‘Balancing Bangalore’s Population Growth, Water Consumption & Sewage Intrusion: Effecting Policy Res

“Apo hi stha mayobhwas” (“Water is the greatest sustainer and hence is like a mother”) [Taittiriya Samhita]

‘Balancing Bangalore’s Population Growth, Water Consumption & Sewage Intrusion: Effecting Policy Response via Public Engagement’ MEGHANA DUTTA

ENVR S-599- INDEPENDENT RESEARCH CAPSTONE HARVARD EXTENSION SCHOOL Date: 4th August 2017

Page 1 I wish to acknowledge the valuable comments and suggestions of Dr. Richard Wetzler, Professor, Harvard Extension School and Marshall Spriggs, Teaching Assistant, Harvard Extension School.

I wish to thank Vittal Boggaram, Senior Manager for the Water Program at World Resource Institute, for sharing the research and information undertaken by WRI. I would like to thank my husband Ashok Dutta, Principal Architect, Studio Decode for his valuable input at various stages of the research.

I would like to thank Architect Karthikeyan and Priyanka for help in assisting with data collection and help in preparing the supporting graph and figures.

Keywords: Water Scarcity/ Water Resiliency/ Water Consciousness/ Public Engagement/ Policy Change

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Abstract: Dwindling water resources coupled with increasing population and water consumption, will make water the oil of the 21st century. Fresh water is a finite precious resource that countries and corporate will have to compete over. Conflict, tension and wars were fought over oil and will be fought over water in the 21st century if access to fresh water is not addressed immediately.

However, the underlying premise as per United Nations is that, ‘there is enough water for everyone’ if responsibility is shared amongst nations.

In the state of Karnataka located in India, nearly a hundred thousand people suffer from waterborne diseases due to poor water supply and sanitation. This, however has not triggered rigorous water policy change or enforcement. In contrast, Karnataka has lately seen effective policy change and enforcement with respect to road accidents, street lighting and use of plastic bags. The city plans to half its expenditure of energy for lighting up the streets by end of the year 2017. This will result in the city spending four times the cost for energy to supply water, in comparison to lighting up all the streets in the city. Yet, we do not see the same urgency in conversations between energy and water.

Bangalore, the capital of the Karnataka state has its main source of water supply from the River Cauvery. By 2050, as per Bangalore Water Supply Board, the water supply from the Cauvery river to the city will suffice only fifty percent of the projected population. [BWSSB] The other fifty percent of the population will need to draw water from the ground or purchase water from nearby villages.

Currently thirty percent of the city’s groundwater is contaminated as per Central Groundwater Board and ninety percent of India’s rivers are polluted as per a study by Indian Institute of Science.

[CGWD and T.V. Ramachandra] Thus it is a very good chance that drawing clean water, either from the ground or from the rivers, will be a risk to public health.

Page 3 Presently the City of Bangalore lacks funding to make available water supply and sewage infrastructure to 2.2 million people as per the World Resources Institute. [WRI] This study examines the likelihood that even more citizens will lack access to clean water and sanitation, in the future due to lack of infrastructure if the current water crisis is unaddressed. Without adequate expenditures for rehabilitating ecosystems that are polluted due to inadequate sewage treatment infrastructure, clean water will become progressively more scarce and expensive. Furthermore, even those who can pay high prices for future clean water may be vulnerable as the general urban public health deteriorates due to diseases resulting from inadequate water infrastructure.

Lacking change in Bangalore water use behaviour, this study explores resultant impacts on ecosystem and public health, and economic development underlying the viability of the urban matrix. Can we imagine water equality and water resiliency for Bangalore? Can we re-envision more effective policy for the management of blue, green, grey and black water?

Regardless of their religious association be it Hindu, Christian and Muslim, the holy scriptures state that, ‘by means of water we give life to everything’ [Koran 21.30]. What is the role, the individual, corporations, and the governing institutions need to play so as to assure water as a fundamental right to all, for generations to come?

Page 4 CONTENTS. PART I - Water Crisis and Scarcity A.

Introduction

B.

Water Situation in India 1. Will India Run Out of Fresh Water?

2. Politics, Water Law and Policy in India 3. State of Karnataka – From Watershed to Water Infrastructure: the Cause and Effects of Water Issues at all Levels

C.

Water Governance, Supply, and Sewerage System of Bangalore 1. Source of Water, Water Supply, and Sanitation 2. Water Jurisdiction 3. Water Guzzlers and Vulnerable Contamination Points 4. Subsidy and the True Cost of Water

D.

Water and the Urban Matrix 1. Water Governance, Policy and Equality 2. Public Health 3. Revenue and Economic Development 4. Ecological Impact

PART II – Way Forward: Towards Water Resiliency and Water Equality E.

Rainwater as an Alternate Water Source

F.

Decentralisation of Sewage Treatment Plants

G.

Developing a Public Consciousness for Water 1. Reigniting Religious Association with Water 2. Drawing Parallels Between Water and Other Layers of the Urban Matrix 3. Water Footprint 4. Cultivable Land and Sewage from the city 5. Water as a Common Resource as a Vital Component to Sustenance of Democracy 6. Increasing Water Refugees and Food Production 7. Bottled Water and its Ripple Effect 8. Miscellaneous Methodologies Potentially Effecting Change in Public Behaviour

H.

Avenues for Public Engagement in the Water Sphere 1. Citizen Reporting 2. Corporate Sustainability Initiative 3. Corporate Social Responsibility Act 4. Community Engagement

I.

Effecting Water Policy Alteration and Regulation through Citizen Engagement 1. Increasing Privatisation of Water 2. Decentralising Water Supply and Sanitation Jurisdiction 3. Demand Private and Public Water Round Table Discussions 4. Public Engagement in Preparation of Water Emergency Disaster Plan

Page 5 5.

6.

7.

8.

Right to Disclosure of Bottled Water Plants Use of Public Water to Community Labelling of Water Footprint on All Products Land Grab and Ownership of Public Assets in Africa Water trading in Stock Markets: Is it Ethical

PART III Conclusion APPENDICES 1.

Tracing the water supply system since 350 AD to the present in Southern India 2.

Research as a Continuation of the Issues in this Study 3.

Urban Renewal Proposal to Reduce Water Consumption in Jayanagar, a core area in the city of Bangalore 4.

List of Figures 5.

List of Tables

REFERENCES

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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ATREE BBMP BDA BWSSB BTP CAWP CGWD CMC CSR CuM GBWASP GoI GoK IWRM JNURM KUWASIP KUWSDB KWSPF KL LDA LPCD MDGs MLD MGD NGOs NWB NWRC STP UN UNDP ULB WRI WWC WWAP

Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagar Palike/Bangalore City Corporation (BMP) Bangalore Development Authority The Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board Bangalore Traffic Police Campaign against Water Privatization Central Groundwater Board City Municipal Council Corporate Social Responsibility Cubic Meter Greater Bangalore Water Supply and Sanitation Project Government of India Government of Karnataka Integrated Water Resource Management Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission Karnataka Urban Water Sector Improvement Project Karnataka Urban Water Supply and Drainage Board Karnataka Water and Sanitation Pooled Fund Kilolitre Lake Development Authority Litres per Capita per Day Millennium Development Goals Million Litres per Day Million Gallons per Day Non-Governmental Organizations National Water Board National Water Resource Council Sewage Treatment Plant United Nations United Nations Development Programme Urban Local Bodies World Resources Institute World Water Council World Water Assessment Programme

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A. Introduction

"A shortage of water resources could spell increased conflicts in the future. Population growth will make the problem worse. So will climate change. As the global economy grows, so will its thirst.

Many more conflicts lie just over the horizon." [Ban Ki Moon Past Secretary General of United Nations]

Bangalore, which is the capital of the state of Karnataka in India, is one of the fastest developing cities in the world and is threatened with water shortages and inadequate sanitation for over half of its projected population by 2050. The water scarcity situation is worsened by a lack of political will to acknowledge and address this issue. As Bangalore continues to experience exponential growth, with increasing water and sanitation needs, it is critical to recognize that there is a limitation to the quantity of water that can be tapped from present water resources. It is also critical to be aware of the virtual water flows into and out of the city. (Virtual water is the water that is embodied in product or a service. When the product is traded, the hidden virtual water is also traded.) Planning and Implementation of Urban Renewal Programs in the City, with water as the central pivotal force may determine the presence or absence of conflict in the future.

Population increases, increase in water use per capita and a low water tariff are three most important factors that are driving the water crisis in Bangalore, India. The present behavioural patterns for water use are the continued use of potable water for non-potable uses, limited or non reuse of treated water, partial recharge of aquifers with limited or no use of rainwater, and thinking of water as an infinite resource. This paper is a quest to discover how the social and urban fabric can be transformed so as to bring about a paradigm shift in these public water use patterns. Can developing a water consciousness effect policy change via public engagement, so as to bring about water equality and the building of water resiliency in the city of Bangalore? This study is a pursuit to

Page 8 analyse and discern answers to fundamental questions pertinent to the prevalent water woes of the City.

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Is it safe for us to call Bangalore’s water consumption and contamination unsustainable?

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What would be the impact on the City’s sustenance, more specifically on the health, social, and economic development of the City, if there is no change in water use patterns?

-

If the City fails to build water resiliency and ensure water equality, would there be an impact on the democratic environment of the country

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Can citizen education and engagement, change residents’ lifestyle from water resource extraction to water management and protection?

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What are the economic investments and models that can be used to sustain the availability of drinking water for the city’s growing population and water demands?

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Can we remediate the present ecological degradation that is the result of a lack of water and sewage infrastructure?

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Can the development of urban interventions that tie religion to community values about water sources prevent further ecological damage to the limited surface and groundwater resources?

