimiques, mais elle est appliquée dans beaucoup de cas. En effet, comme on l’a vu plus tôt, on connaît mal le comportement des agents chimiques dans l’eau, le rythme de corrosion des contenants et leur état. Tenter de retirer les munitions du fond des mers est donc périlleux : le risque que les caisses se cassent durant l’opération est non-négligeable (Beldowski, 2017; Katona, 2014). Il est possible de mener de façon sécuritaire ce type d’opération, mais le coût en est élevé. Les gouvernements prêts à payer pour réparer ces dégâts sont rares. L’armée canadienne, notamment, est peu disposée à payer pour nettoyer les côtes canadiennes (Long, 2018). Les études menées jusqu’à présent (presque exclusivement européennes) ciblaient surtout le repérage des munitions et la façon de les localiser mais peu de preuves existent quant à la véritable toxicité des agents chimiques (Sanderson, 2018). Il faudrait donc commencer par connaître véritablement leurs dangers et effets avant d’entreprendre quelque mesure que ce soit pour les retirer. Ce pourrait en effet être une opération dangereuse, si l’on est mal renseigné sur les agents chimiques.

ronnement marin (Ungaro, 2014 ; voir Euronews, 2014 ; Katona, 2014). On laisse donc souvent les munitions en espérant que les fuites toxiques soient lentes et en partie assimilées par l’environnement (Beldowski, 2017 ; Sanderson, 2018). Ajoutons qu’un nouvel équilibre écologique a pu s’établir suite à la contamination d’un environnement par des armes chimiques, et qu’il est souvent déconseillé de perturber un équilibre écologique. En effet, ce nouvel équilibre incluant les produits chimiques, retirer ceux-ci serait créer un nouveau débalancement dans l’environnement. Dans certains cas, les animaux marins ont colonisé et utilisé les munitions comme récif où se cacher, chasser et se nourrir, rendant impossible la récupération des armes (Lang, 2016 ; voir Curry, 2016). Le fait que des organismes vivants soient capables d’entretenir un contact aussi rapproché avec des munitions chimiques laisse supposer que leur toxicité ne les affecte pas, qu’ils se sont adaptés à celle-ci ou que les produits ne fuient pas. Il serait en outre impossible d’envisager quelque opération que ce soit sur ces munitions, devenues un refuge pour la vie.

Dans d’autres cas, les sédiments ont recouvert les munitions et formé une croûte au-dessus ou les ont ensevelies profondément, les prévenant donc de fuir dans l’environnement marin (Beldowski, 2017 ; Katona, 2014). En revanche, les eaux interstitielles sont tout Si les contenants se corrodent à un rythme de même contaminées (Sanderson, 2010). lent, on estime que l’environnement est plus à même de gérer les fuites chimiques, alors Les solutions prônées dans le cas où les que dans l’éventualité d’un relâchement munitions resteraient sur le sol marin sont massif de produits toxiques (par exemple, donc une meilleure documentation des lors d’une opération de récupération des sites, leur cartographie, leur surveillance munitions), il est impossible de connaître constante par les scientifiques et l’interles réactions et les conséquences sur l’envi- diction partielle ou totale d’activités dans 22

ces zones (Pratt, 2004 ; Beldowski, 2016 : voir Curry, 2016 ; Salat, 2004). C’est ce dernier point qui pose souvent problème : lorsque les sites sont répertoriés, des activités telles que la pêche, la pêche à la drague, l’exploitation pétrolière ou l’installation de pipelines sont encore possibles. Soulignons deux cas particuliers : celui des pipelines Nord Stream et Nord Stream 2, en mer Baltique ; et les permis d’exploration pétrolière près des côtes néo-écossaises. En mer Baltique, le tracé des pipelines parallèles Nord Stream passe au-dessus de sites de dépôts d’armes chimiques majeurs : la fosse de Gdansk et le bassin de Bornholm (Gazprom, 2016 ; Sanderson, 2018). Cependant, une étude menée tout au long du projet démontre que la suspension de particules toxiques issues de la dégradation des armes chimiques n’était pas plus dangereuse que la présence de ces produits dans l’eau en eux-mêmes. Aucun agent chimique non dégradé n’a été retrouvé dans les échantillons et la biodiversité ne semblait pas être affectée par la présence ou l’absence de munitions chimiques. Notons toutefois que cette étude a été entièrement financée par Nord Stream, la compagnie à qui appartient la pipeline. Il est possible, lors d’études sur la toxicité des munitions immergées, que les concentrations des produits soient trop faibles pour être détectées par les appareils ou recevables scientifiquement. Comme on ne peut se procurer ou synthétiser d’armes chimiques pour faire des tests en laboratoire (en raison de la Convention sur l’interdiction des armes chimiques) et que l’on dépend des produits trouvés en divers états sous la mer, il est très difficile de mener ce genre d’étude, et surtout d’obtenir des résultats constants (Sanderson, 2018). Quant aux permis de prospection sismique

au large de la Nouvelle-Écosse, le dossier a été traité par Myles Kehoe et Michael Ojoleck. Autoriser des travaux sur le sol marin, lorsque celui-ci sert de dépôt à des munitions chimiques dont on ne connaît pas l’état de dégradation, est potentiellement très dangereux pour l’environnement : lesdits travaux risquent de provoquer la re-suspension des sédiments, ce qui permet leur déplacement vers d’autres zones, ou même de casser les contenants corrodés des armes chimiques. Dans plusieurs des sites connus de dépôts d’armes (comme à Sydney Bight), des permis d’exploration sismique ont été accordés par le département de la Défense nationale et les Forces armées canadiennes à des compagnies pétrolières (Kehoe, 2017). Aucune étude concernant les risques associés à cette activité n’a été menée; il est donc impossible de connaître les conséquences de la prospection sismique sur les sites de dépôt (Défense nationale, 2002). Quel que soit le sort des munitions immergées, rappelons que les citoyens habitant les régions côtières concernées par la problématique (par exemple, près des côtes néo-écossaise, belge, australienne, suédoise) sont mis en danger par les dépôts d’armes chimiques à proximité des côtes, souvent dans des zones peu profondes. En mer Baltique, les zones les plus profondes font moins de 500 mètres de profondeur (Curry, 2016). En Belgique, on retrouve des armes à 60 kilomètres des côtes ; en Italie, à quelques centaines de mètres ; au Japon, dans le port même de Kanda (Missiaen, 2004 : voir Salat, 2004 ; Piscitelli, 2014 : voir Euronews, 2014; Noualhat, 2014). Des munitions sont régulièrement retrouvées sur les plages de ces zones ; la plupart des citoyens ne savent pas comment reconnaître ni comment agir face à ces objets, ce qui pose de sérieux 23

Photo by D. D.

problèmes pour la sécurité et la santé CHEMSEA. (2016). Results from the CHEMSEA humaine (Long, 2018 ; Katona, 2014). project – Chemical MUNITIONS Search and Conclusion En conclusion, nous avons pu observer les façons dont différents agents chimiques de guerre affectent l’environnement marin. Après avoir vu les dangers que représentent ces armes chimiques gisant au fond des mers de la planète, nous avons pu explorer les pistes de solutions proposées, souvent controversées : faut-il laisser ou retirer les armes chimiques du fond des mers? Parmi les aspects qui n’ont pas été traités, notons le sujet des armes conventionnelles, jugées parfois plus dangereuses et toxiques que les armes chimiques, et les décharges d’armes sur terre, qui contaminent les sols et les humains (Sanderson, 2018; Long, 2018). Médiagraphie Agence française de sécurité sanitaire des produits de santé. (2011). Piratox sheet #3 : “Lewisite”. Saint-Denis, France: ANSM 3. Audoin-Rouzeau, B. (2010). Gaz ! Gaz ! Gaz !, La guerre chimique de 1914-1918. Milan, Italie: Éditions 5 continents. Bełdowski, J., Klusek, Z., Szubska, M., Turja, R., Bulczak, A. I., Rak, D., ... & Jakacki, J. (2016). Chemical Munitions Search & Assessment—an evaluation of the dumped munitions problem in the Baltic Sea. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 128, 85-95. Brewer, G. et Nakayama, N. (2008). What Lies Beneath: A Plea for Complete Information. Environmental Science & Technology. 42 (5). Bureau du vérificateur général du Canada. (2002). Dépotoirs militaires au large de la côte atlantique du Canada. Canada: Ottawa. Bureau du vérificateur général du Canada (2004). Pétition de suivi concernant les dépotoirs militaires au large des côtes de l’Atlantique. Canada: Ottawa.

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Salerno, A. (2016). Évaluation de l’efficacité de dégradation et de décontamination cutanée du CeO2 vis-à-vis d’un composé organophosphoré, le Paraoxon (Doctoral dissertation, Université de Lyon). Sallon, Hélène. (2013). Gaz moutarde, sarin ou VX : des armes chimiques interdites. Repéré à http://www.lemonde.fr/international/ article/2013/05/01/gaz-moutarde-sarin-ou-vxdes-armes-chimiques-interdites_3168130_3210. html#JtKwW1cAUVDhiui8.99 Samderson et al. (2012). Potential Environmental Risks Associated With Dumped Chemical Warfare Agents (CWA) in the Baltic Sea Very Low According to New Research”. Repéré à https:// www.nord-stream.com/press-info/press-releases/ potential-environmental-risks-associated-withdumped-chemical-warfare-agents-cwa-in-the-baltic-sea-very-low-according-to-new-research-399/ Sanderson, H., Fauser, P., Thomsen, M., Vanninen, P., Soderstrom, M., Savin, Y., ... & Gress, A. (2010). Environmental hazards of sea-dumped chemical weapons. Sasser et al. (1989). LEWISITE. Repéré à https:// toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search2 Sasser et al. (1989). Toxicology studies on lewisite and sulfur mustard agents: two-generation reproduction study of lewisite in rats; final report. Repéré à https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ cgi-bin/sis/search2/f ?. /temp/~ErlYjf:2

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Personnes reliées au projet Myles Kehoe. Envoi de références documentaires et de documents (cartes marines, articles de journaux et autres documents). Tine Missiaen. 16 juillet 2017 au 25 juillet 2017. Réponses écrites à des questions. Jacek Beldowski. 28 août 2017 au 13 octobre 2017. Réponses écrites à des questions et envoi de références documentaires. Nicola Ungaro. 8 octobre 2017 au 18 décembre 2017. Envoi de documents de l’ICRAM (Instituto Central per la Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica Applicata al Mare). Jamie Knill. 15 décembre 2017 au 3 janvier 2018. Joshua McNeely. 3 janvier 2018. Envoi de documents et réponses écrites à des questions. Terrance P. Long. 4 janvier 2018. Entretien audiovisuel. Hans Sanderson. 17 décembre 2017 au 5 janvier 2018. Entretien audiovisuel.

Remerciements

Je tiens à remercier Myles Kehoe, Terrance Long, de l’IDUM, Hans Sanderson, Tine Missiaen, Jacek Beldowski, Jamie Swann et al. (1983). BIS(2-CHLOROETHYL) Knill et Joshua McNeely de MAARS SULFID. Repéré à https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ et Nicola Ungaro pour leur générosité et l’aide qu’elles et ils m’ont apportée. cgi-bin/sis/search2 Tatyana, Z., Medvedeva, N. (2017). Influence des produits d’hydrolyse du gaz moutarde sur le développement des espèces de masse de cyanobac-

Photo by Thomas King

Photo by Lulu Lebowitz

A Case Against Growth by Sarah Chamberland-Fontaine, Audrey Dulon, Mathis Schilling, Talor Wald and Shanil Wijeshinghe

Introduction

functions that are invaluable compared to the additional units of man-made capital Economic growth is the increase of an that an economy produces (Daly et al., economy’s throughput, or “the materials 2007). In thermodynamic terms central to and energy a society extracts, processes, the framework of ecological economics, transports and distributes to consume and the expansion of an economy can only return back to the environment as waste” be achieved “at the expense of increasing (Kallis, 2011). The planetary boundary (PB) entropy” in the biosphere, consequentially ecosystem integrity.” framework shows that past economic growth jeopardizing has encroached upon the safe operating space (Georgescu-Roegen, 1975). Entropy is an of the PBs (Steffen et al., 2015). For example, index of the amount of bound energy in an declining biodiversity rates indicate that a isolated structure (Georgescu-Roegen, 1971). planetary boundary has been crossed, which When energy is bound, it can no longer be means the human economy has exceeded used for an economically productive purpose; its optimal scale relative to the biosphere in other words, energy moves from a state of that contains it (Daly et al., 2007). An order into disorder. increase in throughput crowds out ecosystem 31

Some economists propose that the continuous rise of GDP per capita will remedy the environmental degradation caused by past economic growth. The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) (see Figure 1 below) exemplifies this theory, positing that rising GDP per capita initially causes environmental degradation, but eventually enables investment in efficient technologies and in environmental quality improvement (Daly, 1993). In countries with an observable EKC, the curve is misleading because the improvement in domestic environmental quality is partially attributable to international trade (Xue, 2014). Through free trade, developed countries avoid the local environmental consequences their consumption produces at the expense of developing countries (Giampietro & Mayumi, 1998). As ecological economist, Herman Daly (1993) explains, trade allows a country to exceed “domestic environmental regenerative and absorptive limits by importing [biophysical] capacities from other countries” and exporting industrial wastes to them. In thermodynamics terms, developed countries extract low entropy (orderly) resources from developing countries and release high entropy (disorderly) waste into the developing countries’ environment (Giampietro & Mayumi, 1998). Both developed and developing countries sacrifice long term economic and environmental resilience for short–term trade gains (Giampietro & Mayumi, 1998).

doubled the efficiency of food production per hectare, but worsened hunger by enabling an increase in population (Giampietro & Mayumi, 1998). Also, Daly states that industrial agriculture substitutes a low entropy, renewable resource base of sunlight and soil, with a high entropy, nonrenewable resource base of fossil fuels and fertilizers (2007). In addition, there is a positive feedback loop in the use of petrochemical inputs, whereby their use is growing faster than the rate of growth of plant yield (Weis, 2010). This loop shows that man-made capital, such as fertilizers, cannot substitute for the limited natural resources and complex ecosystem functions that result in plant growth (Daly, 2005). Rather than decreasing the scale of the economy required to meet human needs, technological improvements enable the economy’s expansion, which threatens PBs (Giampietro & Mayumi, 1998). The Alternative to Growth: A Definition of Degrowth

The above examples reveal that economic theory and markets are unable to determine the optimal scale of the human economy (Daly, 2005). In order to ensure that global societal development remains within the safe operating space of the planetary boundaries, ecological economists propose a degrowth economy. Giorgos Kallis defines “sustainable degrowth” as the “reduction and eventual stabilization of society’s throughput” (2011). Central to this definition is the progressive The ecologically efficient technologies decentralization and re-localization of the touted by some economists as solutions to economy to reduce its scale to one where environmental degradation and means of regenerative and absorptive capacities of continuous growth are also problematic. the local environment can support. This According to the Jevons Paradox, greater reduction in scale entails a decrease in efficiency in resource use due to technological material production and consumption and improvements can result in increased, rather the selective curtailing of man-made capital than reduced, resource consumption. For (Kallis, 2011). Also, although the goal of example, Green Revolution technologies degrowth is not the reduction of GDP, 32

throughput reduction is inherently contrary to a rise in GDP.

interests in local soil. Central to this shift is the localization of resource management, production, and consumption (Daly et al. Degrowth is a multi-faceted framework 1994). Localization requires a transition from encompassing a radical change in economic, reliance on imported fossil fuel stocks to a solar political, and cultural institutions, beginning flow-based economy, which would increase with a paradigm shift (See Figure 1). Degrowth energy independence in communities (Kallis not only focuses on operating within et al. 2012). A multicriteria evaluation based ecological limits, but also on promoting social on energy return on energy investment justice, improving participatory democracies, (EROI), transportation distance, and life and respecting human rights (Fournier, cycle analyses of energy conversion methods 2008). Such an economic shift would require can determine the suitable energy source a change in individual mindsets from the for meeting the community’s needs (Xue current consumerist values of rational 2010). Further, local production and the self-interest and profit maximization to use of renewable energy can reconstruct or anti-consumerism and voluntary simplicity eliminate multiple economic sectors such as (Fournier, 2008). A completely downscaled free trade. Unlike an economy dependent economy would function as a decentralized on free trade, an economy of a smaller scale system of autonomous communities can dispose of its waste locally and operate using local resources to meet their needs. within the environment’s biophysical limits. However, ecological economics literature A mind map illustrating the core concepts of focuses on top-down approaches in the degrowth is available in Figure 1. form of centralized governmental policies, to guide the transition from a growth to a A decentralized degrowth economy degrowth economy (Cosme et al. 2017). requires changes in the type and quality of Still, governments and corporations are not employment that a community engages financially incentivized to downscale, causing in. Degrowth encourages low productivity, scholars to speculate that degrowth will most labor-intensive, non-energy-intensive likely arise from bottom-up movements or economic activities, especially those with some economic or ecological crisis (Trainer a high work satisfaction. This includes a 2012). According to Kallis, there is a spectrum shift towards local employment and more of possible degrowth pathways consisting jobs in commodity production (Trainer of different combinations of top-down 2012). By fostering frequent and positive policy interventions and local bottom-up interactions in communities through local movements (2012). resource management along with food and commodity production, stronger social ties Envisioning a Degrowth Economy and develop between citizens. Above a certain Society level of affluence, positive social relations and a sense of inclusion within a community A fully decentralized degrowth system are strongly correlated with well-being (Xue, represents a shift from “cosmopolitanism to 2010). Sharing and cooperation also reduce communities of communities” (Daly et al. wealth gaps, the main factor leading to 1994). This new social organization grants decreased levels of well-being (Xue, 2010). communities political and fiscal autonomy, rooting institutional control and economic Within the degrowth literature there is 33

Photo by Sophie Zhao

Fig. 1: Degrowth mind map. Source: Chamberland-Fontaine, S., Dulon, A., Schilling, M., Wald, T., Wishesinghe, S.

controversy over the duration of working hours. On one hand, Kallis argues that in a world of diminishing EROIs on fossil fuels because of increasingly inaccessible fossil fuel deposits, labor productivity may no longer increase (2012). Therefore, more working hours will be needed to perform the same task. On the other hand, the number of working hours is still expected to decrease overall, because, ceteris paribus, a smaller throughput requires fewer jobs or fewer working hours. Consequently, people can engage more in non-remunerated work and leisure (Kallis et al 2012). Examples of non-remunerated work include caretaking, participation in communal decision-making, and small-scale agriculture. The new forms of employment bring added social value through higher levels of human contact (Kallis et al. 2012). These changes in labor emphasize the degrowth framework’s focus on building equitable communities with limited opportunities for wealth accumulation and income inequalities through sharing and cooperation (Videira 2013).

the extraction of natural resources and promoting public participation.

