PFF Handbook 2024 by Mercator Media

Empire Riverside Hotel, Hamburg Conference Handbook

Powering shipping’s emissions-cutting ambitions

Propulsion stream | Alternative fuels stream | Technical visit

Two days of conference streams commencing with a keynote panel focused on EU Regulatory Requirements and the Emerging Market for Carbon Capture: Challenges and Opportunities, followed by sessions that will explore the Fuels for 2030, LNG Methane Slip Reductions, Advances in Engine Performance, and the shortlisted nominations for the Motorship Awards. Within the streamed sessions on day 2 you can expect to learn about the specific challenges with Bio-Fuels, Retrofit, Hydrogen, Ammonia, Wind Propulsion, Carbon Capture, and Crew Training for new fuels.

Chairmen:

Lars Robert Pedersen, Deputy Secretary General, BIMCO

Dr. Markus Münz, Managing Director, VDMA Large Engines

Moderators:

Philipp Simmank, Technical Advisor, VDR – German Shipowners‘ Association

Gavin Allwright, Secretary General, IWSA

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DAVID STEVENSON Mercator Media, The Motorship Editor

Welcome to The Motorship’s latest Propulsion & Future Fuels Conference. This year’s conference occurs during a time of significant regulatory focus on the maritime sector, with both EU ETS and FuelEU Maritime coming into play. The IMO, as you know never to be outdone, has also been working on its MARPOL reg as the war on green house gases intensifies. In this context, the search for viable future fuels in the marine world has never been more salient. With the likes of MAN Energy Solutions, Wärtsilä and WinGD pushing on with their ammonia engines, it seems the industry is up for the challenge laid down. One issue with future fuels is their availability, there’s almost a “chicken and egg” scenario whereby fuel suppliers might be reluctant to produce one type unless there’s corresponding buy signals from industry. The way FuelEU Maritime is worded should allow for significant pooling whereby operators can use one ship running on green methanol for instance to offset non-compliant vessels in the fleet. While this may be in the letter rather than the spirit of the “law”, nevertheless it may help until the supply is ample to meet what will surely be a growing demand for future fuels.

While innovations in engines are important, we will also hear from OEMs like Accelleron who can increase fuel efficiency with their turbochargers. Given the expected increase costs of new fuel types, greater efficiency will be of upmost importance. We will also hear from ABS, ICS, Ionada and Wärtsilä about developments in onboard carbon capture systems, a potentially crucial way for shipping to achieve its ambitious net zero goals.

Perhaps not a future fuel per se but wind is the oldest propulsion system in the maritime world, present for thousands of years and can still play a part today. We hear how wind can be used in conjunction with other systems as well as a talk pondering whether we are entering a new age of wind. This year’s Motorship award contains not one but two companies involved in wind propulsion, we’re hear from Santiago Suarez de la Fuente of Lloyd’s Register about its partnership with Anemoi for wind assisted propulsion and also bound4blue about its suction sales technology. Other nominees are last year’s winner ABB with Jarco van den Brink telling us about his company’s Optimal Speed Routing system and Matthias Winkler from CM Technologies discussing his company’s innovative scuffing sensor.

We should also spare a thought for the men and women aboard these ships running on alt fuels which is why we have a crew training panel discussing the safety aspects for handling new fuels among other tasks seafarers have to do on a daily basis. I hope we all are able to enjoy a fruitful exchange of ideas this year as despite the length of time this event has been running, this its 45th anniversary by the way, perhaps there’s never been a more apt time to discuss the future of maritime propulsion. My thanks go out to all those who’ve aided us getting to Hamburg this year, our excellent advisory executive committee and our sponsors:

DNV, GTT, Lloyd’s Register, Mares Shipping, Methanol Institute, WinGD, Gulf Marine, Lewa, Sauer, Smart, Tecnoveritas, TGE Marine & Total.

Many thanks,

David Stevenson Editor, The Motorship

LARS ROBERT PEDERSEN Deputy Secretary General, BIMCO

Dear Delegates,

It is my distinct pleasure to welcome you to the 45th Propulsion and Future Fuels Conference.

Our conference this year, themed “Powering Shipping’s Emissions-Cutting Ambitions,” brings together experts and innovators from across the maritime industry to explore groundbreaking solutions in propulsion technology and alternative fuels. We have designed a comprehensive program that includes engaging keynote panels, insightful technical sessions, and a variety of networking opportunities.

We begin our journey with a keynote panel focusing on EU Regulatory Requirements and the Emerging Market for Carbon Capture, featuring esteemed panellists who will delve into the challenges and opportunities of this critical topic. Across the two-day conference, you can expect to gain valuable insights into Fuels for 2030, LNG Methane Slip Reductions, Advances in Engine Performance, and more.

Our distinguished chairmen, Dr. Markus Münz, Managing Director of VDMA Large Engines, and myself, along with our adept moderators Philipp Simmank and Gavin Allwright, will guide us through diverse discussions on Bio-Fuels, Hydrogen, Ammonia, Wind Propulsion, Carbon Capture, and Crew Training for new fuels.

This conference is an invaluable opportunity not only to engage with the latest technological advancements but also to network with peers and leaders in the industry. We encourage you to participate actively in the sessions and share your perspectives.

In addition to the stimulating presentations and discussions, we have arranged a conference dinner at Zum Alten Lotsenhaus and a technical visit to DNV’s offices on the final day. These events will provide further opportunities to connect and collaborate.

We are proud to have the support of our sponsors and media partners, and we express our gratitude for their contributions. We also extend our thanks to you, our delegates, for your continued commitment to advancing the maritime industry towards a sustainable future.

I look forward to a productive and inspiring conference.

Warm regards,

Lars Robert Pedersen Deputy Secretary General, BIMCO

DR. MARKUS MÜNZ Managing Director, VDMA Large Engines

Dear fellow delegates,

Once again, we look back on an eventful year for the shipping industry, a year that has underpinned the critical importance of defossilizing shipping. This year’s Propulsion and Future Fuels conference offers us a valuable opportunity to come together, exchange knowledge and experiences, and set a course for the future. We can expect to hear about a wide range of strategies that aim to achieve our common goal of eliminating additional greenhouse gas emissions and realizing the maritime energy transition.

I firmly believe that internal combustion engines will continue to play a significant role in shipping and that the maritime industry will remain a domain for this engine. No other propulsion system can move ships as reliably and safely over long distances. However, ICEs will not remain the only solution, and they will not be used for each and every application. During the conference, we will explore numerous options for future propulsion systems, including combustion engines and fuel cells. Topics will also include retrofitting, future fuels and alternative energy sources such as ammonia, methanol and hydrogen. In addition, we will discuss customized and fuelspecific lubrication, among other things.

I would like to call on everyone to participate openly and honestly in the upcoming discussions. It is crucial that we consider all options and put aside personal preferences, judgments or prejudices. As professionals, we need to be aware of the challenges our industry is facing. Furthermore, we should always be mindful of the long innovation cycles in shipping: the decisions and predictions we make today will directly impact the operations and perception of our industry in 2050.

The shipping industry has a long history of innovation, which has been fundamental to the efficient and cost-effective movement of global trade. It is important that we continue to maintain this spirit of innovation in the future. Together, we can find the best solutions. I look forward to two exciting days of insightful presentations and even more insightful discussions.

MARITIME FORECAST TO 2050

A deep dive into shipping’s decarbonization journey

Assessing shipping’s energy future

Successful maritime decarbonization relies on smart decisions and strategic investments today. To provide guidance to the industry, the 8th edition of DNV’s Maritime Forecast to 2050 report offers an updated overview of shipping’s technological advancements and regulatory landscape. It presents an analysis of the future availability of carbon-neutral fuels and carbon storage, and estimates how far shipping can reduce its energy consumption.

Download your free copy now. dnv.com/maritime-forecast

RASMUS STUTE

Area Manager Germany, Vice President, Maritime, DNV

BIOGRAPHY

Rasmus Stute is based in Hamburg and leads DNV’s Area Germany, being responsible for fostering customer engagement and service delivery, while further strengthening the company’s offerings in one of its home markets. Considering the grand challenges that shipping is facing, Rasmus was appointed as Area Manager Germany to support the local Maritime industry’s transition to a greener and more efficient future.

Rasmus graduated from the University of Duisburg and the Danish Technical University as naval architect. After a short period at a German shipyard, he moved to DNV, where he held several management positions. Among other appointments, he served more than five years in Asia, Shanghai, Busan and Singapore.

After moving back to Europe in 2015, Rasmus served as Director of Approval for Høvik (Oslo), Hamburg, and Gdynia, overseeing production, product, and service development. Before assuming his current role, he was instrumental in developing the new Containership Excellence Centre in Hamburg as its founding Director. Rasmus is also currently a member of BIMCO’s marine safety and environment committees.

KEYNOTE PANEL:

EU Regulatory Requirements and the Emerging Market for Carbon Capture: Challenges and Opportunitieson Methanol

LARS ROBERT PEDERSEN Deputy Secretary General, BIMCO

BIOGRAPHY

Deputy Secretary General Lars Robert Pedersen is responsible for BIMCO’s technical and operational activities involving all technical and nautical issues within the area of marine environment, ship safety and maritime security.

Lars Robert is furthermore responsible BIMCO’s activity related to regulatory developments relevant for shipping at international, regional and national levels.

He joined BIMCO In early 2010 after a long career at A.P. Moller-Maersk. For more than 25 years he was involved in regulatory affairs at IMO level, technical management of the Maersk fleet of container ships and prior to that as seagoing engineer officer. Lars Robert holds an unlimited Chief Engineers license.

Requirements and the Emerging Market for Carbon Capture: Challenges and Opportunitieson Methanol

SERGEY GRIBANOV

Area Business Development Manager Germany, Maritime, DNV

BIOGRAPHY

A marine engineer, Sergey Gribanov graduated from the State Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg and served as an Chief engineer onboard. He has worked for DNV for the past 18 years, holding several positions within DNV, working in Russia, Poland and Norway and Germany.

In 2009, Sergey moved to Hamburg to take on the role of Customer Service Manager, before being appointed as Head of the Technical Service Unit in Germany in 2016. In 2019, he was appointed as Fleet in Service manager in Germany, taking the lead of the FIS operations and TSMs in Area Germany. Since 2022

Since 2008, Sergey has been closely involved in various BD and Marketing activities, engaging with both local and global customers, with a special focus on the tanker segment and took over an Area BDM position in 2022.

DR. HARRY CONWAY

Chair, The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), IMO

BIOGRAPHY

Dr. Conway is the Chair of the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) of the International Maritime Organization. Prior to becoming Chair in December 2022, Dr Conway was Vice Chair for five years. He has also served as Chair of several steering committees of the MEPC, including that for the Comprehensive Impact Assessment on States of IMO GHG Short-Term Measures; the IMO 4th Greenhouse Gas Study, and the Review of compliant fuel oil availability as per Regulation 14.8 of MARPOL Annex VI. He has been part of the Liberia delegation to IMO Meetings since 2006, and participates actively in all Working, Drafting, Correspondence and Intersessional Groups of the Committees and Subcommittees of the IMO. He is also Member of the International Quality Assessment Review Body (IQARB), an industry led initiative to ensure safety of vessels.

Dr. Conway has served as panelist/speaker at numerous international shipping and ocean related events, including the Africa Green Shipping Conference, Accra, Ghana and 13th Annual Greek Shipping Forum, Athens, Greece, 2023.

Dr Conway holds a PhD from Cardiff University, United Kingdom. His research interest is in environmental politics with the 2015 UNFCCC Paris Agreement as focus. He also holds a Master of Art (with Distinction) in International Maritime Policy, University of Greenwich, United Kingdom; and Master of Business Administration from the Hanze University of Applied Sciences, Groningen, The Netherlands, respectively. Dr. Conway is a Contributor to the Book: The African Union and the Law of the Sea published in 2017 by the Juta Press of South Africa. He is one of the experts on the continent of Africa that drafted the 2050 Africa Integrated Maritime Strategy which was adopted in 2014 by the Assembly of Heads of States of the African Union.

EU Regulatory Requirements and the Emerging Market for Carbon Capture: Challenges and Opportunitieson Methanol

JOE BETTLES

Climate Policy & Analysis Manager, Mærsk Mc-Kinney

Møller Center for Zero Carbon Shipping

BIOGRAPHY

Based in Copenhagen at the Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller Center for Zero Carbon Shipping, Joe is a Climate Policy and Analysis Manager focused on the economic impact of policies on shipping companies and marine fuel suppliers. He launched the “Countdown” newsletter series in 2024 on FuelEU Maritime and IMO Mid-term Measures, with analysis to support policy-driven investments in green shipping.

Joe also authored ‘Transatlantic Testing Ground’, on how the combination of EU and US policies create an opportunity to bring down the cost of sustainable fuels on transatlantic routes. With a Master’s in Public Policy from UC San Diego and a background in renewable energy development, Joe works to advance policymaking that can drive innovation and accelerate the energy transition.

EU Regulatory Requirements and the Emerging Market for Carbon Capture: Challenges and Opportunitieson Methanol

MANFRED LEBMEIER

Senior Environmental Advisor, Hamburg Port Authority

BIOGRAPHY

Manfred Lebmeier joined the Hamburg Port Authority (HPA) in 2013 and works for the environmental and sustainability department.

Onshore power and the Green Deal with the Fit for 55 package is a main task of his work. He is an active member of several national and international committees and working groups like in ESPO or IAPH. Additionally, he worked for more than 2 years for the IAPH as ESI (Environmental Ship Index) administrator.

Hermetically Tight High Pressure Injection Pumps for Alternative Marine Fuels.

LPG, Ammonia, Methanol and LNG are becoming increasingly important as alternative fuels in the Marine Industry. All enable cleaner and more efficient combustion than the previously used Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO or VLSFO). Modern and efficient dual-fuel 2-stroke marine diesel engines require the precise and safe injection of these alternative marine fuels. LEWA triplex diaphragm pumps are ideally suited for this purpose.

Advantages:

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– Certifications according to DNV, ABS, Lloyds, KR, NK etc. possible

LPG

LNG Ammonia

MeOH

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SESSION 1

Methanol: Lessons Learned from Expansion of Vessels Operating on Methanol

EU Regulatory Requirements and the Emerging Market for Carbon Capture: Challenges and Opportunitieson Methanol

DR. MARKUS MÜNZ

Managing Director, VDMA Large Engines

BIOGRAPHY

Dr. Markus Münz has studied Mechanical and Process engineering at TU Darmstadt in Germany. He holds a Master of Science and a Bachelor of Science in Mechanical and Process Engineering, a Bachelor of Science in Applied Mechanics, as well as a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering.

He started his professional career at Isuzu Motors Germany where he particularly looked at engine application, drivability, problem solving and alternative fuels. In July 2022, he joined VDMA as a project manager engines and systems with special emphasis on Power-to-X. Additionally, he is Managing Director of VDMA Large Engines – CIMAC Germany.

SEBASTIAN EBBING

Group Sustainability Officer, MPC Container Ships GmbH & Co. KG

BIOGRAPHY

Sebastian Ebbing is a seasoned expert in green shipping and clean technology with a robust background in regulatory affairs and sustainability. He currently serves as the Group Sustainability Officer at MPC Container Ship ASA, where he spearheads corporate strategies focused on sustainability, decarbonization, and fleet modernization.

Previously, Sebastian worked as Technical Advisor for the German Shipowner Association (VDR), providing strategic consultancy on climate, marine fuels, and energy transition. His academic credentials include a Master of Science in International Maritime Management and ongoing doctoral research on carbon capture and recycling in maritime transport.

He is also a university lecturer, and a member of the Management Board at the Institute for Innovative Logistics and Environment located at the Jade University of Applied Science.

KJELD AABO

Maritime Transport Senior Advisor, Methanol Institute

BIOGRAPHY

Retired after 40 years from MAN Energy solutions 1 July 2023. Made my own consultantsy firm and joined Methanol institute August 2023 as Senior advisor.

Joined MAN B&W Diesel in 1983 after education in mechanical engineering and a diploma in Sales.

2013 Director new technology promotion 2 stroke engines in Copenhagen

2010 Head of Marine and Offshore Brazil. Expat in Rio De Janeiro until 1 /10-2013

2008 Head of 2-stroke promotion WWO

2006 to 2008 Head of research center Copenhagen

2002 to 2006 Senior Manager engineering. 5 departments

1994 to 2002 Manager in 2-stroke marine installation department

1991 to 1994 Group Manager in 2-stroke marine installation department

1983 to 1991 Project engineer in MAN B&W 2-stroke power station division

HANNES LILP

CEO and founder, SRC Group

BIOGRAPHY

Hannes Lilp is CEO and founder of SRC Group - a privately held company focusing on design, engineering, technical, interior refit services and technology development for the maritime and offshore sectors.

Founded by in 2001 when Hannes was aged 23 and still a student at the Estonian Maritime Academy, SRC has gone on to complete over 5,000 projects worldwide and establish offices in Estonia, Italy, Norway, US, Poland and the Netherlands.

Holding an Executive MBA from the Estonian Business School, Hannes has also led SRC’s drive to establish an extensive network of partners and subcontractors worldwide to work across projects ranging from small repairs to Engineering Procurement Construction Installation retrofits involving up to 1,000 workers.

SRC Group has been recognized as among Estonia’s Exporters of the Year and ranked No. 1 in the machinery and metal industry by Äripäev, a leading Estonian business newspaper. Hannes was named as a top three 2021 Industry Person of the Year in Estonia.

In 2023, Hannes led SRC Group’s development and launch of Methanol Superstorage - a new approach to fuel storage on board ship which will drive maritime decarbonisation by overcoming methanol’s energy density disadvantage against HFO.

Where conventional tanks feature 600mm width cofferdams to separate inner and outer walls, Methanol Superstorage uses 25mm thick SPS Technology Sandwich Plate System, offering a route to an alternative design certification for low flashpoint fuel storage which boosts tank volume by up to 85%. Approved in Principle by Lloyd’s Register, Methanol Superstorage is suitable for all vessel types.

Methanol SuperStorage

Solution designed by SRC that reinvents methanol storage using Sandwich Plate System (SPS).

Increase up to +85% Methanol fuel tank volume

Methanol requires more than double the volume compared to heavy fuel for the same energy content. Traditional methods of storing low flashpoint fuels like methanol require cofferdams (minimum of 600mm), which decreases the autonomy of a ship significantly.

SOLUTI O N

Instead of using cofferdams, our solution utilizes SPS with a thickness of 25mm, eliminating the need for the much larger cofferdams and maximizing the available volume for storing methanol.