B. Water Situation in India

1. Will India Run Out of Fresh Water?

Water as a natural resource is finite. Ninety-seven percent of global water is salt water and only 30% of the 3% balance of all the water is available as fresh water source is in a liquid state, since the rest is frozen.

Refer Figure 1: World’s Water Content

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As stated by Seth Seigel, 1.2 billion people globally live in areas where there is an inadequate water supply and 1.6 billion live in areas where they have no access to clean water. [Siegel Seth] He has also indicated that human patterns of consumption of water are exceeding population growth.

[Siegel Seth] This is increasing water demands due to increasing population and has led to a need for larger quantities of production which put more pressure on water resources. India’s per capita availability of water has dropped from 5177cum to 1545cum which makes it a “Water stressed” country. [Ministry of Water Resources, India] By 2050 with current water management procedures, water will become a precious commodity as it will be scarce.

Refer Figure 2: Per Capita Availability of Water in Cubic Metre per Person per Year

Refer Figure 3: Baseline Water Stress

India has also the highest withdrawal rate of both freshwater and groundwater in the world. The reason for this could be inefficient irrigation systems, old leaking infrastructure and a lack of strict regulations for withdrawal of groundwater. This situation combined with the lowest pricing for water supply, does not drive people to change their wasteful use of water.

Presently, India also has the highest virtual export of water as per a study conducted by Hoekstra Y Arjen and Mekonnen M Mesfin. A question is, when India falls into a category of a “Water Stressed” region why does it have the highest export of water?

Refer Figure 4: Water Withdrawals in Billions of Cubic Metres Refer Figure 5: Pricing of Water Refer Figure 6: Top 10 Freshwater Consumers (million cubic metres per year) India receives ninety percent of its rainfall in only four months, but has a storage capacity for that rainfall for only thirty days compared to nine hundred days storage in most developed countries as stated by the World Bank. [Central Water Commission, GoI, Pg 13] There are currently little in the

Page 10 way of funds to develop new water supply infrastructure and sewage treatment plants to increase the storage capacity or to keep up to increasing water supply demand. Thus over fifty to eighty percent of population of India depends on groundwater for their water requirement. The World Bank estimate in 2005 warned that if the current trends (of groundwater withdrawal) continue, sixty percent of all aquifers in India will be in a critical condition within twenty years. [Briscoe John, R.P.S. Malik]

As reported by World Bank, India is witnessing an increasing number of water conflicts at all levels, between neighbouring states, between cities and agriculture lands, between industries and villagers, between farmers and the environment, and within upstream and downstream cultivable lands.

“Unless fresh policies are adopted and implemented in order to make water development and management sustainable, India will have neither the means to maintain and build new infrastructure, nor the water required for its survival [Briscoe John, R.P.S. Malik].”

The “light at the end of the tunnel”, is as per a 2006 United Nations report, “there is enough water for everyone”, but only if responsibility is shared amongst nations. [UN World Water Development Report 2] If there is enough water for everyone, what awareness is vital to the transformation of human behaviour so as to effect this policy change? Can policy change in integrated water resource management ensure the fundamental right of every human being to have access to clean water?

2. Politics, Water Law and Policy in India In India, as per the 1935 Government of India Act, control of water was transferred from the National Government to the State Government with the National Government intervening only where there are interstate disputes. In 1987, National Water Policy was formalized by the National Water Resource Council (NWRC) and the National Water Board (NWB) in which all the State Governments were represented. In 2002, a revised National Water Policy was rolled out, which

Page 11 emphasised Integrated Water Resource Management and River Basin Management. Though the 2002 National Water Policy mentions that all water tariffs should include both capital costs and operations & maintenance cost, the Central Government cannot mandate this policy on the various states.

The politics and economy of the individual states drive policy reforms. Incorporation of water policies, knowledge, and the role of institutions from across the globe can be adopted by states independent of any another state in India. It is up to each state to have their own water policy. It can be the same as the National Water Policy or not and each state can decide whether or not to integrate citizen involvement or public private partnership in water projects.

Land use and water rights are closely intertwined in India. If you own the land, you have the right to draw water from the ground beneath it in all Indian states except the state of Gujarat. Only in the state of Gujarat have water rights and land rights been separated. This integration of rights also brings about the situation that more that 50% of the water is considered privately-owned and not the property of the state or public.

Karnataka which is the state in consideration for purpose of this study, needs to address this issue of the separation of land and water rights, as there has been an over withdrawal of groundwater, groundwater pollution, and an inequality of access to clean water.

Water is also a national resource that flows between the states, and therefore the law for national water governance is key. Having unique laws for each state that over rides the national water policy, complicates the effort to ensure water equality to all. The justification of unique water policy for each state is based on the legal fact that water is the property of the state government. “The existing legal framework for control of water (between the states) is inherited mostly from the colonial

Page 12 period, and is in need of major reforms and democratization and the appropriate alternative are the need of the hour [Siddiqui Shawahiq Mohd, Pg 586].�

3. State of Karnataka - From Watershed to Water Infrastructure: the Cause and Effects of Water Issues at all levels

The State of Karnataka has both inland and coastal wetlands, both natural and manmade. The majority of these being inland wetlands which include lakes, marshes, reservoirs, and tanks.

However, Karnataka is currently losing wetlands due to human actions and inactions and is said to have lost fifty percent of its wetlands in the past century. Increasing population, rural and urban development, and a lack of clear delineation of responsibility in protection of wetlands is causing a continual loss of wetlands. Though and important issues, analysis of the protection of these wetlands is beyond the scope of study of this paper.

This paper focuses on how public engagement can make one rethink their water use patterns and also effect policy change that would enable water infrastructure and water supply to be available to all.

Table 1 below lists a few of the observations and causes for issues involving the water resource system, governance, water demand and water infrastructure.

Refer Table 1: System Analysis from Watershed to Water Infrastructure- Observations and Causes

C. Water Governance, Supply, and the Sewerage System of Bangalore

Refer Figure 7: Map of India with State of Karnataka and Map of Karnataka with City of Bangalore Indicated

Page 13 Bangalore, capital of the State of Karnataka was known as the city of a thousand lakes. These lakes were artificially constructed in the sixteenth century by Kempegowda, the founder of the city of Bangalore and further developed during the British colonial period. The lakes provided water for drinking, irrigation, and also functioned for groundwater recharge. The lakes were interconnected through channels called ‘Raja Kaluves’, enabling the overflow of water in one lake to be transferred to another lake.

Refer Figure 8: Lake Series of Bangalore

Over the past twenty years, due to unplanned growth of the city, buildings have been built on many of the channels and lakes, thus drastically altering the hydrogeology of the city. As stated by UNESCO there are only 80 lakes are left in the city, many of which are highly contaminated and cannot be used for irrigation or any other purpose, which leads to urban floods in the city even with receipt of very little rainfall. [UNESCO]

In 1971 the geographic extent of Bangalore was 174sqkm with a population of Sixteen Lakhs and Fifty Thousand people. The extent of the city at present is over 840 sqkm with a conurbation area of another 440 sqkm and a population of 10.8 million people. Sustainable planning and development has not been able to keep up with the pace of the city’s growth. Thousands of acres of agricultural lands have been have been acquired for urban development and city has seen haphazard development at its periphery. In order for Bangalore to sustain its social and economic growth, ‘the availability of water is the key determinant.’ [Dr. N.R. Jagannath] Refer Figure 9: Bangalore’s Population and Land Area from 1971 to 2017

Bangalore presently is known as the Silicon Valley of India and is an important destination for both information technology companies and educational institutions. The population of Bangalore is estimated to be 10.8 million persons as per World Population Review making it the third populous

Page 14 city in India after Delhi and Mumbai. [World Population Review] A rapidly increasing population is putting a strain on the aging and deteriorating water infrastructure which has nearly fifty percent leakages in the water supply alone, as per Bangalore Water Supply Board [BWSSB]. While the centre of the city has water supply through the aging infrastructure, over two million people in the new developments at the periphery of the city have no water supply or sewage infrastructure due to lack of funds for the BWSSB. [World Resources Institute] With respect to budget and financial management of allocated funds, we can see as per the figure listed below there is an average variance of 43% between money recorded as spent and money allocated. Secondly the budget allocated for 2016-2017 is almost equivalent to the budget allocated in the year 2011-2012. It is also interesting to note that though the city’s population has grown over two million people and expanded in area, the budget allocation for water supply and sewage system has not increased accordingly.

Refer Figure 10: Variance in BWSSB Budget

1. Source of Water, Water Supply, and Sanitation Bangalore does not have a perennial water source and is situated 3000 ft above sea level. Until the end of nineteenth century, the city depended on the thousand lakes for its water supply. Between 1890 and 1974, water was supplied by Arkavathi River. However due to insufficient supply, Cauvery River which is one hundred and eight kms away and four hundred and fifty metres lower in elevation was identified as a source, and it has remained the primary source of water supply for the city since then. [Pg 13, Groupe SCE India Pvt Ltd.] Refer Figure11: Tracing the flow of Cauvery River from Origin to the City of Bangalore Refer Figure 12: Supply of Water from Cauvery River 108 kms Away to City of Bangalore The water from the Cauvery River is shared by four states and the share of Cauvery Water to the city does not meet the present water consumption requirements of Bangalore. Water supply from Cauvery River is limited in capacity as the allocation of water to each state has been pre determined

Page 15 by the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal. As per BWSSB, the city receives 10350 Million Litres per Day (MLD) of water supply from the river and an additional water supply through 62 tankers from the 7000 borewells. The BWSSB assumes the population of the city to be 8.5 million (though the present population is 10.8 million as per World Population Review). BWSSB also considers an equitable water supply for all to be 65 litres per day per person. This falls far short of the target or benchmark of 135 litres per person as set by BWSSB. Refer Figure 13: Water Demand and Supply Gap Considering Present Use Patterns and Increasing Population of Bangalore. (Data from World Population Review and BWSSB)

Since BWSSB is not able to meet the basic minimum water supply demands, people have to depend on groundwater or purchase water from private establishments through tankers. Due to increasing dependence of groundwater the city has witnessed over-withdrawal of borewells which are without adequate recharge. This has resulted in increasing depth of the excavation of the borewells to reach the water, or in some cases, no water availability even at increased depths.