The literature also suggests top-down interventions to encourage the changes in employment described earlier. For example, policies that support engagement in non-remunerated work range from universal basic income and income ceilings to progressive taxes on private use of natural resources (Videira 2013). Of all these policies, basic income is the most ambitious. By “providing a minimum safety net to all citizens, and reducing the compulsion for paid employment”, basic income addresses the root of income inequalities: a lack of substantial redistribution of wealth (Kallis 2012, p. 176). Aside from the labor market, uncertainties remain about the fate of numerous economic sectors, namely the financial sector, within a degrowth system. Some speculate that the financial sector will devolve into informal financial systems or reformed formal financial systems based on greater bank solvency and alternative currencies, such as debt-free money (SICEDES 2010). Nevertheless, The abovementioned vision illustrates the serious doubts remain not only about the core objectives of a degrowth model, namely government’s ability to finance policies in a localization, in which the government plays downscaled economy but about the existence a limited or non-existent role (Cobb, 1994). of a centralized government itself (Trainer However, the literature also addresses how 2012) a government can strengthen degrowth through top-down measures. Recommended Conclusion policies include eliminating mega-infrastructure projects and minimizing upstream Neoclassical economics are a direct cause of environmental degradation through pollution modern environmental change and threaten and emissions caps (SICEDES, 2010). the stability of planetary boundaries. Similar policies in a growth economy result in Contrary to popular discourses, future growth the formation of pollution havens. However, may not lead to investment in environmental in a degrowth economy, such policies go protection and technologies might not save hand in hand with local jurisdiction over us from drastic environmental pressures. the commons, and local waste management Under those circumstances, it is tempting to (Daly 1993). Together, these environmental develop an alternative economic system, such policies aim to go beyond internalizing as a small-scale, localized, degrowth-based environmental externalities by restricting economy. Although complete recycling of 37

materials and energy is nearly impossible, a smaller-scale economy nearly closes the loop of the linear material economy. The rationale behind a degrowth economy is to slow down the inevitable rise of entropy in the biosphere by reducing throughput and implementing a solar flow-based economy (Cleveland et al. 1996). An economy of smaller size, adjusted to the absorptive and regenerative capacities of its local environment, can mitigate the stress on planetary boundaries and promote healthier and more viable economic systems. References Cleveland, C. J., & Ruth, M. (1997). When, where, and by how much do biophysical limits constrain the economic process? A survey of Nicholas GeorgescuRoegen’s contribution to ecological economics. Ecological Economics, 22(3), 203-223. Cosme, I., Santos, R., & O’Neill, D. W. (2017). Assessing the degrowth discourse: A review and analysis of academic degrowth policy proposals. Journal of Cleaner Production, 149, 321-334. Daly, H. E. (1993). The Perils of Free Trade. Scientific American, 269(5), 50-57. Daly, H. E. (2005). Economics in a full world. IEEE Engineering Management Review, 33(4), 21-29. Daly, H. E., & Cobb, J. B. (1994). For the common good: Redirecting the economy toward community, the environment, and a sustainable future (No. 73). Beacon Press. Daly, H. E., Czech, B., Trauger, D. L., Rees, W. E., Grover, M., Dobson, T., & Trombulak, S. C. (2007). Are we consuming too much - For what?. Conservation Biology, 21(5), 1359-1362. Fournier, V. (2008). Escaping from the economy: the politics of degrowth. International Journal of

Sociology and Social Policy, 28(11), 528-545. Giampietro, M., & Mayumi, K. (1998). Another view of development, ecological degradation, and North-South trade. Review of Social Economy, 56(1), 20-36. Georgescu-Roegen, N. (1975). Energy and Economic Myths. Southern Economic Journal, 41(3), 347. Kallis, G. (2011). In defence of degrowth. Ecological Economics, 70(5), 873-880. Kallis, G., Kerschner, C., & Martinez-Alier, J. (2012). The economics of degrowth. Ecological Economics, 84(2), 172-180. Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Second International Conference on Economic Degrowth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity (SICEDES). (2010). Working Group Results. Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockstrӧm, J., Cornell, S. E., Fetzer, I., Bennett, E., & W. de Vries. (2015). Planetary boundaries: guiding human development on a changing planet. Science, 347(6223), 736-747. Trainer, T. (2012). De-growth: Do you realise what it means?. Futures, 44(6), 590-599. Videira, N., Schneider, F., Sekulova, F., & Kallis, G. (2014). Improving understanding on degrowth pathways: An exploratory study using collaborative causal models. Futures, 55, 58-77. Weis, T. (2010). The Accelerating Biophysical Contradictions of Industrial Capitalist Agriculture. Journal of Agrarian Change, 10(3), 315-341. Xue, J. (2010). Economic degrowth today: Call for the Second International Conference on Degrowth. ICTA, Universidad Autonoma de Barcelona, and Research & Degrowth, Barcelona, 26–29 March 2010. Journal of Cleaner Production, 18(2), 186-187.

Photo by Julia Spicer

03 National Parks on Fire: Conservation in the Anthropocene by Philippa Roots

Introduction

pertaining to attitudes of fire and conservation. This will lead us to global climate change, In modern conceptualizations of nature discussing how it affects existing fire regimes and civilization, fire inhabits a grey area. and challenges modern notions of environAs societies strive to save some measure mentalism. The next section will examine of nature from human destruction, an the anthropological motives of fire and understanding of the intricacies of fire as it park management as technology advances, relates to wilderness and conservation is vital. finishing with recommendations for future This paper will discuss the role that forest policies driven by a better understanding fires in national parks play in a changing of wilderness. This paper aims to explain a climate and how humans should respond. It phenomenon that has increasing pertinance will explain how and why fires are important in modern environmentalism. to specific ecosystems, before detailing the relationships societies have had with fire that Role of Fire in Boreal and Other Forests have contributed to the Anthropocene. It will then explore perceptions of nature in North Covering much of the northern hemisphere, America, as a commons and a dualism, the boreal forest is a biome that is both 40

Photo by Lulu Lebowitz

cool and arid, comprised mainly of spruce, pine, fir, and mosses (George H. La Roi, 2017). The top layer of soil, known as the permafrost, stays frozen, limiting drainage and creating a damp understory where little light reaches. Most precipitation falls in the winter as snow, leaving a dry season in the summer months. The abundance of wood and other organic matter creates ideal circumstances for lighting to ignite a wildfire. Fire is a disturbance which the boreal forest is well adapted to and relies on for reproduction and nutrient cycling. The succession of the forest is as follows: fire burns the majority of organic fuel to the ground, melting the top layers of the permafrost. Ash from trees and mosses then returns vital nutrients to the exposed and warmed soil. The first plants to appear are deciduous trees such as aspen and birch, growing quickly in the light. Spruce cones are resistant to most animals, but will have opened under the extreme heat of the fire and can now germinate (Weber and Flannigan, 1997). Once hardwood trees are established, spruce saplings are able to grow in the shade until they reach full height and cover the lower levels, crowding out the shade intolerant deciduous trees. The mature conifers also block light from reaching the ground, permitting the permafrost to rise and returning cool and moist conditions to the soil. This cycle takes around 100 years. Without fire, spruce and other cone trees are unable to reproduce effectively.

2005). In this way, fire protects the well-being of the forest, similar to how wolves keep a herd of caribou strong by hunting the old and weak (Mowat, 2009). Selection by fire may also increase the resiliency of a forest: drought has worse impacts on denser forests where water is already scarce, increasing the likelihood of disease, pests, and soil erosion (Guarin and Taylor, 2005). In addition, regular burning prevents fuel building up in the form of deadfall and dry wood, so that fires can not reach a severe intensity (Keulartz, 2012). This has the extended effect of keeping traits that are desirable to the health of the forest, such as thicker bark, forefront by continued selection. Wildlife is similarly affected. Sick and elderly individuals are unable to escape, and the dynamic quality of fire landscapes promotes biodiversity (Nappi et al, 2004). Forests are not static; they exist in a cycle of succession with fire as a driving factor. Although this cycle may take decades or centuries to turn over, each stage is no less important than the last and a forest will eventually return to a mature stand, as it has for millennia (Runte, 1997). Society and Fire

Humans discovered the use of fire around half a million years ago and have been using it to shape their environments ever since (Keeley, 2002). In North America, the arrival of people coincided with increased Other biomes have similar responses to fire. prairie burning and the extinction of many For instance, in Yosemite National Park megafauna, which had lasting effects on the (Boreal and Temperate forest), fire is more ecosystem and fire regime by reducing the likely to destroy small trees, allowing larger numbers of large grazers . Reduction in and healthier trees to grow to maturity. grazing allowed for fuel to build up, thereby Forests that have had fire regimes interrupted increasing the intensity and frequency of are composed of densely-spaced, mid-size fires. Humans also raised the incidence trees competing for resources. In contrast, of fire ignition by both intentionally and regions with frequent fires have fewer, larger, unintentionally introducing fire catalysts to and more separated trees (Guarin and Taylor, areas that had the potential to burn but not 42

ignite (Pinter et al., 2011).

actually draw tourists as was seen with an increase of non-motorized tourists in In modern times, fires are destructive to Colorado parks following a fire (Englin et human settlements and resources, prompting al., 2001). Fire therefore directly controls the society to develop techniques to limit their age and composition of a forest, influencing reach and effects. In particular, regions that the amount and type of recreational activity are valued for logging have been the subject (Boxall et al., 1996). of policies to inhibit burning. A forest stand that has had historically high rates of wildfires Parks and Conservation will suffer from fuel build up and crowding when fires are prevented, raising the risk North American sentiment towards parks for catastrophic fires (Bergeron et al., 2004). is highly idealized, and, in practice, does The creation of National Parks permitted not always express the values that modern areas where some fires are left to burn freely, conservatism claims to uphold. Our view of but not without complications. Most park wilderness is shaped by the current values of management plans state fires may only be society and the technology that extends our put out when they threaten people, a situation reach into the frontiers. In the last century, that becomes more frequent when people set-aside parks have become romanticized as live closer to parks. In order to protect people the epitome of nature; a symbol of freedom and their property, rangers are often forced to and true human spirit that should be protected put out fires they may have otherwise let burn against the advances of civilization. In the (Kennedy, 2006). The proximity of people to western separation of nature and civilization, traditional fire regime areas also raises the National Parks represent wilderness in an frequency of fires, as many are started by untouched state, an ideal that should be campers or on private property (Kennedy, protected. However, forests are not static, 2006). Smoke is another issue, as health and making preservation impossible. When property value are affected in communities nature and society are abstracted they are by near fire regimes (). Ecological integrity is definition incompatible so that serving the no longer the only priority when people needs of one is destructive to the other. The become involved, as smoke can particularly notion of ‘pristine’ is particularly damaging, be detrimental to people who suffer from as it implies that there is an ideal state and respiratory illnesses (). any human involvement contaminates it, to the conclusion that in order to save wilderness In many cases however, fire regimes and from ourselves we must never go near it or people have evolved together. In general, interact with it (Cronon, 1996). This would communities with historically high rates of of course be unattainable for industry and fire are more prepared for and tolerant of resource needs, let alone recreation, for which the fire season. Experience, warning systems, the parks were created in the first place. The and education about the mechanics and same narrative also separates fire from nature. necessities of fire increase public tolerance Assuming that fire is an inorganic force in of smoke (Blades et al., 2014). In terms of conflict with nature forces us to ignore the recreation, people have mixed opinions vital role it plays in the ecosystem. as well. Although the public does not like when favourite landscapes are ‘destroyed’ Fire may be contradictory to the notion of (Bolgiano, 1989), fire-scarred areas can ‘conservation’, as it disturbs the state of nature 43

Photo by Sophie Zhao

that people value and so should be prevented, but is an integral part of many ecosystems and to interfere challenges the goal of parks: unimpeded interaction between ecosystems and elements (Parsons et al., 1986). National Parks are a national commons, and how they are treated can impact a wide range of actors. Pollution, starting fires, and hunting wildlife are examples of ways the actions of a few have consequences on different sectors and timescales. Smoke from fires enter another commons: the air we breathe (Blades et al., 2014). Unlike the fires themselves, it is impossible to keep smoke contained within a park, blurring the boundaries of the common land.

concept of park conservation. Weather and climate in particular influence the frequency and intensity of fires through both direct and indirect channels. Warmer temperatures and higher CO2 levels increase biomass production leading to greater severity when fires occur. Droughts are occurring more often and for longer time periods due to changing weather patterns, leaving drier soil and fuel, thus increasing the chances of a fire occurring. Extreme weather characterized by short storms is becoming more prevalent, leading to larger and more severe fires started by lightning without accompanying rain (). These, combined with direct human action such as logging, affect the composition of a forest. As forest rebirth is triggered more Internationally, the relationships between rapidly, hardwood trees comprise a larger countries are reflected in the co-management portion of biomass, changing the available of parks that lie on or across borders (Butler nutrients. Younger trees that grow after a and Boyd, 2000). Cronon stated that fire fill a greater margin and influence the wilderness must be sacred in order to have numbers and types of species that can live in influence (1996), and having a common the region. These two changes also increase investment in protecting a park could aid the amount of light that reaches the soil. relations between countries. This is not As soil dries out, it releases nutrients and no without problems; when goals and interests longer supports the species of trees it once are not aligned, wildlife is most likely to did (Weber and Flannigan, 1997). Many of suffer (Butler and Boyd, 2000). For instance, these factors are self-reinforcing, making it Mexico cannot devote the same standards difficult for conifers to re-establish. In short, of maintenance and pollution control as the a biome may shift entirely in response to an United States, resulting in sewage flowing altered fire regime. across the ocean border and contaminating beaches within Border Field State Park. Forest phase shifts have serious implications Despite the shared nature of parks, nations for parks â&#x20AC;&#x201C; particularly if the park mandate is still consider the land their own and try to keep conditions how they were historically. to maintain the integrity of their border. As previously stated, this is not necessarily Wildlife however, does not respect borders, a desirable goal. Along with changing reminding us that political struggles are to plant conditions, animals are moving in some measure arbitrary within a park. response to changing ecosystems and warmer temperatures (Scott and Lemieux, Climate Change 2005). While some go extinct, many species are moving north, altering current species Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s changing climate is affecting every relationships and occupying new niches. aspect of the biotic and abiotic environment, This is one indicator of the Anthropocene: and in doing so calls into question our human actions are changing the structure 46

of ecosystems, hastening a mechanism that might otherwise have spanned millenia.

vegetation off a landscape, is that it creates the same type of disturbance as a fire does. This is not entirely comparable, as spruce Shifting biomes present an ethical dilemma, cones are not opened and nutrients are not forcing people to reconsider the purpose of returned to the soil during logging. Logging parks. Migration, both plant and animal, can be effective if handled properly, but could be considered invasive if it competes biodiversity is threatened when accounting with native species. However, species have for historical fire frequency does not take been competing and evolving long before place. High fire frequencies create younger humans were a factor, and the reason they forest stands which are less diverse and need are doing so now is not solely because of to be managed carefully. In contrast, areas our actions. If new biomes are emerging as with low historical fire rates will suffer if clear a result of human-driven climate change, cutting continues at a pace that they are not preserving established wilderness may no adapted to (Bergeron et al., 2004). longer be ethical, or even possible. Yet the vulnerability of forests to fire and climate The debate between resource use and natural change is a matter of human responsibility restoration is often drawn along societal lines. because it is both caused by humans and Environmentalism generally caters to the elite impacting humans (Blades et al., 2014). - people who do not live in rural areas and are Past fire-suppressing policies have altered able to put time and money into protecting the composition of forests, while man-made places they would like to visit occasionally, or drought has increased disease, pests, and appreciate for existence value. The separation tree mortality (). Trees and soils do not adapt of wilderness and civilization is harmful to quickly to changing conditions, making people who do live in close relationships to ecosystems vulnerable to collapse (Guarin nature, such as Indigenous communities. and Taylor, 2005). Although it may not be Rural communities tend suffer most from possible to restore ecosystems, it is immoral environmental degradation (Cronon, 1996), to step away altogether. but often have the least resources to deal with it. Prohibiting resource extraction from parks Fire in a Changing World may please city dwellers, but less so people who still depend on the land for sustenance Increases in public sentiment for parks and or livelihood. While ecologists report that research about maintaining natural habitats fires are best left to burn naturally, rural are counteracted by growing populations. communities are more likely to suffer the Resource needs and expanding living consequences. areas impede environmental regulations, influencing management with anthropo- Industry interests and health concerns from centric motives. The lumber industry smoke are aided by new technologies that has struggled with parks for rights to log, exert greater control over the environment. usually losing out to ecological concerns. Control can be used in two directions to suit Fire adds a third claim to forests. Logging human needs; in the case of logging and fire companies have an incentive to prevent suppression, technology is used to replace fires in commercially viable areas, throwing natural processes that compete for resources. ecosystems out of balance. One justification Shaping the earth for economic and aesthetic for clear-cutting, the practice of clearing all purposes is not a new concept, and allows 47

people to remove themselves from direct contact with wilderness. Other techniques, such as early warning systems for smoke, help people live more easily within traditional ecosystems (Blades et al., 2014). Education plays an important role in increasing tolerance and understanding of fires, especially for communities living in proximity to parks and fire regions. Technology of this kind breaks down dualisms by incorporating society into wilderness without compromising the well-being of either.

are created to let nature proceed without interference, we must embrace elements that may not serve us (Parsons et al., 1986). As climate change shifts familiar landscapes, a static view of wilderness is not helpful as it is no longer possible to restore some ecosystems to their previous forms. Policy makers must understand that ‘how it used to be’ is not a goal that is consistent with progressive environmentalism.