E N E F I T S

Increase up to +85% methanol fuel tank volume

Modifications made to existing tanks

Little impact to general arrangement

Triple barrier – safer than traditional solution

A60 fire rating

SPS Technology‘s Sandwich Plate System (SPS) is a structural composite ship building material which is permanent, class-approved and cost-effective

SRC covers all aspects of the integration from bunkering station to high pressure pump.

APPROVAL IN PRINCIPLE RECEIVED FROM LLOYD'S REGISTER

C H A LLE N G E

Solid Elastomer Core

Steel Plate

SRC Methanol Superstorage B

Methanol:

THORBJOERN PETERSEN

Chief Technical Officer and Co-Owner, Smart-Marine

BIOGRAPHY

Mr. Thorbjoern Thade Petersen is a highly experienced marine engineer with a long career in the maritime industry. His expertise is deeply rooted, amongst others, in his 23 years at sea with Maersk Line, where he worked on some of the largest container vessels in the world equipped with modern 2-stroke marine engines. His hands-on experience has given him a unique understanding of the technical challenges and operational complexities of modern shipping.

In 2018, drawing on his vast experience, Thorbjoern founded Smart-Marine. His vision for the company arose from firsthand observations onboard, where he identified sludge accumulation as an increasing operational issue, contributing to inefficiencies and potential risks to the main engine performance and stability. He also recognized an untapped potential in the sludge produced during operation. With an innovative mindset, Thorbjoern proposed that used oil and sludge, traditionally seen as waste, could instead be treated as a resource to be reused, offering both significant environmental and economic benefits to the industry.

SESSION 2

LNG: Methane Slip Reductions, Advances in Engine Performance

LARS ROBERT PEDERSEN

Deputy Secretary General, BIMCO

BIOGRAPHY

Lars Robert is furthermore responsible BIMCO’s activity related to regulatory developments relevant for shipping at international, regional and national levels.

LNG:

CAN MURTEZAOGLU

Business Development Manager, GTT

BIOGRAPHY

Can Murtezaoglu joined GTT at the start of 2023 as a Business Development Manager, responsible from all GTT products and services, with a special focus on countries such as Germany, Denmark and Turkey. Prior joining to GTT, Can held executive roles in international energy firms, specifically covering Energy, LNG and Technology industries. He is fluent in Turkish, English and French and holds a Bachelor’s degree (2013) of Electrics and Electronics Engineering from Turkey’s Koç University and an MBA degree (2022) from HEC Paris.

LNG:

THOMAS WERNER

Customer Support Manager for iCER, WinGD

BIOGRAPHY

Thomas Werner currently holds the position of Customer Support Manager iCER at WinGD. In this role he oversees the service experience of the Intelligent Control by Exhaust Recycling (iCER) and is responsible for the further development of the system.

Thomas has a long history in the marine engine business with work experience in testing, product- and project management and customer support.

After sailing on board vessels in the German merchant fleet, he graduated in Marine Engineering at the University of Applied Science in Flensburg.

Methane mitigation technologies for X-DF Engines: Updates and Experience

Combustion control plays a critical role in increasing efficiency and reducing methane emissions in low-pressure, two-stroke dual-fuel LNG engines. This paper describes the methane slip performance improvements implemented on the WinGD dual-fuel LNG engine platform X-DF since 2022. It highlights service experience on X-DF engines to date as well as performance data for intelligent cooling by exhaust recirculation (iCER) and Variable Control Ratio (VCR) technology. And it illustrates how, by improving methane emissions step-bystep, today’s X-DF engines with iCER and VCR are competitive with high-pressure engines in terms of overall greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

1. INTRODUCTION

Methane is the main component of liquefied natural gas (LNG), a cryogenic marine fuel that can reduce vessel GHG emissions by up to 23% and limit air pollutants, with negligible sulphur content and significant NOx reductions. However, methane is also a potent GHG, with 28 times more global warming potential than CO2 over a 100-year period.2 This means that LNG engines with significant methane slip – where methane in the combustion chamber is unburned and escapes into the atmosphere – will not reach the maximum potential GHG reduction that LNG affords.

Both the EU3 and the IMO4 have established identical default methane slip factors to calculate the tank-to-wake emissions associated with LNG-fuelled engines. For Otto-cycle dual-fuel lowspeed engines, including X-DF, the default factor is 1.7% of the mass of fuel used, compared with 0.2% for Diesel-cycle dual-fuel low-speed engines. However, the default value represents only the first generation of Otto-cycle dual-fuel LNG engines. With recent innovations – including iCER and VCR technology – new X-DF engines reach methane slip of 0.8% to 1.0%.5

Combined with the high fuel efficiency and the operational flexibility of current X-DF engines with iCER and VCR, this reduced methane slip means that these engines have lower overall greenhouse gas emissions and lower air pollution, as well as lower fuel cost and lower system capex, than either Otto- (low-pressure) or Diesel-cycle(high-pressure) two-stroke LNG engines.

2. THE ORIGIN OF X-DF

Since their introduction to the market in 2016, more than 380 X-DF engines have entered service, recording well over 7 million running hours and with longest-serving engines recording more than 45,000 hours to date. These engines are running well today thanks to the systemic resolution of early teething problems and a continued focus on reducing operating expenses when the engines entered service. This approach – using root cause analysis made possible by WinGD’s remote diagnostics platform WiDE (WinGD integrated Diagnostics Expert), followed by design iteration across new engines – was presented in relation to the 12X92DF engines, the biggest dual-fuel engines ever built, at CIMAC World Congress 2023.6

1 https://sphera.com/resources/report/2nd-life-cycle-ghg-emission-study-on-the-use-of-lng-as-marine-fuel/

2 https://www.iea.org/reports/methane-tracker-2021/methane-and-climate-change

3 Regulation (EU) 2023/1805 of the European Parliament and of the Council (FuelEU Maritime)

4 Resolution MEPC.391(81), 2024 Guidelines on Life Cycle GHG Intensity of Marine Fuels (LCA Guidelines)

5 Both the IMO and the EU have agreed that default factors can be updated and that actual methane emissions can be used in place of default factors until that time. Regulatory mechanisms to allow this are being decided

6 Räss, K., et al., 2021, WinGD X92DF engine service experience, CIMAC World Congress 2023, Busan.

Since their introduction to the market in 2016, more than 380 X-DF engines have entered service, recording well over 7 million running hours and with longest-serving engines recording more than 45,000 hours to date. These engines are running well today tha nks to the systemic resolution of early teething problems and a continued focus on reducing operating expenses when the engines entered service. This approach – using root cause analysis made possible by WinGD’s remote diagnostics platform WiDE (WinGD integrated Diagnostics Expert), followed by design iteration across new engines – was presented in relation to the 12X92DF engines, the biggest dual-fuel engines ever built, at CIMAC World Congress 2023.6

This approach solved the piston-running issues that were encountered early in the life of the X92DF engine. The findings from early X92DF experience have since been ported to many other engines to further improve reliability and many of the branches of root cause analysis investigated will lead to future improvements in control software, engine hardware and tuning optimisation. These lessons will be invaluable as WinGD plans the introduction and early operation of further marine engines, including those using methanol and ammonia fuels as well as subsequent generations of X-DF engines.

This approach solved the piston-running issues that were encountered early in the life of the X92DF engine. The findings from early X92DF experience have since been ported to many other engines to further improve reliability and many of the branches of root cause analysis investigated will lead to futu re improvements in control software, engine hardware and tuning optimisation. These lessons will be invaluable as WinGD plans the introduction and early operation of further marine engines, including those using methanol and ammonia fuels as well as subsequent generations of X-DF engines.

3. ICER: THE FIRST EVOLUTION

3 ICER: THE FIRST EVOLUTION

In June 2020, WinGD introduced the next step in X-DF technology, iCER. The concept, presented previously at this conference, comprises an add-on system which delivers enhanced combustion control through the use of inert gas. This reduces fuel consumption in both diesel and gas mode while exhaust recirculation also serves to further reduce methane slip by up to 50% compared to the original X-DF concept.

In June 2020, WinGD introduced the next step in X-DF technology, iCER. The concept, presented previously at this conference7, comprises an add-on system which delivers enhanced combustion control through the use of inert gas. This reduces fuel consumption in both diesel and gas mode while exhaust recirculation also serves to further reduce methane slip by up to 50% compared to the original X -DF concept.

The first iCER-enabled X-DF engines, designated X-DF2.x, entered service earlier this year and therefore service experience is somewhat limited. As for the original X-DF engines, WinGD is closely following the fleet to further enhance customers satisfaction and decrease operating expenses as the engines gain more running hours. Meanwhile, the majority of X-DF engines ordered now include iCER technology, with 430 currently on order.

The first iCER-enabled X-DF engines, designated X-DF2.x, entered service earlier this year and therefore service experience is somewhat limited. As for the original X -DF engines, WinGD is closely following the fleet to further enhance customers satisfaction and decrease operating expenses as the engines gain more running hours. Meanwhile, the majority of X-DF engines ordered now include iCER technology, with 430 currently on order.

The reason for the engine’s popularity becomes clear when considering the performance test results, presented for methane slip in Figure 1. Methane slip for the X92DF1.0 engine averaged at well below 1% of fuel mass used, equating to a reduction of around 50% compared to the previous X-DF technology.

and X92DF2.0

6 Räss, K., et al., 2021, WinGD X92DF engine service experience, CIMAC World Congress 2023, Busan

4. SECOND STEP: VCR TECHNOLOGY

In June 2023, WinGD introduced Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) technology for its X-DF2.0 engines. VCR enables marine engines to dynamically adjust compression ratio, previously a fixed engine parameter, for the first time. By adjusting compression ratio depending on the fuel used, engine load and ambient conditions, VCR delivers further reductions in fuel consumption, methane slip and overall greenhouse gas emissions.

www.wingd.com

Figure 1 Shop test results for methane slip (IMO weighted average), X92DF1.0 and X92DF2.0

Figure 1 Shop test results for methane slip (IMO weighted average), X92DF1.0

VCR technology is the result of careful development and testing over more than a decade. Today, more than 100 engines on WinGD’s X -DF orderbook are destined to use the solution, just over a year since it was introduced. The results of extensive testing on a test 6X62DF2.0 engine, illustrated in Figures 2 and 3 below, illustrate the appeal.

Figure 2 Brake specific fuel/gas consumption reductions achieved by installing VCR technology on a 6X62DF2.0 test engine.

Because the compression ratio of the X-DF engine is originally calibrated for LNG consumption, optimising the ratio for diesel consumption leads to significantly improved combustion across the load range in diesel mode. In gas mode, high fuel efficiencies are achieved at par t loads, where a higher compression ratio can be employed. Being able to increase compression ratio also allows for greater operational flexibility, for example in less favourable ambient conditions or when using power take in/out.

Because the compression ratio of the X-DF engine is originally calibrated for LNG consumption, optimising the ratio for diesel consumption leads to significantly improved combustion across the load range in diesel mode. In gas mode, high fuel efficiencies are achieved at part loads, where a higher compression ratio can be employed. Being able to increase compression ratio also allows for greater operational flexibility, for example in less favourable ambient conditions or when using power take in/out.

Figure 3. Methane slip and NOx emissions test results for an X62DF2.1 engine with and without VCR

NOx

for

More complete combustion also leads to a further reduction in methane slip, beyond that achieved by reduced fuel consumption, as shown in Figure 3 above. This is achieved with only a marginal increase in NOx emissions caused by higher combustion pressures and temperatures, with total emissions still far below IMO Tier III requirements.

www.wingd.com

VCR technology is the result of careful development and testing over more than a decade. Today, more than 100 engines on WinGD’s X-DF orderbook are destined to use the solution, just over a year since it was introduced. The results of extensive testing on a test 6X62DF2.0 engine, illustrated in Figures 2 and 3 below, illustrate the appeal. WinGD

Figure 2 Brake specific fuel/gas consumption reductions achieved by installing VCR technology on a 6X62DF2.0 test engine.

Figure 3 Methane slip and NOx emissions test results for an X62DF2.1 engine with and without VCR

Figure 3. Methane slip and

emissions test results

an X62DF2.1 engine with and without VCR

Figure 3. Methane slip and NOx emissions test results for an X62DF2.1 engine with and without VCR

5. TODAY’S X-DF: COMPETITIVE AGAINST ALL COMERS

Comparisons undertaken by WinGD highlight the impact that these advances have had when applied to the well-proven X-DF engine concept. In the LNG carrier sector, X-DF has extended its advantage over other low-pressure concepts, with X-DF powered vessels recording lower fuel consumption – meaning lower fuel spend and emissions – as well as competitive capex (see Figure 4). The benefits are magnified even further when considered against the rare application of high-pressure engines on gas carriers.

Comparisons undertaken by WinGD highlight the impact that these advances have had when applied to the well-proven X-DF engine concept. In the LNG carrier sector, X -DF has extended its advantage over other low-pressure concepts, with X-DF powered vessels recording lower fuel consumption – meaning lower fuel spend and emissions – as well as competitive capex (see Figure 4). The benefits are magnified even further when considered against the rare application of high -pressure engines on gas carriers.

Annual CO2 equivalent Emissions (total)

/ [tons/year]

Outside of the LNG carrier sector, the latest X -DF engines are also competitive with the more widely deployed high-pressure engines, as illustrated in the case below of a pure car and truck carrier. WinGD’s advances in reducing methane slip and improving fuel consumption mean that overall emissions are lower than for high-pressure engines, as shown in in Figure 5.

Outside of the LNG carrier sector, the latest X-DF engines are also competitive with the more widely deployed high-pressure engines, as illustrated in the case below of a pure car and truck carrier. WinGD’s advances in reducing methane slip and improving fuel consumption mean that overall emissions are lower than for high-pressure engines, as shown in in Figure 5.

Annual CO2 equivalent Emissions (total)

6. CONCLUSION

6 CONCLUSION

6. CONCLUSION

Over the past two years, technology enhancements to WinGD’s X-DF low-pressure, dual-fuel LNG engine have successfully reduced methane slip to a point where overall GHG emissions are the lowest of any low-pressure concept, and on a par with high=pressure engines with greater capex and higher air pollution emissions.

Over the past two years, technology enhancements to WinGD’s X -DF low-pressure, dual-fuel LNG engine have successfully reduced methane slip to a point where overall GHG emissions are the lowest of any low-pressure concept, and on a par with high=pressure engines with greater cap ex and higher air pollution emissions.

With many operators already choosing to order the latest version of X-DF technology, lowpressure engines will be able to support the maritime energy transition – and reduce exposure to emerging carbon costs – well into the next decade.

With many operators already choosing to order the latest version of X -DF technology, low-pressure engines will be able to support the maritime energy transition – and reduce exposure to emerging carbon costs – well into the next decade.

Figure 4 Annual overall emissions, 174k LNG carrier

Figure 5 Annual overall emissions and investment cost comparison, 7,000 CEU PCTC

Figure 4 Annual overall emissions, 174k LNG carrier

Figure 5 Annual overall emissions and investment cost comparison, 7,000 CEU PCTC

EMMANUEL DELRAN

Vice-président Group Opérations, CMA CGM

BIOGRAPHY

Emmanuel DELRAN has acquired extensive experience in the maritime sector, currently holding the position of Vice President of Group Operations since January 2022.

For more than a decade, he served as a Ship Captain with CMA-CGM, demonstrating his expertise in navigation and maritime operations management, from 2011 to January 2022.

Previously, he held the position of Second Captain at CMA-CGM from 2007 to 2011, where he continued to develop his leadership and crew management skills.

Between 2003 and 2007, he was responsible for the Antilles-Guyana operations for the CMACGM Group, during which time he had to develop his vision and expertise in Terminal Operations related to maritime lines.

In 2001, he was appointed Head of the Fort de France Operations Center as TCAG, where he demonstrated his ability to manage high-level operational responsibilities.

He began his career as a versatile Officer with CMA-CGM in 2000, thereby gaining valuable hands-on experience.

He served in the military in Corsica as an officer from 1999 to 2000, where he assisted the armed forces in traffic regulation for the French government.

Emmanuel DELRAN joined CMA CGM in 1995 as a trainee Officer and has never left the group. In 2021, he was honored by the President of the Republic with the prestigious appointment to the rank of Knight of the Legion of Honor, thus recognizing his exceptional contribution and remarkable dedication.

As a permanent guest of the Naval Academy, his incredible journey is a living inspiration, reminding everyone that faith in one’s dreams and unwavering ambition can transform a farmer’s grandson, born in the Jura, into a prominent figure in the maritime world.

His story is living proof that dreams, when pursued with determination, can lead to remarkable journeys.

STEVE PRICE

Director, Methane Measurement in Maritime Innovation Initiative (MAMII)

BIOGRAPHY

Steve Price is the programme director for Methane Measurement in Maritime Innovation Initiative (MAMII) at the Safetytech Accelerator, established by Lloyds Register. For the last six years Steve has worked for Safetytech Accelerator to bring innovation into maritime including challenges in sustainability, decarbonisation, vessel performance and crew welfare. Steve has spent the last 15 years running innovation programmes for large corporates and the UK government’s innovation agency.

Methane Abatement in Maritime Innovation Initiative

After carbon, methane is the second most important greenhouse gas. Its emission profile is amplified by its potent nature, even though only small volumes of methane are emitted in maritime operations. MAMII aims to instigate and steer the actions necessary to mitigate the risks deriving from methane emissions in maritime.

With the growth of the LNG-fuelled ship fleet, as well as the number of LNG carriers fuelled by LNG, critics have focused on methane emissions and methane slip, emissions deriving from incomplete or inefficient combustion.

Despite the availability of engine and LNG-handling technology which can mitigate this risk, methane emissions have been promoted as a counterargument to prevent shipowners from adopting a fuel which can deliver an improved greenhouse gas footprint and an unrivalled local pollution profile with multiple societal benefits.

Some past engine technologies presented significant methane slip values, and criticism has also focused on the upstream side and the entire bunkering supply chain, penalising the use of LNG as fuel in maritime operations.

MAMII has been formed as a maritime industry response to this question to scrutinise, quantify, and finally propose measures and actions to mitigate the risk from methane emissions in maritime operations.

In the last two years, we have completed a comprehensive series of analyses detailing the nature of methane emissions at every stage of the value chain. We have conducted global technology surveys focusing on methane measurement, reporting and verification, as well as various abatement approaches, and we have initiated pilots to unveil and assess technology readiness.

Based on this wealth of knowledge shared between partners, we have crystalised a strategy to help focus the industry and the regulators.

With more than 20 major groups behind this initiative, we are calling on the entire industry to support our efforts. Our immediate priority target is to lead the standardisation of methane measurement through a unified protocol, which can also constitute the basis for IMO (International Maritime Organization) action.