Refer Figure 14 : Household Water Supply Portfolio: BWSSB vs Other Supply With regards to sewage, twenty-five percent of households do not have piped infrastructure for sewage disposal [World Resources Institute].

Refer Figure 15: Extent of Piped Sewage

To add to these sewage woes, there are insufficient sewage treatment plants in comparison to the amount of sewage generated. As measured by BWSSB, sewage generated by the city is 1400MLD. The present capacity of all the sewage treatment plant’s put together is only 721 MLD, however only 302 MLD of sewage is treated. The remaining capacity of the STP’s remains unutilised due to lack of sewage infrastructure to transport the sewage to the STP. The balance of the sewage is left to seep into the ground or enter into one of the nearest water bodies as shown in Figure 12.

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Refer Table 2: Sewage Treatment Plants of Bangalore Refer Table 3: Current Sewage Network and Additional Sewage Network to be Built Refer Figure 16: City Water-Excreta Survey 2005-2006

2. Water Jurisdiction Water jurisdiction falls under multiple departments, the key departments being BWSSB for water supply and sewerage, Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) for storm water, Central Groundwater Department (CGWD) for groundwater, Lake Development Authority (LDA) and the Ministry of Water Resource for overall policy. The need of the hour is for an integrated and holistic approach in Water Management so as to ensure minimum quantity of drinking water to all. This integration is absent in current division of jurisdictions as there is no one governing body responsible for water resources.

For the implementation of an Integrated Urban Water Resource Management (IUWRM) system, participation and sharing of knowledge, data and analysis of all stakeholders is crucial. Each department has individual planning strategies, that needs to be combined and evolved as a single comprehensive water strategy.

The table below lists out the key government institutions responsible for water along with the nongovernmental organisations and related government institutions.

Refer Table 4: Stakeholders, Their Responsibilities and the Extent of Their Jurisdiction

3.

Water Guzzlers and Vulnerable Contamination Points

“Many industries require vast quantities of water, packaged drinking water units, aerated drinks, water parks, tanneries, distilleries and breweries, pulp and paper, fertilisers, textiles and sugar. But perhaps the most water intensive industry is coal-fired thermal power plants� [Malhotra, Sarika]

Page 17 Can water audits in each of the industries be mandated so as to conduct analyses in order to see how to bring about water use reduction? Dust is omnipresent in the city as a result of unfinished roads and pavements, construction activity, high density of traffic. Due to excessive dust, households are mopped more than once a day, cars are washed everyday, building facades require more maintenance in order to remove the black soot off of the facades. By mandating the use of nonpotable water consumption by individuals for the removal of dust as a result of unfinished pavements, roads, emissions from automobiles, etc, potable water can be conserved.

Listed below are few of the vulnerable contamination points in the city a.

Areas with Heavy Traffic - Wear and tear on roads and pavements due to heavy traffic is considered to have the possibility of polluting the groundwater with lead, zinc, copper, and chromium. [Maire-Liis H채채l, Peep S체rje, and Harri R천uk] This groundwater, when consumed can have far reaching health effects as discussed later in the paper.

b.

Areas with a High Density of Street Hawkers: Lack of a public water supply in and around areas in which street hawkers are concentrated is a concern for public hygiene and the rise of waterborne diseases. These areas are densely occupied by transient populations for fixed durations and can become hubs for spread of water-borne diseases.

c.

Informal Settlement: Informal settlements around the city are vulnerable areas, as they have intermittent water supplies and poor sanitation facilities. This inadequate water supply, forces many people to resort to open defecation which then leads to unhygienic conditions that triggers water borne diseases. These areas also see a higher contamination of groundwater and storm water due to seepage of the untreated sewage into the ground.

4. Subsidy and The True Cost of Water As stated by BWSSB, the cost of water, which includes both the electrical cost to pump the water from the source to the city and the other related cost to run and maintain the water supply is 35

Page 18 Rupees per litre. This excludes the capital cost of water infrastructure. Forty percent of the total cost of water is towards energy requirement to pump the water from the Cauvery River which is several hundred metres below the city level.

Nearly fifty percent of the water supply is lost in transmission and pilferage. Thus, the true cost of water amounts to Rs70 plus cost of infrastructure. A residential user typically pays Rs7 per litre for first 8000 litres, which is subsidised over ten times from the actual cost. The increase in water tariff over the last ten years is disproportionate to inflation in India. Therefore wasteful use of water is common since the cost of water for residential use is negligible. Thus, the BWSSB is always under a cash crunch and therefore is not able to develop water infrastructure to keep up with the pace of development. This subsidy of water pricing is mainly availed by the people using larger quantities of water and who can afford to pay a higher cost. Low water pricing which does not cover capital costs and therefore, is a major cause and setback in targeting provision of water infrastructure and a minimum water quantity to all in the city.

Refer Figure 17: How Much is the Water Supply Subsidised in Bangalore?

Refer Figure 18: Water Tariff in the City of Bangalore (Data for table taken from Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board)

D. Water and the Urban Matrix -

The Drivers, the Independent Variables and the Dependent Variables (System Responses)

In order to analyse the impact of present water use patterns in Bangalore, a water matrix wheel can be envisioned with a single driver at the center of the wheel. The overall single driver is population since more people drive all aspects of water usage. Potable water supply and sewage discharge are the finite variables which form the second ring of the wheel. The third ring is comprised of dependent variables which impact or are impacted by the water use patterns. The system variables considered for purpose of study are Public health, water governance, economic development, and ecosystem impact.

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Refer Figure 19: The Driver, the Independent Variables, and the Systemic Variables

The City of Bangalore has a aging infrastructure with sewage pipes laid in close proximity to the water supply lines in many locations due to lack of space. This makes the system more prone to sewage infiltration into water supply pipes through the multiple cracks in the pipes. The health and ecosystem of the city has been greatly impacted and can be restored only with rethinking water governance and understanding relationship of water with economic growth of the city. Listed below are the systemic responses to water supply and sanitation

1. Water Governance, Policy, and Equality “The right to ‘pollution free water’ and the right of access to ‘safe drinking water’ has been read as a part of ‘Right to Life’ under Article 21 of the Constitution of India [Pg 1 Upadhyay Videh].”

BWSSB has planned for the creation of an additional 500 MLD sewage treatment plant and the drawing an additional 770 MLD of water supply from the Cauvery River by 2050. Assuming the cities’ relationship to water and use stays consistent over time, as per BWSSB, we will see nearly fifty percent of the population with no potable water supply by the year 2050. The gap between demand and supply will have to be increasingly met by groundwater sources and more so by purchasing of water. As stated by Central Groundwater Board, nearly thirty percent of the groundwater sources are contaminated and many of the groundwater source levels are depleting due to over withdrawals and not enough rainwater recharge.

Refer Figure 20: Status of Groundwater Quality As more people depend on private sources for their water supply, there will be an increase in the cost of water, and the weaker sections of society will be most effected due to their non-affordability to purchase water at a high cost.

Page 20 How safe would the city be when the fundamental right to water is violated for fifty percent of the population? Resources that are limited, have the possibility of being controlled by a cartel, similar to the sand cartel that is already present in the city. Water will slowly transition from being a community resource to being controlled by a powerful few. Water governance can be further challenged as the water is no longer in control of democratic institutions.

2.

Public Health

The City has witnessed water borne diseases such as H1N1 and Dengue over the last five years.

Untreated Sewage can contain toxic elements such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, and zinc. More importantly viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths may also be present.

Refer Figure 21 :Health Effects and Contaminants in Surface and Sewage Water

Though statistics show that the number of deaths from water borne diseases, have decreased due to improved medical facilities, the number of cases is still high. This is in comparison to cases registered due to waterborne diseases in many of the developed countries. This shows that measures have been taken in terms of post disease occurrence, but not sufficient pro-active preventive measures. In contrast, there have been several policy introductions and strict implementation of preventive measures in the case of road accidents. We do not see the same intensity for preventive public health measures or strict implementation of existing policies in water and sanitation.

“The cancer registry of the City has reported higher stomach cancer percentage cohorts with high concentration of radon (222Rn) in drinking water [Deljo Davis, R.K. Somashekar].� The permissible limit of radon gas is 11.83 Bq/l. However as per the results of the samples collected the radon gas occurring in the groundwater is ranging from 55.96 Bq/l to 1189.30 Bq/l. [Dr.Priyadarshi, Nitish] The deeper the borewells are, the higher the chances are of their being contaminated. If not monitored

Page 21 and tested periodically, more people will be vulnerable to stomach cancer due to intake of contaminated water from borewells.

Refer Figure 22: Comparison of Waterborne Diseases and Road Accidents - No. of Cases

3. Revenue and Economic Development “Until groundwater withdrawals are limited to sustainable levels, China’s economic productivity will be threatened by rising water costs and scarcity [Pg 86 Gleick H Peter].”

Taking China’s problems as a predictor to the problems that Bangalore may face, we can assume that with rising water costs the cost of living will then become higher. The rationale being there is a water footprint associated with manufacture of each product or service and with rising water cost, cost of production and cost of providing a service will become higher.

Diseases caused due to contaminated water will also have an impact on the City’s financial resources. The City will need to invest more money in order to mitigate the spread of the disease and this will increase the expenditure on free treatment to the population below poverty line, who are typically most vulnerable.