However, human interference has pushed some places to the point where they cannot Management of Fire in Parks function effectively without assistance. People have a responsibility to reverse actions that The future of parks and fires depends on have had adverse results. An example of how people define the purpose and existence this is prescribed burning – setting fires in of parks. Although it is inherently difficult to areas prone to drought in order to prevent implement any policy that does not cater to catastrophic fires (Keulartz, 2012). Because human benefit, park managers should aim excess drought is indirectly caused by humans for the plan that best suits the environment via climate change, it is necessary to modify for itself. Stewardship of a park does not nature’s response. end after a fire has burned out, but rather remains crucial for ecosystem recovery. Recognizing wilderness as part of society, Ecosystems are particularly delicate after or society as part of wilderness, is crucial to a fire, and campers could easily disturb the achieving balance. Parks cannot accomplish succession taking place (Englin et al., 2001). their purpose if they are considered distinct Tourists avoiding burned spots could also from the rest of the world. As long as overcrowd another area, a phenomenon that wilderness is treated as incompatible with predefined policies need to address. Because people, parks will be placed at an ideal that fire affects animals, plant species, and the is unattainable, with policies that pull in entire airshead, it may be better if people do opposite directions. Instead, people should not live close to fire-prone areas. This would learn to live with nature as it is, and care reduce the risk of people starting fires and for the environment everywhere (Runte, of fires being needlessly put out (Kennedy, 1997). Not only is this more aligned with 2006). conservation, but celebrating green spaces in urban environments takes off the pressure Technology has not yet reached the point forparks to conform to idealized expectations where humans can successfully design (Cronon, 1996). Part of coexisting with ecosystems to suit our needs without wilderness means accepting it as it is, fires unpredictable consequences; natural and all. processes are too nuanced to replicate (Keulartz, 2012). As previously discussed, References suppressing fires alters the ecosystems people are trying to protect. Furthermore, if parks Bergeron, Y., Flannigan, M., Gauthier, S., Leduc, A., 48

and Lefort, P. (2004). Past, Current and Future Fire Frequency in the Canadian Boreal Forest: Implications for Sustainable Forest Management. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 33, 356-360. Blades, J.J., Shook, S.R., and Hall, T.E. (2014). Smoke management of wildland and prescribed fire: understanding public preferences and trade-offs. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 44, 1344. Bolgiano, C. (1989). Yellowstone and the let-burn policy; the fires that hopscotched across half the Park last summer also fueled a debate that may change the way we manage our wildlands. In American Forests (American Forests). Boxall, P.C., Watson, D.O., and Englin, J. (1996). Backcountry recreationists’ valuation of forest and park management features in wilderness parks of the western Canadian Shield. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 26, 982-990. Butler, R., and Boyd, S.W. (2000). Tourism and nation al parks (Wiley Chichester). Cronon, W. (1996). The trouble with wilderness: or, getting back to the wrong nature. Environmental history 1, 7-28. Englin, J., Loomis, J., and González-Cabán, A. (2001). The dynamic path of recreational values following a forest fire: a comparative analysis of states in the Intermountain West. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 31, 1837-1844. Guarin, A., and Taylor, A.H. (2005). Drought triggered tree mortality in mixed conifer forests in Yosemite National Park, California, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 218, 229. Keeley, J.E. (2002). Native American impacts on fire regimes of the California coastal ranges. Journal of

Biogeography 29, 303-320. Kennedy, R. (2006). Accidents waiting to happen: as federal subsidies encourage development on the fringes of national parks, the Park Service must devote shrinking resources to protect homes put in the path of danger. In National Parks (National Parks Conservation Association), 20. Keulartz, J. (2012). The emergence of enlightened anthropocentrism in ecological restoration. Nature and Culture 7, 48. Mowat, F. (2009). Never cry wolf (McClelland & Stewart). Parsons, D.J., Graber, D.M., Agee, J.K., and Van Wagtendonk, J.W. (1986). Natural fire management in National Parks. Environmental Management 10, 21-24. Nappi, A., Drapeau, P., & Savard, J. P. (2004). Salvage logging after wildfire in the boreal forest: is it becoming a hot issue for wildlife?. The Forestry Chronicle, 80(1), 67-74. Pinter, N., Fiedel, S., and Keeley, J.E. (2011). Fire and vegetation shifts in the Americas at the vanguard of Paleoindian migration. Quaternary Science Reviews 30, 269-272. Runte, A. (1997). National Parks: The American Experience (University of Nebraska Press). Scott, D., and Lemieux, C. (2005). Climate change and protected area policy and planning in Canada. The Forestry Chronicle 81, 696-703. Weber, M.G., and Flannigan, M.D. (1997). Canadian boreal forest ecosystem structure and function in a changing climate: impact on fire regimes. Environmental Reviews 5, 145-166.

Photo by Thomas King

Urban Rewilding: A Policy Analysis by Caroline Dunaux

ABSTRACT: In a globalized world of rapid urbanization and industrialization, it is easy to feel distant from the natural world. While living in dense urban settings, human experiences with wilderness are increasingly limited. Although certain animal species do inhabit urban regions, true wilderness and biodiversity often seem remote. Wilderness is a concept deeply rooted in Western culture, having undergone immense conceptual and theoretical transformation. Recently, the concepts of rewilding and urban greening have risen in prominence among policymakers due to a general longing for renewed human exposure to natural spaces and wilderness. While wilderness has traditionally been seen as antithetical to urbanism, discourse has transformed around incorporating green spaces and wildlife habitats into urban centers for a multitude of human and ecosystem benefits. This paper will explore urban rewilding in the context of environmental planning. It will examine the policy instruments and issues involved in a city-wide push for urban rewilding, including a discussion of cost-benefit vs multi-criteria analysis, potential trade-offs and various other factors that decision-making entails. Vancouver and Singapore case studies will be utilized to better understand the complexities and possibilities rewilding brings in urban contexts. Their urban rewilding policies will be investigated under a multi-criteria decision-making analysis, which provides a comprehensive, societally inclusive, and qualitative valuation process.

Rewilding vs Urban Greening

surface and deplete precious resources, biodiversity and wilderness will conversely In todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s global context, close to 60% of decline. Urban expansion has resulted in the world population lives in urban areas unprecedented habitat fragmentation, with projections of continuous increase, land degradation, direct animal extinction, most prominently in Asia. By 2045, the and changes in habitat connectivity. global urban population is expected to The growth of cities requires incredible surpass six billion, a staggering number demands for natural resources, which which has numerous environmental, leads to habitat destruction in surrounding political, and sociocultural implications areas, as does the construction of roads, (United Nations, 2016). Furthermore, housing, and industry. The World Wildlife as urban areas cover more of Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 51

Fund suggests that the rapid species loss experienced today, exacerbated by industrialization and population growth, is between 1,000 and 10,000 times higher than the natural extinction rate (WWF, 2016). For environmentalists and conservationists, protecting diminishing biodiversity has resulted in efforts to not only secure already protected wild spaces, but also to make room for wilderness on the margins of urban landscapes. Although the global necessity to protect wild areas still endures, the new trend in modifying urban centers to incorporate wildlife and ecosystem services is especially unique.

today’s urban context differs from its megafauna-specific definition; it focuses on dissolving borders between humanity and nature by better understanding their intrinsic and historical connections (Prior and Ward, 2016). By attempting to rewild urban landscapes and support the reintroduction of native species to urban areas, humans’ distant connection with nature can be healed for the better. Through the restoration of wilderness, species diversity, and aesthetic beauty, city planners can bring back “lost” nature into the lives of humans, while aiding the conservation of natural ecological processes.

The term “rewilding” refers to this process of making room for wilderness, biodiversity, and sustainable natural spaces in a world that has lost much of its natural richness. Rather than being restricted to simply meaning, “to make wild again,” the term has been attributed to a complex array of definitions (Jorgensen, 2015). At its root, “wilderness” has a long terminological history. The US Wilderness Act, which was passed in 1964, defined wilderness as “an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man.” In 1991, the Wildlands Project stemming from this act aimed to create core wilderness areas in North America where human activity could not encroach. The project focused predominantly on creating home territories for large carnivorous animals, such as the grey wolf. From this project, rewilding as a concept saw its beginnings via the restoration of “big wilderness based on the regulatory roles of large predators” (Jorgensen, 2015). Since then, the term has undergone transformations from specifically referring to the conservation of large fauna to a broader ideal of natural improvement via species introductions. Generally speaking, rewilding in

For the purposes of this paper, policies surrounding the rewilding of cities differ fundamentally from urban greening practices. The term “urban greening” refers to the process of increasing green spaces (parks, green roofs, community gardens, etc.) in urban centers. Urban green spaces provide a plethora of ecosystem services that could prevent many health issues, support ecological integrity, and improve societal well-being (Wolch et al., 2014). Although implementing public parks, green roofs, and gardens are part of a larger urban sustainability initiative that benefits human health and well-being, urban rewilding provides more eco-centric benefits that focus on the ecosystem services and biodiversity itself. Moreover, urban green spaces are often located in affluent neighborhoods that the majority of populations are unable to access. In a city planning context, urban rewilding is a complex and multi-faceted policy initiative that requires a societal valuation of nature and public involvement. To create rewilding policies that successfully meet stated environmental, economic, and social needs, decision-makers must effectively address chief objectives in a

systematic and thorough manner that meets all societal stakeholder interests. Moreover, the rewilding species chosen must be suitable to adapt to an urban context and perform ecosystem services, while making sure their impact on human populations is non-invasive. A discussion of cost-benefit analysis in comparison with multi-criteria analysis will point to the significance of a multi-criteria approach to urban rewilding policy-making context. Case Studies To understand the policy implications of urban rewilding along with what potential policy success entails, we must take a thorough look at current case studies. By gaining knowledge on cities’ urban rewilding triumphs or failures, future urban rewilding policymakers can gain fundamental insight into which policy measures are appropriate to use in specific contexts. The cities of Vancouver, British Columbia and Singapore, Thailand will be used as primary examples as they exemplify pillars of urban rewilding excellence that can and should be thoroughly studied by policymakers. Their urban greening programs will be explored along with specific policy measures and successes. A. Vancouver, British Columbia “By rewilding Vancouver, we will create a city that is not only more resilient, but also more exciting, more fascinating, more magical to live in – wilder in every sense of the word.” –J.B. Mackinnon (Rewilding Vancouver, 2014) The first case study that merits considerable attention for its rewilding efforts is Vancouver, British Columbia – a global city with a deep history of environmental stewardship and urban greening.

Vancouver policymakers have decided to pursue an action plan to rewild the city for the betterment of both ecosystems and society. Written as part of the 2011 Greenest City Action Plan, which lays out 10 goals for Vancouver to become the greenest city in the world by 2020, the Environmental Education and Stewardship Action Plan (EESAP) aims to enhance the city’s natural spaces and improve Vancouverites’ relationship with nature (City of Vancouver, 2014). In collaboration with the Park Board, the City of Vancouver established three chief priorities with consequential objectives to pursue in the next five years. The plan implements a definition of rewilding that understands the potential of urban green space to encourage people to better connect to the natural world while sustaining urban forests, enhancing biodiversity, and supporting species habitats. The plan’s priorities, actions, and objectives are outlined in Table 1. In implementing the EESAP, the City of Vancouver and Park Board are working collaboratively to meet their chief priorities through primary objectives and quick actions (City of Vancouver, 2014). The first implementation goal the action plan identifies is to properly engage staff members to be actively involved in goal execution, through coordination of tasks and accountability. The second measure is for the Park Board to secure and nurture partnerships that enable implementation. This requires deep collaboration with community groups and stakeholders fully supporting and connecting with each other. The third critical consideration is to ensure accountability for plan implementation. This entails reporting to the Board on Task Force progress, monitoring the targets outlined, and reviewing the EEASP so that objectives are continuously met. Lastly, the 53

Table 1: EESAP priorities, actions and objectives.

action plan calls for appropriate monetary allocation and operating budgets in order to operate and maintain implementation of the plan. The 2015-2018 capital plan includes investments in biodiversity projects and environmental stewardship.

timeline could have been created to better inform the public about the Park Board’s plans. Moreover, a clear decision-making analysis framework could have been made public for the Vancouver population to see how they are being consulted in this project plan. The imperatives of decisionClearly, the City of Vancouver has making analysis will be discussed further. developed an intricate outline of priorities and action plans to achieve its rewilding B. Singapore, Thailand prospects. Key rewilding priorities along with the individual goals and actions “Our overall vision and idea behind Southern necessary to complete the project in five Ridges has evolved from the notion of turning years (2014-2019) are laid out for public Singapore as a “Garden City” into “City in a consultation. However, although the plan Garden”. Instead of creating a garden in the City, effectively lists actions according to years the strategy was enlarged to develop the city enclosed needed for completion, a more detailed by nature. In our opinion, this represents a far more 54

ambitious plan that strengthens Singapore and its which specifically focuses on the species brand as a green, livable city.” - Mr. Tee Swee Ping rewilding concept in reintroducing selected native species into the city’s On May 11th, 1963, Then-Prime Minister natural environment as well as extending Lee Kuan Yew introduced his “Garden biodiversity into the urban system. The City” vision, a plan to transform Singapore fifth target is “enhancing competencies of into a world-class city of abundant greenery our landscape and horticulture industry”, and biodiversity to promote a clean aiming to restructure industry, increase environment and human-nature interac- productivity, and foster research on urban tions. Some 50 years later, Lee’s vision greening practices. Lastly, the sixth target has materialized into utmost success (City is to “engage and inspire communities to in a Garden, 2016). Around the world, co-create a greener Singapore”. This goal Singapore is recognized for its exceptional is fundamental to the “City in a Garden” urban greening leadership and is continuing initiative and intends to collaborate with its legacy in transitioning from a “Garden communities to establish networks of City” to a “City in a Garden.” This new individuals working towards conserving rewilding initiative, building on Prime Singapore’s natural environment Minister Lee Kuan Yew’s original vision, while establishing deeper connections aspires to integrate nature not just into the with nature (City in a Garden, 2016). built environment but also into the daily lives of all Singaporeans. The Singapore Singapore’s plan to integrate biodiversity National Parks program identifies six and nature into its cosmopolitan landscape targets in fulfilling the “City in a Garden” is commendable. Having already achieved campaign (City in a Garden, 2016). exceptional urban greening progress since the 1960s, Singapore’s policy implemenThe first target is to “establish world-class tation strategy is clearly effective in gardens”. As the Singapore Botanical producing quick and real results. The Gardens is already a historically significant “Singapore Index on Cities’ Biodiversity site that has earned a UNESCO world Index” is a self-monitoring tool that cities heritage site title, the plan aims to reinforce such as Singapore are utilizing to evaluate the role of these gardens along with their urban greening and rewilding continuing to construct more city gardens. efforts. The index contains a city profile The second target is to “rejuvenate urban section (physical features, demographics, parks and enliven streetscape”. This goal economic parameters, biodiversity plans to enhance already established urban features etc.); an indicator section parks and introduce trees and flowering containing core components such as native species to create streetscape gardens and biodiversity; an ecosystem services and nature expressways. The third target is to governance of biodiversity section; and, “optimize urban spaces for greenery and a calculation section totaling the scores recreation”. This target entails introducing given on all three indicators (Singapore more green space into urban landscapes Index on Cities’ Biodiversity, 2014). The through park connectors, nature sites, index provides an intricate structure and thematic greenways for recreational for monitoring and tracking “City in a purposes. The fourth target is “enriching Garden” targets as well as other Singapore biodiversity in our urban environment”, greening initiatives. For the “City in a 55