We are collectively taking and aligning actions with other industry bodies, including SGMF (The Society for Gas as a Marine Fuel). We hope to instigate a series of pilots to expedite technology development and uptake in the maritime industry.

MAMII serves as a prime example of the maritime industry taking the transition challenge into its own hands. We are actively involved in every aspect, crafting a strategy and facilitating technology development based on scientific evidence and the industry’s insights.

In this context, we urge regulators and policymakers to make technology-centric decisions that will drive the widespread adoption of relevant technologies. For the MAMII partners who recognise the significance of addressing niche but critical challenges like methane emissions, the only way forward is together.

Introduction

Shipping generates an estimated 3% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Merchant ships burn 300 million metric tonnes of fossil fuels annually, emitting around a billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO?) – the equivalent of Japan’s yearly carbon emissions.

Following The Paris Agreement in 2015, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) pledged to halve carbon emissions from shipping by 2030 and achieve carbon-neutral shipping by 2050. The IMO repeated this pledge at the 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP28) and updated its targets: a 20% reduction in emissions by 2030 and a 70% reduction by 2040 (compared with 2008 levels), and net-zero emissions by 2050.

The shipping industry is making significant efforts to find an alternative fuel to help meet these targets, directing attention towards biofuels, hydrogen and hydrogen carriers, and nuclear propulsion.

However, multiple factors – ranging from supply reliability to health and safety concerns –have limited the adoption of these alternatives, and many shipping companies are shifting towards Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) as a transition fuel to help meet upcoming targets. Comparing the current global fleet against new ship order books shows this shift. While less than 7% of the current global fleet (by tonnage) can use alternative fuels today, half (51%) of new ships being built will be able to operate on alternative fuels.

45% of ships ordered in 2023 embrace alternative fuels, with LNG now considered to be a mature, scalable and commercially viable fuel for the maritime industry.

LNG is understood to generate the same propulsion power as other marine fuels but with 23% less CO?, significantly lower nitrogen oxide gases, and almost zero sulphur and particulates. However, the environmental gains from using LNG are compromised when methane, its primary component, escapes into the atmosphere.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that fossil fuels produced 120 million metric tons of methane in 2023. These levels are currently too high to meet international climate targets.

Besides, methane emissions have a global warming impact that is far greater than that of CO? and a 75% reduction by 2030 is necessary to prevent dangerous levels of warming.

Over a 100-year period, one tonne of methane will warm the planet as much as 28 tonnes of CO?. Thankfully, technology is now available to abate these methane emissions.

Methane emissions on ships primarily stem from methane slip, unburnt methane released through the exhaust. It is also important to minimise fugitive emissions by detecting leaks quickly and repairing them promptly.

More complex pipework systems with multiple valves and flanges, heighten the chances of fugitive leaks and increasing the challenge of leak detection.

There may also be operational leaks, including deliberate releases during refuelling or purging of the fuel line. Moreover, due to pressure risks, LNG carriers must flare off excess gas in emergencies.

Measuring Methane Slip

The industry needs more data to assess the level and impact of methane released by LNGfuelled ships. Quantifying this will allow policymakers to evaluate and de-risk the use of this interim fuel.

Many different units and measures are employed in the literature to describe the quantity of methane slip and associated Global Warming Potential (GWP).

The testbed standard at which engines are measured does not always match real world conditions. Modern engines running at optimum load, typically 80%, display low methane slip. If operated sub-optimally, however, the emissions of the same engine can be higher.

Older engines tend to have a bigger problem. Engine manufacturers measure their engines at the optimum load for fuel usage and emissions. However, there are operational reasons why engines only sometimes run at their most efficient levels, such as when manoeuvring within a port environment.

Shipping operators can measure methane slip more precisely (in methane parts-per-million) using technology to sample exhaust gas. Some operational leaks are structured events when the amount of methane released can be precisely calculated. Others can be channelled and measured with sensors.

Various technologies can now detect, measure, and abate methane emissions.

The Methane Abatement in Maritime Innovation Initiative (MAMII) exists to validate the credibility and accuracy of these solutions in real conditions, which will require consistent, universal guidelines for measuring methane.

MAMII is already taking action on these critical fronts by developing measurement guidance, lining up trials, and adapting the most promising solutions for use in a marine environment.

Conclusions

Safetytech Accelerator has identified a series of learnings and recommendations through MAMII. These conclusions are from analysis and acceleration activities with 20 maritime partners over a 15-month period and engagement with over 100 technology providers offering potential solutions.

n Regulation is a necessity to address methane emissions in the maritime industry. A robust and clear framework centred around technology will facilitate faster uptake of solutions. Ambition must be high and well-defined, with a target to minimise emissions, regardless of origin, throughout all maritime operations.

n The industry should demystify the ‘black box’ of well-to-tank emissions – upstream emissions released by producing and delivering fuel – as it is possible to define and mitigate methane emissions at this stage. A key objective should be to validate and certify the performance of LNG producers and bunkering suppliers and to work with those who demonstrate excellence.

n Methane slip is the critical component of methane emissions onboard ships. Methaneproof engine technology is available today, but further innovation is imperative. Beyond combustion slip abatement, the industry should consider other solutions, such as shaft generators, to avert emissions and expedite the uptake of solutions tackling fugitive emissions.

n There are a wide variety of solutions to detect and quantify methane emissions. A key objective now should be to validate the credibility and accuracy of these solutions in real conditions. MAMII is taking action on these fronts, developing measurement guidance and moving several high-potential solutions to trial and marine industry adoption.

n There are more potential solutions to the abatement problem than previously expected, ranging from combustion improvement and post-combustion treatment to hydrogen blending. Despite substantial projected progress in methane performance, the cost and complexity of abatement are key risks. As solutions progress towards maritime adoption, it is important to prioritise adoption incentives and regulations that encourage technology use.

n Integrating methane into regulatory schemes will support the viability of methane abatement technology development and uptake. It will also make methane performance a key design parameter for future ships, trigger the uptake of solutions for and conversion of existing engines, and substantially improve the methane footprint of the global maritime fleet.

Regulations & Methane Emissions from Ships

A key conclusion from MAMII is the importance of a technology-centric regulatory framework to incentivise and facilitate faster uptake of solutions. The programme explored existing methane requirements in IMO and European Union (EU) regulations and identified global methane-related initiatives in the maritime sector.

One of the key elements in quantifying the impact of methane emissions is Global Warming Potential (GWP), a measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere over a specific time period after it is emitted to the atmosphere. This allows methane to be compared with CO?.

According to the European Union , methane’s GWP over 100 years (GWP100) is 28. This means that, over a 100-year period, methane has 28 times the heat-trapping potential of an equivalent amount of CO?.

IMO & EU REGULATIONS

Whether regulations around methane and methane abatement are based on GWP over a 20 or 100-year timescale could make a significant difference. Methane has a higher GWP over 20 years compared to 100 years, reflecting its stronger short-term impact on global warming.

Focusing on the 20-year timescale would highlight its more immediate climate impact. It is critical to make informed decisions about emissions reduction strategies and regulatory policies in the shipping industry, expert input on this point should be obtained.

The IMO life cycle assessment guidelines on greenhouse gas emissions are calculated as CO?e (CO? equivalent) using the GWP100 approach, although GWP20 will be used for comparisons. Several proposals to IMO’s Marine Environmental Committee suggest using GWP20 instead of solely GWP100. EU regulation has not yet committed to GWP100 or GWP20.

Other regulations that refer to methane include:

n EU MRV (Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification) Maritime Regulation : Starting January 2024, this requires reporting of greenhouse gas emissions, including methane, for all legs of voyages involving an EU port, as well as emissions in the port.

n FuelEU Maritime: Beginning in 2025, FuelEU Maritime is part of a range of measures designed to address maritime emissions. It builds on existing policies such as Regulation (EU) 2015/757 of the European Parliament , which established a system to monitor, report and verify CO? emissions from large ships using EU ports.

n EU ETS (Emission Trading Systems): Shipping companies now have to purchase and use emission allowances for each tonne of in-scope CO?e emissions, including methane . In 2025, companies must buy allowances covering 40% of their reported emissions from the previous year. This will increase to 70% of emissions reported in 2026 and 100% in 2027.

n IMO CII (Carbon Intensity Indicator) and EEXI (Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index): The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships has included CII and EEXI ratings since 2022 . A CII refresh planned for 2026 will likely bring methane emissions within the regulations. Methane may be also included in the EEDI (Energy Efficiency Design Index) and EEXI regulations.

DIRECTIONS

n It is vital that regulators implement a clear, robust, and focused regulatory framework as soon as possible to incentivise technology development and uptake.

n Regulators must eliminate any uncertainty to ensure that shipping companies are not discouraged from pursuing methane emissions reduction.

n The regulatory framework must be flexible and encourage the development and swift uptake of solutions that reduce emissions on existing ships and planned new builds.

Well-to-Tank Methane Emissions

The ambition for methane abatement in maritime must be high, with a target of minimal emissions, irrespective of origin, in all maritime operations and the LNG supply chain. Supplychain processes involved in obtaining, transporting, process and storing LNG are referred to as “well-to-tank”.

The natural gas sector is responsible for around 11% of global methane emissions. LNG accounts for nearly 40% of all gas traded internationally and around 4% of the global methane emissions. Major producers have committed to reduce upstream methane intensity by 50%, compared to a baseline established in 2017 .

Most LNG is used for electricity generation or industrial and residential use. Less than 1% of LNG methane emissions are currently attributable to shipping.

While well-to-tank methane emissions fall outside the maritime industry, they fall within the industry’s sphere of influence. Shipping companies must understand the total GWP of the LNG it consumes, and procure fuel with minimal, transparent, and verifiable emissions.

OUTCOMES

n MAMII examined the conventional LNG value chain of wells, pipelines, processing, liquefaction, transport, and storage.

n It found that a lot of work has been done in the LNG well-to-tank value chain and that the marine industry represents a small fraction of global methane process emissions.

n Emissions are becoming easier to measure accurately, with proven technologies such as sensor monitoring available to assess emissions in the well-to-tank part of the value chain.

n Certified gas initiatives are becoming more important to meet the growing demand for cleaner LNG shipments. These initiatives include:

- The MiQ Standard, an independent framework for assessing methane emissions from the production of natural gas

- The Oil and Gas Methane Partnership Gold Standard, an oil and gas reporting and mitigation programme from the United Nations Environment Programme

- The GIIGNL (International Group of Liquefied Natural Gas Importers) framework, a verified statement of greenhouse gas intensity and emissions within the LNG value chain

DIRECTIONS

n The analysis provides confidence that well-to-tank emissions can be accurately assessed.

n Certification schemes contribute considerably to efforts to create methane-proof value chains.

n Incentives are crucial to stimulate adoption of solutions for monitoring and mitigating emissions.

n More work is required to ensure that technology used for floating production, storage and offloading vessels, floating LNG vessels, and floating regasification units is deployable.

Tank-to-Wake Methane Emissions

MAMII has put substantial effort into the LNG value chain’s tank-to-wake component, the emissions resulting from fuel use onboard a vessel. Methane emissions primarily come from the engine in the form of methane slip in the exhaust and the crankcase breather. They also come from operational activities such as purging lines and from fugitive or temporary leaks in pipework.

Many existing studies fail to consider the latest developments in the engines themselves and the ability of aftermarket solutions to abate methane.

More up-to-date data is essential for understanding progress in engine technology and methane slip mechanisms.

Managing the engine loads during the various ship operations is particularly important to ensure optimum emissions management. Work is ongoing to identify technology to detect, measure and abate fugitive and operational emissions.

OUTCOMES

n Research shows methane slip remains the key component of onboard emissions and should continue to be the primary focus of methane abatement activities.

n While methane-proof engine technology exists for high-pressure two-stroke engines, other engine types present significant variance in methane performance.

n Recent developments of low-pressure two-stroke engines have reduced methane slip rates, but four-stroke engines are the main challenge.

n Auxiliary engine loads sometimes emit more methane than the main propulsion systems.

DIRECTIONS

n More informed decision-making around engine technology is necessary, with accurate measurement in real world conditions a priority.

n Despite recent progress, methane slip is the key component of onboard emissions. Engine manufacturers must continue exploring ways to improve performance and invest further in developing abatement solutions.

n The industry should focus further on non-engine interventions for averting methane slip, such as shaft generators and battery technology.

n Based on cost-benefit fundamentals and available technology, tackling fugitive leaks presents low-hanging fruit for reducing methane loss.

Measurement Reporting & Verification

Irrespective of origin, accurate detection and quantification of onboard methane emissions is crucial. With more regulators integrating methane emissions into their schemes, methane measurement, reporting and verification solutions become vital.

While progress has been made around measuring methane slip on ships, some previous solutions have proven inconsistent when deployed across multiple operating conditions. Limited data and tools are available for analysis and there is yet to be a universally accepted method for measuring methane slip.

It is necessary to be able to monitor gas concentrations and volume precisely to quantify methane emissions accurately. It is possible to sample gas concentrations, while flow rates can be measured directly in the stack or calculated for the engine using parameters including fuel consumption and ambient conditions.

OUTCOMES

n MAMII identified over 100 companies with methane measurement technologies, of which 25 had potential for maritime deployment.

n Solutions from SeaArctos, Green Instruments, Emsys Maritime, Daphne Technology, SailPlan, Everimpact, Tunable, and Servomex were shortlisted for further trials.

n The research shows that various technologies are available for detecting and quantifying methane emissions, although further testing of these technologies in real onboard conditions is required to independently determine the accuracy of those solutions.

n It is essential to develop and apply consistent universal measurement guidelines to mitigate the risk of discrepancies between methods and obtain a clear understanding of the solutions.

DIRECTIONS

n As methane emissions become regulated and monetised, credible detection and quantification become a key objective for the industry.

n A variety of technologies are currently available, each with the potential to detect and quantify methane emissions. It is important to trial and deploy these solutions in real marine operating conditions.

n Developing and applying a consistent universal measurement guideline is essential to benchmarking and understanding the potential of technologies.?

Methane Abatement

Methane emissions are the second most important type of greenhouse gas emissions. For LNG-fuelled and LNG trading ships, they constitute a major risk. However, they also represent some of the lowest-hanging fruit for maritime industry climate alignment.

Multiple promising technologies have emerged, but they have yet to be available as established solutions to achieve complete methane abatement from maritime operations at scale. However, such technology can reduce methane slip to a negligible, if not zero, amount.

Despite progress in engine technology, abatement remains a key requirement for many engines with considerable methane slip, and the lack of methane integration in regulatory regimes means there is yet to be a business-critical incentive for the development and uptake of abatement solutions.

OUTCOMES

n MAMII identified more than 90 companies with methane abatement technologies. 17 of these had the potential for maritime deployment.

n Daphne Technology, Plenesys, Johnson Matthey, CDTi, SailPlan, and Rotoboost were shortlisted for imminent trials.

n There were three broad categories of abatement solutions:

- Engine technologies to reduce methane slip

- After-treatment solutions focused on mitigating the release of methane passed through the engine combustion process

- Solutions that integrate various equipment classes to aid abatement efforts.

n Early trials and input from solution providers indicate methane abatement levels of between 30% and 70%, depending on the technology and deployment.

DIRECTIONS

n Regulators should incentivise onboard installation and use of methane abatement solutions.

n At current readiness levels, piloting and trialling onboard remains the key priority.

n Energy requirements and complexity of solutions are the key parameters when optimising what is currently available.

Cost Benefit Analysis

The gradual integration of methane emissions into regulatory schemes will establish a monetary value relating to their climate impact and create a clear and compelling business case for adopting methane abatement technologies.

MAMII conducted a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis of methane abatement technologies for maritime vessels. This analysis considered six scenarios based on three engine configurations and two trade routes: one from the Middle East to Europe, and a second from Australia to Japan.

MAMII developed ten models to assess the impact of abatement technologies on cost savings and CO?e reduction. Fuel consumption assumptions for each engine configuration were based on LNG carriers of 174,000m3 cargo capacity.

OUTCOMES

n Appropriate methane abatement technologies can lead to significant cost savings, reduced CO?e emissions, and compliance with various environmental regulations.

n The choice of technology for different engine configurations can significantly affect cost savings and CO?e emissions reduction.

n For ships with low-pressure two-stroke main engines and four-stroke auxiliary engines, implementing abatement technologies on both engines will deliver optimal cost savings and emissions reduction.

n Catalytic abatement technology has considerable potential for reducing emissions on four-stroke ships.

n Ships with high-pressure two-stroke main engines and four-stroke auxiliary engines would benefit financially from installing abatement technologies only on the auxiliary engines today.

DIRECTIONS

n Cost-benefit analysis suggests an exceptional climate case for methane abatement in the maritime industry.

n A technology-centric integration of methane in the CO2e regulatory framework would boost methane abatement uptake.

n Trialling solutions in a real maritime environment is essential to help technology companies understand how to price their innovations and improve the feasibility of deployments.

Recommended Actions

The following actions are critical to reducing and removing the methane emissions issue from LNG use as a marine fuel:

METHANE REGULATION

n To incentivise technology development and uptake, regulators should implement a robust and focused regulatory framework as soon as possible.

n Clarity is of paramount importance. The ambition of this framework needs to be welldefined and areas of uncertainty mitigated.

n A flexible, technology-centric regulatory intervention will ensure a greater and swifter uptake of solutions.

WELL-TO-TANK

n MAMII’s survey provides confidence that the total methane footprint can be assessed and mitigated.

n Climate incentives are vital for the adoption of solutions that will monitor and mitigate methane emissions across the well-to-tank value chain.

n The impact of methane performance certification schemes will contribute considerably to methane-proof value chains.

TANK-TO-WAKE

n Ship operators must ensure that engines are operated at optimum loads whenever possible, and that they are fully informed to make decisions around engine technology.

n Engine manufacturers should invest more effort in improving methane performance and developing abatement solutions.

n Ship operators should focus further on non-engine solutions for averting methane slip, such as shaft generators and batteries.

n Based on cost-benefit fundamentals and the technology available, fugitive leaks represent low-hanging fruit for reducing methane emissions.

METHANE ABATEMENT

n Regulators should incentivise the installation and use of methane abatement solutions on ships.

n Piloting and trialling onboard remain the key priorities at current technology readiness levels.

n Energy requirements and complexity of solutions are the key parameters in optimising what is currently available.

MEASUREMENT REPORTING & VERIFICATION

n As methane emissions are regulated and monetised, credible detection and quantification become key objectives for the industry.

n A variety of technologies are currently available to detect and quantify methane emissions. It is important now to trial these solutions in real operating conditions.

n Developing and applying a consistent universal measurement guideline is essential to benchmarking and understanding technology potential.