More importantly to the city’s financial future, the city would witness unparallel loss of revenue due to unrest and widespread public protests due to a limited water supply. The water from the Cauvery as stated earlier, is shared by four states. Due to increasing population in all states, each state will want a larger share of water supply from the same river, which can cause conflict between states and could lead to shut down of all commerce in both the states, similar to the protest in September 2016 where the city had a loss of Rupees Twenty Five Thousand crores. (Three billion five hundred and seventy million US Dollars)

Refer Figure 23: Revenue Loss Due to Protest for Water Issues in Bangalore (in crores)

Page 22 4. Ecological Impact The City sits on a rocky upland consisting primarily of Granite. “Granite and gneisses of peninsular gneissic group constitute the major aquifers in the urban district of Bangalore.” [CGWB] Thus, groundwater movement and recharge to aquifers cannot be predicted as recharge would be dependent on the fractures and the joints in the rock formation which are constantly changing.

This means that the flow of pollutants underground cannot also be precisely determined. The city is home to both surface water contamination and groundwater contamination. Untreated sewage has a negative impact on surface water, groundwater, lakes, and agriculture.

a. Groundwater Contamination Extraction of potable water from groundwater sources such as bore wells and tube wells, if, within the property of a land owner, are not regulated by the Water Supply Board. With time, the depth of bore wells has increased and with this has come new problems with regards to quality of water drawn from these wells. [CGWD]. Between 2008 to 2015, 4231 borewell water samples were collected for analysis by Department of Microbiology, Vydehi Institute of Medical Science and Research Center in Bangalore. Of this 37% of the samples were found to be non potable. [D.H. Thirumalesh, Kauser Fathima] Similarly in 1994, 1995 and 2003, the state’s Department of Mines and Geology carried out extensive studies in order to check the quality of water in the city of Bangalore.

Over 3000 groundwater samples were collected for testing in the year 2003. Of the 2209 samples analysed, the samples exceeded the permissible limits in Iron, total hardness and fluoride.

[Department of Mines and Geology, GoI]

The samples exceeded permissible limits in: Nitrate content-

29% of the samples (Over 45 mg/L)

Iron content –

10% of the samples (over 0.3 mg/L)

Flouride –

0.6% of the samples (over 1.5 mg/L)

Page 23 Total Dissolved Solids – 14.6% of the samples (over 1000mg/L) Total Hardness –

10% of the samples (over 600 mg/L)

The presence of E-Coli and bacteria was also detected, as in many parts of the City untreated sewage enters the ground and may also enter the water supply pipeline through the points where pilferage occurs or through leaking or aged pipes. There were traces of heavy metals where there were industries located nearby. Based on the study which was conducted by Department of Mines and Geology, 31% of the groundwater was not potable. Groundwater once polluted, is very difficult to be remediated and brought back to potable quality standards. Therefore, to clean up the polluted water is economically not feasible and is not a fool proof solution.

Refer Figure 24: Industrial Area and Extent of Groundwater Contamination

b. Surface water contamination The lakes in Bangalore which have served as water source for many years, have now become points where populations are vulnerable to water borne diseases. Lakes are seen as concentrated points for garbage disposal, sewage disposal, areas for open defecation, and areas for the disposal of toxic industrial waste. Due to lack of adequate government waste disposal, and water supply and sewage infrastructure, the lakes are seen as only containers for waste disposal. Revival of the surface water bodies so as to prevent groundwater contamination and prevention of the spread of waterborne diseases is vital. However without providing infrastructure so as to provide an outlet for sewage and waste, cleaning up of the lakes will be a futile exercise.

c. Eutrophication and Lakes. At What Point Will the Remaining Lakes Die? The primary source of pollution for a lake in the urban centres of India is typically untreated sewage and industrial effluents. The excess of nitrates and phosphates in the land based discharge induces the growth of algae and plants, which then results in reduced oxygen in the water for the survival of

Page 24 the aquatic life. With this increase in nutrients, there will then also be reduced biodiversity in and around the lake.

Water rich in nitrate and phosphates leaches into the groundwater aquifer and can contaminate the groundwater around the lake, from which many people draw water for domestic uses. The lake which may have served as a reservoir for rainwater and storm-water retention and helped in aquifer flows, then ceases to function as such. Over time sewage and sediment, accumulates over the bottom of the lake, making it very shallow and reducing its infiltration and groundwater recharge capabilities. As stated by Indian Institute of Science Professor, T.V.Ramachandra, “the wetlands of Bangalore are in a pathetic state”.[T.V.Ramachadra] Sustained flow of sewage, industrial effluents, coupled with accidental throw of a matchstick has caused Bellandur Lake, one of the major wetlands in the City, to catch fire time and again. Bellandur lake was the source of water supply for eighteen villages in the 1970’s. A case was filed against pollution of Bellandur Lake, in 1996 to stop pollution of the lake, however till date there has been no action by the government institution to revive the lake, stating lack of funds.

Refer Figure 25: Bellandur Lake – Foam Spitting toxic lake

The city has a Lake Development Authority. However only eleven lakes falls under their jurisdiction, with the majority falling under BBMP. For BBMP, lake revival is low on priority, as road infrastructure and storm water drains is their main priority. In the 2016-2017 fund allocation, only Rs 100 crore was allocated towards Lake Development of 129 Lakes, while a single steel flyover which was opposed by thousands of citizens was allocated Rs 1800 crores.

Refer Table 6: Lake Count

d. Untreated Sewage and the Irrigation of Agriculture Land Surrounding many lakes in the periphery of the city, are agricultural lands, which are fed by sewage, treated and untreated. When untreated sewage waters are used to irrigate agricultural land,

Page 25 contamination of both groundwater and crops can occur. Pathogens, metals, and chemicals in the wastewater can enter human beings through consumption of these vegetables, if they are eaten raw. It is also proven by Shuval et. al, (1985,1986) that cholera can also can be spread through this method.

Tests were conducted on plants and soil fed by sewage by Department of Chemistry, Bangalore University in 2006. “The results showed the presence of some of the heavy metals in rice and vegetables, beyond the limits of Indian standards [H.Lokeshwari, G.T. Chandrappa].” Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Mercury (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) were found to be higher than acceptable standard in the crops, when tested. If the concentration of metals in sewage feeding agriculture lands is unchecked, there will be health risk to animals and human beings dependent on these plants and vegetables. Total dissolved solids in wastewater, when used for irrigation, needs to be monitored and regulated. The higher the total dissolved solids, the higher the energy required by the plants to draw water from the soil, and thus total yield can decline over time.

If any one part of the ecosystem is contaminated by ground water, surface water or soil, its ripple effect can be seen on the health of people and the health of plant, aquatic and animal life within the ecosystem. Protecting our ecosystems in totality is an urgent necessity, and more importantly protecting our water ecosystem, is central, as without water there is no life.

PART II – WAY FORWARD – Towards Water Resiliency and Water Equality E. Rainwater as the Alternate Water Source BWSSB has predicted that 2650MLD will be the water requirement for the City of Bangalore in 2050, but the water supply from Cauvery will be limited to 1350 MLD. The shortfall of 1300 MLD will then have to be met through other means.

Page 26 As per a study by WRI, the answer to the city’s water attempt to bridge the gap between supply and demand, lies in harvesting and using rainwater. [World Resources Institute] The city receives an annual rainfall of 1611 MLD, as per WRI and is distributed over two monsoon seasons. There is a rain water harvesting policy in Bangalore that requires all residential units built over a property of 2400 square feet to harvest rainwater. However, there have been challenges to this regulation due to the presence of very few government inspectors in comparison to total population of the city. It is not yet mandatory for parks and play areas to harvest and reuse the rain water. Rainwater harvesting was proposed in the slums by BWSSB, however this has not materialised as it requires approval of other government institutions related to slum development. Reason for non approval may be due to lack of roundtable discussions between government institutions to understand the significance of proposed action plans by institutions other than their own.

Refer Figure 26: Sources of Water Supply and Total Available Water Supply in Bangalore Based on the above figures from WRI, it can be safely assumed that Bangalore will not be solely dependent on the Cauvery River as the primary water source, but can augment the supply from river with rainwater in order to meet its increasing demand for water.

Traditionally, since Harappan civilization 6000 years ago where rainwater was collected in open wells, rainwater collection has been part of the Indian culture. Over the generations, indigenous techniques were further developed by various kings with respect to rainwater harnessing and transferring of water through canals. “As per Archeological and historical records, Indians were adept in constructing dams, lakes and irrigation systems during the reign of Chandra Gupta Maurya [392-297BC] [ KS Umamani, S Manasi].”

With regards to the city of Bangalore, “the then Commissioner of Bangalore, Sir Lewing Bentham Bowring, had in 1866 laid storm water drains to divert the rainwater to outlying tanks, and very little rainwater was allowed to go waste in this process [Agarwal Anil, Narain Sunita].” Reverence and respect for water, along with conserving and protecting the sources, has been traditionally

Page 27 engrained in the Indian culture and the City of Bangalore was an ideal illustration of this type of water management.

Integrated water management that incorporates rainwater as the basis for drafting new water policies is essential for Bangalore. We need to envision the blue (lakes and the rivers), the green (precipitation) the grey (used water other than human waste), and the black (human waste) holistically and network the shades of water so as to form a continuous water cycle. The finite water supply through integrated water management can then be used an infinite number of times.

F. Decentralization of Sewage Treatment Plants As per BWSSB projection for city’s need for sewage treatment, similar to its need for water supply, sewage infrastructure will be able to treat only 50% of the projected sewage generation for 2050.