Photo by Lulu Lebowitz

Garden” program to be as successful as method is best fit for urban rewilding policy. possible, multi-criteria implementation will require strong leadership, cooperative A. Cost-benefit analysis and governance with community stakeholders, contingent valuation effective planning visions, andinnovation. A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is the Policy most preeminent and widely recognized framework used for public projects around Having discussed real-life urban rewilding the world. A CBA is a comprehensive campaigns, it is clear that policy execution system that estimates the benefits and requires comprehensive, systematic, and costs of a decision to assess grounds for well-defined targets and policy objectives. project implementation, accounting for Urban rewilding initiatives are not as all impacts, alternatives, and society over simple as building a single urban greening time. Only when social benefits exceed rooftop garden; rewilding decision-making social costs can a public project move requires complex public consultation, forward (OECD, 2006). In calculating societal environmental valuation and social (sum of individual) benefits and ensurement that all objectives are met to the costs among different groups, different most effective degree. For urban rewilding methods are utilized to understand how and greening policy to eventually materi- society values a certain service or good in alize, policymakers must undergo thorough monetary form. For goods and services, environmental valuation analyses, procure such as environmental ones, which do risk assessments, and understand potential not have an established monetary unit, trade-offs before developing action plans. contingent valuation is often used to assess Depending on the size and scale of city one’s stated preference for non-quantirewilding efforts, numerous environmental, fiable factors, specifically their willingness economic, and social complications could to pay (for benefits) or willingness to accept arise that could impact the long-term (compensation for losses) (OECD, 2006). success of the program in question. For proponents of CBA, monetization Problems of location, access, equity, and of the environment is a beneficial tool logistics must also be thoroughly analyzed that allows for rational decision-making to avoid risks associated with rewilding and for negative policy impacts to be (Kowarik, 2016). As the first step in internalized. Advocates of this economic developing urban rewilding policy, policy- valuation would argue that monetizing makers must decide which type of environ- the environment is simply a method of mental valuation analysis to pursue. On expressing preferences and interests. one hand, cost-benefit analysis is the most predominantly utilized public project Cost-benefit analysis has been the most valuation framework but it poses serious widely used policy tool among decisiondrawbacks. On the other hand, a multi-cri- makers due to its ease of implementation teria approach may provide a more compre- and quick results. Moreover, contingent hensive framework for rewilding valuation. valuation –one’s willingness to pay for a Both cost-benefit analysis and multi-cri- service or good – remains a predominant teria planning methods will be briefly method of environmental monetization for explored to understand which valuation urban greening initiatives. For example, a 58

study in Hong Kong investigated residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; willingness to pay for urban green spaces in their compact city; the socioeconomic variables were quite evenly distributed across age, household income, and education. The question introduced a hypothetical scenario of a 20% reduction of urban green space within the next five years as a result of industrial development in the area. The valuation question resulted in support for a hypothetical payment in order to avoid losses in urban green space. The response yielded a monthly payment of HK $77.43 (appx $9.90 US) per household for five-years, amounting to HK $46,458 over five years (Lo and Jim, 2010). This is a considerable sum of money that a dense urban population would pay to avoid a 20% reduction in urban green space. Though the Hong Kong contingent valuation is an example of a successful CBA taking place in a global megacity, it inadequately illustrates contingent valuations in an urban rewilding context. As this example only pertains to urban green space, specifically parks, it does not take into account the peculiarities of urban rewilding. Also, since urban rewilding is still a fairly new concept, there are not many published municipal cost-benefit analyses for large-scale rewilding projects. To make sure all societal groups are consulted in urban rewilding policy regardless of income-level, religion, ethnicity, age, or political standing, and that all variables are met, a different type of valuation method is required. Though cost-benefit analysis has been increasingly adopted by governmental decisionmakers due to its ease of implementation and wide applicability, individuals often have a difficult time placing an imaginary monetary value on environmental goods (Kelman, 1981). For most people,

wilderness and biodiversity hold intrinsic value that should not be transformed into economic value; as a result, their WTP or WTA numbers are not likely bounded upon rationality but rather upon a hypothetical, made-up scenario. This generates concern as WTP measures the intensity of wants rather than the moral worth of preference. Environmental goods and services should not be based upon individual monetary preferences, but instead on public ideals. Furthermore, cost benefit analysis assumes that the environment exists only if there is a willingness to pay, thereby disregarding those who would not realistically have the economic means to pay. Therefore, cost-benefit analysis is not the most effective valuation method for rewilding efforts. Instead, policymakers should consider utilizing a multi-criteria approach (Kelman, 1981). B. Multi-criteria analysis One of the most significant criticisms of cost-benefit analysis is that it is overly motivated in attempting to find what is optimal for society only through the expression of quantitative measures. This sole monetary valuation ignores diverse societal groups that are disproportionately affected by costs and benefits, trade-offs between possible objectives, and multi-dimensional values that should guide policy-making (Kelman, 1981). For urban rewilding efforts, a multi-criteria decision analysis is a much more comprehensive form of analysis that focuses on value rather than cost alternatives. A multi-criteria valuation tries to avert the all-toocommon reactive trend of getting trapped in many possible alternatives. Instead, a multi-criteria analysis (MCA) focuses on bettering problem formulation, uncovering â&#x20AC;&#x153;hiddenâ&#x20AC;? objectives, improving information 59

collection, bettering evaluation, and most importantly for the sake of rewilding, bettering the involvement of the public and working with interested groups (Esmali and Geneletti, 2018). The approach entails interacting with stakeholder groups to elicit value dimensions for evaluating policies, defining measures, assessing trade-offs between objectives, and generating multiple objective evaluations of alternatives. In interacting with various societal stakeholders in a deep level of discussion, impacts and concerns can be identified, and the pros and cons of existing alternatives can be analyzed with participants’ valuable input. To avoid inaction, stakeholder values must be structured into specific fundamental objectives. Decision-makers must then ensure that these measures and objectives are easily comprehensible and communicative. For example, (Keeney) composes the methodology of decision analysis in four simple steps: “structure the decision problem, assess possible impacts of each alternative, determine preferences of decision-makers and evaluate and compare alternatives.” In the context of conservation and urban rewilding, decision-making entails obtaining a societal valuation of ecosystem services while comparing alternatives, before undergoing specific policy action. Multi-criteria analysis provides a rational and equitable model for achieving competing goals, such as introducing vulnerable fauna while addressing the needs of vulnerable communities (Esmali and Geneletti, 2018). It allows for a slower, more inclusive process of gaining society’s valuation of nature through their personal experiences and morals rather than money. By bringing all community stakeholders such as businesses, impoverished communities, industry leaders, and wealthy 60

families together for discussion, everyone’s interests and concerns are heard, not just a select few. As a result, decision-makers can craft rewilding policy that incorporates crucial policy variables such as location, access, and types of introduced species. When dealing with unpredictable rewilding costs, such as ecosystem interaction, construction costs, or community accessibility, MCA provides a systematic means of communication between decisionmakers and the wider community that creates a shared understanding of the uncertainty and expectations of the project at hand. For these reasons, MCA has been increasingly used in nature-focused policy for integrative, value-based information collection. The table below consolidates the steps in a multi-criteria decision-making process, which breaks down the larger stages of decision structuring, analysis, and decision making. C. Urban rewilding policy variables In pursuing a multi-criteria decision analysis for urban rewilding, policymakers must explore the benefits and costs associated with incorporating wilderness areas in their municipalities, as well as variables such as trade-offs, location, and access, which are essential for the development of rewilding implementation measures. In the Vancouver and Singapore contexts, policymakers first established and structured rewilding criteria. This entails equal consideration of all potential social, ecological, and political dimensions that play important roles in deciding between different rewilding plans. By outlining the obvious costs and benefits before public consultation, decision-makers can better understand and evaluate society’s valuations and preferences, as compared to expert opinion. Outlined in Table 2

Table 2: Benefits of urban rewilding.

Table 3: Potential costs of urban rewilding.

Photo by D. D.

are the ecological, health, economic, and social benefits of urban rewilding worth noting for the purposes of this paper. Next, the potential costs of urban rewilding efforts will be similarly compiled. For an urban rewilding scenario, costs are quite uncertain as few large-scale urban rewilding projects have been implemented for long enough to procure substantial and noticeable social, economic, or health consequences. Therefore, the costs listed in Table 3 are all possible, but not verifiable, scenarios. Once the general benefits and uncertainties surrounding rewilding have been properly stated, Vancouver and Singapore policymakers can explore other variables essential to a successful rewilding initiative in a multi-criteria analysis, starting with compiling societal groups’ valuation of the environment and assessing various criteria. The first significant variable involves ecological valuation of the type of species desired by participants and experts for urban rewilding initiatives. Although it may seem obvious that the biotic and abiotic components of urban rewilding programs should mirror the natural history of the surrounding ecosystems and landscapes, the effective use of novel wild ecosystems versus historically pristine landscape conditions is a chief concern. The key difference between these types of wilderness is that pristine landscapes focus on the untouchability of humans, in other words, on how the wilderness would be without human interference in an ancient time; whereas, the novel ecosystems approach focuses on the general self-organization of ecosystems, even with prior human interference. As a result, urban rewilding policymakers may choose to define their wilderness type along a gradient of “naturalness” 64

and

“novelty”

(Kowarik,

2018).

Furthermore, policymakers must adequately assess the societal demands for urban rewilding – what society wants out of reincorporated wilderness. Some people may be strong wilderness advocates; whereas others may fear certain fauna, as well as desire managed and contained green spaces in their city more than unmanaged wilderness. Some may prefer a more plant-based rewilding definition, whereas others may wish to experience fauna-based rewilding. Many people understand “wilderness” and “nature” as concepts that are part of widely different mental frameworks. Depending upon specific belief systems and underlying values, including age, education, and income, laypersons’ valuation of wilderness will vary greatly (Kowarik, 2018). Moreover, city planners must determine what aspects of nature and ecosystem functions they want the city to prioritize for the future; for example, intrinsic natural value, human health impacts, educational or research opportunities. The next significant variables for Vancouver and Singapore policymakers to explore in a multi-criteria rewilding analysis are location, access, and economic trade-offs. Determining where in the urban center or urban periphery to invest in urban wilderness is as imperative as determining what ecosystems and species to include in the rewilding. If the main goal of policymakers is to sincerely protect the human populations in their spatial jurisdiction, there are limited options about where to invest in rewilding spaces, as sites are shaped by populations’ spatial distribution (Kowarik, 2018). Decisionmakers and managers must consider potential location trade‐offs, such as

alternative housing and business opportunities on the site, whether monetary losses are rationalized by future benefits, and whether vulnerable communities may be displaced from their homes. Economically, incorporating wilderness areas and open green spaces into cities comes with many trade-offs. Restrictions on development for the introduction of biodiversity and endangered species may lead to reductions in welfare and public goods. Though urban rewilding increases valuable ecosystem services and health benefits as previously described, it also restricts the amount of land available for housing and industry (Tajibaeva et al. 2014). Policymakers must estimate the potential housing and business location tradeoffs associated with green space that affect welfare and public goods. Would a housing project or business produce more long-term economic and social benefits than would the alternative wilderness area? Furthermore, will poor and susceptible populations be displaced from their residences, whether directly removed for the construction of rewilding centers in place of their dwellings, or indirectly via construction noise, harm, or a fear of wilderness? All of these questions must be considered by policymakers in undertaking a MCA; potential trade-offs are crucial variables in an urban rewilding project, as different economic, social, and health alternatives must be weighed against one another in terms of long-term versus short-term benefits. Moreover, different societal stakeholders often have competing interests that make policy-making difficult. Unfortunately, disadvantaged communities are too often inadequately consulted in the decisionmaking and valuation processes, resulting in inequitable policies. Therefore, all community groups must be given the

opportunity to provide their subjective input before decision-makers choose to consult only wealthier or ethnically-homogenous groups in their valuation analysis. For example, Vancouver has increasingly become a financially difficult place for many to live due to exponentially rising housing and land prices. This has resulted in many families relocating or moving to surrounding cities and suburbs, while wealthier Canadian or foreign families move into the city center. This leads to an economically inequitable demographic distribution that affects political decisionmaking. Moreover, Vancouver is home to many Indigenous communities, such as Coast Salish Nations, First Nations, MĂŠtis, and Inuit peoples (City of Vancouver, 2018). While a multi-criteria framework makes it necessary for all societal groups to deeply discuss their interests, Vancouver policymakers must make a continuous effort to publically consult with more vulnerable and periphery populations throughout their rewilding plan. Communities on the city periphery, as well as Indigenous communities, have a crucial voice in Vancouver rewilding policy-making, as they may be directly affected by policy measures. Their nature valuations, location preferences, access concerns, and knowledge frameworks should be thoroughly implemented in Vancouverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban rewilding multi-criteria decision-making. In Singapore, the situation is similar. The leaders of the City in a Garden Program have instituted rewilding and urban greening initiatives for some time with utmost success, and they must consult all ethnic groups who live in the Singapore center or periphery, including Chinese, Malay, or Indian populations. The social dimension (values, knowledge, preferences), ecological dimension (type of nature, space/ 65

time ecosystem impacts), and planning dimension (access, risk management, site enhancement) are all contingent upon the other. All dimensions must be adequately considered for an urban rewilding project to be successful in a multi-criteria analysis framework (Kowarik, 2018).

potential alternatives and tradeoffs, such as housing and business profits, and by evaluating criteria on their economic, social, cultural, and environmental bases, decision-makers can make the most fruitful, transparent, and realistic decisions that benefit the whole of a city’s demographic.

Concluding Remarks

By incorporating nature back into the built environment, policymakers can grant city dwellers opportunities to better understand the deep connection they have with wilderness that has since been empty from their lives, while fostering respect for diverse forms of life in an ecocentric rather than anthropocentric viewpoint. As illustrated in the previous uncertainty-benefit charts, the long-term benefits of urban rewilding are numerous, entailing physical and mental health benefits, economic benefits, societal benefits, and ecosystem benefits. Urban rewilding plays a significant role in making cities more resilient to a future of increasing climate change impacts. Policymakers have a chance to re-imagine what a modern city means by integrating ecologically-rich and self-sustaining wilderness areas in the urban landscape for the betterment of wildlife and humans.

As previously discussed, urban rewilding is a rising policy imperative considered by decision-makers in cities across the world. It is assumed that some cities are more successful than others in their urban rewilding efforts due to various contextual and planning factors. To effectively create urban rewilding policy that incorporates economic, societal, and ecological concerns while taking into account societal groups’ environmental valuations and stakeholder interests, a multi-criteria analysis rather than a cost-benefit analysis must be undertaken. Multi-criteria analysis offers a qualitative rather than quantitative valuation of the environment by multiple societal groups through deep discussion and consultations. Although utilization of a familiar measurement scale, ease of implementation, and established methodology are benefits of cost benefit analysis, there are numerous limitations and critiques that make itan ill-equipped analysis tool for urban rewilding policy. Cost-benefit valuations often do not reflect context-relevant data nor the general population’s preferences. Environmental impacts and ecosystem services cannot be quantified by monetary values as they are public goods that hold intrinsic, as opposed to economic, value. MCA, on the other hand, can adequately address the complexities of urban rewilding policymaking via a quantitative, inclusive, and comprehensive methodology. By weighing 66

References National Parks Board, Singapore Government. (2016). “City in a Garden”. City of Vancouver, Vancouver Board of Parks and Recreation. (2014). Rewilding Vancouver: Environmental Education and Stewardship Action Plan. City of Vancouver. (6 Feb. 2018). Indigenous Communities. Jørgensen, D. (2015). Geoforum, Volume 65.

Rethinking

rewilding,

Kelman, S. (1981). Cost-Benefit Analysis: An Ethical Critique. AEI Journal of Government

and Society Regulation. Kowarik, I. (2018). Urban Wilderness: Supply, Demand and Access. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, Volume 29. Lo, A & Jim, C. (2010). Willingness of residents to pay and motives for conservation of urban green spaces in the compact city of Hong Kong,” Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, Volume 9. Prior, J & Ward, K. (2016). Rethinking rewilding: A response to Jørgensen. Geoforum, Volume 69. Tajibaeva, L., Haight, R., & Stephen, P. (2014).

Welfare and Biodiversity Tradeoffs in Urban Open Space United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. (2016). The World’s Cities in 2016 – Data Booklet. Wolch, J., Byrne, J., & Newell, J. (2014). Urban green space, public health, and environmental justice: The challenge of making cities ‘just green enough’. Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 125. WWF. (2016). Risk and resilience in a new era. WWF International. Gland, Switzerland.

Photo by Sacha Berman

Urban Song Adaptations in Birds by Kristen Lalla

ABSTRACT: Urbanization has led to a decline in species biodiversity due to habitat

loss and fragmentation, introduced species, and more. Many bird species have adapted to urban life. The increase in background noise associated with urbanism affects communication between birds. Many species are able to adjust their songs and calls in response to increased background noise. In particular, many species significantly increase the pitch (frequency) and amplitude of their songs. Birds may show behavioural plasticity because many are able to change their songs within their lifetime. Introduction In todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s society, the prevalence of urbanization contributes to changes in land use, which is associated with biodiversity loss (Grimm et al. 2000). Land use change poses stressors on birds, such as habitat loss and fragmentation, vegetation abundance and structure which affect habitat quality, predation by introduced animals such as cats and dogs, human presence, and buildings that are a risk for collisions. Only birds that can survive with and adapt to these changes can persist in urban environments (Clergeau et al. 2001; Schlesinger et al. 2008; Snep et al. 2016). 68

In urban environments, there is a lower abundance of specialists and a higher abundance of generalists (Schlesinger et al. 2008). Urban species richness and composition in temperate zones at a regional scale are more similar to each other across cities than to adjacent rural landscapes (Cleargeau et al. 2001). In other words, urban communities are more homogeneous than non-urban areas, favouring generalist species (Devictor et al. 2007). Furthermore, areas with human activity or development have lower richness (Schlesinger et al. 2008). At high background noise levels, such as in urban areas, communication between birds may be affected (Reinjen et al. 1995).

Photo by D. D.