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS

n Cost-benefit fundamentals imply an exceptional climate case for methane abatement in the maritime.

n A technology-centric integration of methane in the CO2e regulatory framework can boost methane abatement uptake.

n Trialling versions of solutions tailored to maritime environments is essential to optimising cost parameters and improving feasibility.

Technology Overview

A range of promising methane measurement and abatement technologies are available for pilot studies today. However, they still need to be produced at a commercial scale and still require pilot studies and benchmarking to ensure their accuracy, effectiveness, and reliability in a marine environment.

A print quality PDF complete with examples of technology is available to download at https:// safetytechaccelerator.org/downloads/mamii-report/

If you are interested in MAMII: how is it supporting the technology companies? What technologies are available? What we have learnt from our feasibility studies and ongoing pilots? then please contact the MAMII at the Safetytech Accelerator: info@safetytechaccelerator.com

Find out more

Reach out to us at: info@safetytechaccelerator.com

Methane Abatement in Maritime Innovation Initiative

The Motorship Awards

DAVID STEVENSON

Mercator Media, The Motorship Editor

BIOGRAPHY

David Stevenson begun his career as a journalist at Euromoney plc and has covered a wide range of sectors since. His focus in most recent years has been on the investment space and this has sometimes included vessel financing. He has written on decarbonisation and ESG more generally for a number of titles and is an area of particular interest to him.

SANTIAGO SUAREZ DE LA FUENTE

Mechanical/Marine Engineer, Lloyd’s Register

BIOGRAPHY

Dr. Santiago Suarez de la Fuente is a marine and mechanical engineer with more than 18 years of experience of which the last 12 years have been dedicated to shipping decarbonisation. Through state-of-the-art evidence and innovative methods, he has been able to lead highly specialised global teams to find sustainable pathways for the decarbonisation of the maritime fleet and the verification of Energy Saving Devices performance. As well he is an expert in fuels, and operative measures for improvements in energy efficiency and lower greenhouse gas footprint. He has established maritime emissions at country levels and uses models to estimate the impacts of different technical solutions. Co-author of the Fourth IMO GHG Study, IMO and UK Parliament white papers, and several academic and industrial articles.

Under his current role at Lloyd’s Register as Ship Performance Manager, he has the responsibility of supporting clients through advisory services focused on maritime energy efficiency, shipping decarbonisation, naval architecture, and marine engineering using advanced modelling, data science and state-of-the-art industrial, regulatory, and scientific resources. His team is the technical authority on ship performance and wind propulsion for LR advisory services with a focus on transitioning the global fleet into a greener future.

He holds a PhD in Marine Engineering from University Colleague London focused on waste heat recovery systems. Santiago has been involved in different roles to influence the direction of shipping’s energy transition, uptake of technologies and the need for robust methodologies to verify the benefits of available solutions.

Anemoi and Lloyd’s Register* Innovative Collaboration: Operational Experience and

Emissions Reduction through WindAssisted Propulsion

Deng Li Li, MEng, Lloyd’s Register Classification Society (China) Co. Ltd, China

Nick Contopoulos, BEng, CEng, Anemoi Marine Technologies, China

Luke McEwen, MEng, CEng, MRINA, Anemoi Marine Technologies, UK

Stephanie Ryder, MEng, CEng, Anemoi Marine Technologies, UK

Anemoi and Lloyd’s Register* Innovative Collaboration: Operational Experience and Emissions Reduction through Wind-Assisted Propulsion.

Rob Tustin, BSc, CEng, MRINA, Lloyd’s Register Classification Society (China) Co. Ltd, China

Deng Li Li, MEng, Lloyd’s Register Classification Society (China) Co. Ltd, China

1. INTRODUCTION

Nick Contopoulos, BEng, CEng, Anemoi Marine Technologies, China

Luke McEwen, MEng, CEng, MRINA, Anemoi Marine Technologies, UK

Stephanie Ryder, MEng, CEng, Anemoi Marine Technologies, UK

Rob Tustin, BSc, CEng, MRINA, Lloyd’s Register Classification Society (China) Co. Ltd, China

As wind-assisted propulsion systems evolve and mature, there are valuable lessons to be drawn from experiences with early installations, as well as important indications of how technology and integration practices could develop.

1. INTRODUCTION

The retrofit installation of Flettner rotors or rotor sails on bulk carriers is a natural place to start looking for these lessons as rotor sails currently represent the most widely installed windassistance technology among the three main types: Rotor Sails, Suction Sails, Wing Sails.

The retrofit installation of Flettner rotors or rotor sails on bulk carriers is a natural place to start looking for these lessons as rotor sails currently represent the most widely installed wind-assistance technology among the three main types: Rotor Sails, Suction Sails, Wing Sails.

Data from sail makers in Figure 1 [1] indicates that there are 28 rotor sails installed on 8 bulk carriers, representing 60% of installed rotor sails in operation.

Figure 1: Installations of three main types of wind-assistance technology (on 10-2024 publication date)

An original prototype of the Flettner rotor was installed in 1924 [2]. Within the last 10 years, modernised rotor sails coupled with deployment systems for unimpeded port operations have led to a significant early installation track record on bulk carriers. Practical issues favouring rotor sail adoption include the maturity of the sail technology and automated control system, low demands for crew intervention and the potential for high fuel savings when operating in optimal wind conditions.

Verification of fuel savings in full scale trials of ships with rotor sails include measurements carried out and published by Lloyd’s Register [3] as well as measurements carried out more recently of different types of wind assistance sails as part of EU Interreg WASP project [4][5][6]. From Lloyd’s Register’s rotor sail measurement projects, an online interactive tool was developed, the Flettner Saving Calculator [7], allowing first-order estimates of potential fuel savings in operation to be calculated.

Background notes on magnus effect and thrust prediction for rotor sails as well as an explanatory description and cutaway image of a rotor sail are included in Appendix 2.

2. BULK CARRIER ROTOR SAIL INSTALLATION EXPERIENCE

Verification of fuel savings in full scale trials of ships with rotor sails include measurements carried out and published by Lloyd’s Register [3] as well as measurements carried out more recently of different types of wind assistance sails as part of EU Interreg WASP project [4][5] [6]. From Lloyd’s Register’s rotor sail measurement projects, an online interactive tool was developed, the Flettner Saving Calculator [7], allowing first-order estimates of potential fuel savings in operation to be calculated.

This paper draws on experiences from three Anemoi rotor sail installations on bulk carriers in Lloyd’s Register classification. The three existing cases are a good representative sample of bulk carrier types, sail configurations and sail deployment systems. Experience gained with sail integration and ship compliance from these early installations may be transferrable to future bulk carrier, and wider ship, applications of wind assistance.

The three cases of bulk carrier rotor sail installations, illustrated in Figure 2, are:

Background notes on magnus effect and thrust prediction for rotor sails as well as an explanatory description and cutaway image of a rotor sail are included in Appendix 2.

• A 2018 installation of four prototype (Generation 1) Anemoi rotor sails, each measuring 2.1 m diameter and 16 m in height, to geared Ultramax bulk carrier Afros. Deployment of rotor sails in this prototype case is by electric trolley on longitudinal rails on upper deck outside the line of hatch openings on starboard side.

• A 2023 retrofit of three (Generation 2) Anemoi rotor sails, each measuring 5m diameter and 24m in height, to Kamsarmax bulk carrier TR Lady. Deployment of rotor sails is by electric winch and on three transverse rails fitted to cross-deck strips between hatch openings. The project was executed in two phases with a ‘wind ready’ modification of the ship in November 2022, described in our 2023 conference paper [8], with rotor sails installed in June 2023.

• An October 2024 retrofit of five (Generation 2.1) Anemoi rotor sails, each measuring 5m in diameter and 35m in height, to a Valemax

Sohar Max. Deployment of rotor sails in this case is by

2. BULK CARRIER ROTOR SAIL INSTALLATION EXPERIENCE

The three cases of bulk carrier rotor sail installations, illustrated in Figure 2, are:

n A 2018 installation of four prototype (Generation 1) Anemoi rotor sails, each measuring 2.1 m diameter and 16 m in height, to geared Ultramax bulk carrier Afros. Deployment of rotor sails in this prototype case is by electric trolley on longitudinal rails on upper deck outside the line of hatch openings on starboard side.

n A 2023 retrofit of three (Generation 2) Anemoi rotor sails, each measuring 5m diameter and 24m in height, to Kamsarmax bulk carrier TR Lady. Deployment of rotor sails is by electric winch and on three transverse rails fitted to cross-deck strips between hatch openings. The project was executed in two phases with a ‘wind ready’ modification of the ship in November 2022, described in our 2023 conference paper [8], with rotor sails installed in June 2023.

n An October 2024 retrofit of five (Generation 2.1) Anemoi rotor sails, each measuring 5m in diameter and 35m in height, to a Valemax very large ore carrier Sohar Max Deployment of rotor sails in this case is by hydraulic folding with stowage in cross-deck is largest vessel to date to have wind-assisted hydraulic folding with stowage in cross-deck strips between hatch openings. Sohar Max is largest vessel to date to have wind-assisted propulsion system installed.

Figure 2: Three Anemoi rotor sail installation cases on Lloyd’s Register classed bulk carriers (TR Lady top, Sohar Max bottom right, Afros bottom left) image. Plus diagram showing main components of AMT Rotor Sail (images courtesy of AMT)

3.

Figure 2: Three Anemoi rotor sail installation cases on Lloyd’s Register classed bulk carriers(TR Lady top, Sohar Max bottom right, Afros bottom left) image. Plus diagram showing main components of AMT Rotor Sail (images courtesy of AMT)

RIG CONFIGURATIONS AND SAIL

DEPLOYMENT SYSTEMS FOR BULK CARRIERS

The potential of sail interference with shore side and shipboard cargo gear as well as air draft limitations for port approaches drove the adoption of sail deployment systems in twelve, out of thirteen, early bulk carrier wind assistance installations.

3. RIG CONFIGURATIONS AND SAIL DEPLOYMENT SYSTEMS FOR BULK CARRIERS

Deployment systems include sails folded from vertical to horizontal by hydraulic cylinders and sails moved on rails controlled by an electric trolley or winch. The three cases of Lloyd’s Register class bulk carriers with Anemoi rotor sails include a representative example of each of these type of deployment systems. Countermeasures to address interference issues may also include limitations of sail height within the ship’s original air draft and sail installation clear of deck mooring lines and equipment. For unobstructed cargo operations, the mounting or stowing of a sail outboard has been adopted in five out of eight bulk carrier rotor sail installations to date.

Our 2023 paper [8] describes sail configuration studies carried out for the installation of three rail deployed rotor sails on Kamsarmax bulk carrier TR Lady, including consideration of port approach air draft limitations and loading/unloading port investigations.

3. RIG CONFIGURATIONS AND SAIL DEPLOYMENT SYSTEMS FOR BULK CARRIERS

Countermeasures to address interference issues may also include limitations of sail height within the ship’s original air draft and sail installation clear of deck mooring lines and equipment. For unobstructed cargo operations, the mounting or stowing of a sail outboard has been adopted in five out of eight bulk carrier rotor sail installations to date.

Figure 3, from makers’ data [1], indicates that 3 out of 4 large ore carriers and capesize bulk carriers

Figure 3: Rotor sail and deployment system installation track record on bulk carriers( to 10-2024)

Figure 3, from makers’ data [1], indicates that 3 out of 4 large ore carriers and capesize bulk carriers have adopted folding stowage of outboard rotor sails across the ships’ beam and within transverse cross deck. Figure 3 also indicates that for smaller bulk carriers with a narrower beam for Panama Canal transit, where stowed folding rotor sails might project over ship side or where deck cranes are an obstruction to folding, the adoption of rail deployment systems appears to be preferred. Figure 4 shows Afros rotor sails with electric trolley deployment on longitudinal rails.

have adopted folding stowage of outboard rotor sails across the ships’ beam and within transverse cross deck. Figure 3 also indicates that for smaller bulk carriers with a narrower beam for Panama Canal transit, where stowed folding rotor sails might project over ship side or where deck cranes are an obstruction to folding, the adoption of rail deployment systems appears to be preferred. Figure 4 shows Afros rotor sails with electric trolley deployment on longitudinal rails.

4. ROTOR SAIL INSTALLATION ON KAMSARMAX BULK CARRIER ‘TR LADY’

In our 2023 paper [8] we described the modifications completed in Chengxi Shipyard for the 1st phase ‘Wind Ready’ retrofit of Kamsarmax bulk carrier TR Lady. In this section we describe the 2nd phase rotor sail installation and commissioning carried out in June 2023.

Assembly of rotor sails from various supplier components was carried out at quayside location in Chengxi shipyard, within reach of floating cranes and lifting gear needed to lift the rotors and install them on the vessel.

Prior to installation, a full-scale testing site was established with an identical configuration to that being installed: three rotor sails each with a foundation, as well as the rail deployment system and winch system. The rotors were run at full speed and balanced, and the lift and drive system of the deployment mechanism tested, at the land-based site before the arrival of the vessel at the yard, reducing work onboard.

4.1 LAND-BASED TESTING OF ASSEMBLED ROTOR SAILS

The land-based testing forms basis of the Factory Acceptance Test (FAT), with several other features –including emergency stop, local control and bridge control – and software settings also tested on land. Once

Figure 4: Rail deployment by electric trolley on Afros (Image courtesy of AMT)

4. ROTOR SAIL INSTALLATION ON KAMSARMAX BULK CARRIER ‘TR LADY’

4.1 LAND-BASED TESTING OF ASSEMBLED ROTOR SAILS

The land-based testing forms basis of the Factory Acceptance Test (FAT), with several other features - including emergency stop, local control and bridge control - and software settings also tested on land. Once the FAT was completed, the rotors were lifted directly from the dockside onto the TR Lady. In cases where different yards are used for ship integration, the rotor sails are lifted and transported to the installation location by barge.

On the vessel, preparatory work included shimming the foundations as well as a survey to ensure that levels and geometrical tolerances have been achieved in line with the drawings. In case of TR Lady the June 2023 survey confirmed levels and geometrical tolerances from modifications completed in November 2022 during the wind-ready phase of the project.

4.2 ROTOR SAIL LIFTING

A lifting point at the top of the rotor tower was connected to lifting gear via a floating crane hook. The rotor sail was then lifted off the test bed to the foundation position on the vessel. At the foundation position on the vessel the rotor sail was bolted down at the anti-uplift device (AUD) location and, once completed, the crane was detached and the process repeated for the remaining rotors. The lifting process for TR Lady took 1.5 days, with one rotor installed on the first day, shown in Figure 5, and the remaining two rotors on the following day.

Figure 5: Installation lift of first rotor sail for TR Lady by floating crane (Image courtesy of AMT)

Once in position the connections for power and data are made, with umbilical cables supplied with the rotor sails hooked up to deck boxes on each cross-deck strip. As the modifications to the main switchboard and installation of the bridge control unit (BCU) have been completed at the ‘windready’ phase, these systems are then ready for commissioning with the rotor installation completed. The deployment system also needs to be commissioned and winch wires connected to the sails. Any tolerances related to the winch and wires are measured and the connections made.

4.3 ROTOR SAIL COMMISSIONING

Harbour Acceptance Testing (HAT) follows similar protocols to the landside FAT with the addition of vessel data. The additional data includes signals required for the automatic control of the rotors as well as for monitoring and performance reporting. A list of signals was interfaced with BCU via a data acquisition system, often a system selected separately by the owner, and for commissioning working with data acquisition system

The deployment system also needs to be commissioned and winch wires connected to the sails. Any tolerances related to the winch and wires are measured and the connections made.

4.3 ROTOR SAIL COMMISSIONING

Signals from the vessel needed for the rotor sails include the main engine torquemeter, mass flow meter for measuring fuel consumption and auxiliary generator power so that spinning reserve and available power on each genset can be considered in the rotor sail control system. Navigational data related to ship’s heading, speed over ground and speed through water are needed, as well as environmental data related to wind direction and speed, ambient temperature and humidity and atmospheric pressure, all of which have an impact on aerodynamic performance of the rotor sails.

The control system includes set points, related to vibration and temperature sensors as well as limits set for machinery inside the rotor, such as the ventilation system, oil cooling for the upper drive system and lower bearing temperature and vibration monitoring. During onboard testing and commissioning all limits through the full speed range were checked, and any fine tuning for dynamic balancing was conducted if required. All safety functions within the control system are tested for the spinning rotor sail, including emergency stops.

Full testing was also conducted of the interlocks needed for the load transfer process, when rotors are shifted from their seagoing position to port operation stowed position, usually to port or starboard side of the vessel. This includes the Anti-Uplift Device (AUD) lock pins that are engaged before the rotors are started, and then removed when lifting the sail off its foundations and transferring them through the rail system. Similarly, the interlocks that ensure the rotor sails are connected when returned to the centreline for seagoing operation are also checked.

The function of lifting and driving the winch for the rail system was also tested. The performance of the electric winch - including its speed and acceleration - can be controlled and the settings are checked during commissioning.

The HAT is concluded once all safety checks and tests are conducted on the rail deployment system, the interfaces between the ship’s data system and Anemoi’s control system, and the spinning rotors.

4.4 INSTALLATION START-UP ASSISTANCE

On the delivery voyage, any snags are addressed by a team of Anemoi personnel, typically a software and control engineer, commissioning engineer and mechanical fitting engineer. Familiarisation and training for the crew is conducted during the sail commissioning, Harbour Acceptance Testing (HAT) sign-off and delivery voyage, including supporting crew with the port operations and use of the rail system at first ports of call after delivery.

5. SAIL INTEGRATION MODIFICATIONS

Integration modifications at the interface of sail, deployment system and ship may be expected to include structural as well as electrical system elements and, in case of hydraulic folding deployment systems, possible modifications of the ship’s deck hydraulic system. Integration modifications at the sail to ship interface are subject to approval and survey under the Rules and Regulations of the ships’ class.

Figure 6 summarizes key aspects of rotor sail integration and shows expected documents for approval for structural and electrical integration aspects that fall within scope of the ship’s classification.

Subject Rotor Sail Integration: Expected documents for approval and/or update

Structural Integration

Electrical Integration

Structural analysis & calculations

Structural foundation & deck reinforcement

Deck outfitting modifications

Ship electrical system diagram

Rotor Sail system diagram

Electrical load balance update

Short Circuit calculation update

Main Switchboard modifications

Hydraulic System Hydraulic piping system update (folding deployment system case)

Control System Data input to Sail control system

Approval

Calculation

Approval

Approval Modification and

Figure 6: Key aspects of rotor sail integration with responsible party and work by project phase

In all three Anemoi rotor sail installations, responsibility for integration design was shared between rotor sail maker and the ship designer or shipyard. In practice, the maker may subcontract design as well as class approval of ship structural modifications to the ship designer in possession of original ship design drawings and documents. Modifications to electrical system in three Anemoi rotor sail retrofit cases described were subcontracted to a specialist third-party consultant.