[BWSSB] The remaining 50% of the untreated sewage will enter the lakes and the rivers if sewage infrastructure is unaddressed. To the city’s benefit, the topography of Bangalore has a series of well defined valleys which enable natural flow of storm water drainage and sewage flow to the periphery of the city, thus not incurring additional electric costs. Decentralised sewage treatment then seems to be the solution, so treated water can be reused without transporting water to periphery for treatment and transporting it back to the city. Due to lack of finances with BWSSB in order to keep up with the demands, funding via ‘Corporate Social Responsibility’ regulations (where in the two percent of the profits of corporations must be used for socially beneficial projects) to treat the sewage should be taken up as a current necessity rather than as a future plan.

G. Developing a Public Consciousness for Water With time, water is now being traded and understood as a commodity rather than being a life giving source to nature and right of every human being. The study of the relationships between water and human beings, informs us that the problem of water and sanitation affects each one of us. We have seen that no change in current human consumption patterns, can lead to the deterioration of public

Page 28 health, loss of economic development, and unrest in the city. Change in public water use patterns is a necessity as much as such change is vital to government institutions controlling water supply and sanitation.

However, this change would involve a radical shifting of mindset or inducing a ’disturbed curiosity’ in all citizens so as to enable them to wake up and understand that we cannot take the hydrology of the earth for granted.

To induce a ‘disturbed curiosity’, which would be the start of building a ‘water consciousness’, this study considers educating public and raising awareness in the following areas:

1. Reigniting the religious association with water 2. Drawing parallels between water and the other layers of the urban matrix 3. Recognition of “Water as a Common Resource” as a vital component to sustenance of democracy 4. An understanding of the effect of Increasing the number of water refugees on the city coming from neighbouring villages 5. Bottled water usage and its ripple effect on the environment.

1. Reigniting Religious Association with Water “According to the Rigvedic cosmology, the very possibility of life on earth is associated with the release of heavenly waters by Indra, the god of rain [Shiva Vandana].”

In India, water is worshipped, and every river is considered sacred, and the ashes of the cremated are immersed in the river, as the river is considered the pathway to heaven. The Ganga River in Northern India is considered one of the most holy rivers of India, where the waters have mysterious

Page 29 power that science cannot explain. For instance, even with numerous corpses floating in the river, the waters of this river have still tested pure. [Falkenmark] Reigniting the sacred nature of water and its worth beyond economic value may be essential to developing a water consciousness in a culture entwined in religion.

2. Drawing Parallels between Water and the Other Layers of the Urban Matrix Drawing such parallels induces a sense of relativity and understanding the gravity of the scarcity of water and its repercussions.

a. Road Accidents and Waterborne Diseases: No of. Cases The state of Karnataka has currently more deaths from water borne diseases than those related to road accidents. [Bangalore Traffic Police] Yet, there is more enforcement, new policies, more awareness to curtail road accidents rather than the prevention of diseases from water contamination.

b. BWSSB and Road Traffic Violation: No of Cases There is a substantial amount of revenue generated by Bangalore Traffic Police (BTP) as a result of high number of traffic violations in comparison to negligible revenue generated by BWSSB. The comparison brings to light, that though our water bodies are getting contaminated due to violations of BWSSB policies, very few cases are registered unlike in BTP, due to lack of officers to regulate the same. It is vital that there are more people appointed by BWSSB to strongly enforce the water and sewage policies so as to protect the city’s water resources.

Refer Figure 27: Bangalore Traffic Police (BTP) AND BWSSB: No. of violations

c. Electrical Energy Conservation in Street Lighting against Conservation of the Water Supply:

Page 30 The city of Bangalore spends large amounts of energy on water transfer, but yet there is more awareness on reducing energy consumed by street lights than by this transfer. Presently, the city spends four hundred crore rupees in water supply in comparison to two hundred crore rupees for street lighting, which will further be reduced to one hundred crore rupees by 2018 with change of all light fixtures to have LED bulbs.

d. Percentage Increase of Funds for Urban Infrastructure such as Road etc, in comparison to an Increase of Funds for Water Infrastructure It was recently proposed to build a steel flyover for Rs 1900 crores in order to ease traffic in a particular area in the city. The steel fly over faced public opposition as several hundred age old trees had to be cut to make way for the bridge. A parallel can be drawn which would be more powerful than losing the 800 hundred trees is that the cost of the one bridge can cover the cost of 700 MLD of a sewage treatment plant that the city requires, so as to prevent water from entering the lakes and this would still leave 1200 crore rupees that could be used towards other water and sewage infrastructure. Prioritising urban infrastructure funds through a collective discussion of all governing institutions is lacking. Therefore limited funds available are currently misappropriated for uses that are not as critical or could be deferred.

3. Water Footprint “Food and energy production account for nearly ninety percent of the world’s fresh water consumption.” [Brad Ridoutt] The water footprint of a product also known as ‘virtual water’ is a sum of blue, green and grey water. “The blue water footprint refers to the volume of surface and groundwater consumed (evaporated) as a result of the production of an economic good; the green water footprint refers to the rainwater consumed. The grey water footprint of a product refers to the volume of freshwater that is required to assimilate the load of pollutants based on existing ambient water quality standards [Pg 2, Mekonnen, Hoekstra].” As stated by Mekonnen and

Page 31 Hoekstra, India has a higher water footprint for crop production that is nearly two times that of China’s water footprint. [Mekonned, Hoekstra]

Knowing a products water footprint and environmental impact, may influence an individual’s consciousness to make informed decisions with regards to reduction in use of that product or the choice of an alternate product. Creating a database that informs people of the environmental impact of a product, including whether the manufacture or processing of the product is adding to water scarcity in the region, is the need of the hour. It can be misleading if only the total water footprint of product is listed, without specifying its blue, green and grey water footprint, as a product may be grown in rain fed areas and not contribute in any way to water scarcity. A few of the common household items that are high on a blue water footprint that an individual should be aware of are listed in the table below. Data for preparation of the two tables are taken from waterfootprint.org.

[Waterfootprint.org]

Refer Figure 28: Blue, Grey and Green Water Footprint of common products

4.

Cultivable Land and Sewage from the City

Treated sewage water can become an alternate source for rainfed cultivable lands which form over 60% of the total agriculture lands. Within Bangalore Rural and Bangalore Urban there are 2,50,000 acres of land presently allocated for agriculture.

The city generates 1400 MLD of sewage, while the STP capacity is only 721. If additional 700MLD of sewage treatment plants were installed, the treated water from sewage could supply to 52,325 acres of land, considering sugar cultivation in these lands. 52,325 Acres amount to 20% of total area of agriculture land in Bangalore Rural and Bangalore Urban. This calculation is based on the data that 1,93,000 litres of water are required per ton of sugar cultivation.

Page 32 Refer TABLE 7 : Calculation showing Usage of Treated Sewage Water for Cultivating Cash Crops Refer Figure 29 : Areas allocated for Agriculture in Bangalore Urban and Bangalore Rural 5. Water as a Common Resource as a Vital Component to Sustenance of Democracy It is important to raise consciousness amongst the public that water is a finite source and with more freshwater sources being polluted, water is also a depleting resource. Any limited depleting source that a human being cannot survive without will become a commodity that will be viewed only through an economic value, the pricing of which may be controlled only by a few. When the most vital resource for life can be afforded only by the rich, there will be widening gap between rich and the poor that will eventually cause unrest in the city.

6. Increasing Water Refugees and Food Production As per the Indian constitution drinking water is given first priority for water use, after which comes irrigation. With an increasing population and a finite water resource, there has been limited water supply for farmers, leading in some instances to suicides or migration to cities. Migration to cities would mean lesser number of people available to cultivate land for the production of food. Building a water consciousness to understand the ripple effect of wasteful water use on food security and the effect of migration of farmers to cities is imperative.

7. Bottled Water and its Ripple Effect The City of Bangalore is considered to fall under a “water stress area� as defined by the World Resource Institute. [World Resource Institute] However the state of Karnataka, for which Bangalore serves as the capital, is home to several mineral water manufacturing plants which are drawing excessive groundwater and drawing water from lakes and rivers, by not paying or paying a negligible price for the water and then selling it for profit. With advent of bottled water plants in the City, farmers around the plants face groundwater shortages due to excessive withdrawals by the manufacturing plants. Public resources are being handed over to corporate for profit at the cost of the livelihoods of thousands of people. As stated by Dr. Vandana Shiva, the dominant policies of

Page 33 multinational corporations prevalent today are profits first, people next and ecology last.[Dr. Shiva, Vandana] With rapidly increasing investments in bottled water manufacturing plants, water is also moving away from being a commonly owned resource to being a privately owned commodity.

For every 1 litre of bottled water, it takes 17.41 litres of water for production and transportation.

[Tandon, Kolekar and Kumar] Total water footprint of 1 litre of bottled water would include amount of water prior to treatment to make 1 litre of water, water consumption for manufacturing of plastic, and transportation of water from manufacturing plant to different parts of the city. In addition the expense of clean up of the ecological damage caused by the creation of one- use plastic (PET bottle) is not borne by the manufacturer, but is as at the expense of taxpayer.

8. Miscellaneous Methodologies Potentially Effecting Change in Public Behaviour The water tariff is too low at present to induce a voluntary change in water use patterns. Bangalore is a city of ten million people, and for this message to reach people effectively, there has to be an external force that would make the public voluntarily want to change and be conservative in their water usage. This can be done through incentives, through a culture of shame and pride, through embedding the message in popular television shows, through reference to religious scriptures, through the busting of common water myths, or through showing profitability on the bottom line? It could be a combination of all of these strategies or it could be just one approach that may work.

Each approach needs to be developed and then tested to study its impact.

H. Avenues for Public Engagement in the Water Sphere

We have in our Indian Constitution that every citizen has a right to safe drinking water, yet we do not see a public outrage for the non-supply of drinking water or sanitation infrastructure.

Considering that ‘water is a shared responsibility’ and this responsibility lies at all levels, from

Page 34 international, region, city, and community, to the private individual, it a hope that an individual’s awareness of water crisis may induce public engagement to effect policy change at the highest level of governance.