Birdsong serves as communication between individuals. There are contrasting selective pressures on song, however. Sexual selection favours song that carries far, while selection for survival favours song that does not allow the individual to be located, i.e. preyed upon (Boncoraglio & Saino 2007). The Acoustic Adaptation hypothesis proposes that birdsong has evolved in response to habitat type (Morton 1975). High-frequency songs carry further, so birds in habitats with higher background noise sing at a higher minimum frequency. Urban background noise is low frequency, therefore, higher frequency allows bird songs to be distinguished (Boncoraglio & Saino 2007, Hu & Cardoso 2010). Therefore, in response to urban noise, or high background noise, species should increase their song frequency. While the Acoustic Adaptation hypothesis proposes that song has evolved to be optimized for the habitat a bird occupies, adjustments in song may be plastic rather than genetic (Morton 1975). Behavioural plasticity is shown in the house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus) in terms of adjustment of minimum song frequency in response to changes in background noise (Bermúdez-Cuamatzin et al. 2011). The Lombard effect states that animals, including humans, increase their vocal amplitude to overcome background noise in more noisy environments. The Lombard effect is a type of behavioural plasticity. The elegant crested tinamou (Eudromia elegans), a non-passerine, exhibits the Lombard effect, which is a type of behavioural plasticity (Schuster et al. 2010). Thus, birds should increase their song amplitude in response to higher background noise.

in response to noisy environments? From this, we developed three hypotheses: birds should increase their song frequency in response to increased background noise, birds should increase their song amplitude with higher background noise, and changes in song frequency and amplitude should be consistent across species. Methods We collected data from papers related to song adaptations in response to changes in environmental noise. Keywords used were ‘urban’, ‘bird*’, ‘song’, and ‘frequency’ in various combinations. If data were only available in graph form, we took points using Engauge Digitizer (M. Mitchell 2014, version 10.4). For birds showing a change in song frequency, we recorded low and high song frequency with their respective background noise levels. Where necessary, we converted frequencies to kilohertz. For birds showing a change in song amplitude, we recorded low and high song amplitude with their respective background noise levels. We simply noted other song features. We selected only perching birds, known as passerines, with the exception of one species. Results We performed statistical analyses using RStudio (R Core Development Team 2015, version 3.2.2). We conducted a one-tailed, paired t-test between low and high song frequency (t = 6.1126, df = 10, p-value = 5.689 x 10-5, Figures 1 & 2).

Change in song frequency with change in background noise was not significant (correlation, R2 = 0.04151, df = 9, p = 0.5479). Change in frequency per First, we proposed an exploratory question: change in decibel level was not signifwhat song adaptations do birds exhibit icant with low background noise level 70

Fig. 1: Song frequency (kHz) at high and low background noise for each species.

Fig. 2: Mean of song frequency (kHz) for high and low background noise.

Photo by Liam Ragan

Fig. 3: Change in song amplitude within species at low and high background noise.

Table 1: Noted song changes excluding frequency and amplitude adjustment.

(R2 = 0.1168, df = 9, p = 0.3036) or low song frequency (R2 = 0.1759, df = 9, p = 0.1991). We did not have enough data to perform a generalized linear model of change in song frequency with background noise adjusting for the low background noise level or low song frequency. While sample size was small (n = 4), there was a significant change in song amplitude for low and high background noise (t = 3.1373, df = 3, p-value = 0.02589, Figure 3). A correlation between change in amplitude with change in background noise had a strong R2 but was not significant (R2 = 0.8169, df = 2, p = 0.09616). Other responses to an increase in background noise include change in song length and frequency, syllable frequency and number of syllables, entropy, and time of day (Table 1). We recorded these for six species, with at least one species in each category, but we did not have enough data to do statistical analyses on any one adjustment. Discussion and Conclusion While a paired t-test revealed significance in song frequency adjustment, there was no significant relationship between difference in background noise level and change in song frequency, suggesting different species adjust their songs differently in response to urbanization. Birds with higher song frequencies may not need to adjust their pitch as much in response to higher background noise (Boncoraglio & Saino 2007). However, there were not enough data to adjust for variables such as frequency at the low background noise level. Other factors may be at play, such as increased density of other individuals of the same species. Furthermore, some species may not be able to adjust their song frequency

enough in an urban context to communicate effectively (Hu & Cardoso 2010). If species cannot sufficiently adjust their pitch, they may adjust their songs in other ways. Other than frequency, species can adjust the amplitude of their song, among other methods. Insignificance may be due to a small sample size, and more research is needed to assess if species adjust the amplitude of their songs proportionately to change in background noise. Furthermore, since various species increase their amplitude within a birdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lifetime (Brumm 2004; Derryberry et al. 2017; Schuster et al. 2010), these changes are likely plastic and support the Lombard effect (Schuster et al. 2010). Other song adjustments may occur because individuals cannot adjust their frequency or amplitude sufficiently (Hu & Cardoso 2010). For example, American robins can sing at night if there are high levels of background noise during the day to avoid competition or reduce the need to adjust their song (Fuller et al. 2007). More studies are needed to cover these different changes in song. Many studies used recorded data for song frequency either experimentally with the same individuals or in the same environment but with different noise levels (BermĂşdez-Cuamatzin et al. 2011; Gross et al. 2010, Schuster et al. 2010; Verzijden et al. 2010). Therefore, if individuals can change their song in response to their environment, behavioural plasticity is likely at play. Further research would be needed to test if evolution is occuring in urban populations. If selection favours individuals with higher-frequency song in urban habitats, divergence between urban and non-urban populations may occur (Slabbekoorn & Peet 2003). 75

Photo by Liam Ragan

To conclude, species adjust their song frequency and amplitude in response to a noisier environment, with much of this being urban noise. Data collected support behavioural plasticity and the Lombard effect (Schuster et al. 2010). Future research could look at behavioural plasticity versus genetic adaptation, various types of song adjustments, and if species that adjust their songs also have other adaptations that help them survive in urban environments. References Bermúdez-Cuamatzin, E., Ríos-Chelén, A. A., Gil, D., & Garcia, C. M. (2011). Experimental evidence for real-time song frequency shift in response to urban noise in a passerine bird. Biology Letters, 7(1), 36-38. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0437 Boncoraglio, G., & Saino, N. (2007). Habitat structure and the evolution of bird song: a meta-analysis of the evidence for the acoustic adaptation hypothesis. Functional Ecology, 21(1), 134-142. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2006.01207.x Brumm, H. (2004). The impact of environmental noise on song amplitude in a territorial bird. Journal of Animal Ecology, 73(3), 434-440. doi:10.1111/ j.0021-8790.2004.00814.x Clergeau, P., Jokimäki, J., & Savard, J.-P. L. (2001). Are urban bird communities influenced by the bird diversity of adjacent landscapes? Journal of Applied Ecology, 38(5), 1122-1134. doi:10.1046/ j.1365-2664.2001.00666.x Derryberry, E. P., Gentry, K., Derryberry, G. E., Phillips, J. N., Danner, R. M., Danner, J. E., & Luther, D. A. (2017). White-crowned sparrow males show immediate flexibility in song amplitude but not in song minimum frequency in response to changes in noise levels in the field. Ecology and Evolution, 7(13), 4991-5001. doi:10.1002/ece3.3037 Devictor, V., Julliard, R., Couvet, D., Alexandre, L., & Jiguet, F. (2007). Functional Homogenization Effect of Urbanization on Bird Communities. Conservation Biology, 21(3), 741-751. Fuller, R. A., Warren, P. H., & Gaston, K. J. (2007).

Daytime noise predicts nocturnal singing in urban robins. Biology Letters, 3(4), 368-370. doi:10.1098/ rsbl.2007.0134 Grimm, N. B., Grove, J. G., Pickett, S. T. A., & Redman, C. L. (2000). Integrated Approaches to Long-Term Studies of Urban Ecological Systems. BioScience, 50(7), 571-584. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2000)050[0571:IATLTO]2.0.CO;2 Gross, K., Pasinelli, G., & Kunc, Hansjoerg P. (2010). Behavioral Plasticity Allows Short‐Term Adjustment to a Novel Environment. The American Naturalist, 176(4), 456-464. doi:10.1086/655428 Hanna, D., Blouin-Demers, G., Wilson, D. R., & Mennill, D. J. (2011). Anthropogenic noise affects song structure in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). The Journal of Experimental Biology, 214(21), 3549-3556. doi:10.1242/jeb.060194 Hanna, D., Blouin-Demers, G., Wilson, D. R., & Mennill, D. J. (2011). Anthropogenic noise affects song structure in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). The Journal of Experimental Biology, 214(21), 3549-3556. doi:10.1242/jeb.060194 Lowry, H., Lill, A., & Wong, B. B. M. (2012). How Noisy Does a Noisy Miner Have to Be? Amplitude Adjustments of Alarm Calls in an Avian Urban ‘Adapter’. Plos One, 7(1), e29960. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0029960 Morton, E. S. (1975). Ecological Sources of Selection on Avian Sounds. The American Naturalist, 109(965), 17-34. Nemeth, E., & Brumm, H. (2009). Blackbirds sing higher-pitched songs in cities: adaptation to habitat acoustics or side-effect of urbanization? Animal Behaviour, 78(3), 637-641. doi:https://doi. org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.06.016 Potvin, D. A., Parris, K. M., & Mulder, R. A. (2011). Geographically pervasive effects of urban noise on frequency and syllable rate of songs and calls in silvereyes (Zosterops lateralis). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 278(1717), 2464-2469. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.2296 Schlesinger, M. D., Manley, P. N., & Holyoak, M. (2008). Distinguishing stressors acting on land bird communities in an urbanizing environment.

Ecology, 89(8), 2302-2314. doi:10.1890/07-0256.1 Schuster, S., Zollinger, S. A., Lesku, J. A., & Brumm, H. (2012). On the evolution of noise-dependent vocal plasticity in birds. Biology Letters, 8(6), 913-916. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2012.0676 Seger-Fullam, K. D., Rodewald, A. D., & Soha, J. A. (2011). Urban noise predicts song frequency in northern cardinals and American robins. Bioacoustics, 20(3), 267-276. doi:10.1080/095246 22.2011.9753650

stakeholder-specific arguments for the development of bird-friendly cities. Urban Ecosystems, 19(4), 1535-1550. doi:10.1007/s11252-015-0442-z Stagoll, K., Manning, A. D., Knight, E., Fischer, J., & Lindenmayer, D. B. (2010). Using birdâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;habitat relationships to inform urban planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, 98(1), 13-25. doi:https://doi. org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.07.006

Slabbekoorn, H., & Peet, M. (2003). Ecology: Birds sing at a higher pitch in urban noise. Nature, 424(6946), 267-267.

Verzijden, M. N., Ripmeester, E. A. P., Ohms, V. R., Snelderwaard, P., & Slabbekoorn, H. (2010). Immediate spectral flexibility in singing chiffchaffs during experimental exposure to highway noise. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 213(15), 2575-2581. doi:10.1242/jeb.038299

Snep, R. P., Kooijmans, J. L., Kwak, R. G., Foppen, R. P., Parsons, H., Awasthy, M., . . . van Heezik, Y. M. (2016). Urban bird conservation: presenting

Wood, W. E., & Yezerinac, S. M. (2006). Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia) Song Varies with Urban Noise. The Auk, 123(3), 650-659.

Photo by D. D.

Photo by Myrah Graham

06 Coral Disease and Diversity in Barbados by Myrah Graham

ABSTRACT: Coral reefs face an increase in disease epidemics, resulting in further decline of reef ecosystems. Protective measures in the form of legislation and Marine Protected Areas (MPA) attempt to act as buffers against the effects of environmental degradation. Long term projections state that by limiting commercial activity around reefs, higher coral diversity will impede pathogen progression. However, high host density may allow certain pathogens to progress faster. Underwater surveys were conducted over the span of one month in Barbados. Four reefs (including 1 MPA) were surveyed to observe whether reefs with higher host density and lower coral diversity have higher instances of Yellow Band Disease (YBD). The MPA shows a significant difference in host density compared to the other reefs, yet still has similar amounts of YBD and coral diversity. These results indicate that other factors and their interactions may be responsible for instances of YBD on boulder coral in Barbados. The MPA is not a limiting factor to coral disease, prompting the need for further analysis on effective tools to manage reef epidemics. It will be important for policy makers to adapt legislation to protect these crucial organisms from complete deterioration.

Introduction Corals are important animals. Considered to be “the foundation species of tropical coral reef ecosystems”, corals create a physical structure and complex community upon which thousands of other species depend (Bruno et al. 2007). For example, shelter from predators and wave action provides security and important breeding grounds. Essentially, coral reefs are oases for biota in otherwise inhospitable oceans. However, this hub of marine life is currently under threat from many natural, environ-

mental and anthropogenic factors. This is especially critical for major reef-building corals in the boulder category, namely the Montastraea genus (Weil et al. 2009). It is estimated that “nearly one-third of reef-building corals face elevated extinction risk” (Sokolow, 2009). With increasing stress on corals, disease is now the most destructive factor threatening their survival (Raymundo et al. 2009). This is particularly significant in the Caribbean, where over 70% of all coral disease reports have led to the region being labeled as a disease “hot spot” (CDWG, 2007; Harvell et al. 2004). 81

Furthermore, epidemics come in waves which can cause up to 95% mortality for important reef-building corals in the area (Weil et al. 2009). The dynamics of these contagions depend on the host/pathogen relationship and environmental conditions. Since most corals can only tolerate temperatures between 18˚C and 30˚C, increasing ocean temperatures resulting from global warming will add further stress (Harvell et al. 2004). Temperature is also an important factor for disease prevalence, with most outbreaks happening during the summer (CDWG, 2007). Expected impacts include the weakening of coral health, along with an increase in the virulence of coral pathogens (Sokolow, 2009). For boulder corals, this means a potential onslaught from the seven biotic diseases known to infect their colonies (Weil et al. 2009). Of these, Yellow Band Disease (YBD) is the most clearly identifiable in boulder corals. Much like the name entails, YBD is a pathogen that produces a yellow band of infected polyps. It progresses across the colony as polyps die and leave behind their exposed calcium carbonate skeleton (Fig. 2). Because corals derive 80% of their energy from photosynthesis, the destruction of the photosynthetic polyps results in the weakening of the entire host as the infection progresses (Weil et al. 2009). These consequences lower reef coral density and diversity, which is thought to reduce ecosystem resilience (Raymundo et al. 2009). Since the Montastraea spp. are the largest and most abundant coral species in the Caribbean, their decline could lead to a widespread community population phase shift (Weil et al. 2009). Conversely, this could lead to other coral species filling this niche. Current declines in most coral species make it more likely that other biota such as algae will colonize the bouldersized spaces (Fung et al. 2011). At the 82

ecosystem level, this is projected to cause a ripple effect of stress on the thousands of organisms dependent on corals. As the scales tip, humans will also find themselves thrown off balance. Fisheries, dive tourism and coastal protection in the Caribbean will all experience rapid decline with coral reef deterioration. This translates into estimated yearly losses of USD$580-860 million over the next 50 years (Schumann et al. 2013). Much of this loss will affect the one billion people directly dependent on reef products (Harvey 2017). Barbados is one such vulnerable nation, particularly because of its 92km2 of nearshore reefs relative to its 97 km of coastline (Schuhmann et al. 2013). The island’s southeastern location also places the reefs in a precarious location since disease prevalence is highest in the southern Caribbean (CDWG, 2007). This was reflected in the severely degraded state of 80% of Barbados’ fringing reefs in 2007 (Mycoo, 2013). The importance of reefs in Barbados has prompted policy makers and environmentalists to legislate protective measures. As of 2001, 2.2km2 of fringing reef is protected in order to conserve fish and coral diversity, and to promote reef ecosystem resilience (Mahon and Mascia, 2003). Known as the Folkestone Marine Protected Area (MPA), the legislation prohibits fishing and other commercial activities that damage reefs within its boundaries. It is projected that the MPA will demonstrate a difference in coral diversity and boulder density due to its protected status. Therefore, it serves as the control site to answer the question: Does coral composition and cover buffer against disease? Because of host-pathogen dynamics, we expect a more diverse reef with a lower density of the host boulder coral to have less YBD present.

Methods To test this hypothesis, we compared the MPA to three other reefs that do not have protected status. First, we conducted a pilot study to determine which coral species and related pathogens were most prevalent in the area. The boulder coral was found to be the most abundant genus, with Yellow Band Disease (YBD) found at constant levels across all sites. . Therefore, this pathogenic interaction became our focus. In this study, boulder coral are all Montastrea spp. found around Barbados. Boulder coral are hard corals that form large mounds, with various polyp arrangement patterns displayed within the genus. Other coral genera included starlet coral (Siderastrea spp.), golf coral (Favia fragum), fire coral (Millepora complanata), finger coral (Porites furcata, Madracis auretenra) and brain coral (Diploria spp.) (Humann and Deloach, 2013). YBD was identified in the field using the visual cues outlined in the Coral Disease Identification Handbook,

such as yellowing polyps around exposed calcium carbonate skeletons (Raymundo et.al, 2008). Disease prevalence is measured by counting the number of YBD infections on each boulder coral outcrop per transect (Bruno et al. 2007; Raymundo et al. 2009). Coral diversity is measured by counting the number of coral species groups per transect. The study area is 3.87km along the west coast, where the four reefs (MPA, 1N, 1S, 2S) were surveyed. Using Google Earth Pro, reefs were chosen to the North (N) and South (S) of the MPA based on their similarity in size and depth to this reference reef. (Fig. 1). Over the course of a month, snorkeling surveys were done according to the methods outlined in Page et al. 2009 and the Field Manual for Investigating Coral Disease outbreaks (Woodley, 2008). The coral density was sampled using the line intercept method (Raymundo et al. 2009). Four 20m x 2m transect belts were randomly placed parallel to the reef crest

Fig. 1: Overhead view of sampling sites in study area.