5.1 STRUCTURAL INTEGRATION

The major element of structural work for sail integration was to incorporate deck foundations and seats for the wind assistance sail in seagoing operations. Detailed calculations and structural analysis were carried out to ensure that sail loads are efficiently supported by the deck foundations and seat structures. For structural continuity the deck foundation and seat structures should ideally be aligned with primary structural elements of ship, i.e., underdeck web frames, transverse bulkheads etc.

In the case of Sohar Max, an ore carrier with very large side wing ballast tank spaces, care was taken to ensure that deck foundation was precisely aligned, and landed on, underdeck supporting structures to minimize the necessity of steel working within side wing spaces.

5.2 ELECTRICAL INTEGRATION

Integration for rotor sails involves modifications to the ship electrical system, including main switchboard, so that the rotor sail can draw power from the ship to operate. Calculations and drawings as part of the electrical integration documentation package include ship electrical system update, electrical load balance update and short circuit calculations. Deck wiring modifications are also made, to run electric cable to the sail deck seat from the ship’s supply.

5.3 INTEGRATION SCOPE EXECUTED AT WIND READY PHASE

Appendix 4, Figure 1 summary table shows the extent of integration work performed at ‘wind-ready’ phase for TR Lady to ensure that sail installation could be carried out as efficiently as possible with minimal impact to ship’s schedule.

‘Wind-ready’ phase integration work for TR Lady included all steel work and outfitting modifications covering rotor sail foundations and cross rail systems, as well as relocation of deck outfitting items such as vent pipes, access walkways etc. On the electrical integration side, all cabling, connection boxes, bridge control unit and anemometer were also installed, ready to be connected once the rotor sails were fitted.

6. SHIP REGULATORY COMPLIANCE

5.2 ELECTRICAL INTEGRATION

5.3 INTEGRATION SCOPE EXECUTED AT WIND READY PHASE

Appendix 4, Figure 1 summary table shows the extent of integration work performed at ‘windready’ phase for TR Lady to ensure that sail installation could be carried out as efficiently as possible with minimal impact to ship’s schedule.

6. SHIP REGULATORY COMPLIANCE

Sail integration on retrofit, or to a newbuilding, will impact ship’s regulatory compliance and these aspects are subject to (re-)examination, and inspection, by the flag state or Recognised Organisation (RO).

6.1

EARLY CONSIDERATION OF REGULATORY COMPLIANCE FOR RIG CONFIGURATION

In all cases of wind assistance installations, early and detailed consideration of regulatory compliance impacts is recommended once a preliminary rig configuration is settled for a ship or ship design, with the following considerations:

n Wind assistance installation will impact the ship’s regulatory compliance

n Original regulations at time of implementation, especially those related to navigation safety [9] [10], may not consider wind assistance rigs and consequently may require the consideration, and justification, of alternatives or exemptions

n Regulatory compliance impacts are specific to type, size, deck position, and number of wind assistance rigs.

6.2 EXAMINATION PROCESS FOR REGULATORY COMPLIANCE BY A RECOGNIZED ORGANIZATION

The process of examination of documents for regulatory compliance follows similar steps to class appraisal of integration design aspects. This is to be expected as compliance examinations are typically carried out by Class on behalf of the flag state in RO role.

Basic steps for regulatory compliance approval include preparation of a documentation package, which may include drawings of revised arrangements. This first step is typically carried out by a ship designer or shipyard, with submission of documentation for approval to a flag state or RO. Where drawings of revised arrangements are submitted, it is anticipated that a plan and profile view of the ship, as revised, be included as well as close-up details of revisions and a summary of calculations of compliance with regulatory requirements.

impacts is recommended once a preliminary rig configuration is settled for a ship or ship design, with the following considerations:

• Wind assistance installation will impact the ship’s regulatory compliance

• Original regulations at time of implementation, especially those related to navigation safety [9] [10], may not consider wind assistance rigs and consequently may require the consideration, and justification, of alternatives or exemptions

• Regulatory compliance impacts are specific to type, size, deck position, and number of wind assistance rigs.

6.2 EXAMINATION PROCESS FOR REGULATORY COMPLIANCE BY A RECOGNIZED ORGANIZATION

In case of non-compliance on approval review, a further revision and re-submission of documentation package may be anticipated, or the consideration of adoption of an alternative. In case of an alternative, a justification to support the alternative would be submitted for consideration and agreement of the flag state. Note alternatives, or exemptions, should be based on applicable IMO regulations.

6.3 REGULATORY COMPLIANCE ASPECTS WITH IMPACT ON INSTALLATION OF WIND ASSISTANCE

In all three Anemoi rotor sail installations responsibility for ship regulatory compliance scope of work has typically been shared between rotor sail maker and the ship designer or shipyard and ship-owner. In practice the maker may subcontract preparation of regulatory compliance documentation as well as Classification Society approval to ship designer in possession of original ship design drawings and documents.

Figure 7 summarizes aspects of regulatory compliance when installing a wind assistance rig. Documents and calculations for updating or approval as well as project stage for each compliance activity are also shown. In all three Anemoi rotor sail installations responsibility for ship regulatory compliance scope of work has typically been shared between rotor sail maker and the ship designer or shipyard and ship-owner. In practice the maker may subcontract preparation of regulatory compliance documentation as well as Classification Society approval to ship designer in possession of original ship design drawings and documents.

Subject Ship Regulatory Compliance: Expected documents for approval and/or update

Loading Manuals

Radar Visibility ✓ Approval

Arrangement of Lights ✓ Approval

Lightship weight analysis

Inclining experiment procedure

Report of inclining experiment

Trim & Stability

6. 4 EEXI ASSIGNMENT

and/or Test

Modification and/or Test

Calculation

Approval Inclining experiment

Approval

Figure 7: Current regulatory compliance aspects that have impact on installation of a wind assistance rig

The IMO Energy Efficiency Index for Existing Ships (EEXI) was introduced in 2023 to ensure continuous efficiency improvement in existing vessels and so that existing ships maintain a similar performance to newbuild vessels of the same year of build. Wind-assisted propulsion has an impact by adjusting the Net Effective Power element of the EEXI formula.

In all three rotor sail example cases Anemoi’s method [11] of calculating the Net Effective Power was used, along with IMO’s Guidance for Innovative Energy Technologies.

The four steps for determining Net Effective Power can be described as:

n Importing wind data based on latest version of IMO Global Wind Probability Matrix [12]

n Correction, and conversion, of imported wind data for Rotor Sail height and apparent wind direction

n Importing of rotor sail performance data, in these cases calculated from Anemoi’s landbased test site [13]

In all three rotor sail example cases Anemoi’s method [11] of calculating the Net Effective Power was used, along with IMO’s Guidance for Innovative Energy Technologies. The four steps for determining Net Effective Power can be described as:

• Importing wind data based on latest version of IMO Global Wind Probability Matrix [12]

• Correction, and conversion, of imported wind data for Rotor Sail height and apparent wind direction

• Importing of rotor sail performance data, in these cases calculated from Anemoi’s land-based test site [13]

n Calculation of Net Effective Power (feff Peff) contribution of rotor sails for EEDI/EEXI Technical File [14]‚Ä®For the three rotor sail retrofit examples, the Net Effective Power calculation for rotor sail contribution was completed in support of shipowner submission of the EEXI Technical File at time of installation of the rotor sails.

6.5 SAFETY OF NAVIGATION COMPLIANCE ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS ADOPTED

• Calculation of Net Effective Power (feff Peff) contribution of rotor sails for EEDI/EEXI Technical File [14] For the three rotor sail retrofit examples, the Net Effective Power calculation for rotor sail contribution was completed in support of shipowner submission of the EEXI Technical File at time of installation of the rotor sails.

6.5 SAFETY OF NAVIGATION COMPLIANCE ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS ADOPTED

Figure 8 summarizes regulatory issues, and solutions adopted, for navigational safety aspects on installation of Anemoi rotor sails for the three bulk carrier examples. All example cases were Marshall Islands flag at time of installation.

Figure 8: Summary of navigational safety regulatory issues and solutions adopted

The major topics with regulatory issues for safety of navigation aspects are:

• Bridge visibility: Panama Canal Authority (ACP) vessel requirements for Kamsarmax bulk carrier case TR Lady

• Radar blind sectors: SOLAS compliance for all bulk carrier cases

• Arrangement of lights: COLREGS compliance for Kamsarmax TR Lady and Ore Carrier Sohar Max

n Bridge visibility: Panama Canal Authority (ACP) vessel requirements for Kamsarmax bulk carrier case TR Lady

• 6.5 (a) Bridge visibility

n Radar blind sectors: SOLAS compliance for all bulk carrier cases

Panama Canal Authority (ACP) vessel requirements [15] for bridge visibility indicate that:

n Arrangement of lights: COLREGS compliance for Kamsarmax TR Lady and Ore Carrier Sohar Max

“All vessels over 100 m (328 feet) in length shall have installed, at or near the stem, a steering range equipped with a fixed blue light which shall be clearly visible from the bridge along the centerline”.

6.5

(a) Bridge visibility

On Kamsarmax bulk carrier TR Lady, the centreline position of rotor sails obscured visibility of the forward blue Panama Canal light from bridge. The solution adopted for TR Lady was to install port and starboard blue lights, as allowed for by ACP vessel requirements [16]. Approval of the vessel for compliance with vessel requirements was made by Panama Canal Authority itself as there is no delegation, or recognition, of third parties to act on behalf of Panama Canal Authority (ACP).

Panama Canal Authority (ACP) vessel requirements [15] for bridge visibility indicate that:

All three bulk carrier cases, on re-examination with rotor sails installed, were found compliant with SOLAS requirements (Regulation V/22) for bridge visibility which requires that:

‘No blind sector … seen from the conning position, shall exceed 10 degrees’ and ‘sea surface from the conning position shall not be obscured by more than two ship lengths, or 500 m, whichever is the less, forward of the bow to 10 degrees on either side’

In cases of large sails, for example folding wing sails, and depending on rig configuration, compliance with SOLAS requirements may be more challenging. In such cases, the consideration and use of closed-circuit television (CCTV) has been considered as an alternative arrangement for flag state exemption.

6.5 (b) Radar blind sectors

All three bulk carrier cases, on re-examination with rotor sails installed, were found compliant with SOLAS requirements (Regulation V/22) for bridge visibility which requires that:

‘No blind sector... seen from the conning position, shall exceed 10 degrees’ and ‘sea surface from the conning position shall not be obscured by more than two ship lengths, or 500 m, whichever is the less, forward of the bow to 10 degrees on either side”.

6.5 (b) Radar blind sectors

Radar blind sector non-compliance was found for all three bulk carrier rotor sail retrofit examples. In all three cases an additional radar antenna was fitted to the foremast to achieve compliance, where SOLAS requires:

‘Radar blind sectors... should not occur in an arc of the horizon from right ahead to 22.5º abaft the beam to either side, with any two blind sectors separated by 3º or less treated as one blind sector. Individual blind sectors of more than 5º, or a total arc of blind sectors of more than 20º should not occur in the remaining arc’

6.5 (c) Arrangement of lights

In two bulk carrier cases, the Kamsarmax TR Lady and Ore Carrier Sohar Max, the installation of Anemoi rotor sails would have obscured forward visibility of the aft main mast head light.

For TR Lady, where the ship’s air draft and rotor sail height was restricted by a Mississippi River bridge [17], a port and starboard split main mast head light was proposed and adopted, with main mast modifications and lights installed at 1st ‘wind-ready’ phase. This alternative arrangement was accepted by Marshall Islands flag. Another possible option to address air draft restrictions which could be considered for a fully compliant installation is the adoption of folding main mast extension where air draft restrictions may require.

For Sohar Max, a vertical extension of the main mast to increase aft masthead light height was adopted as there were no prevailing air draft restrictions.

6.5 (d) Offering a justification for an alternative solution or exemption to a flag state

As indicated above for alternative arrangement of the main mast head light for TR Lady, in some cases it may be necessary to seek an approval of an alternative or exemption from the flag state.

Class may be empowered to carry out approval, inspection and certification as an RO on behalf of the flag state. However, in general an RO does not have delegated authority from the flag state to approve alternative designs or issue exemptions from IMO regulations. However class, when acting as an RO, can support shipowners in justifying a potential exemptions or alternative solutions.

There are three basic scenarios for offering a justification - always based on applicable IMO provisions - for an alternative solution or exemption to a flag state:

1. Justification direct to flag state by the shipowner: this is most straightforward approach as flag state and shipowner have relationship through the registration of the ship.

2. Shipowner requests class to support, or even offer, a justification to flag state: this scenario could apply in cases where class is an RO acting on behalf of the flag state. In this scenario a formal instruction and shipowner proposal for a practical solution that can be offered in support of a justification by classification society to flag state will be required.

3. Shipbuilder requests classification society at newbuild stage to support a justification to flag state: this scenario could apply in cases where the class is a recognized organization (RO) acting on behalf of the flag state and has been contracted by shipbuilder to issue flag state certification after a ship’s registration at time of delivery.

Alternative solutions, or exemption, may be expected to be harder to achieve for newbuild vessels as flag state will expect the ship designer or shipbuilder to achieve compliance for a design of a new ship. However, it can also be anticipated that, with the large size of rigs now being conceived, compliance will become challenging and an application for an exemption to the flag state may be unavoidable.

6.6

STABILITY INFORMATION

Arguably one of the more onerous regulatory compliance issues for ships installing windassisted propulsion systems is the requirement for re-examination of ship stability with lightweight and LCG and VCG changes to the requirements of SOLAS II-1, Subdivision and Damage Stability Regulations [18].

Actions to be taken in case of a change in lightweight displacement, or centre of gravity, are in Figure 9 table.

Trim & Stability Booklets

Loading Computer updating and test

Lightship

Inclining procedure and test report

Trim & Stability Booklets

Loading Computer updating and test

As shown in Appendix 3, Figure 1 the vertical centre of gravity (VCG) changed for both TR Lady and Sohar Max (and in case of TR Lady lightship weight increase also), requiring an inclining experiment to be carried out.

Figure 9: Actions to be taken for a change in vessel lightweight and centre of gravity

This experience indicates that it may be anticipated, especially from consideration of change in the vertical centre of gravity (VCG), that retrofit installation of large sails for wind-assisted propulsion will in each case require an inclining experiment and re-examination and approval of ship stability.

For a ship in retrofit and off hire and out of service, the execution of an inclining experiment for reexamination of ship stability can be especially challenging. Inclining experiments usually require calm conditions with no wind and are typically carried out overnight in dead ship conditions with loose moorings. An inclining experiment can be considered at the ‘wind-ready’ retrofit phase and was carried out in November 2022 for TR Lady

6.6 (a) Ship delivery without approved updates to T&S booklets and loading computer Typically, work to update trim and stability booklets and loading instrument may commence at a very late stage of retrofit on installation of sails and once an inclining experiment has been completed. This is to be expected, and should be anticipated, as the ship may only be in a suitable condition for an inclining experiment after sail installation work is completed.

For ship delivery without final updates, examination and approval of trim and stability booklets and loading computer, two alterative solutions are adopted in practice as temporary measures:

For a ship in retrofit and off hire and out of service, the execution of an inclining experiment for re-examination of ship stability can be especially challenging. Inclining experiments usually require calm conditions with no wind and are typically carried out overnight in dead ship conditions with loose moorings. An inclining experiment can be considered at the‚ ‘wind-ready’ retrofit phase and was carried out in November 2022 for TR Lady

• Utilizing existing loading computer, without updated software, and with an (added) weight constant to imitate lightship weight and centre of gravity changes. This solution was adopted for both Afros and TR Lady, and is proposed for Sohar Max

6.6 (a) Ship delivery without approved updates to T&S booklets and loading computer

• Creation of a preliminary trim and stability booklet without inclining experiment result and using estimates of lightship weight and centre of gravity changes of sail installation. A similar practice is commonly adopted for newbuilding cases for late build stage inclining experiments prior to ship delivery.

6.7 REGULATORY COMPLIANCE SCOPE EXECUTED AT WIND READY PHASE

Appendix 4, Figure 2 summary table shows the extent of regulatory compliance work performed at windready phase for TR Lady to ensure that regulatory compliance aspects could be quickly and efficiently addressed with minimal impact to ship’s schedule.

Typically, work to update trim and stability booklets and loading instrument may commence at a very late stage of retrofit on installation of sails and once an inclining experiment has been completed. This is to be expected, and should be anticipated, as the ship may only be in a suitable condition for an inclining experiment after sail installation work is completed.

‘Wind-ready’ phase integration work for TR Lady included safety of navigation modifications e.g. fitting of new radar antenna on foremast, installing new main mast lights and inclining experiment where structural steelwork of the rail deployment system i.e., transverse deck rails and foundations was completed and represented nearly 70% (260 tonnes) of estimated lightship weight change for rotor sail installation.

7. CONCLUSION

For ship delivery without final updates, examination and approval of trim and stability booklets and loading computer, two alterative solutions are adopted in practice as temporary measures:

n Utilizing existing loading computer, without updated software, and with an (added) weight constant to imitate lightship weight and centre of gravity changes. This solution was adopted for both Afros and TR Lady, and is proposed for Sohar Max

n Creation of a preliminary trim and stability booklet without inclining experiment result and using estimates of lightship weight and centre of gravity changes of sail installation. A similar practice is commonly adopted for newbuilding cases for late build stage inclining experiments prior to ship delivery.

6.7 REGULATORY COMPLIANCE SCOPE EXECUTED AT WIND READY PHASE

Appendix 4, Figure 2 summary table shows the extent of regulatory compliance work performed at wind-ready phase for TR Lady to ensure that regulatory compliance aspects could be quickly and efficiently addressed with minimal impact to ship’s schedule.

7. CONCLUSION

The experience and practice of rotor sail installations to bulk carriers has provided some important lessons. Wind-readiness as a concept could be more widely adopted and deserves serious consideration by shipowners investigating wind assistance. While the early completion of essential integration elements is a pre-requisite - as illustrated in our paper and our earlier 2023 paper [8] - there is a strong argument that elements of regulatory compliance should also be included at an early ‘wind ready’ phase.

Deployable sails with different deployment solutions, depending on ship size and whether the ship is equipped with cargo gear, illustrate a possible and promising pathway for future development of deployable sail configurations for bulk carriers. Just as specialised, tradeoptimized sub-classes have evolved for bulk carrier trades, a standardized number and size of sail for optimal fuel saving with a preferred deployment system for each vessel sub-class may also develop in future. A standard rig configuration for each type of trade-optimized bulk carrier could significantly ease the burden of sail integration and ensuring regulatory compliance. Combined with the further evolution of sail technologies these practices could support a wider uptake of wind assistance as a fuel saving and environmental compliance measure on the bulk carrier fleet.