Key avenues considered in this study for engagement of public in water sphere and water policy so as to have an immediate impact are, Citizen Reporting, and Corporate Sustainability Initiative and Corporate Social Responsibility Act and Community Level Engagement.

1. Citizen Reporting Citizens can take on the role of water reporters, who can transfer data by government institutions through mobile applications to the public. The capacity of many of the government institutions is limited, and thus engaging citizen reporting would help in having a larger data base of information, to enable future policies. As stated by Central Groundwater Board, they do not have adequate data in order to create an aquifer map for the core of the City. They need the public to come forward and volunteer to report groundwater levels and quality at various points in the city. It is a nominal cost to install a sensor to detect the groundwater levels. However, the data collected could greatly enhance the understanding of the City’s aquifer and the altering of groundwater table.

In many core areas of the City, the water table is rising as people are mostly dependent on the supply of water from the City. This is also alarming, as if water table rises to five metres below ground, the chances of the water becoming polluted due to surface pollutants will be high and cleaning of groundwater once polluted is an expensive process. [CGWD]

2. Corporate Sustainability Initiatives Taking the leading carpet manufacturer ‘Interface’ as an inspiration, corporations need to engage in developing strategies to reduce their water footprint at all levels of operation, manufacture, and distribution. Corporate companies can voluntarily pledge to constantly innovate so as to reduce raw material use, energy consumption, water consumption and waste.

Page 35 3. Corporate Social Responsibility Act In 2014, a Corporate Social Responsibility law came into effect where in, if the company’s networth was Rupees 500 Crore and above, two percent of its net profit had to be used towards activities such as empowering women, eradicating poverty, or other socially relevant projects. Corporations can be educated to understand the urgency and need for investment in developing water supply and sanitation projects. Through the funds allocated for Corporate Social Responsibility, corporations can fund community level water supply and sanitation projects. The money can also be used for government-planned projects such as the CSR Act and thus could prevent the privatisation of water supply.

4. Community Engagement A citizen can engage in water issues ranging from the protection of watersheds, infrastructure, influencing policy, education, or volunteering for a NGO. It is about engaging in community issues so as to add to the voice of the community. It is about participating to enable the transformation of the community to be water resilient and water positive. It is about constantly building up a knowledge base so, the public can be conscious of when to demand a policy change. A good example of success in community participation was community initiative and effort to bring back life to Akshayanagara Lake located in South Bangalore.

I. Effecting Water Policy Alteration and Regulation through Citizen Engagement “Water policies are embedded in systems of power and interest, and reform will only occur where there has been a prior shift in the balance of power and interest - away from elements opposed to change, towards those in favour of change [Susanna Ghosh Mitra, Pg 17].”

The role of citizen engagement effecting policy change cannot be downplayed in a democratic country. Informed citizens can demand participation in a Public-Private Water dialogue more

Page 36 effectively and can contribute to action plans for their own communities. When citizens are aware of the issues, they will be in a position to ask for more information, give valuable feedback, understand drawbacks in the system and facilitate more citizens to understand the situation.

“Citizens participation in governance does not embody a deepening of democracy alone; it reflects a compete shift in the hitherto existing paradigm of development- a shift from viewing people as recipients of development to active participants in the development process [Pg 5, Dayal Aditi].”

Most often citizen participation occurs after an occurrence of a disaster. But what is critical in this city with looming water crisis, is to build an active citizen participation, so as to build resiliency to avert the disaster, and if disaster occurs to be prepared to bounce back.

Areas in water sphere that need radical rethinking and citizen pressure on government so as to envision change in existing policies are:

1. Increasing Privatisation of Water: Water in India is largely considered as property of the public and is not owned privately. However, this could be considered as a large misconception since a large percentage of people in the city, and more so people residing in the periphery of the city, are entirely dependent on groundwater. The government has no ownership or mandate over use of groundwater drawn within privately-owned properties in State of Karnataka. Land rights and water rights are not separated. A fundamental policy rethinking of this fact is whether water should be moved back to the hands of the community or not ‘privatized’, with the government exercising control over every groundwater source. There is an urgent need to push for a new policy that transfers ownership, or at the least regulation of all groundwater sources to the governing institution from private hands.

Page 37 2. Decentralising Water and Sanitation Jurisdiction: If water supply distribution is considered the most critical factor in Integrated Urban Water Resource Management, can the jurisdiction of each public institution be decentralised so as to have water reservoirs and sewage treatment plants under their control? Can there be a disaster plan drawn out at a community level so as to ensure water is available to the most needy people at times of emergency such as drought?

3. Demanding Private and Public Round Table Discussions: There are multiple government Institutions governing water at various levels. What would it take to have public demand round table discussions among the various institutions with public and NGO representation in order to find an innovative integrated solution for the urban water issues? Can politics take precedence and override the Constitutional role of each department?

4. Public Engagement in Preparation of Water Emergency Disaster Plan During an emergency or after an occurrence of a disaster, due to inadequate proportion of officers to total population, involvement of citizens to help in a relief effort is a must. Unless public is engaged and prepared to understand their role to mitigate effect of disaster, resiliency cannot be built into the city. There must be a policy to share and discuss on a public platform the policy and preparedness of government institutions in case of an emergency.

5. Right to Disclosure of Bottled Water Plants Use of Public Water to Community The government institution awarding licences to bottled water companies to set up plants in the state does not divulge information to the public on capacity of these plants, nor does it divulge the amount of public water, each plant is drawing via ground or any other surface water source. For plants where the city supplies river water, the water is supplied to these companies for very minimal costs, only to be sold for profit to the locals. It should be a policy mandate for all bottled water

Page 38 companies to share their water source and the quantity of water that they are drawing on their website as a declaration.

6. Labelling of the Water Footprint for All Products Mandating the labelling of their water footprint for all products will compel new thinking and innovation by corporations to reduce their water consumption and present themselves, as an organisation who is respectful of the natural resources.

7. Land Grab and Ownership of Public Assets in Africa Indian companies are said to have invested over 600,000 hectares of land in Ethiopia alone, in addition to investment in other African countries. [Anwar Mohammad Amir] This land grab, along with control of the natural water resources on these lands, have caused the locals in Ethiopia their livelihood and have forced them to relocate. There is very little or no consultation with the locals before and after the deal is made between the corporations and the government of the country.

Rethinking of policies in order to not promote and encourage land grabs in poor countries, and rather incentivise companies to invest in water Infrastructure and Integrated Water Management so as to build water resiliency within India.

8. Water Trading in Stock Market: Is it Ethical?

Water when traded becomes a commodity that is owned by a company, with the intention of maximising profit in order to please the shareholders. Increasing funds in water can lead to water management only to increase the shareholding value and not long term ethical asset management.

The question is should there be a policy that disallows ownership of freshwater resources and disallows this water resource to be traded?

Page 39 PART III- Conclusion The crow and Water Pot- A Moral Story A thirsty cow is looking for water everywhere and he is not able to find a single drop of water. After a long search he finds a deep pot with little water in it. There is no way the crow can reach the water. The crow thinks, ‘there must be some way that I can reach the water’. As he desperately looks around, he sees pebbles on the ground and an idea struck him. He picks up the pebbles one by one and then drops them into the pot till the water level rose enough for his beak to reach. He drank the water till his thirst was quenched and then flew away satisfied.

MORAL: If you try hard enough, you may soon find an answer to your problem.

Reference – AESOP’s Fables

Photo Credit: Nilanjan Das.

“Anyone who can solve the problems of water will be worthy of two Nobel prizes – one for peace and one for science [President Kennedy F John, 1962]” Cities without water will be unproductive and “unproductive urban areas will probably face with poverty, inequality of individuals, pollution, illnesses and external economical dependency [Riffat, Saffa].” It is impossible for the problem of water to be solved by a single individual. It needs a collective community engagement at all levels, from watershed to wateruse patterns to ensuring drinking water to all. ‘‘We all have to change to protect our most critical resource [Lohan].”

Developing a water consciousness is the need of the hour within a democratic constitutional country, as informed citizens can influence and demand change in those who hold power and vested interests. Water consciousness, can influence people to change their water use patterns and give up the wasteful consumption of water. Citizen communities, when aware of the consequences of water scarcity, can initiate small scale interventions to build water resiliency.

Land grab and colonisation of nations for control over natural resources should not be an option, as unlike oil, with water, the flows are all interconnected and the ripple effect of a harmful action on

Page 40 any one water resource can be experienced across the ecosystem. “Such water is nature on the rampage, perhaps flaunting her power in response to the reckless damage humanity has wrought on Earth’s ecosystems [ Bartholomew Alick].�

Reigniting the divine nature of water along with sacred role that rivers play can influence people to instil a bond again with the water resources. Water flow and distribution within an ecosystem are akin to the function of arteries in the human body. Each artery, through which blood flows, plays a vital role in a human body, and likewise each water source and its tributaries give life to plants and animals. Each of us is responsible for the eternal flow of water that will continue to give life for future generations.

Page 41 APPENDIX 1 Tracing the Water Supply System and Governance from 350 AD to the Present To understand at what point, did water resources, become a commodity that was traded for profit, it was important to trace the water distribution system from 350 AD to the present. It was seen that since 350 AD, Southern India has had indigenous methods of water conservation and water management. Water has been a commodity that was traded in terms of paying a fraction of the produce that was cultivated for use of water. Highly evolved brackets for water charges existed based on location of the land with respect to the waterbody. In addition to protect the water bodies, temples we constructed around water bodies and gardens planned to beautify the area around it.