Fig. 2a: An infected boulder coral with exposed calcium carbonate skeleton (found in Transect 2).

Fig. 2b: Large boulder coral experiencing acute YBD infection along lower margin (found in Transect 15).

at each reef.. Surveys began with a timed swim of 5 minutes, starting from the weight and ending at the transect reel. Any instances of YBD were recorded on a PVC slate, as well as photographic records taken using a Nikon Coolpix underwater camera (Fig. 2). Following this, a timed 15-minute swim was done from reel to weight. A count of all coral species within the 40m2 area, as well as recording on the slate all intercepting species and their widths was done during this time. All data were then transferred online, and the IBM SPSS Statistics software was used to run parametric tests for the analysis.

YBD concentrations per reef (Fig. 3&5). Interestingly, reef 2S is also observed to be the most equally distributed reef as far as species composition (Fig. 4) No difference is evident between MPA or non-MPA sites for either dependent variables. The percent of boulder coral is considered in the same way as the percent of coral cover (Fig. 5). Boulder coral density is not found to differ across reefs, but a significant difference in concentrations is seen between MPA and non-MPA sites (p<0.025, F=38.811). Percent boulder coral cover is 12.81% for the MPA and 24.94% on average for all non-MPA sites (Fig. 6). At the reef level, the significant difference in instances Differences in YBD concentrations, overall of YBD and overall coral diversity coral diversity, and boulder coral density illustrates that the the results may not were statistically evaluated using a 2-way be based on MPA status, but can instead type I ANOVA. This was done across be attributed to other reef-level factors. reefs and MPA vs. non-MPA sites using transect values pooled per reef. Only those Discussion results at a significance value above Îą=0.05 were retained. YBD concentrations were Density calculated by dividing the numbercounts of YBD divided by the number counts of The prevalence of YBD in the reefs surveyed boulder coral identified on a given transect. are contrary to initial assumptions. As seen in Figures 3 & 6, reefs with low host density Results have high amounts of YBD. These results are surprising, because high host densities YBD infections are present in all reefs and are often a factor influencing the extent counted in each transect. YBD concentra- to which the pathogen can spread (Page tions vary across reefs, including the MPA et al. 2009). For example, it was expected (p<0.016, F=5.978). YBD concentrations that higher host cover would increase the range from 2.6% in the 1N reef to 61.2% at likelihood of transmission from a diseased the 2S reef (Fig. 3). Thus, the MPA does not coral to a healthy one (Bruno et al. 2007). impact the likelihood of YBD infections on In reality, the MPA shows an almost a reef. Coral cover for all recorded species 50% reduction in boulder coral density (boulder, starlet, golf, fire, finger and brain) compared to the average of non-MPA vary in relative compositions across reefs reefs, yet demonstrates no difference in (p<0.018, F=5.753). Coral cover is the YBD prevalence (Fig. 3&6). This could percentage of a given coral species per indicate that the vibrio bacterium is not transect, and averaged at the reef level infectious, is not easily transmitted by direct (Fig. 5). The highest coral cover is found contact, or that it originates in another on reef 2S, which also has the highest vector species (Bruno et al. 2007). It could 85

Fig. 3: YBD concentrations per host, averaged at the reef level.

Fig. 4: Coral counts for each coral group, averaged at the reef level.

Fig. 5: Percent coral cover for all sampled coral groups, averaged at reef level.

Fig. 6: Percent boulder coral cover, averaged at reef level.

also indicate that YBD is not solely limited by host density. This last claim is supported by evidence found in Puerto Rico, where the interaction between temperature and host density were more likely to determine YBD prevalence (Page et al. 2009; Sokolow 2009). Furthermore, it was found that contamination is not the only way in which YBD is transmitted in the Caribbean (Sokolow, 2009). This further reinforces the idea that YBD is not density dependent. Diversity Coral diversity is another factor expected to regulate instances of YBD. Regardless of a reef ’s protection status, differences in the coral diversity can occur alongside differences in disease prevalence. The Folkestone MPA does not show any difference in instances of YBD compared to other nearby reefs. When comparing results at the reef level, reef 2S exhibits the highest coral cover and the highest YBD abundance (Fig. 3&5). Reef 2S also has the most equal distribution of coral groups across the reef. This is possibly as a result of the lower abundance of the usually dominant boulder coral (Fig. 4&6). The high diversity and overall coral cover, observed alongside high instances of YBD, lead to the possible notion that reef diversity is not enough to buffer against coral disease. Furthermore, the fact that the MPA shows no significant difference in diversity or YBD prevalence demonstrates that the protected status of the reef may not be enough to ensure its resilience. However, the data from this study is but a limited snapshot of the ecology of these reefs. Disease progression is now understood to be non-linear, with cycles of infection broken by host die-offs, and renewed when new territory can be colonized (Rosenberg et al. 2007). The results found in May and 88

June of 2018 may be but a brief glimpse of the dynamics of YBD on local reefs. Disease Corals are clones. Each boulder head is a clone of its predecessor, making large colonies impressively singular. In the face of an epidemic, this can cause the host to be completely eradicated. This is because of its “genetic homogeneity, coupled with the relatively rapid evolution of pathogens compared to hosts” (Harvell et al. 2004). The evolution of the pathogen is known as virulence, with a fast evolution translating as high virulence. For YBD, the virulence of the suspected Vibrio bacterium varies from a few millimeters to a few centimeters per month (Weil et al. 2009). However, caution is needed before applying epidemiological models in aquatic settings. Not only is it unclear how transmission happens underwater, but the immune systems of corals are vastly different from our own (Harvell et al. 2004). Thus, our current models fail to predict the progression of contagion. The notion of vectors is especially relevant for YBD, as it was shown that infection is not spread through direct contact or the water column (Weil et al. 2009). This experimental evidence points to a mobile mode of transmission other than the pathogen itself–a vector is likely. Although not much is known about YBD vectors (Harvell et al. 2004, Raymundo et al. 2008), it was found that “corallivorous fishes feed preferentially on physically damaged, stressed or diseased coral tissue, and increase the rate at which disease spreads” (Raymundo et al. 2009). Further research is needed to compare bacterial cultures in fish to those found on infected coral heads. However, it will be difficult to determine if the responsible bacteria is a protozoa or fungi (Rosenberg,

2004) because the surface layer of corals naturally hosts a dynamic community of microorganisms (Rosenberg, 2007). Another possible explanation for increased YBD virulence is the increase in nutrient loading and destructive coastal activities, such as tourism and fishing (Costa et al. 2008; CDWG, 2007). With climate change and marine pollution mostly attributed to human agency, it is important to establish policy and management practices to limit the extent of environmental damage. Policy Although reefs in Barbados were neglected for many years, there is now more emphasis on protecting them (Mahon and Mascia, 2003). The Coastal Zone Management Unit (CZMU) is tasked with protecting coastal waters of Barbados since 1998 (Mycoo, 2014). Setbacks are the most crucial tool outlined in their legislation, which require that all buildings be at least 30m from the high water line (Mycoo, 2014). As tourism is the most important part of Barbados’ economy, protecting the beaches and fringing reefs ensures economic survival (Mahon & Mascia, 2003). For example, recreational divers listed the amount of live coral and biodiversity on a reef as top priorities in their choice to visit the island (Schuhmann et al. 2013). Thus, healthy reefs not only provide services to the reef ecosystem, but to the human economy as well. Still, these services can only be derived from reefs that are able to “maintain the flow of ecological amenities, given natural and anthropogenic shocks” (Rudd et al, 2003). By prohibiting destructive fishing and tourism activities, coral are less prone to physical damage, thereby limiting the possibility of infection (Page et al. 2009). Paradoxically, MPAs may also lead to more pathogenesis

in diseases other than YBD. This is likely due to their higher coral cover, which not only facilitates the spread and accommodation of pathogens, but also attracts more tourists to the area for viewing (Page et al. 2009). Therefore, further studies should be careful of the confounding effects that an MPA may have on disease incidence. This does not mean that MPAs are not helpful. However, the likelihood of success of an MPA depends on policy enforcement and monitoring management practices on the ecosystem (Khan, 1996). Furthermore, incentives in the form of tax cuts and subsidies could increase compliance on the part of the tourism and fishing industries, which are the two largest business sectors contributing to the local degradation of reefs. For example, the “Tourism Development Act (2002) allows a tax credit of 20% of the capital cost of fittings, pipes and pumps used in the improvement of wastewater system” (Mycoo, 2014). It is an ideal situation where the grounds of the problem can be the start of the solution. Conclusion The Folkestone MPA does not conform to initial assumptions, given that it has low boulder coral density and no difference in coral cover. Subsequently, YBD is not observed to occur in greater numbers where higher boulder coral is present. There is no direct observable link between the density, diversity, and disease prevalence of a reef. Rather, it is probably interactions with other factors outside the scope of this study that enhanced the likelihood of YBD infections. Host density, coral reef diversity, and policy have a more complex relationship with coral disease than previously hypothesized. Factors such as temperature, nutrient loading, human activity, and vector presence were 89

likely involved (CDWG, 2007; Bruno et al. 2009). Action is needed to limit potential reef stressors, to ensure reef resilience and maintain a sustainable socio-economic development for the Caribbean nations dependent on coral reefs. Acknowledgements Many thanks to my supervisor Prof. Frederic Guichard for his guidance and instruction. Field work was conducted with the invaluable help and support of Selina Nackley at the lovely Bellairs Research Institute. Lastly, thank you to all the reef fish of Barbados who tolerated our repeated intrusion into their homes over the course of this study. References Bruno F. J, Petes E. L, Harvell C. D, and Hettinger A. (2003). Nutrient enrichment can increase the severity of coral diseases. Ecology Letters 6, 1056â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1061. Coral Disease Working Group (CDWG). (2007). The Coral Disease, environmental drivers and the balance between coral and microbial associates. The Oceanography Society 20, 1. Costa, O., Nimmo, M., & Attrill, M. (2008). Coastal nutrification in Brazil: A review of the role of nutrient excess on coral reef demise. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 25(2), 257-270. Harvey, M. (2017). Coral reefs: importance. WWF. Downloaded on 14 May 2018. Harvell, D., R. Aronson, N. Baron, J. Connell, A. Dobson, S. Ellner, S. Gerber, J. Ward. (2004). The rising tide of ocean diseases: unsolved problems and research priorities. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2, 375. Humann, P., and N. DeLoach. 2013. Reef Coral Identification 3rd edition. New World Publications, Jacksonville, United States. Johnson, P. T., A. R. Townsend, C. C. Cleveland, P. M. Glibert, R. W. Howarth, V. J. McKenzie, E. Rejmankova, and M. H. Ward. (2010). Linking environmental nutrient enrichment and disease emergence in humans and wildlife. Ecological Applications 20, 16-29.

Khan, J., & Alleyne, S. (1996). Environmental policy and management in Barbados. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 9(1), 25-35. Mahon, R. and M. B. Mascia. (2003). The Barbados (Alias Folkestone) Marine Reserve, Barbados: A Late Bloomer?. Gulf and Caribbean Research 14 (2), 171-180. Mycoo, M. (2014). Sustainable tourism, climate change and sea level rise adaptation policies in Barbados. Natural Resources Forum, 38, 1, 47-57. Page, C. A., D. M. B aker, C. D. Harvell, Y. Golbuu, L. Raymundo, S. J. Neale, K. B. Rosell, and B. L. Willis. (2009). Influence of marine reserves on coral disease prevalence. Disease of Aquatic Organisms 87, 1-2. Raymundo, L. J., C. S. Couch, A. W. Bruckner, C. D. Harvell, T. M. Work, E. Weil, C. M. Woodley, E. JordanDahlgren, B. L. Willis, Y. Sato, and G. S. Aeby. (2008). Coral disease handbook. Coral Reef Targeted Research and Capacity Building for Management Program, Melbourne, Australia. Raymundo, L. J., A. R. Halford, A. P. Maypa, and A. M. Kerr. (2009). Functionally diverse reef-fish communities ameliorate coral disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences if the United States of America 106, 17067-17070. Rosenberg, E. and Y. Loya. (2004). Coral health and disease. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. Rosenberg, E. O. Koren, L. Reshef, R. Efrony, and I. Zilber-Rosenberg. (2007). The role of microorganisms in coral health, disease, and evolution. Nature Reviews Microbiology 5, 355-362. Rudd, M. A., Tupper, M. H., Folmer, H., & Van, K. G. C. ( 2003). Policy analysis for tropical marine reserves: challenges and directions. Fish and Fisheries, 4, 1, 65-85. Schuhmann, P. W., Casey, J. F., Horrocks, J. A., & Oxenford, H. A. (2013). Recreational SCUBA diversâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; willingness to pay for marine biodiversity in Barbados. Journal of Environmental Management, 121, 29-36. Sokolow, S. (2009). Effects of a changing climate on the dynamics of coral infectious disease: a review of the evidence. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 87: 5-18. Weil, E. A. Croquer, and I. Urreiztieta. (2009). Yellow band disease comprises the reproductive output of the Caribbean reef-building coral Montastraea faveolata (Anthozoa, Scleractinia). Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 87: 45-55. Woodley, C. M., and Coral Reef Conservation Program (U. S.). (2008). Field manual for investigating coral disease outbreaks. National Ocean Service, Silver Spring, Maryland.

Photo by Julia Spicer

Diversity and Trophic Niche of Native Stingless Bees in Achiote, Colรณn by Aimy Wang and Caitlin Belz

1. Introduction

reported that bees contributed over $15 billion to US crop production (Holland, 2013). It is evident that the current scale of 1.1 Background modern agriculture would not be possible Bees are, indisputably, one of the most without bees. important pollinators on the planet. Domesticated by humans for their honey for In recent years, however, bees have received the past 9000 years, in modern day they are worldwide attention for less-than-fortunate kept not only to produce honey and other by- reasons: habitat loss and fragmentation due products, but also to pollinate commercial to global urban development and climate farms across North America and Europe change have decimated foraging grounds, in the form of a vast, mobile force of hives and there is evidence that increased use (Holland, 2013; Roffet-Salque, et al., 2016). of herbicides and pesticides have caused Crossing nations in specialized trucks, over sharp declines in hive health (Holland, 100 types of essential crops rely on these 2013; Roffet-Salque, et al., 2016; Roggia mobile hives, including many varieties of & Castro, 2017). Beekeepers, farmers, and apples, nuts, and berries. In 2013, it was environmental groups, particularly in North 92

Photo by Aimy Wang and Caitlin Belz

America, have spoken out about the crisis of “colony collapse disorder” (CCD), which involves the mass collapse of cultivated hives, with some areas experiencing declines as great as 90% (Holland, 2013). As such, bees have become an important subject of interest in current conservation biology; their role in the continued health of many ecosystems is globally recognized, and their decline may beget disastrous consequences for the future of the environment as well as humanity (Holland, 2013; Roffet-Salque, et al., 2016). While Latin American beekeeping is not cultivated to the same industrial extent as in North America, itextends back hundreds if not thousands of years, and has been practiced by Indigenous peoples in Nicaragua, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, and most notably, the Maya in Mexico (Nates-Parra, 2001; Quezada-Euán, May-Itzá, & González-Acereto, 2001; Roggia & Castro, 2017; M. Castro, pers. comm., January 19, 2018). The specific taxon of cultivated native bees, called Meliponini, are distinct and separate from North American, Asian, and African bees; they are much smaller, stingless, and produce honey with unique antibacterial properties (Quezada-Euán et al., 2001; Gamboa Abril & Figueroa Ramirez, 2009). Over 350 identified species of Meliponini exist on the American continent (Roggia & Castro, 2017). 1.2 Project context

a Native Bee Conservation Project, aimed at evaluating the diversity and ecology of native bees in the Costa Abajo region of Colón, Panama. Ultimately, the goals of the project include conserving the bees and the tropical humid rainforest ecosystem in which they live, as well as engaging, educating, and developing local communities through the economic resources generated through the cultivation of stingless bees (Roggia & Castro, 2017). Through our internship with CEASPA, we conducted the first step of this initiative: an evaluation of the diversity and ecology of native bees. Specifically, we created a species list of Meliponini in the Achiote community and determined the floral preferences of each species to evaluate their trophic niche breadth and overlap. Extensive research has been conducted on the ecology and niche of various Meliponini species throughout Latin America, although there is relatively little published literature based in Panama. Roubik and Buchmann (1984) examined the foraging activity and nectar selection of four native Meliponini species and one domesticated European species in Panama, focusing on the efficiency of sugar uptake throughout the day, primarily based on the caloric content of collected nectar. Although they examined floral preference, making inferences on choice based on diurnal patterns of nectar concentration, a niche assessment was not the ultimate goal of this particular study. Nevertheless, they found that most bee foraging activity occurred between 6:00 and 13:00, which informed us about significant sampling times for such species. We used this figure to help create our methods.

Despite the extensive history of meliponiculture (the keeping of Meliponini) in much of Latin America, the historical and modern population of Panama have little experience with the practice (Roggia & Castro, 2017). Given the diversity of native bees available, many of which are significant pollinators and producers of edible honey, the non-profit organization Centro de Estudios y Acción Martínez-Hernández, et al. (1994) examined Social Panameño (CEASPA) has initiated the foraging practices of four stingless bee 94

species at two sites in Mexico, essentially determining niche through floral preference. They found that all bees were polylacticâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; that is to say, generalists that visited many different flowersâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;although each species still had distinct floral preferences. They used an analysis of pollen, honey, and larval food to reach their conclusions, a method we found to be common in bee niche research. Obregon and Nates-Parra (2014) conducted a similar study in Colombia, determining the floral preferences of only a single species of stingless bee, Melipona eburnea (Friese), through the same methodology in an effort to inform conservation strategies, as this particular species was reportedly vulnerable to decline due to habitat destruction. The study found key plant species in the diet of this particular species. Kleinert- Giovannini and Imperatriz-Fonseca (1987) did the same, using melissopalynological analysis, on the species Melipona marginata marginata (Lepeletier) in SĂŁo Paulo, Brazil.