As other wind assistance solutions mature, including high lift variants, the installation track record may favour other technologies in future. However based on installation track record to date, rotor sails appear to be a mature technology and one which is similarly evolving to reduce weight, improve operability and ease installation with reduced ship impact.

JARCO VAN DEN BRINK

Product Manager, Routing Services, ABB Marine & Ports

BIOGRAPHY

Jarco van den Brink works as product portfolio manager at ABB, leading the voyage optimization product portfolio. With a background in physics and meteorology, Jarco has over 18 years of experience in helping to keep vessels safe, maximizing fleet performance and supporting ship owners and operators on their journeys to digitalization and decarbonization.

ABB Optimal Speed Routing delivers significant savings in fuel consumption, emissions, and overall voyage costs

1. INTRODUCTION

Optimal Speed Routing is the first solution on the market able to optimise vessel routing and speed simultaneously against anticipated weather conditions. Specially designed for voyages in which the key objective is to minimise voyage cost, the solution produces a berth-to-berth navigable route with speed instructions for each leg. The result is a reduction in not only costs but also, in many cases, fuel consumption and emissions.

2. BACKGROUND

Weather has a significant impact on the power required to propel a vessel through water at a given speed, and, generally speaking, the greater a vessel’s power demands, the higher its fuel consumption, emissions, and related costs. With the transition to cleaner fuels, the inclusion of shipping in the European Union’s Emissions Trading Scheme, and the growing severity of weather patterns, these costs are only set to rise.

At the same time, the maritime market is experiencing rapid digitalisation, with a growing focus on integrated digital solutions.

Against this backdrop, maritime operators are increasingly seeking practical tools for minimising the negative influence of weather on the cost, fuel efficiency, and environmental impact of their voyages. For some, the option to seamlessly integrate these solutions into their own dashboards and workflows is a further necessity.

It was in response to these evolving requirements that ABB developed Optimal Speed Routing, building on 25 years of weather-routing experience along with considerable knowledge of algorithms and vessel performance. The solution development was supported by one of ABB’s major customers with ships operating in multiple segments, ensuring this solution would deliver the expected benefits to the shipping operators.

The first-of-its-kind solution is accessed through the company’s Vessel Routing application programming interface (API), which allows integration into the user’s existing ecosystem. However, since every company digitalises at its own pace, Optimal Speed Routing is also available as part of the ABB Ability™ Routeguard onshore consultancy service to support the user’s digital transformation journey.

3. FUNCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS

3.1. Basic function

To find the ‘optimal’ route – that is, the cheapest or most fuel-efficient route accounting for restrictions set by the client – Optimal Speed Routing considers all possible routes together with all possible speeds along these routes. When there is no strict requirement on time of arrival, it uses the entire speed range in which the vessel can practically sail to achieve optimum results.

3.2. Heavy-weather avoidance

Since Optimal Speed Routing may advise operators to increase speed to outpace a storm or slow down to let it pass, the recommended speed is not always the local optimum. However, by changing speed to avoid heavy weather conditions, the operator can achieve the best-possible overall voyage outcome.

3.3. Algorithm

In making its calculations, the Optimal Speed Routing algorithm considers latest meteorological information; latest available electronic navigational charts; best-available vessel performance models; prevailing market conditions such as vessel hire rate, fuel costs inside and outside emission control areas (ECAs), and emissions costs; and any additional input from the vessel master, shore-based operator, and ABB’s route analysts. Based on ABB’s Ship Performance Optimization System (SPOS), which has been on the market for many years with significant user uptake, the algorithm produces highly accurate results.

been on the market for many years with significant user uptake, the algorithm produces highly accurate results.

3.4. API

Unique to ABB’s offering is its Vessel Routing API, which allows other system integrators and direct shipping customers to integrate the Optimal Speed Routing capability within their existing dashboards and workflows. The idea is to enable customers to develop their own voyage optimisation and analysis ecosystem for seamless collaboration between shore-based operators, onboard crew, and ABB route analysts.

4. USE CASE EXAMPLES

4.1. Supramax bulk carrier travelling from Barcelona to Stavanger

Optimal Speed Routing calculates the cheapest or most fuel-efficient route depending on fuel cost, daily hire cost, vessel performance model, and latest weather forecast. The three possible routes from Barcelona to Stavanger are shown in the above image.

If the vessel uses Optimal Speed Routing to sail within a speed range of 9–14 knots depending on conditions, its total voyage cost is $122,000 (29%) lower than if it uses standard weather routing and sails at a fixed speed of 14 knots. Even if the vessel uses standard weather routing to sail at a fixed speed of nine knots, its total voyage cost is $2,300 (1%) greater than in if it uses Optimal Speed Routing.

4.2. Supramax bulk carrier travelling from Galveston to Stavanger:

Optimal Speed Routing combines the power of weather routing and speed optimisation to calculate a route that minimises distance sailed in ECAs due to high ECA fuel costs, as shown in the above image.

Optimal Speed Routing combines the power of weather routing and speed optimisation to calculate a route that minimises distance sailed in ECAs due to high ECA fuel costs, as shown in the above image

Optimal Speed Routing combines the power of weather routing and speed optimisation to calculate a route that minimises distance sailed in ECAs due to high ECA fuel costs, as shown in the above image.

On this longer voyage, using Optimal Speed Routing to sail between 9 and 13.5 knots reduces total voyage cost by $290,000 (32%) compared to using standard weather routing with speed fixed at 13.5 knots. Even when standard weather routing is used for a fixed speed of nine knots, total voyage cost is reduced by $11,000 (2%).

5. OUTLOOK AND FURTHER DEVELOPMENT

Already deployed by one of the world’s leading operators of dry cargo, tanker, and project cargo vessels, Optimal Speed Routing is also the subject of several ongoing customer trials and is generating considerable interest from the wider maritime market.

Despite having recently launched the solution, ABB is planning several enhancements including faster route calculations and more-frequent speed changes in the algorithm. The company also intends to add Optimal Speed Routing to its SPOS, introduce motion-avoidance capabilities based on seakeeping calculations, and make the solution suitable for use by vessels with wind-assisted propulsion.

6. CONCLUSION

Depending on the customer’s voyage-efficiency baseline and how they use the solution, Optimal Speed Routing can yield extensive cost savings and/or minimised fuel consumption with a potentially significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions as a result.

For direct customers, it offers a quick return on investment and facilitates compliance with environmental regulations, while integration partners can add the solution to their existing dashboard or portfolio with minimal effort.

Moreover, with support from ABB’s route analysts via its Routeguard consultancy service, customers can drive voyage profitability to even greater heights.

ALBERTO LLOPIS PASCUAL Head of Aerodynamics, bound4blue

BIOGRAPHY

Alberto Llopis Pascual is responsible for aerodynamic development of bound4blue’s technology, both numerical and experimental. Alberto holds a PhD in Aerospace Engineering in the field of experimental aerodynamics (University of Manchester, 2017).

Previously, he spent 6 years working with University of Manchester, BAE Systems and a NATO task group researching and developing fluidic control effectors for aircraft, designing, and building the first aircraft to fully integrate and demonstrate this technology. Later, he also spent 2 years carrying out aerodynamic design of medical delivery drones.

Advancements in Wind Propulsion for Sustainable Shipping: Focus on Suction Sails

1. Introduction

In recent years, the maritime industry has faced growing pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and transition towards more sustainable operations. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the European Union (EU) have set stringent decarbonization targets, challenging ship owners and operators to innovate without compromising fleet profitability and operational efficiency. Against this backdrop, wind propulsion is re-emerging as a viable solution to supplement conventional ship engines and decrease fuel consumption and emissions.

Wind-assisted propulsion systems (WAPS) are based on a time-tested principle - harnessing the wind to co-propel vessels. Yet, the technology has evolved significantly since the days of traditional soft sails. Modern wind propulsion systems now incorporate advanced designs, materials, and control mechanisms, enabling a substantial boost in efficiency and propulsive force compared to historical sail structures. These innovations allow wind-assisted systems to complement existing engine power, forming a hybrid propulsion model that aligns with industry sustainability goals and regulations.

Within the landscape of wind propulsion technology, suction sails have garnered particular interest. Originating in early aerodynamic research on aircraft in the 20s, suction sails were later adapted for maritime use by Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau and his research team in the 80s, who developed the first full-scale suction sail, the TurboVoile. This pioneering work demonstrated the potential of suction sails to generate high lift forces, paving the way for future advancements in this technology.

Building on Cousteau’s early designs, companies like bound4blue have taken suction sails to new heights with the development of the eSAIL®. Leveraging modern computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and wind tunnel testing, bound4blue’s eSAIL® technology has achieved significant performance improvements over previous designs, delivering greater lift with reduced energy requirements. As a fully autonomous system, the eSAIL® exemplifies how suction sails can offer scalable and efficient solutions for the shipping industry’s environmental goals.

This paper explores the evolution of suction sail technology, beginning with the foundational work of the Cousteau Foundation and progressing to bound4blue’s recent innovations. By examining both the history and the technological advancements in suction sails, we aim to highlight the potential of wind propulsion as a sustainable path forward for the maritime industry.

2. What is Wind Propulsion?

Wind propulsion leverages the power of wind to assist in the movement of vessels, offering a renewable and emission-free energy source that can significantly reduce reliance on fossil fuels. As a core component of wind-assisted propulsion systems (WAPS), wind propulsion works by generating aerodynamic forces when exposed to wind, thus helping propel ships forward. This approach allows vessels to operate with reduced engine power, cutting fuel consumption and emissions while still maintaining operational speeds.

wind, thus helping propel ships forward. This approach allows vessels to operate with reduced engine power, cutting fuel consumption and emissions while still maintaining operational speeds.

2.1 Basic Principles of Wind-Assisted

Propulsion Systems

2.1 Basic Principles of Wind-Assisted Propulsion Systems

Wind-assisted propulsion systems operate based on two primary aerodynamic forces: lift and drag. When the system’s sails or wings interact with wind, they generate lift (L), which is perpendicular to the wind direction , and drag (D), which is parallel to the wind direction , Figure 1 The combination of these forces generates the forward thrust used to propel the ship The effect is similar to the principles of an airplane wing, but adapted for use on water, where both the design and control of the sails are optimized to handle varying wind conditions effectively

Wind-assisted propulsion systems operate based on two primary aerodynamic forces: lift and drag. When the system’s sails or wings interact with wind, they generate lift (L), which is perpendicular to the wind direction, and drag (D), which is parallel to the wind direction, Figure 1. The combination of these forces generates the forward thrust used to propel the ship. The effect is similar to the principles of an airplane wing, but adapted for use on water, where both the design and control of the sails are optimized to handle varying wind conditions effectively.

Figure 1. Propulsive force of a wind propulsion device.

Modern wind propulsion technology focuses on two main factors which affect overall performance: maximising lift and enhancing the efficiency of the sail system usage and emissions, aligning with the industry’s sustainability goals.

2.2 Advancements in Sail Technology

Today’s wind propulsion systems are a far cry from the traditional cloth sails once seen on clipper ships. Modern sails incorporate high-performance materials, computationally optimized designs, and autonomous control systems that adjust in real-time to varying wind conditions. Advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) allow engineers to optimize the shape, size, and positioning of sails for maximum efficiency, while autonomous systems adjust the trim and angle based on wind direction and speed, ensuring optimal performance at all times.

Today’s wind propulsion systems are a far cry from the traditional cloth sails once seen on clipper ships. Modern sails incorporate high -performance materials, computationally optimized designs, and autonomous control systems that adjust in real -time to varying wind conditions. Advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) allow engineers to optimize the shape, size, and positioning of sails for maximum efficiency, while

These enhancements have transformed sails from passive cloth structures into active, hightech components capable of harnessing up to seven times more force than traditional sails. Moreover, the integration of weather optimization software enables vessels to plot courses that maximize wind propulsion, further reducing the need for fuel. Rather than replacing engines entirely, modern WAPS work in a hybrid configuration, contributing on the propulsion power required by a vessel.

Figure 1. Propulsive force of a wind propulsion device.

2.3 Applications in the Shipping Industry

The resurgence of wind propulsion technology marks a significant shift in maritime operations, reflecting a growing industry-wide commitment to sustainability. Wind-assisted propulsion has proven effective across various ship types, including Tankers, Bulkers, Ro-Ros, Cruises, Ferries, Gas Carriers, and General Cargo vessels, regardless of their size or age. Suction sails are emerging as one of the most promising innovations in WAPS. Unlike traditional sails, suction sails use strategic airflow management to increase lift, creating a unique hybrid solution that aligns with modern vessel designs and shipping routes.

By integrating wind propulsion with other renewable technologies, the shipping industry can achieve significant reductions in carbon emissions. Wind propulsion is not only a return to the origins of maritime travel but also a step forward in transforming the industry to meet its environmental responsibilities.

3. Origin of Suction Sails – Cousteau Foundation

The concept of suction sails traces its origins to early aviation research, where the principle of air suction was explored to enhance the efficiency of aerodynamic surfaces. In the 1930s, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the precursor to NASA, conducted pioneering studies to improve aircraft fuel efficiency. NACA researchers discovered that by applying suction to certain parts of an aircraft’s wings, they could reduce drag and achieve an estimated 8% improvement in fuel efficiency [1]. This concept of suction on aerodynamic surfaces, while not adopted in aviation due to high safety standards, laid the foundation for future applications in other fields.

3.1 The TurboVoile: A New Direction in Maritime Applications

Decades later, renowned oceanographer Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau adapted the suction principle for maritime use as part of his commitment to environmentally friendly exploration. In the early 1980s, Cousteau sought to replace his iconic research vessel Calypso with a new ship that would reflect his vision for sustainable marine technology. Driven by an awareness of resource depletion and the need to reduce human impact on the ocean, Cousteau and his team at the Cousteau Foundation developed the TurboVoile - the world’s first suction sail.

Decades later, renowned oceanographer Captain Jacques -Yves Cousteau adapted the suction principle for maritime use as part of his commitment to environmentally friendly exploration. In the early 1980s, Cousteau sought to replace his iconic research vessel Calypso with a new ship that would reflect his vision for sustainable marine technology. Driven by an awareness of resource depletion and the need to reduce human impact on the ocean, Cousteau and his team at the Cousteau Foundation developed the TurboVoile - the world’s first suction sail

The TurboVoile represented a significant departure from traditional sail designs. Unlike the slim, streamlined wings used in aviation, the TurboVoile was designed with a thick, aerodynamic profile optimized for maximum lift rather than minimal drag. By act ively drawing turbulent air over the sail surface, the TurboVoile was able to generate lift forces six to seven times greater than those of conventional wing sails [2]. This high-lift capability allowed the TurboVoile to produce substantial forward propulsion, even on larger vessels

3.2 Real-World Testing: Moulin à Vent and Alcyone

Figure 2. Flight tests if suction systems on aircraft.

The TurboVoile represented a significant departure from traditional sail designs. Unlike the slim, streamlined wings used in aviation, the TurboVoile was designed with a thick, aerodynamic profile optimized for maximum lift rather than minimal drag. By actively drawing turbulent air over the sail surface, the TurboVoile was able to generate lift forces six to seven times greater than those of conventional wing sails [2]. This high-lift capability allowed the TurboVoile to produce substantial forward propulsion, even on larger vessels.

3.2 Real-World Testing: Moulin à Vent and Alcyone

To validate the TurboVoile’s performance, the Cousteau Foundation constructed two prototype vessels, Moulin à Vent and Alcyone, equipped with full-scale TurboVoile sails. Alcyone, the more widely recognized of the two, embarked on global sea trials to demonstrate the effectiveness of suction sails in real-world conditions. During these trials, Alcyone showcased the potential of suction sails to reduce reliance on traditional fuel while maintaining strong propulsion power

The TurboVoile’s success marked an important milestone in the evolution of suction sails and hinted at their potential to serve as a viable propulsion solution for the shipping industry. Cousteau’s pioneering work underscored the environmental benefits of using wind to assist ship propulsion and laid the groundwork for further advancements in suction sail technology.

3.3 Influence on Modern Suction Sails

Although the TurboVoile was revolutionary for its time, advances in computational design, materials science, and control systems have enabled further improvements in suction sail technology. The principles behind the TurboVoile remain influential, informing the design of modern suction sails that combine high lift with energy efficiency. Today, companies like bound4blue are refining the suction sail concept, leveraging Cousteau’s foundational ideas to create modern solutions that meet the rigorous demands of the commercial shipping industry. The development of suction sails has progressed from theoretical studies to proven maritime applications, demonstrating the value of aerodynamic innovation in the pursuit of sustainable shipping. The journey of the TurboVoile, from concept to application, exemplifies the vision of a low-carbon future for maritime transportation.

The development of suction sails has progressed from theoretical studies to proven maritime applications, demonstrating the value of aerodynamic innovation in the pursuit of sustainable shipping. The journey of the TurboVoile, from concept to application, exemplifies the vision of a low -carbon future for maritime transportation.

4. bound4blue's Work to Improve the

Figure 3. Alcyone arriving at New York City with its two TurboVoile sails.

4. bound4blue’s Work to Improve the Performance of the Suction Sail

design principles, and autonomous controls to achieve optimal performance in varying conditions

4.1 eSAIL® Design and Optimization through CFD

Building on the foundations laid by the Cousteau Foundation’s TurboVoile, bound4blue has made significant advancements in suction sail technology, driven by the goals of improved efficiency, environmental sustainability, and practical application for commercial vessels. At the heart of bound4blue’s innovation is the eSAIL®, a fully autonomous suction sail that leverages computational fluid dynamics (CFD), advanced design principles, and autonomous controls to achieve optimal performance in varying conditions.

4.1 eSAIL® Design and Optimization through CFD

The eSAIL ® builds upon the basic principles of the TurboVoile, but with key advancements enabled by CFD. This powerful tool allows engineers to simulate airflow around the sail and test various design modifications virtually, significantly speeding up the optimization process. By refining the shape, size, and structure of the eSAIL ® through CFD, bound4blue has managed to increase lift by 20% compared to the TurboVoile, allowing the sail to deliver even greater propulsion with lower energy requirements

The eSAIL ® builds upon the basic principles of the TurboVoile, but with key advancements enabled by CFD. This powerful tool allows engineers to simulate airflow around the sail and test various design modifications virtually, significantly speeding up the optimization process. By refining the shape, size, and structure of the eSAIL® through CFD, bound4blue has managed to increase lift by 20% compared to the TurboVoile, allowing the sail to deliver even greater propulsion with lower energy requirements.