Till the advent of Mughals in 17th century AD when water bodies were poisoned and open channels and dams were destroyed so as to bring the kingdom down , the water system had consistently evolved. During the time when Vijayanagar kingdom ruled over Karnataka, the basic tanks of 350 AD had evolved to a system of cascading reservoirs with sluices and they had a system of the top most being used for cattle and the lower and largest reservoirs used for irrigation. Construction of a tank was a precursor to expanding a settlement, unlike today where settlement comes in first and then water management to the expanding settlement. No water was owned by the Public, both ground and surface water was owned by the community or the kingdoms till the Colonial Period. During the colonial period, ownership to water was introduced if the tank or well was constructed by an individual. Water usage for irrigation was not charged, or charged very nominally so as to cover the cost of repairs. Till the colonial period the Water Governance was a profitable venture and the profit typically went into the temple funds.

If we go back to the ancient water laws and management, where in water was sacred, revered but also had a price attached to it regardless of its use so misuse and wasteful use of water was prevented. The water also belonged to the community or the kingdom and not by the individual, and

Page 42 most importantly source of water was ensured before expansion of community. Religion was also tied with water source back in 1000 AD so as to protect the water resources.

More in depth study is required in analysing the ancient water system and management and see how it can be incorporated in today’s scenario so as to ensure fresh water to all.

Refer Figure 30: Tracing the Water System and Governance since 350 AD in Southern India ( Work in Progress)

APPENDIX 2 Research as a Continuation of the Issues in this study 1. Mapping of the age of water and sewage infrastructure and percentage of infrastructure that needs immediate replacement 2. Mapping of all existing sewage treatment plants with type of treatment, age, land area from which sewage flows are entering the sewage treatment plant, pollutant composition, and primary contaminators for each sewage flow.

3. Mapping all the reservoirs in the city, their age, capacity and condition.

4. Analysis of the material specification of water and sewage pipes over time and health effect associated with each material 5. Mapping of the fire hydrants in the city with the water quantity and pressure available 6. Mapping of all borewell water and surface water sampling locations and frequency 7. Mapping the quantity of treated and untreated sewage entering the various surface waters and open grounds, along with their composition 8. Mapping of nitrogen discharge from each sewage treatment plant

Page 43 APPENDIX 3 Urban Renewal Proposal to Reduce Water Consumption by 20% (Area of study: Jayanagar) Outline for Analysis and Development of Action Plan. Analysis to be undertaken as the next steps to this study.

1. Understanding the Fabric of Jayanagar: Water supply, Consumption, Land Use and Water Flows 2. Mapping of the Layers of Urban Fabric: Map all the data received from CGWD, BWSSB, BDA, BBMP, Sensex, LDA and Water Resource Dept for Jayanagar.

3. Identification of Water Stress Areas: Water stressors are considered to be slums, street food, low lying areas, and impervious areas 4. Identification of Public Spaces and Role of the Open Areas : Public areas and large buildings which are situated near to water stress areas should also be highlighted. Feasibility studies should be made to see if there is possibility to create water transfers.

5. Initiate Round Table Discussions: Enable discussions to be held with all stakeholders to come up with the solutions from the perspective of Integrated Urban Water Management and water sensitive urban design based on the mapping.

6. Development of an Action Plan: Creating an action plan which is agreeable to all stakeholders and preparing of financial implications for each action plan. Quantification of economic losses to the city if water management is not seen holistically, so as to induce policy change where required 7. Suggested Financial Model for Implementation: Make available the list of action plan for corporations to see and fund through their Corporate Social Responsibility funding.

Page 44 APPENDIX 4 List of Figures Figure 1: World’s Water Content Figure 2: Per Capita Availability of Water in Cubic Metre per Person per Year Figure 3: Baseline Water Crisis Figure 4: Water Withdrawals in Billions of Cubic Metres for 2010 Figure 5: Pricing of Water Figure 6: Top 10 Freshwater Consumers- Importers and Exporters (million cubic metres per year) Figure 7: Map of India with State of Karnataka and Map of Karnataka with City of Bangalore Figure 8: Lake Series of Bangalore Figure 9: Bangalore’s Population and Land Area from 1971 to 2017 Figure 10: Variance in BWSSB Budget Figure 11: Journey of Cauvery River from Origin to City of Bangalore Figure 12: Supply of Water from Cauvery River 108kms away to the City of Bangalore Figure 13: Water Demand and Supply Gap Considering Present Use Patterns and Increasing Population of Bangalore Figure 14: Household Water Supply Portfolio: BWSSB vs Other Supply Figure 15: Extent of Piped Sewage in the City of Bangalore Figure 16: City Water-Excreta Survey 2005-2006 Figure 17: How much is the Water Supply Subsidised by in Bangalore?

Figure 18: Water Tariff in the City of Bangalore Figure 19: The Driver, the Independent Variables, and the Systemic Variables Figure 20: Status of Ground Water Quality Figure 21: Health Effects and Contaminants in Surface and Sewage Water Figure 22: Comparison of Waterborne Diseases and Road Accidents – No. of Cases Figure 23: Revenue Loss due to Protest for Water Issues in Bangalore

Page 45 Figure 24: Industrial Area and Extent of Ground water contamination Figure 25: Image of Bellandur lake – Foam Spitting Toxic Lake Figure 26: Sources of Water Supply and Total Available Water Supply in Bangalore Figure 27: Comparison of BWSSB and Bangalore Traffic Police Cases Figure 28: Blue, grey, and green Water footprint of common products Figure 29: Areas allocated for Agriculture in Bangalore Urban and Bangalore Rural Figure 30: Tracing the Water Supply System since 350 AD to the present in Southern India

Page 46

Figure 1: World’s Water Content Source: Tree Hugger, Statistics is from UN Water Website: https://www.treehugger.com/clean-water/of-all-the-water-in-the-world-just-008-makesit-to-our-faucets-infographic.html (Last accessed on 4th August 2017)

Page 47

Figure 2 : Per Capita Availability of Water in Cubic Metre per Person per Year Source: Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation Website: http://www.businesstoday.in/magazine/cover-story/economics-of-water-can-have-adebilitating-effect/story/232047.html (Last accessed on 30th July 2017)

Page 48

Bangalore

Figure 3: Baseline Water Stress Source: World Resources Institute (Bangalore, which is the capital of Karnataka, falls under High Water Stress)

Figure 4: Water Withdrawals in Billions of Cubic Metres for 2010 Sources: United Nations, World Population Prospects: World Resources Institute, Aqueduct, IMF, World Economic Outlook; and IMF Staff calculations Website: http://www.businesstoday.in/story_image.jsp?img=/imag es/stories/March2016/water2_large_051216101144.jpg&c aption= (Last accessed on 30th July 2017)

Page 49

Figure 5: Pricing of Water Source: lb-net Website: http://www.businesstoday.in/story_image.jsp?img=/images/stories/March2016/water2_lar ge_051216101144.jpg&caption= (Last accessed on 30th July 2017)

Page 50

Figure 6: Top 10 Freshwater Consumers (million cubic metres per year) Source: Hoekstra Y Arjen, Mekonnen M Mesfin “ The Water Footprint of Humanity”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, Published online February 13, 2012 Website: http://temp.waterfootprint.org/?page=files/InfoGraphics (Last accessed on July 31st 2017)

Page 51

Figure 7: Map of India with State of Karnataka and Map of Karnataka with City of Bangalore Indicated

Page 52

Figure 8: Lake Series of Bangalore Source: ‘Bengaluru The Water-Waste Potrait’, The Deccan Bengaluru Website: http://cseindia.org/userfiles/bangaluru_portrait.pdf (Last accessed on 3rd August, 2017)

Page 53

Figure 9: Bangalore’s Population and Land Area from 1971 to 2017 Data taken from Census and from World Population Review Website: Source: Wikipedia | Census of India and World Population Review Website: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore http://worldpopulationreview.com/worldcities/bangalore-population/ (Last accessed on 4th August, 2017)

Page 54

Figure 10: Variance in BWSSB Budget Source: ‘MEASURING THE QUALITY OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT AT BMTC, BWSSB AND BDA’, Janagraha Center for Citizenship and Democracy Website: http://janaagraha.org/files/Measuring-the-Quality-of-Financial-Management.pdf (Last accessed on 4th August 2017)

Page 55

Origin of Cauvery River

Bangalore

Figure11: Tracing the flow of Cauvery River from Origin to the City of Bangalore Map prepared from overlay of Map of Cauvery Basin showing Hydrometric Network, Ministry of Water Resources and City Development Plan Bangalore, JNNURM Website for Map of Cauvery Basin: http://wrmin.nic.in/writereaddata/Inter-StateWaterDisputes/Plate-96114017519.jpg (Last accessed on 3rd August, 2017) Website for City Development Plan: http://cseindia.org/userfiles/bangaluru_portrait.pdf (Last accessed on 3rd August, 2017)

Page 56

Figure 12: Supply of Water from Cauvery River 108 kms Away to City of Bangalore Source: ‘Bengaluru The Water-Waste Potrait’, The Deccan Bengaluru Website: http://cseindia.org/userfiles/bangaluru_portrait.pdf (Last accessed on 3rd August, 2017)

Page 57

Figure 13: Water Demand and Supply Gap Considering Present Use Patterns and Increasing Population of Bangalore Data from World Population Review and BWSSB

Figure 14 : Household Water Supply Portfolio: BWSSB vs Other Supply Source: Bangalore Metabolism Urban Project [Website: http://bangalore.urbanmetabolism.asia/2016/07/19/ bengalurus-water-insecurity-is-manifested-in-thediversity-of-its-household-water-supply-portfolio/ Last accessed on 4th July 2017]

With regards to sewage, twenty-five percent of households do not have piped infrastructure for sewage disposal [World Resources Institute].