The advantage of this method is clear: sampling of pollen, honey, or larval food from hives of known species, rather than sampling bees directly from flora in areas of study, does not require collection and/or DNA analysis for accurate identification to the species level. However, due to the limited time and resources for our project, as well as the limited information we have on stingless bees and their hives in the Achiote community, this type of analysis was not possible for our internship. As mentioned by Roubik and Buchmann (1984), many flowering plants bloom during the dry season in Panama (January - March), and bee foraging activity is significant in this period. Therefore, direct collection of bee specimens was chosen as the most appropriate method of sampling for our purposes. Aguiar, et al. (2013) conducted perhaps the study closest to our intended goal and methodology: they examined the trophic

Image 2: Collection of bees on leaf steams.

niche breadth and overlap of bees in the region of Caantiza in Brazil. Rather than focusing on one species, they systematically collected all bees sighted, once a month for a year along a single trail, and noted the plants they were collected from. Niche overlap of the 10 most common species found were discovered to be much less than what would be predicted by chance, indicating specialization of flora on a per-species basis. Antonini, et al. (2012) took a similar approach, examining bee diversity and niche in fragmented and altered urban habitats in southeastern Brazil. They collected bees from a number of forest remnants, noting size, plant diversity, and surrounding land use, among other variables, for each plot. It was found that there was no significant species-area relationship with the fragments. Instead, smaller plots with diversely structured vegetation were found to have a higher diversity of generalist bee species. More recent fragments were also found to be more heterogeneous, causing them to be more accessible to bees than older fragments. Notably, most of the cited research was conducted over at least a multi-month period. Given that we only had four cumulative weeks to formulate and complete the project, our methods were necessarily less intensive than those cited above. However, we endeavored to create a methodology that answers the primary questions of interest by our host organization:

composition of species between different habitats (e.g. in gardens, pastures, by the road)? Given the results from previous studies involving multiple bee species and trophic niches (e.g. Aguiar et al., 2013; MartĂnezHernĂĄndez et al., 2014), we predicted that while there would be some generalist species with overlapping preferences, there would be specific floral preferences for each species. We further hypothesized that species composition would vary between areas like private gardens as compared to pastures or the roadside, given the likelihood of greater floral diversity in such spaces. With greater diversity of flora, there is possibly greater generalism, given the accessibility of multiple flowering plants in short proximity and potentially higher diversity in structure (Antonini et al., 2012). However, with increased choice there is also the possibility of increased specialization, resulting from niche partitioning in a small area. Either possibility would indicate a distinction in bee composition between high-diversity and low- diversity locales. The results gathered from this study were used to create an informative pamphlet for CEASPAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s use, to inform the direction that will be taken by their Bee Conservation Project as well as to educate those who will be involved in the meliponiculture effort (e.g. local community members). 2. Methods

2.1 Data Collection What stingless bee (Meliponini) species are We established the following methodology present in Achiote? after consultation with entomologists Hector What are their respective trophic niches (i.e. Barrios and Alfredo Lanuza, as well as floral preferences)? Is there overlap between reviewing literature outlining methods of bee collection and analysis. species? Furthermore, are there differences in the The entirety of our study took place in the 96

vicinity of Achiote, a community of 700 located in the province of Colón, Panama. The ecosystem here is classified as moist lowland tropics, with a dry season between January and April and a rainy season between May and December (M. Castro, pers. comm., 2018). Just adjacent to the community is San Lorenzo National Park, which contains 12 different forest types, 430 bird species, and eight mammal species, including howler monkeys, jaguars, and tapirs (CEASPA, 2018).

walked a distance spanning approximately 5 km, photographing all the flowering plants we saw, and noting bee presence. From this knowledge, we divided our sampling area into three different categories, with three sites each, for a total of nine sites (Fig. 1). They were demarcated as follows: (1) Gardens were defined as pieces of land adjacent to private residences, with cultivated flora—relatively high in diversity; (2) Pastures were defined as pieces of relatively uniform cultivated land designed for livestock feeding or small-scale agriculture, with dispersed crops and flora— A pilot study was conducted from January relatively low in diversity; and (3) Roadsides 29th-30th 2018, to document the different were defined as pieces of land consisting of flowering plants present in the area. We flowers, plants and debris up to 3 m from the roadside, uncultivated, unkempt and often fragmented—middling to high diversity. These three different sites allowed us to make comparisons of biodiversity and the trophic niche of species across the differing habitats. Each site was situated at least 250 m apart. Six days were fully dedicated to data collection between February and April of 2018. Flower-visiting bees were sampled across the nine different sites across three time slots per day. Three sites were visited between 6:00-9:00, three between 10:00-13:00 and the final three between 15:00-18:00. Accounting for travel time, this allocated approximately 45 minutes per site, and all were systematically rotated through each time slot on a new day of sampling. This accounted for the fact that some bees might be more active in the morning or evening, allowing a consistent distribution of sampling hours across all sites.

Fig. 1: The 9 sites in Achiote, Colón. Divided into west (blue), center (yellow), and south (red) sections, with GPS coordinates.

Bees observed visiting flowers at a height of two meters and below were captured using an entomological net (method revised from Aguiar et al., 2013), and the plant species visited were recorded for each bee. Specimens were euthanized using 70% ethanol in a specially demarcated “kill jar”, and separately 97

Table 1: Summary of the single factor ANOVA of mean relative abundances of stingless bees across the three site categories. Alpha level of 0.05. Null hypothesis H0 as µ1=µ2=µ3 and alternative hypothesis H1 as at least one of the population means differing. Reject the null hypothesis when the value of F is greater than the value of F crit.

placed into plastic sandwich bags, which were categorized and labelled with the site captured from, the time slot, and the flower species observed visiting. Collected specimens of bees were sent to Dr. Alfredo Lanuza, entomologist at the University of Panama in Colón, who helped us complete the identification of the bees as well as the flowering plant species. Since some sites were located on private property, permission was obtained from homeowners a week before sampling started. We provided them with a form containing the general background of our project as well as a schedule to notify them of our expected sampling times. Our research was conducted according to the standards of McGill University, abiding by the Code of Ethics and the Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (TCPS 2). We completed The Course on Research Ethics (CORE) certification prior to the beginning of our project. 2.2 Data Analysis and Products From our sampling, we compiled a list of all the bee species encountered in Achiote, each identified at least to genus, if not to species. Using this data, we qualitatively determined which flowers are preferred by specific species, and quantified the frequency of bee sightings on a per flora basis. We also established the frequency of bee capture as a function of time. We then analyzed the biodiversity of the bees across the 9 different sites, and across the entire community of Achiote using diversity indices. First, we used species richness and Simpson’s Diversity index to account for both the number of species present and their relative abundance. We then conducted further analysis on the degree of resource specialization for each species (niche breadth), as well as resource similarities between differing species (niche overlap). Niche breadth was calculated using standardized Levin’s Measure (1968), while niche overlap between species pairs via the Schoener overlap index (Krebs, 2013).

Next, we constructed a one-way ANOVA to test if the mean relative abundance of bee specimens differed significantly across the three sampling categories. In the event that the ANOVA revealed rejection of our null hypothesis (i.e. that there was no significant difference between our three site types), various t-tests via

were recorded visiting the flowers of 21 plant species. Trigona silvestriana (Vachal 1908) was the most abundant species, with 76 specimens collected, while Lestrimelitta danuncia (Oliveira and Marchi, 2005), Scaura argyria (Cockerell, 1912), and Trigona nigerrima (Cresson, 1978), were the least, with one specimen collected for each. Approximately 64% of all specimens were caught in garden Fisher’s least significant denominator sites, with only approximately 16% collected (LSD) would reveal which of the relative in pastures, and 20% collected at roadsides. abundances differed. This would provide The ANOVA comparing bee abundance further information on any potential between the habitat types failed to reject the interactions between floral species presence null hypothesis with an F value of 2.70, below and bees species abundance. the F critical value of 5.14. Thus, it did not yield significant results, indicating that the 3. Results null hypothesis—that there was no significant difference between habitat types—could not 3.1 Populations and Abundances be rejected (Table 1). In our study, a total of 273 specimens were collected in the community of Achiote. Of this population, 14 species of stingless bees

Table 2: Summary of results from Simpson’s Diversity Index

3.2 Biodiversity Species richness was found to be largely consistent across all sampling sites. Our west garden site contained the highest species richness, with nine different species collected. All other sites contained between five and six species, representing a fairly even distribution of species diversity across sites. Simpson’s Diversity results are outlined in Table 2, with results ranging between 0.393 (West Roadside) and 0.855 (Center Roadside). This indicates that there is an approximate 39% chance of randomly selecting two bees of different species in west roadside, while there is an 86% chance at center roadside. The entire community of Achiote had a diversity index of 0.84. Twenty-one different flower species were sampled over the course of this study, with Ixora coccinea (Red) being the most generally preferred. Forty-eight visiting specimens were collected on this flower, representing nine different species. 99

Table 3: Niche breadth (Bl), richness of visited plants (Rn), number of individuals in each bee species (Ni), and niche overlap (NO) between pairs of bee species in Achiote, Colรณn.

which visited 21 different plant species. The number of different plants visited by each bee species ranged from 1 to 12. Niche breadth One of the species we collected, Lestrimelitta ranged from 1 to 5.038, and from 0 to 0.168 danuncia, was excluded from the following when standardized to a scale from 0 to 1.0 as analyses due to its status as a parasite: it does recommended by Hurlburt (1978) (Table 3). not collect pollen or nectar from flowers. The species Paratetrapedia sp., Partamona orizabaensis (Strand, 1919), S. argyria, and In our study, we found 14 species of bees, T. nigerrima were found to have the highest 3.3 Trophic Niche Breadth and Overlap

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degrees of niche specialization, with each only sampled on one flower type, while T. pallens, T. perangulata, and T. angustula were found to be the species with the widest trophic niches, with each found on between 7 and 11 flower types. Niche overlap (NO) was found to range from 1.3% to 56% between pairs, with 27 of the 36 pairs analyzed demonstrating an overlap of less than 20%. In general, highly specialized species tended to have less overlap than generalist species, as evidenced by the calculated values of the total overlaps shared by each species. In terms of cumulative overlaps with other species, T. pallens had the highest, sharing a NO of 46% with T. perangulata and 32% with T. fulviventris. P. orizabaensis had the lowest amount of overlap with other species, sharing only a 3.7% overlap with T. fulviventris. For bees with more than 10 specimens collected, howeverâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;eliminating the effect of low sample size â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Trigona ferricauda (Cockerell, 1917) represented the lowest niche overlap, sharing between 1.3% and 7.5% with other species, with the exception of O. mellicolor, with which it shared 45% of its niche. Overall, average niche overlap of the thirteen species was low, at 15.2%. 4. Discussion 4.1 Population across habitat types The ANOVA analysis comparing the mean populations of bees collected across the three site categories failed to yield any significant results, thereby disproving our hypothesis that there would be significant differences across habitat types. However, this is likely due to the small size of our sample and high variance in the data. While two of our garden sites, west garden and center garden, yielded noticeably

higher number of collected specimens, with 104 and 54 specimens collected respectively, our south garden yielded only 17 collected specimens. Notably, this number of collected samples was still higher than all but one of the roadside and pasture sites, but compared to the other two gardens, its flowers were in the poorest condition (e.g. dying; going out of season). Compared to our west and center gardens, the garden at our southern spot was rarely maintained and mostly abandoned, with the owners only coming occasionally on the weekends, which likely affected the health of the flowers. The south garden aside, we noticed a qualitative distinction between the abundance of species in private gardens as compared to roadsides and pastures. These gardens had more stable environments with bees consistently visiting them week by week. In contrast, our pasture sites and roadside sites were inconsistent; flowers were out of season and cut or trimmed down by humans, which resulted in fluctuating levels of capture success at these sites. The implication that can be taken from this is that, in maintaining environments with healthy flowers ideal for pollination, as well as minimizing our disturbance by allowing natural growth of roadside flowers, humans may contribute to prosperous populations of pollinating bees. Again, further investigation would have to be done with higher sample size and more sites to make any definitive conclusions. 4.2 Species richness and composition across sites Species richness was generally consistent across all sites, which allows us to infer that species distribution is fairly uniform across the community of Achiote: there was no site that was dominated entirely by only one or two species. Significantly, the site with the highest species richness (west garden), was also the site with the highest number of 101

flowering species. Of the nine sites sampled, six different species were observed to be the most or tied for the most abundant species at each individual site, revealing that there does not seem to be a consistent species dominating the community. We infer that this is likely due to different flower compositions at sites attracting different bee species.

were found on a single plant species (Ixora coccinea (R)), reducing its overall niche breadth.

The species with the narrowest trophic niches were found to be Paratetrapedia sp., P. orizabaensis, S. argyria, and T. nigerrima, all of which were only sampled on one plant species. None of these species, however, had It is worth noting that this index accounts for more than three specimens collected during both evenness as well as abundance. While our sampling period, with the majority being center roadside was our site with the lowest represented by only one specimen in our population, with only 11 specimens caught, sample. Thus, it is necessary to examine this extremely high evenness across five species result critically. It may be the case that the allowed for a high index value. In retrospect, “niche specialization” of these species was a comparing populations of the same individual result of the small sample size, rather than a species, or taking into account factors like true degree of specialization. density of individuals at each site, would have allowed for a better understanding of Given the limited literature on foraging activity the true diversity in the area. of stingless bees, particularly in Panama, we were only able to verify some of these findings Despite this, our results show that there is an with peer-reviewed publications. Roubik 84% chance of randomly selecting two bees and Moreno (2018) conducted an intensive of different species in the entire community examination of Panamanian bees through of Achiote, highlighting a diverse and even pollen analysis of their honey, and found that population of bee species. T. angustula foraged from over 43 genera and 30 families of plants, demonstrating 4.3 Breadth of trophic niches significant generalism. T. nigerrima and O. mellicolor were found to be somewhat Trophic niches calculated from standardized generalist, with focus on two or three species Levin’s measure seems to indicate that in particular, while S. argyrea, owing to its there is a greater number of specialists than unique physiology (i.e. its “enlarged hind generalists in our sample, which supports tibial basitarsus, which it uses to collect fallen our initial hypothesis. There are several pollen on petals and leaves[…]as though limitations to this result, however, which will using a rake”), had fairly consistent sampling be addressed in the following discussion. patterns and was shown to specialize on the local level, although this was not the case Although it exhibits the highest calculated when considered in the context of a global niche breadth, T. angustula was found on analysis (Roubik and Moreno, 2018). only the second- highest number of plant species--the bee that was sampled on the most In the same study, Roubik and Moreno also plants was T. fulviventris, which was collected found that the bee genera they focused on on 12 different plant species. While it has the all collected “unimportant” pollen types; highest distribution across different flower that is, almost one-sixth of all pollen types types, over 56% of T. fulviventris specimens collected by these bees occurred only in a 102

single colony, and was not consistent across species. They speculate that the plants from which the pollen came may be rare, or may flower only briefly, but the lack of consistency across colonies and species indicates the need for further studies in floral selection and preferences for native bees. 4.4 Trophic niche overlap between pairs of species Overall, the vast majority (>77%) of calculated niche overlap was relatively low— under 20%—which is consistent with trophic niche studies in elsewhere in Central and South America (Aguiar et al., 2013; Roubik et al., 2018). As noted by Aguiar et al., niche overlap is “expected to be low when at least one of the pair has a more specialized diet”: for example, the aforementioned S. argyria. None of the “specialist” bees we analyzed have trophic overlap greater than 20% with any other bee, although it bears repeating that low sample size, as well as incomplete sampling, may have caused the mischaracterization of the trophic niches of a number of species which may not truly be “specialists”. T. angustula, the particular species of interest for meliponiculture in Achiote, has relatively high niche overlap, ranging from 5 to 37%. This is primarily due to high degrees of overlap with other generalist species like T. perangulata (NO=33.1%) and T. fulviventris (NO=37.6%), although T. angustula does have lower overlaps with other species (2-11%). This stark difference in overlap value may be a result of T. angustula’s high degree of resource generalism, causing it to be highly present on a large number of different plant species within the community. 4.5 Limitations and further questions There are a number of limitations to our

study that are worth noting. The first and foremost limitation is the dynamic change in conditions we observed between our sites. Not only weekly, but daily, plants were observed to be withering, or reappearing after rain. At roadside sites we would often return to discover entire plants cut down that were in full bloom during the previous visit. This resulted in inconsistent sampling across our sites, which makes any conclusions we generate regarding floral preference problematic--flowers that were found to be “preferred” may simply be those that were available at the time. There were a number of occurrences when withered flowers were sampled in an effort to maintain uniformity between sampling periods, though it is acknowledged that this may not provide an accurate representation of their role as pollen providers. For example, the floral species Cajanus cajan, although sampled throughout the entirety of our study, was sparse and largely uninhabited until the last week, when the flowers finally reached full bloom. It was at this point that we finally received an influx of specimens caught. Furthermore, another temporal shift we observed was an overall change in species composition at certain sites depending on the week of sampling. For example, during our first two sessions of sampling in February, our west garden site was largely dominated by T. silvestriana. However, during our final session in March, the site was dominated by T. pallens. Thus, as a suggestion for further study, seasonal change would be an important factor of interest. In this study, if time of year had been included as a factor, and we tracked the change of species composition of flora, the data we collected could be of substantially greater value. It would allow for a greater understanding in how changes in the environment affect bee pollination dynamics, and if bees’ preferred foraging strategies and 103