To achieve this result, the aerodynamics team at bound4blue conducted extensive work in the development of the necessary tools for the aerodynamic optimisation of the eSAIL® . The first step was to validate the CFD modelling techniques using experimental data of the Turbovoile. Once a robust tool that captures the physics was established, the team transitioned to 2D parametric studies by exploring the influence of multiple design variables on performance, including:

To achieve this result, the aerodynamics team at bound4blue conducted extensive work in the development of the necessary tools for the aerodynamic optimisation of the eSAIL®. The first step was to validate the CFD modelling techniques using experimental data of the Turbovoile. Once a robust tool that captures the physics was established, the team transitioned to 2D parametric studies by exploring the influence of multiple design variables on performance, including:

• Suction area size and characteristics

• Flap geometry and position

• eSAIL® aerofoil shape

n Suction area size and characteristics

• Flow coefficient / Power coefficient

n Flap geometry and position

• Angle of Attack (AoA)

n eSAIL® aerofoil shape

n Flow coefficient / Power coefficient

n Angle of Attack (AoA)

Figure 4 shows an example scatter matri x plot (SPLOM) o f the variables explored. Using this type of plot, it is possible to identify trends and areas where the eSAIL ® is performing well.

Figure 4 shows an example scatter matrix plot (SPLOM) of the variables explored. Using this type of plot, it is possible to identify trends and areas where the eSAIL® is performing well.

The final step in the development process was to conduct 3D CFD simulations, focusing on adding complexity to the model and understanding the 3D aerodynamics effects of some components, including: fan selection, atmospheric boundary layer, local disturbances and winglets. A more detailed account of the work conducted can be found in [3]

Figure 4. SPLOM of design variables and objectives

Figure 4: SPLOM of design variables and objectives

The outcome of this work can be s een in Figure 5, which shows a comparison of the lift vs power polar of the eSAIL ® and TurboVoile. These show that the eSAIL boasts an increase in Lift Coefficient, CL, up to 20% for the same aerodynamic power coefficient, Ca.

The outcome of this work can be seen in Figure 5, which shows a comparison of the lift vs power polar of the eSAIL® and TurboVoile. These show that the eSAIL boasts an increase in Lift Coefficient, CL, up to 20% for the same aerodynamic power coefficient, Ca.

4.2 Wind Tunnel Testing for Validation

To validate the performance seen in the CFD simulations, bound4blue conducted a wind tunnel test campaign in the S10 wind tunnel at Institut Aerotechnique, at Saint Cyr, France in September 2022 .This allowed to gather a significant amount of data in the form of pressure and force measurements. The test campaign focused on confirming the results seen in CFD for the optimum geometry and the tendencies that some design variables have on performance.

To validate the performance seen in the CFD simulations, bound4blue conducted a wind tunnel test campaign in the S10 wind tunnel at Institut Aerotechnique, at Saint Cyr, France in September 2022.This allowed to gather a significant amount of data in the form of pressure and force measurements. The test campaign focused on confirming the results seen in CFD for the optimum geometry and the tendencies that some design variables have on performance.

Figure 6. Comparison of wind tunnel and CFD lift polars for different Ca values.

The data obtained from these tests is then used to fine-tune CFD models, ensuring that simulations accurately reflect real-world conditions. This approach allows bound4blue to optimize the eSAIL®’s performance with confidence, providing ship operators with a reliable and efficient wind-assisted propulsion option.

Figure 6. Comparison of wind tunnel and CFD lift polars for different Ca values.

The data obtained from these tests is then used to fine -tune CFD models, ensuring that simulations accurately reflect real -world conditions. This approach allows bound4blue to optimize the eSAIL ®'s performance with confidence, providing ship operators with a reliable and efficient wind -assisted propulsion option

Figure 5. Lift vs power polar for the eSAIL.

Figure

4.3 Detailed studies for each installation

4.3

Detailed studies for each installation

The high confidence in the CFD tool means that additional complexity can be added to understand the effects of realistic conditions on performance, instead of idealised conditions. Examples include installation height, effect of atmospheric boundary layer, sail-to-sail interaction and ship-to-sail interaction. Modelling all these characteristics is critical to understand the real conditions the eSAILs® will encounter and therefore, can be used to provide a custom control algorithm to maximise fuel savings.

Figure 7. Example simulation of a full installation cases study of two eSAILs® on a ship.

4.4 Real-World Applications and Industry Reception

The eSAIL® has already been deployed on several commercial vessels, including the EEMS Traveller and Ville de Bordeaux , demonstrating tangible fuel savings and emission reductions. The expected result is an annual saving of 245 tons of CO2 and 76.7 tons of fuel, representing an approximate reduction of 10% for the first one. This saving not only reduces the carbon footprint but also translates into a significant annual economic savi ng of $57,525. Similarly, with the installation of three 22 - meter sails on the Ville de Bordeaux, an annual saving of 2,705 tons of CO2 and 845.3 tons of fuel is expected, equivalent to a 10% reduction. With an increasing number of ship operators exploring wind-assisted propulsion, bound4blue’s technology has garnered attention as a practical, effective solution. According to the International Windship Association , the adoption of suction sails is expected to grow, with bound4blue positioned as a leader in the field , with 13 confirmed installations to occur by mid-2026. The eSAIL®’s autonomous capabilities make it particularly appealing for commercial fleets aiming to reduce their carbon footprint while maintaining operational efficiency .

The eSAIL® has already been deployed on several commercial vessels, including the EEMS Traveller and Ville de Bordeaux, demonstrating tangible fuel savings and emission reductions. The expected result is an annual saving of 245 tons of CO2 and 76.7 tons of fuel, representing an approximate reduction of 10% for the first one. This saving not only reduces the carbon footprint but also translates into a significant annual economic saving of $57,525. Similarly, with the installation of three 22-meter sails on the Ville de Bordeaux, an annual saving of 2,705 tons of CO2 and 845.3 tons of fuel is expected, equivalent to a 10% reduction. With an increasing number of ship operators exploring wind-assisted propulsion, bound4blue’s technology has garnered attention as a practical, effective solution. According to the International Windship Association, the adoption of suction sails is expected to grow, with bound4blue positioned as a leader in the field, with 13 confirmed installations to occur by mid-2026. The eSAIL®’s autonomous capabilities make it particularly appealing for commercial fleets aiming to reduce their carbon footprint while maintaining operational efficiency .

5. Conclusion

The evolution of suction sails from early aviation studies to advanced maritime applications illustrates the potential of aerodynamic innovation to transform shipping. Starting with the Cousteau Foundation’s pioneering TurboVoile and advancing to bound4blue’s state-of-the-art eSAIL®, suction sail technology has shown that wind-assisted propulsion can play a significant role in the shipping industry’s decarbonization journey.

5. Conclusion

The evolution of suction sails from early aviation studies to advanced maritime applications illustrates the potential of aerodynamic innovation to transform shipping. Starting with the Cousteau Foundation’s pioneering TurboVoile and advancing to bound4blue’s state-of-the-art eSAIL®, suction sail technology has shown that windassisted propulsion can play a significant role in the shipping industry’s decarbonization journey.

Building on the foundations laid by the Cousteau Foundation’s TurboVoile, bound4blue has made significant advancements in suction sail technology. To do so, bound4blue has developed and validated its tools to predict aerodynamic performance, combining CFD and wind tunnel testing. The result of this work is an increase in lift coefficient up to 20% for the same power, compared to the TurboVoile.

Building on the foundations laid by the Cousteau Foundation’s TurboVoile, bound4blue has made significant advancements in suction sail technology To do so, bound4blue

Figure 7. Example simulation of a full installation cases study of two eSAILs ® on a ship.

By reducing fuel consumption and emissions, the eSAIL® offers ship operators a compelling way to meet increasingly stringent environmental regulations without sacrificing profitability. As the industry continues to prioritize sustainable practices, suction sails and other windassisted propulsion systems are poised to become integral to modern shipping. Future advancements in digital design, materials science, and real-time control are likely to drive further improvements, making suction sails an even more versatile and effective option. bound4blue’s continued efforts underscore the potential of wind propulsion to support the maritime industry in its transition to a greener, more sustainable future.

6. References

[1] A. L. Braslow, “A History of Suction

[2] B. Charrier and e. a. , “Foundation Cousteau and Windship Propulsion,” Journal of WInd Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 1985.

[3] A. Llopis Pascual, G. Bailardi, B. Charrier and D. Ferrer Desclaux, “Aerodynamic optimization of the eSAIL, bound4blue’s suction sail for wind-assisted vessel propulsion,” in Wind Propulsion Conference 2023, London, UK, 2023.

MATTHIAS WINKLER Managing Director, CM Technologies

BIOGRAPHY

Matthias Winkler has acquired his experience in ship and engine operation processes via various positions at sea and ashore throughout his career.

After graduating as a technical marine engineer at the University in Rostock with main focus on ships engines he then had a job with a German shipping company to be later appointed as Technical Superintendent.

Mid-nineties he turned his focus on the area of condition monitoring with working in positions with responsibilities for product development, technical services and assistance to key customers.

Since 2002 he has been running his own business which concentrates on condition monitoring technologies with the marine industry as main sector.

Detect unexpected wear in combustion engines by using acoustic emission sensor system.

Introduction

The increase of modern combustion engine efficiency results in increased power density, combustion pressures and temperatures, especially in the power cylinder unit of the engines, which in turn leads to higher loads and more severe lubrication conditions for tribological contacts.

Detect unexpected wear in combustion engines by using acoustic emission sensor system.

In addition, new fuels are introduced to increase the complexity of the burning scenario. At the same time there are no long-term experiences about the cooperation between the lubrication regimen and the combustion process.

Author: Matthias Winkler

CM Technologies GmbH, Glückstadt, Germany

E-Mail: m.winkler@CMTechnologies.de

Introduction

wear in combustion engines by using sensor system.

prolonged operation of the engine. True scuffing is more likely to occur during running in. Scuffing attributed to prolonged operation of the engine may be misidentified, since without electron microscope it is difficult to pinpoint the damage origin

Inadequate lubrication of a cylinder liner and high temperatures result under certain circumstances in sudden severe wear known as scuffing. Despite being a popular topic in technical publications, scuffing between a piston ring face and the cylinder liner is an extremely unpredictable and hard-to-reproduce phenomenon that, if it happens, creates significant engine damage. The mechanism of scuffing origin and subsequent catastrophic seizure usually is evaluated by a coefficient of friction measurements.

Background

efficiency combustion pressures cylinder unit of loads and more contacts

increase the same time and the high circumstances in Despite being a scuffing between a extremely phenomenon that , damage . The catastrophic friction

The mayor problem with scuffing is that it appears without warning in a short period of time.

We are seeing a trend towards carbon neutral fuels in the marine environment. This will mean that we might not run vessels in future with Diesel fuel. However, new fuels will not improve the situation with scuffing. The phenomenon is likely to stay if it will not increase. Still the main question about scuffing is: How can it be detected in time allowing to take action to avoid severe failure of the engine.

Scuffing between the face of piston rings and cylinder liners occur during the running in process as well as after prolonged operation of the engine. True scuffing is more likely to occur during running in. Scuffing attributed to prolonged operation of the engine may be misidentified, since without electron microscope it is difficult to pinpoint the damage origin.

The mayor problem with scuffing is that it appears without warning in a short period of time.

Inadequate lubrication of a cylinder liner and high temperatures result under certain circumstances in sudden severe wear known as scuffing. Despite being a popular topic in technical publications, scuffing between a piston ring face and the cylinder liner is an extremely unpredictable and hard -to-reproduce phenomenon that , if it happens, creates significant engine damage . The mechanism of scuffing origin and subsequent catastrophic seizure usually is evaluated by a coefficient of friction measurements.

The mayor problem with scuffing is that it appears without warning in a short period of time.

Background

(normal wear of an engine)

We are seeing a trend towards carbon neutral fuels in the marine environment. This will mean that we mi ght not run vessels in future with Diesel fuel. However, new fuels will not improve the situation with scuffing. The phenomenon is likely to stay if it will not increase. Still the main question about scuffing is: How can it be detected in time allowing to take action to avoid severe failure of the engine.

Scuffing between the face of piston rings and cylinder liners occur during the running in process as well as after

(normal wear of an engine)

(sudden servere wear)

Scuffing in diesel engines

In its general sense, scuffing is considered to result from failure of the boundary lubricating film following thermal feedback. At a critical temperature during the combustion process, the surface-active lubricant additives are burned from the surface, resulting in a further increase in friction and contact temperature and ultimately, severe adhesive wear.

Conference Paper

Scuffing in diesel engines

New approaches

Scuffing can be the result of lubricant film failure, desorption of the active chemical species, destruction of the oxide, large plastic deformation of the surface, unstable growth of contact junctions, accumulation of wear debris and bulk subsurface failure. The most widely used definition of scuffing is a localized damage caused by the occurrence of solid-phase welding between sliding surfaces without local surface melting.

(scuffing picture from a liner surface)

Various trials have been done by different marine environment. One of those entities Herriott Watt university who has proved, emission would be a good approach an early stage, but the project has not product.

CMT has taken up this idea and developed new sensor with different technologies Current

This definition is appropriate only for the final stage of the process when macroscopically large areas of bare metal are generated and strong adhesion between the sliding surfaces exists. The developed sensor system described in this paper wants to detect wear problems at a much earlier stage to avoid scuffing to happen.

Various trials have been performed around the world to prove the usefulness of acoustic emission to detect insufficient lubrication and to avoid scuffing. The trials have been done in cooperation with a team of engineers from Bulgaria and Germany resulting in a new measuring system detecting scuffing incidences at a very early stage.

New approaches

(Sensor positioning below the c ooling

Various trials have been done by different entities in the marine environment. One of those entities was the Herriott Watt university who has proved, that acoustic emission would be a good approach to detect scuffing at an early stage, but the project has not resulted in a product.

During several trials the new sensor parallel with existing technologies like for iron content or cylinder liner wall measurement proving the time advantage system.

CMT has taken up this idea and developed a completely new sensor with different technologies using the Eddy Current to detect the high frequen cy signal. It has been shown that a flexible frequency range was also needed to detect the wear between piston rings and liner. Another hurdle was the fact, that the sensor can not be mounted at the h eight where the scuffing most likely starts. So, there was a need to measure the sound in different directions.

CMT has taken up this idea and developed a completely new sensor with different technologies using the Eddy Current to detect the high frequency signal. It has been shown that a flexible frequency range was also needed to detect the wear between piston rings and liner. Another hurdle was the fact, that the sensor can not be mounted at the height where the scuffing most likely starts. So, there was a need to measure the sound in different directions.

been performed around the world to acoustic emission to detect and to avoid scuffing. The trials cooperation with a team of engineers Germany resulting in a new measuring scuffing incidences at a very early stage.

(Sensor positioning below the c ooling jacket)

(Sensor positioning below the cooling jacket)

During several trials the new sensor system was tested parallel with existing technologies like drain oil analysis for iron content or cylinder liner wall temperature measurement proving the time advantage of the new system.

Results

Summary

The purpose of this paper is to show acoustic emission measurements generated friction between piston ring and cylinder and to establish the relationship between different levels of the scuffing phenomenon.

The paper will summarize the results on large marine diesel engines on different vessels sailing around the world showing, be made visible by acoustic emission usable onboard seagoing vessels to incidences.

Further information about the sensor from CM Technologies GmbH in Glückstadt. (info@CMTechnologies.de )

(drain oil analysis o nboard the trial vessel)

(drain oil analysis onboard the trial vessel)

Results

With many trials it could be shown that it is possible to detect abnormally high friction between the piston rings and the liner with the new sensor system. Similar results have been found on different trials showing different readings even for units with different maintenance status.

It could also be shown that the cylinder liner wall temperature reacted much slower than the new scuffing sensor system. The same applies for the drain oil analysis. While the drain oil analysis could show different maintenance statuses of the liner to a certain extent the temperature could not prove this. However, to react in time to avoid severe damage to the liner the temperature as well as the drain oil analysis is not the right tool to choose.

It could also been shown that it is important having a sensor system allowing to choose the right crank angle to measure. Also the frequency range the sensor system is using does play a major role to the success of the measurement.

Summary

The purpose of this paper is to show the usefulness of acoustic emission measurements generated from the friction between piston ring and cylinder liner segments and to establish the relationship between such signals and different levels of the scuffing phenomenon.

The paper will summarize the results from various trials on large marine diesel engines on different seagoing vessels sailing around the world showing, that friction can be made visible by acoustic emission in a way, that it is usable onboard seagoing vessels to detect scuffing incidences.

Further information about the sensor system can be got from CM Technologies GmbH in Glückstadt. (info@CMTechnologies.de)

Fuel Gas Systems

We support the industry in reaching their sustainability targets and moving towards a greener future.

Clean Fuel for the Future

INNOVATIVE AND EFFICIENT FUEL GAS SYSTEMS

As a leading contractor for the design and construction of fuel gas systems in the Maritime and Offshore industry, TGE Marine is your partner for any LNG-, Ethane-, LPG-, Ammonia (NH3), alternative, and future fuel requirements to aid the decarbonisation of the shipping industry.

Our methods work on reducing Green-House-Gas (GHG) emissions and decreasing operational expenditure for owners and operators.

AMMONIA FUEL SYSTEMS will play a strong role in the decarbonisation of shipping.

THE GAS EXPERTS

Bio-Fuels: Operational Experience

for 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke Engines

LARS ROBERT PEDERSEN Deputy Secretary General, BIMCO

BIOGRAPHY

Lars Robert is furthermore responsible BIMCO’s activity related to regulatory developments relevant for shipping at international, regional and national levels.

Bio-Fuels: Operational Experience for 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke Engines

DR MUHAMMAD USMAN CEng, FIMarEST Product Manager Fuel Advisory, Lloyd’s Register

BIOGRAPHY

Usman has 25 years of maritime industry experience, and currently he is expert voice on marine fuels, lubes and exhaust emissions.

Additionally, a member of ISO TC28/SC4/WG6 for over 5 years and involved in the development of the revised editions of ISO 8217:2024 (International marine fuel standard). Similarly, a member of TC28/SC4/WG18 developing the first quality standard for methanol as marine fuel. He is also a member of the CIMAC WG7 (fuels) and WG8 (Lubricants). He has a PhD in performance modelling of large two-stroke engines.