Page 58

Figure 15: Extent of Piped Sewage Source: World Resources Institute Website: https://www.slideshare.net/EMBARQNetwork/ck2017-mapping-measuring-and-mitigatingurban-water-challenges (Last accessed on July 6th 2017)

Page 59

Figure 16: City Water-Excreta Survey 2005-2006 Source: ‘Bengaluru The Water-Waste Potrait’, Pg 312, The Deccan Bengaluru Website: http://cseindia.org/userfiles/bangaluru_portrait.pdf (Last accessed on 3rd August, 2017)

Page 60

Figure 17: How Much is the Water Supply Subsidised in Bangalore?

Figure 18: Water Tariff in the City of Bangalore Data for table taken from Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board

Page 61

Figure 19: The Driver, the Independent Variables, and the Systemic Variables Inspired and created after 2014 EPI Framework

Page 62

Figure 20: Status of Groundwater Quality Source: Department of Mines and Geology Website: http://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/hydrology-and-quality-groundwater-andaround-bangalore-city-review-and-excerpts-report (Last accessed on August 4th 2017)

Page 63

Figure 21 :Health Effects and Contaminants in Surface and Sewage Water Infographic Inspired and after Infogrpahic, ‘Environmental and occupational carcinogens and cancers they cause’

Page 64 Website: http://infographicsmania.com/science/medical/ (Last accessed on 4th August 2017) To prepare infographic data taken from Malaria- https://www.pyramidtravelproducts.co.uk/blog/2015/april/03/malaria-and-its-effect-on-the-body/ All diseases-http://www.newhealthadvisor.com/Diseases-Caused-By-Water-Pollution.html For Metal -http://www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/001754.pdf (Last accessed on 4th August 2017)

Figure 22: Comparison of Waterborne Diseases and Road Accidents - No. of Cases Data Collected from For Waterborne Diseases: National Vector Borne diseases Control Programme (Annual Report 20) Website: http://www.nvbdcp.gov.in/Doc/Annual-report-NVBDCP-2014-15.pdf (last accessed on 4th August 2017) For Road Accident s Source: EPRA Group Website: http://epratrust.com/articles/upload/29.(Dr).%20Kiran.R2.pdf (last accessed on 4th August 2017)

Page 65

Figure 23: Revenue Loss Due to Protest for Water Issues in Bangalore (in crores) Data Collected from The Bayside Journal Website: http://baysidejournal.com/seven-strikes-bandhs-bangalore-will-never-forget/ (Last accessed on 4th August 2017)

Page 66

Figure 24: Industrial Area and Extent of Ground water contamination Data Collected from BBMP Land Use Map and from Department of Mines and Geology and overlayed for analysis Website from where Ground water contamination data was taken http://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/hydrology-and-quality-groundwater-and-aroundbangalore-city-review-and-excerpts-report (last accessed on 4th August 2017)

Figure 25: Bellandur Lake – Foam Spitting toxic lake Copyright: IAMIN Website: http://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/iiscproposes-plan-to-revive-bengaluru-s-foam-spittingtoxic-lakes-in-just-18-months-256746.html (Last accessed 3rd August 2017)

Page 67

Figure 26: Sources of Water Supply and Total Available Water Supply in Bangalore Date for preparation of info graphic taken from World Resources Institute https://www.slideshare.net/EMBARQNetwork/ck2017-mapping-measuring-and-mitigating-urbanwater-challenges (Last Accessed on 3rd August 2017)

Figure 27: Bangalore Traffic Police (BTP) AND BWSSB: No. of violations Source: BTP | The Hindu | Deccan Herald Data for preparing Figure taken from: For Traffic Violations Website: http://www.bangaloretrafficpolice.gov.in/index.php?btp=grp1&option=com_content For BWSSB Illegal Violations:

Page 68 Website: http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/bwssb-seeks-to-plug-illegalconnections/article7820689.ece (Last accessed on 4th August 2017) For BWSSB Rain Water Harvesting Violations: Website: http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/harvest-rain-water-or-paypenalty/article7743860.ece (Last accessed on 4th August 2017) For BWSSB STP Violations: Website: http://www.deccanherald.com/content/550438/bwssbamp8200starts-fining-propertiesrwhamp8200facility.html (Last accessed on 4th August 2017)

Figure 28: Blue, Grey and Green Water Footprint of common products Note: Blue + Grey water is represented in the graphic scale bar. Green water is written only for reference.

Page 69 Info graphic inspired and created after https://s-media-cacheak0.pinimg.com/736x/2f/f5/ef/2ff5ef9943d7af46f18846e5ac07e9da--water-facts-rainwaterharvesting.jpg (Last accessed on 4th August 2017) Data for preparation of Info graphic taken from Waterfootprint.org Website: http://waterfootprint.org/en/resources/interactive-tools/product-gallery/ (Last accessed on 4th August 2017)

Figure 29 : Areas allocated for Agriculture in Bangalore Urban and Bangalore Rural Source: BMRDA, ‘Agriculture Map around Bangalore’, Page no.63, Figure 38, Preferred Scenario Map Website: http://www.bmrda.kar.nic.in/rsp_report.pdf (Last accessed on 3rd August, 2017)

Page 70

Figure 30: Tracing the Water System and Governance since 350 AD in Southern India ( Work in Progress) Data for creating the analysis taken from S.K. Mohan, G.R. Kuppuswamy, Dikshit Giri S., ‘Tank Irrigation in Karnataka: A Historical Survey’, 1993, Gandhi Sahitya Sangha

Page 71 APPENDIX 5 List of Tables Table 1: System Analysis from Watershed to Water Infrastructure- Observations and Causes Table 2: Sewage Treatment Plants of Bangalore Table 3: Current Sewage Network and Additional Sewage Network to be Built Table 4: Stakeholders, Their Responsibilities and the Extent of Their Jurisdiction Table 5: Lake Count Table 6: Calculation showing usage of Treated Sewage Water for Cultivating Cash Crops

Table 1: System Analysis from Watershed to Water Infrastructure- Observations and Causes Modified but Derived out of Table 2. Proximate and Underlying Causal Factors Driving Water Resources Outcomes Source: http://woods.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/files/Srinivasan%20et%20al_2011WR011087.pdf (Last accessed on June 30, 2017)

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Table 2: Sewage Treatment Plants of Bangalore Source: ‘Bengaluru The Water-Waste Potrait’, Pg 311, The Deccan Bengaluru Website: http://cseindia.org/userfiles/bangaluru_portrait.pdf (Last accessed on 3rd August, 2017)

Table 3: Current Sewage Network and Additional Sewage Network to be Built Source: ‘Bengaluru The Water-Waste Potrait’, Pg 313, The Deccan Bengaluru Website: http://cseindia.org/userfiles/bangaluru_portrait.pdf (Last accessed on 3rd August, 2017)

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Table 4: Stakeholders, Their Responsibilities and the Extent of Their Jurisdiction

Table 5: Lake Count Source: ‘Bengaluru The Water-Waste Potrait’, Pg 316, The Deccan Bengaluru Website: http://cseindia.org/userfiles/bangaluru_portrait.pdf (Last accessed on 3rd August, 2017)

Page 74 1 2 3 4 5

Area of Agriculture in the Bangalore Urban and Rural Total Production of Sugar in Karnataka Total Area of Sugar Crops in Karnataka Average Production per Acre for Sugar Crops Water required per ton for Sugar Crops

6

Untreated Sewage entering the Lakes Based on Installed capacity of STP’s Total Sewage per year Tonnage of Sugar that can be cultivated by treated sewage water for cultivation of sugar Acreage of Land that can be cultivated

7 8 9

- 2,50,000 Acres (0.97 Lakh hectare) - 4,37,00,000 Tons - 17,27,000 Acres (6.91 Lakh hectares) - 25.3 Tons/ Acre (437/17.27) - 1,93,000 litres per ton

-700 MLD - 2,55,500 Million Litres (700x365) - 13,23,834 tons - 52,325.45 Acres

10 Treated Sewage can supply 21% of total Agriculture Area in Bangalore Urban and Rural considering Sugar Cultivation

Table 6 : Calculation showing Usage of Treated Sewage Water for Cultivating Cash Crops Note: If Sewage is Treated to minimum standard it can supply a minimum of 1/10 of the of water required for cultivating cash crops Data referred from, for preparing the Table: 1. Area of Agriculture in Bangalore Urban and Bangalore Rural referred from ‘Profile of Agriculture Statistics Karnataka State’, Karnataka State Department of Agriculture, Bengaluru’, Pg 31 Website: http://raitamitra.kar.nic.in/KAN/Document/agriprop.pdf (Last accessed on 4h August 2017) 2. Total production for Sugar in Lakh Tons in Karnataka ‘Profile of Agriculture Statistics Karnataka State’, Karnataka State Department of Agriculture, Bengaluru’, Pg 23 Website: http://raitamitra.kar.nic.in/KAN/Document/agriprop.pdf (Last accessed on 4th August 2017) 3. Total Area of Sugar Crop Cultivation in Lakh Hectares in Karnataka ‘Profile of Agriculture Statistics Karnataka State’, Karnataka State Department of Agriculture, Bengaluru’, Pg 22 Website: http://raitamitra.kar.nic.in/KAN/Document/agriprop.pdf (Last accessed on 4th August 2017) 4. Water Required per ton for Sugar Crops M.M.Mekonnen and A.Y. Hoekstra, ‘The green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products’, Table 2, Global Average Water Footprint of 14 Primary Crop Categories 1996-2005, Pg 1584, Twente Water Centre, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands Website: http://wfn.project-platforms.com/Reports/Mekonnen-Hoekstra-2011WaterFootprintCrops.pdf

Page 75 (Last accessed on 4th August 2017) 5. Untreated Quantity of Sewage Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board Website: https://bwssb.gov.in/content/about-bwssb-2 Last Accessed on 4th August 2017 (Last accessed on 4th August 2017)

Page 76

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