overall activity change depending on the also been found to be highly ecologically time of year. flexible and to adapt easily in disturbed environments. As a candidate for meliponiIdeally, this study would also have been culture, it is a strong choice for a small, fairly conducted continuously, rather than limited developed community like Achiote, with to several blocks of sampling time split up many human-modified environments like over three months. This would help minimize gardens and pastures. the drastic changes in environment observed, as well as allow us to better pinpoint the day Other species noted in this study have been such changes started to occur, while simulta- cultivated for meliponiculture elsewhere. T. neously eliminating the effect of seasonal pallens, T. fuscipennis, and T. fulviventris have changes to the activity of different species. all been documented in “folk apiculture” in Brazil, with both T. pallens and T. fuscipennis As of now, with a greater understanding of shown to be year-round producers, presenting the species composition of stingless bees in a new avenue to take the meliponiculture Achiote, we can navigate towards studies that effort (Posey, 1983). All of these species will allow us to further understand aspects collected in our study could also be used in of their ecological behaviour. Throughout the practice of meliponiculture in Achiote. our study, we encountered several nests of a Furthermore, Scaptotrigona sp. has been variety of different species. If we specifically found to be resilient and easy to cultivate took note of where these nests were located, in highly human-affected areas in Ecuador, and further surveyed the area to document with up to 10 000 bees per hive, high honey additional nests, we could test if their production, as well as resistance to pests like presence affected species composition in the ants and phorid flies (Martínez Fortun et al., nearby area. Potential questions include: 2018). If there is interest to expand beyond Achiote to more developed areas like Colón, (1) Does having these specific nests nearby it may be possible with bees of this genus. decrease the likelihood of finding different bee species in the area? The uniform distribution of bee species found throughout the community indicates (2) How does presence of certain species affect that there are multiple viable habitats for the presence of others? them throughout the area, and that meliponiculture could potentially be practiced in 4.6 Meliponiculture and Bee Conservation in many different locations around Achiote. Achiote The suitability of Achiote for bee habitation is supported by our observations that many As noted previously, the primary species of Meliponini nests were situated in the cinder interest for meliponiculture in Achiote is block houses built and occupied by most of Tetragonisca angustula, known colloquially the community. Potential future investigation as mariolas. It is, after Apis mellifera, perhaps into the species that are able to build nests in the most cultivated bee by humans in the such substrates may be invaluable knowledge Americas (Roubik & Moreno, 2018). T. for bee conservation in general. angustula is known to be a generalist forager and a highly efficient pollinator of native It is worth mentioning, however, that the flora, a fact supported by our study; it has presence of parasites such as Lestrimelitta 104

danuncia could be a potential problem for implementing this project. Ecologically, L. danuncia does not pollinate itself. Instead, it invades the nests of other bee species to parasitize honey and pollen stores, thereby contributing to decreased honey yields for cultivated species. However, since only one specimen was encountered during the entirety of our project, we infer that its population is not significant in the community of Achiote.

and trophic niche. The contribution of this information to wildlife conservation as well as meliponiculture efforts was noted, providing support for the idea that Meliponini niche analysis will be valuable in Panama, where meliponiculture may be a new frontier in providing economic resources for subsistence farmers and low-income families.

4.7 Niche analysis of the Meliponini assemblage in Panama

This project would not have been successful without the help of numerous people. We would like to extend a special thanks to Marilรณ Castro of CEASPA, who created this project, welcomed us during the duration of our field trips, and provided us with extensive background information; Dr. Hector Barrios, who oversaw our project and exchanged ideas with us throughout the development of our methodology; and Dr. Alfredo Lanunza of University of Colรณn, who answered many of our questions, provided us with field materials, helped us identify all of our samples of bees and flowers, and provided us with high quality photographs of our collected species. Without his incredible insight, this project would not have been possible.

Niche analysis remains a subject of significant interest for entomologists studying Meliponini. Specific foraging behaviours and floral preferences are still largely unknown for most of the 550 known species of stingless bees. There have been some major efforts in recent years to assess niche at a larger scale in Panama, most recently by Roubik and Moreno (2018), where the attempt was made to quantify ecological interactions with plants in the foraging range of multiple Meliponini species in the Chagres, Portobelo, and Soberania National Parks, using melissopalynological (honey pollen) and melittopalynological (whole-nest pollen) analysis. In Panama, it may be of particular interest to establish niche breadth and overlap of local Meliponini species, given recent efforts to facilitate environmental conservation as well as the sustainable development of tropical agriculture in the country, particularly for low-income rural livelihoods (DeClerck et al., 2010). Absy et al. (2018), in their investigation of the potential of using palynological analysis to evaluate diversity in the Amazon, suggest that focal observations of flower visitation, supplemented by pollen analysis, can provide a more complete view on plant-bee interactions, thereby allowing for a better understanding of bee behaviour

Acknowledgements

Additionally, we would like to thank Daniel Holness of CEASPA for facilitating this project and welcoming us into his home during our visits to Achiote, and Ruben for his wonderful cooking. Above all, we would like to thank the people of Achiote for their kindly tolerating the use we made of their pastures and gardens. We are extremely grateful to have counted on each of these people for their valued support. References Aguiar, C. M., Santos, G. M., Martins, C. F., & Presley, S. J. (2013). Trophic niche breadth and niche overlap in a guild of flower-visiting bees in a Brazilian

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dry forest. Apidologie, 44(2), 153-162. doi:10.1007/ s13592-012-0167- 4 Antonini, Y., Martins, R. P., Aguiar, L. M., & Loyola, R. D. (2012). Richness, composition and trophic niche of stingless bee assemblages in urban forest remnants. Urban Ecosystems, 16(3), 527-541. doi:10.1007/ s11252-012- 0281-0 Barrios, H. (2018, January 25). Personal interview. Castro, M. (2018, January 19). Personal interview. DeClerck, F. A., Chazdon, R., Holl, K. D., Milder, J. C., Finegan, B., Martinez-Salinas, A., ... & Ramos, Z. (2010). Biodiversity conservation in human-modified landscapes of Mesoamerica: Past, present and future. Biological conservation, 143(10), 2301-2313. Gamboa Abril, M. V., & Figueroa Ramirez, J. (2009). Antibacterial Power of Honeys from Tetragonisca angustula Assessed by Minimum Inhibitory Concentration. Acta Biológica Colombiana, 14(2), 97-106. Holland, J. S. (2013, May 10). The Plight of the Honeybee. National Geographic. Krebs, C. J. (2013). Niche measures and resource preferences In Ecological methodology. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings. Martínez Fortun, S., Ruiz, C., Acosta Quijano, N., & Vit, P. (2018). Rural-Urban Meliponiculture and Ecosystems in Neotropical Areas. Scaptotrigona, a Resilient Stingless Bee Species? Pot-Pollen in Stingless Bee Melittology, 421. Martínez-Hernández, E., Cuadriello-Aguilar, J. I., Ramírez-Arriaga, E., Medina-Camacho, M., Sosa-Nájera, M. S., & Melchor-Sánchez, J. E. (1994). Foraging of Nannotrigona testaceicornis, Trigona (Tetragonisca) angustula, Scaptotrigona mexicana and Plebeia sp. in the Tacanáregion, Chiapas, Mexico. Grana, 33(4-5), 205-217. doi:10.1080/00173139409429001 Nates-Parra, G. (2001). Las abejas sin aguijón (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponini) de Colombia. Biota Colombiana, 2(3).

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Nieuwstadt, M. G., & Iraheta, C. E. (1996). Relation between size and foraging range in stingless bees (Apidae, Meliponinae). Apidologie, 27(4), 219-228. doi:10.1051/apido:19960404 Obregon, D., & Nates-Parra, G. (2013). Floral Preference of Melipona eburnea Friese (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in a Colombian Andean Region. Neotropical Entomology, 43(1), 53-60. doi:10.1007/s13744-013-0172-y Posey, D. A. (1983). Folk apiculture of the Kayapo Indians of Brazil. Biotropica, 15(2), 154-158. Quezada-Euán, J. J., May-Itzá, W. D., & GonzálezAcereto, J. A. (2001). Meliponiculture in Mexico: problems and perspective for development. Bee World,82(4), 160-167. doi:10.1080/0 005772x.2001.11099523 Roffet-Salque, M., Regert, M., Evershed, R. P., Outram, A. K., Cramp, L. J., Decavallas, O., . . . Whelton, H. L. (2016). Widespread exploitation of the honeybee by early Neolithic farmers. Nature, 534(7607), 1-2. doi:10.1038/nature18451 Roggia, Y., & Castro, M. C. (2017). Conservación de Abejas en Achiote. CENTRO EL TUCÁN-CEASPA (Rep.). Colón: CEASPA. Roubik, D. W., & Buchmann, S. L. (1984). Nectar selection by Melipona and Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and the ecology of nectar intake by bee colonies in a tropical forest. Oecologia, 61(1), 1-10. Roubik D.W., Moreno Patiño J.E. (2018) The Stingless Honey Bees (Apidae, Apinae: Meliponini) in Panama and Pollination Ecology from Pollen Analysis. In: Vit P., Pedro S., Roubik D. (eds) Pot-Pollen in Stingless Bee Melittology. Springer, Cham. Sakagami, S.F., Laroca, S., Moure, J.S. (1967) Wild bee biocenotics in Sao Jose dos Pinhais (PR) South Brazil- preliminary report. J.Fac.Sci. Hokkaido U Ser. Zool. 16, 253-291 Zamora Chacón, L. (2015). Evaluación de nidos trampa en la captura de enjambres de abejas sin aguijón (Apidae, Meliponini) en Costa Rica. (Rep.). Heredia: Universidad Nacional.

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About the Contributors Aimy Mengyu Wang graduated from the McGill School of Environment in 2018 with a degree in Honours Environment and History, and a thesis focusing on microplastic pollution in the St. Lawrence River. She is currently interested in exploring how historical and modern sociopolitical dynamics affect the development of environmental policy in East and Southeast Asia. When not considering the problems being faced by humanity, she spends her time indulging in escapism by drawing silly comics and avidly consuming utopian literature. Audrey Dulon is completing an Economics degree at McGill University. Caitlin Belz is a U3 biology student with a minor in field studies. She completed the Panama Field Study in 2018, and is interested in pursuing further research on the effect climate change has on biotic interactions. In her free time, she enjoys hiking in her home province British Columbia. Caroline Dunaux is a recent International Development and Environment graduate from McGill. She is passionate about climate change mitigation, renewable energy technologies and urban sustainability, specifically how cities can be key drivers for climate policy initiative. Last summer, she worked at an electric vehicle charging company aiming to mitigate emissions worldwide through EV adoption. D. D. is an undergraduate student majoring in Cognitive Science, minoring in Economics and English Literature. He loves philosophy, writes few poems, and sometimes paints watercolours. Ă&#x2030;lise Guerrero is a U1 student in Global Food Security (Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences). She falls in love with plants, pollinators and poems everyday. Her interest in oceanography led her to an obsessional investigation on sea-dumped chemical warfare agents, a project that she had the chance to present at the Canada-Wide Science Fair in 2018. Julia Spicer is a recent graduate of McGill who studied Economics and International Development. She is an avid street and nature photographer who hopes to attend a graduate program for photography next year, and ultimately turn it into a career. Kody Crowell comes from Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. He is a masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s student at McGill University focused on the socio-environmental determinants of health, health systems, and policy. Prior to moving to Montreal, he sat on the board of his local naturalistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; society and is interested in conservation and sustainability. Kristen Lalla recently graduated from the McGill School of Environment with

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honours, and is now pursuing a Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s at Macdonald campus in Natural Resource Sciences. She loves birds, and is passionate about the environment and how species respond to climate change. Liam Ragan is a fourth year anthropology and environment student by day and wildlife photographer by night. His current project is to photograph all 16 owl species in Canada, of which he has so far seen 9. You can follow his progress @ pouncepronto on Instagram. Lulu Lebowitz is a film photographer at McGill pursuing a double degree in History and Latin American Studies. When not getting lacerated by an icy Montreal wind, she spends her time in Northern California where the sunshine and general greenery are true collaborators in her photo taking process. Mathis Schilling recently graduated from McGill University. Myrah Graham is a transfer student from Concordia University, finishing her degree at McGill in Environmental & Agricultural sciences. After graduation, she plans to use her knowledge to plant gardens in refugee camps in the Middle East. Philippa Roots originates from northern British Columbia, where a love of wild places inspires her to study social-environmental interactions in a changing world. Her interests lie in building resilient, community-based energy and food systems. Philippa is in her final year of the Science, Society, and Sustainability program at McGill, minoring in Economics. Sacha Berman is a fourth year undergraduate student majoring in International Development, with a minor in Environmental Sciences. You can find her in the mountains or ocean on the West Coast, and photographing her adventures around the world. Sarah Chamberland-Fontaine is completing her degree in Interfaculty Environment, specializing in ecology, economics and environmental policy. She is interested in socio-ecological systems and climate change adaptation. After her graduation, she hopes to apply this knowledge in the workplace to foster resilience in vulnerable communities. Shanil Wijeshinghe recently graduated from McGill with a degree in Economics and History. Sophie Zhao is completing her final year of a Joint Honours degree in Psychology and Sociology at McGill. In her free time, she is fond of solo travelling and exploring vintage book stores. Talor Wald recently completed her Economics degree at McGill University. Thomas King is a second year student in the Peter Guo-hua Fu School of Architecture. He is deeply passionate about the realms of sustainable design and environmental planning, and intends to immerse his career into reforming the architectural sphere to better harmonize with our natural surroundings.

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About the Editors Alexis Newman is a third year student in the McGill School of Environment, studying Honours Environment and Development with a minor in Anthropology. Aside from her intense passion for environmental research, she enjoys cross stitching, completing hard or extreme sudokus, drinking coffee, writing Shakespearean sonnets, and admiring cats and meerkats. Caroline Lou is a third year Biology student minoring in Environment. Her passions include conservation biology, journalism, and poetry. You can often find her curled up with a good book or attending poetry shows. Charlotte Aubrac is in her final year at McGill, doing a B.A. in Environment and Economics. She is passionate about environmental philosophy, ecofeminism and conservation. Though she is graduating, her plans for life after graduation are still foggy; but Charlotte trusts that she will find her way. When not stuck in the library working on assignments, she loves to cook, bike and read in parks. Emma Sutherland is a fourth-year student in Biodiversity and Conservation with a minor in GIS and Remote Sensing, and the editor-inchief of this journal. Her research interests center on wildlife movement ecology, with her most recent work focusing on the migration patterns of arctic shorebirds. She hopes to integrate her knowledge of environmental policy and geospatial sciences to inform grassroots community-based conservation strategies. Gwenyth Wren is a third year student in Environment and Development. Interested in the intersection of environmental law, climate policy and human rights. Gwen works as a research assistant in the Law, Governance and Society lab where she is completing her research that focuses on how international law can better protect vulnerable populations from climate change. Gwen is also highly passionate about volunteering, spending much of her free time helping with a number of community outreach programs. She spends the rest of her time outdoors, with friends, reading, or brewing kombucha. 112

Maha Asad is a second year student majoring in International Development and Economics. She is very passionate about human rights advocacy, and is especially interested in how climate change and other environmental issues intersect with social and economic development challenges. Maya Lew is a third year student in the School of Environment studying Earth Science and Economics. She spends her summers working as a farmer on a local berry farm and hopes to one day own a farm of her own. For now, she fills the days writing, perfecting her homemade pecan pie recipe, and saving up to buy a pet tegu. Mikayla Salmon-Beitel will be graduating with an Honours degree from the McGill School of Environment this spring, with a specialization in Biodiversity and Conservation. She is especially interested in Indigenous community-led natural resource management and how it can become more prominent throughout Canada and the rest of the world. Aside from editing, Mikayla spends most of her free time outside, hiking, swimming and enjoying nature. Rachel Takasaki is a second year student studying Biology with a minor in the School of Environment. Her interests include the intersection between human health and the environment as well as community-led efforts toward environmental and social sustainability. You will probably find her either stress-baking or trying to spend time outdoors. Sarah Chamberland-Fontaine is completing her degree in Interfaculty Environment, specializing in ecology, economics and environmental policy. She is interested in socio-ecological systems and climate change adaptation. After her graduation, she hopes to apply this knowledge in the workplace to foster resilience in vulnerable communities. Scarlett Xiao is a second year student majoring in Biology and Computer science. She is particularly interested in topics revolving around sustainability, plastic waste and the impact of human activity on biodiversity. If she is not stressing over finals, you will most likely find her procrastinating in the library or taking a walk around McGill. Thomas King is a second year student in the Peter Guo-hua Fu School of Architecture. He is deeply passionate about the realms of sustainable design and environmental planning, and intends to immerse his career into reforming the architectural sphere to better harmonize with our natural surroundings. 113

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00 Elegy for Madison County

01 Les armes chimiques sous les mers

02 A Case Against Growth

03 National Parks on Fire

04 Urban Rewilding: A Policy Analysis

05 Urban Song Adaptations in Birds

06 Coral Disease and Diversity in Barbados

07 Diversity and Trophic Niche of Native Stingless Bees

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