Analysis of readiness of FAME and HVO biofuels as energy sources for the shipping industry – including safety, bunkering,

regulatory and NOx considerations

The document provides an in-depth analysis of the readiness of FAME and HVO biofuels as energy sources for the shipping industry. It covers various aspects including safety, bunkering, regulatory considerations, and NOx emissions. Biofuels, derived from organic materials, are seen as a key driver for decarbonizing transport in the short to medium term. The document highlights the drop-in nature of biofuels, allowing their use in existing fleets without significant modifications. However, challenges such as scalability, global availability, and sustainability concerns are noted. The document also discusses the regulatory landscape, including EU regulations and the IMO’s guidelines. Safety considerations for handling and bunkering biofuels are detailed, along with the chemical and physical characteristics of FAME and HVO. The conclusion emphasizes the potential of biofuels to reduce carbon emissions and the need for effective regulation to make them commercially viable.

Introduction

Biofuels - energy sources created from the processing of recently created organic material, such as plant material, algae, vegetable oils and fats from animal waste, have applications in multiple modes of transport, including road, aviation and more recently, marine. Demand for biofuels is expected to be a key driver of decarbonisation in transport at least in the short to medium term whilst new technologies and alternative fuel options become more established in the marine market, with global biofuel demand forecast to rise by almost 30% in 2023-2028, compared to the 2017-2022 period (IEA, 2023).

There are many types of biofuels produced through different processes using wide range feedstocks. The most established products, suitable for shipping, are:

n Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME), (defined by the specifications of EN 14214 and ASTM D6754), often referred to by some as biodiesel, and

n Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) (defined by the paraffinic fuel specification EN 15940), a synthetic diesel very often referred also to as green or renewable diesel.

The drop-in nature of most liquid biofuels enables their use in the majority of the existing conventional petroleum fuel world fleet, providing GHG emissions reduction without significant modifications to engines and equipment. Biofuels are mostly similar in characteristics to their equivalent oil-based fuels, and require similar safety mitigations for transportation, bunkering, and handling.

Clarksons predicts that around two-thirds of existing ships are unlikely to be retrofitted for future fuels due to economic factors. For conventionally fuelled ships too old and uneconomic for investment in the retrofits required to adopt fuels like LNG, methanol, and ammonia, biofuels provide an opportunity to meet their carbon reduction targets with minimal capex requirements.

The main challenge to the adoption of biofuels is their scalability and global availability in the long term, in conjunction with the diverse nature of the feedstocks and processing methods used in their creation. Demand competition from other transport and industrial sectors is expected to increase in the coming decades, for both FAME and paraffinic products. Sustainability concerns over land and water use in the production of feedstocks must be addressed through certification schemes in order to increase buyer confidence and release more feedstock for production purposes.

The chemical composition and physical characteristics of biofuels vary depending on feedstock and production process; it should be understood therefore that ‘no one biofuel product can be used as a reference fuel for all biofuels.

Bio-methanol and bio-methane

More details on the ratings and comparison to other alternative fuels is available at www. lr.org/ZCFM biofuels in the diverse industrial coming land feedstocks confidence production depending on should be for all biofuels and conventional with such as share an in biofor Fuel

This technical paper focuses on liquid biofuels of FAME and HVO, which serve as tried and tested ‘drop-in’ replacements for conventional fuels. There are other bio-derived fuels with applications in the maritime industry, such as bio-methanol and bio-methane, which share an origin in biomass but differ significantly in regulatory, technology, and operational considerations. The main application of bio-methane in the maritime industry will be for liquefaction to create bio-LNG.

Readiness of Biofuels as a Marine Fuel

LR has collaborated with industry stakeholders to build a comprehensive assessment of different aspects of the fuel supply chain from production to delivery onboard, and the technologies for use as a fuel onboard for power generation.

Community readiness level (CRL) is also crucial, identifying whether the frameworks for safe and publicly acceptable use of a technology and fuel are in place. Biofuels are shown as among the readiest alternative fuels across TRL, IRL and CRL, with the most mature supply chains. The main readiness challenges identified for biofuels in shipping include feedstock availability, scaling global production and supply chains, completion of LCA guidelines at the IMO, and the need for long term studies into biofuel storage and use.

A lot of focus is often put on technology readiness level (TRL) of new technology, which assesses the maturity of solutions to becoming marine application ready, however this is just one element of readiness. The industry’s willingness to adopt a technology is also based on its investment readiness level (IRL), which signifies whether the business case is hypothetical or well proven. Community readiness level (CRL) is also crucial, identifying whether the frameworks for safe and publicly acceptable use of a technology and fuel are in place. Biofuels are shown as among the readiest alternative fuels across TRL, IRL and CRL, with the most mature supply chains. The main readiness challenges identified for biofuels in shipping include feedstock availability, scaling global production and supply chains, completion of LCA guidelines at the IMO, and the need for long term studies into biofuel storage and use.

More details on the ratings and comparison to other alternative fuels is available at www.lr.org/ZCFM

Safety

General Safety and Toxicity Issues

Safety

FAME

General Safety and Toxicity Issues FAME

FAME is not acutely toxic, is biodegradable, and is classified as not hazardous according to regulation (EC) 1272/2008 and by CONCAWE Guidelines for handling and blending FAME (2009). It is combustible but considered not readily flammable. It may cause minor eye irritation, and fine mists or vapours created by heating FAME may irritate mucous membranes, and cause dizziness and nausea. Combustion of FAME emits toxic fumes and particulates. Eye protection must be worn when handling FAME, along with chemical resistant gloves.

HVO

FAME is not acutely toxic, is biodegradable, and is classified as not hazardous according to regulation (EC) 1272/2008 and by

Repeated exposure to HVO may cause skin dryness or cracking. Spray/mists may cause respiratory tract irritation. Entry into the lungs following ingestion or vomiting may cause chemical pneumonitis, which can be fatal. HVO is flammable in liquid and vapour forms and will burn readily if ignited or exposed to sufficient heat. Risks related to fire and explosion including electrical and static ignition sources are similar to those for diesel. HVO vapour is heavier than air and could potentially flash back in flammable concentrations. Combustion of HVO emits toxic fumes and particulates. Eye protection must be worn when handling FAME, along with chemical resistant gloves.

Specific Bunkering Considerations

Liquid biofuels are generally similar in hazard profile to common fossil-derived marine fuels. The European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) released its Safe Bunkering of Biofuels report in 2023, which details regulatory and safety considerations in the bunkering of bio-methanol, HVO, FAME, bio-dimethyl ether (bio-DME) and Bio-Fischer-Tropsch-diesel (bio-FT-diesel).

The report found no specific standards or guidelines for bunkering HVO or FAME, owing to their similar properties to fossil-derived diesel. The report suggests a risk-based approach to bunkering biofuels as most appropriate until their use matures, and specific guidance is developed.

port

when blended, and Chapter 17 of the IBC code when not blended, requiring an IBC Code compliant ship for bunkering. It also states that the bunker supplier: “shall ensure that the Flag Administration, and Class Society of the bunker craft approve or have no objection to the loading, carriage, and delivery of the biofuel onboard the bunker barge”.

For FAME, for which a number of subsets of grades are currently being developed for marine purposes, quality monitoring should be employed to ensure the product remains within specification over periods of prolonged storage, as the fuel may deteriorate more rapidly over time, being more easily oxidised (See Chap 2.3 on fuel quality). Care should be taken to avoid water contamination in FAME and FAME blends to avoid the absorption of water which can lead to microbial growth in the fuel.

The Port of Singapore gives no specific bunkering instructions for biofuels, referring instead to its general bunkering rules SS 660. The port considers both HVO and FAME to fall under MSCMEPC.2/Circ.17 when blended, and Chapter 17 of the IBC code when not blended, requiring an IBC Code compliant ship for bunkering. It also states that the bunker supplier: “shall ensure that the Flag Administration, and Class Society of the bunker craft approve or have no objection to the loading, carriage, and delivery of the biofuel onboard the bunker barge”.

IBC Code

As detailed in MSC-MEPC.2/Circ.17, biofuel blends containing more than 25% FAME fall under MARPOL Annex II - Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk, and the IBC Code, which lists such blends as Category X – “Noxious Liquid Substances”. Bunker tankers carrying more than B25 fuel blends are therefore subject to the IBC Code requirements, while those carrying blends of less than or equal to 25% FAME are subject to the requirements of MARPOL Annex I - Prevention of Pollution by Oil.

While these regulations do not specify bunkering procedures, they do currently create a barrier to the wider provision of biofuels by effectively preventing the carriage of more than B25 biofuel blends by the conventional bunker tankers, which are designed for the carriage of petroleum-derived hydrocarbon fuels. A particular challenge with this B25 limit is that it is lower than the commonly sought after biofuel blend B30, which therefore cannot be carried by Annex I bunker tankers.

Upgrading tankers to meet the full IBC Code requirements would, for the most part, not be economically viable. Alternatively, an Annex II bunker tanker would be more expensive than Annex I equivalent, and it could take two to three years for such a ship to be built and delivered, potentially delaying the general provision of biofuels.

Addressing biofuel blend limits to enable the carriage and supply of biofuel on Annex I bunker tankers would be one way to remove an operational barrier to their wider adoption. In a submission to MEPC81 in March 2024, India and the Republic of Korea called for the urgent provision of an MEPC circular “for tentatively allowing the conventional bunkering vessels certified for carriage of oil fuels under MARPOL Annex I to transport up to B30 biofuels which are mostly preferred in the market.” The International Bunker Industry Association (IBIA) noted the Annex II blend limit issue in its own submission, and the matter was referred to the IMO Working Group on Evaluation of Safety and Pollution Hazards, ESPH30. The meeting will be held in October 2024, with a view to advising MEPC on the way forward.

However, dual certification of an Annex I bunker tanker for the additional carriage of FAME blends up to B100 under the IBC Code could be much more readily achieved with less downtime. For the liquids it lists, the IBC Code’s standards covering the bulk carriage of a wide range of diverse products, whereas a bunker tanker carries only a very limited range of products and does not require tank cleaning between loadings. Furthermore, a bunker tanker by the nature of its trade will have particular manoeuvring and cargo arrangements suitable for its trade sector.

In order to obtain a limited product range dual (Petroleum / FAME) certification, a gap-analysis would need to be carried out on an Annex I bunker tanker to assess what would be required for Flag and Coastal State Administrations to consider certifying and accepting the ship as being able to carry Annex II FAME blends up to B100. LR offers such a gap analysis through its Marine Advisory Services, whereby many existing Annex I bunker tankers could have greater versatility by being also certified to carry FAME up to 100%.

Biofuel Bunker Quality

Quality standards are in place for the most common and established biofuels and blend inputs such as FAME and HVO. Processes are still being developed to account for special and novel biofuel types. Quality controls for biofuel blends rely on suppliers using quality blending inputs, which they have determined as suitable for blending into a marine fuel, in the same manner as applied for conventional petroleum derived fuels.

Other alternative biomass-based products with unestablished and defined specifications.

Under Class requirements, engines are to undergo shipboard trials to demonstrate their suitability for burning unestablished/untested special liquid biofuels and other renewable waste-based products such as rubber tyres processed through pyrolysis. To attain acceptance for a sea-trial, a pretrial on shore assessment of the fuel’s suitability for on board ship use is to be established. Further to this, the ship is advised to prepare an implementation plan to include a risk assessment and performance monitoring programme.

LR recommends that biofuel for marine use meets a declared standard and that the technical and operational parameters of the biofuel or biofuel blend as supplied comply with the ISO 8217:2024 Petroleum products from petroleum, synthetic and renewable sources — Fuels (class F) — Specifications of marine fuels standard as far as possible, and that any deviations are declared, understood, and are part of the agreed specification between purchaser and supplier. The updated ISO 8217:2024 provides the operational and technical specifications to be met by drop-in fuels – allowing FAME blends ranging from de minimis to B100. For FAME biofuels supplied under the ISO 8217 marine fuel standard as a B100 or blend, it is required that the FAME product is compliant with the EN 14214 Liquid petroleum products – Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) for use in diesel engines and heating applications – Requirements and test methods, or ASTM D6751 Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel Blend Stock (B100) for Middle Distillate Fuels standard. For HVO biofuels — which are indistinguishable to distillates marine fuels — and HVO blends, it is required by ISO 8217 that the fuel is compliant with the EN 15940 Automotive fuels – Paraffinic diesel from synthesis or hydrotreatment – Requirements and test methods standard. The sustainability certification schemes for biofuels approved by ICAO’s Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), as referenced in IMO MEPC.1/Circ.905, are the International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC) and Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB).

Drivers for Biofuels - Regulations and Lifecycle Assessment

The regulatory drivers for biofuels are goal-based decarbonisation initiatives and not specific to biofuels. They encourage owners and operators to switch their ships to less carbonintensive operations; the compatibility of biofuels with most of the current world fleet make them a leading candidate for decarbonising shipping operations in the near term.

EU Regulations

Some of the most advanced regulations are from the European Union (EU). Shipping companies need to be aware of five elements of the EU Fit for 55 package that impact shipping. The Fit for 55 package is the bloc’s overarching decarbonisation strategy across society and business. It includes:

n A revised Monitoring, reporting, and verification of greenhouse gas emissions from maritime transport regulation (EU MRV)

n A revised Directive on the EU emissions trading system (EU ETS)

n A new FuelEU Maritime Regulation

EU Emissions Trading System

As of 1 January 2024, passenger and cargo ships of 5,000GT and over calling at EEA ports became subject to the region’s emission trading scheme. (Additional ship types and sizes will fall into scope of the scheme in future years). Shipping companies with responsibility for such ships will need to buy allowances to cover greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (CO2, CH4 and N2O) reported under EU MRV, for intra-EEA (EU plus Norway and Iceland), in EEA ports and for half of the GHG emissions created during voyages to and from the EEA. From 1 January 2024, EU allowances for CO2 emissions will have to be surrendered under EU ETS, with CH4 and N2O emissions falling into scope of ETS from 2026.

ETS

The FuelEU Maritime Regulation requires submission of a monitoring plan, separate to the MRV monitoring plan. Assessment for each ship should indicate factor of energy used on board. From 1 January 2025, each ship must implement the FuelEU monitoring plan to collect the required data. The full year’s data will then be submitted for verification by 30 March of the following year.

Marine engines

Under class requirements, engines are to undergo shipboard trials to demonstrate their suitability for burning residual fuels or ‘other special fuels’, which is interpreted as also being applicable to liquid biofuels. The process is detailed in LR’s Guidance Notes for Class and Statutory Approval and Use of Marine Biofuels (January 2023).

For ships engines, the guidance recommends the following issues be considered through confirmation with the engine OEM, fuel supplier, or long- term testing and condition monitoring:

n Base Number (BN) specification of the cylinder lubricating oil and feed rate suitable for the fuel sulphur content.

n Monitoring of cylinder liner and ring pack condition and wear rates, e.g. visual inspection, oil drain down analyses, measurement, verification of Time Between Overhauls (TBO).

n Fuel lubricity, acid number and biofuel properties for potential impacts on fuel system components, fuel injection equipment, common rail systems and control units, as applicable.

n Suitability and potential impacts of the use of low viscosity biofuels.

n Thermal management of the biofuel including required biofuel heating (or cooling) and fuel drain arrangements.

n Materials of fuel system components including seals exposed to biofuel.

n Solvent effect of biofuels on fuel system deposits and coatings.

n Compatibility and deposit impacts on sensors, instrumentation or monitoring and control systems.

n Impact on trunk piston engine lubricating oil from biofuel combustion.

n Influence on exhaust emission abatement plant operation, e.g. Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) catalysts and monitoring and control systems.

NOX emissions

The use of biofuels in certain engines and conditions can lead to higher NOx emissions when compared to its petroleum-based distillate fuels. (Refer to 2.3 for regulatory guidance)

LR’s technical report on NOx from marine diesel engines using biofuels consolidates LR’s experiences with its shipping clients and industry feedback with sea trial findings on NOx emissions when using biofuels. It addresses the requirement that fuel oil derived by methods other than petroleum refining shall not cause an engine to exceed the applicable NOx emissions limit set forth in regulation 13 of MARPOL Annex VI (MARPOL Annex VI Regulation 18.3.2.2).

The main findings on NOx emissions in the report are:

1. In terms of magnitude, NOx emissions were not significantly increased across the load range, in any instances by the use of any of the biofuels trialled.

2. In terms of range, the majority of the NOx emission changes resulting from the use of those biofuels were no more than that level of trial repeatability.

3. Each combination of biofuel and engine has its own particular NOx emission characteristics.

4. For all the biofuel trials undertaken, there were no specific engine adjustments; the NOx critical settings or operating values were retained, as given in the respective Technical Files, as they would be for the use of the petroleum derived fuels.

Conclusion

Biofuels stand out among future shipping fuels because most of the world’s fleet can already use them. As a ‘drop-in’ replacement for fossil fuels, they provide an immediate, cost-effective way to cut carbon emissions without major investments. They also significantly reduce emissions of hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide.

Their similarity to fossil fuels also brings operational benefits, as existing safety protocols for handling petroleum products can be applied with minor adjustments. Extensive research has shown biofuels are safe for use in internal combustion engines, requiring minimal crew training compared to other future fuels.

The usage of biofuels in shipping is growing rapidly, driven by their lower environmental impact and regulatory advantages, despite higher costs. However, their availability remains a major challenge in both the near and long term. Studies show mixed forecasts for biomass and biofuel supply in the coming decades. Currently, biofuels are used mainly as blend components due to limited production volumes.

For regular use, biofuels must become more widely available at key bunkering locations. Moreover, emerging biofuels, such as those from unconventional feedstocks like CNSL or organic oils, need certification to be deemed safe for ship machinery. Trusted certification programs will be crucial in building buyer confidence and proving the sustainability of biofuels. Schemes like RSB and ISCC will help assess the carbon intensity and verify the origins of biofuels, ensuring they meet zero or near-zero GHG emission standards. The adoption of biofuels will depend on effective regulation to reduce emissions from ships. For biofuels to make commercial sense, the price premium for biofuels will need to be narrowed through mechanisms such as a carbon tax to incentivise the adoption of greener fuels. Depending on future carbon pricing, biofuels could become cost competitive with traditional fuels within a decade.

References

Guidelines for handling and blending FAME - Concawe

FuelEU Maritime - EU

Guidelines on the life-cycle analysis of marine fuels (LCA Guidelines) - IMO

Zero Carbon Fuel Monitor Biodiesel - LR MEPC.1/Circ.795/Rev.8 (July 2023) - IMO

Guidance Notes for Class and Statutory Approval and Use of Marine Biofuels (January 2023) - LR

LR Technical Report on NOx from marine diesel engines using biofuels - LR

CIMAC Guideline 04 2024. Marine-fuels containing FAME; A guideline for shipowners & operators

CIMAC Guideline 02 2024. ISO 8217:2024 - FAQ

CIMAC Guideline 03 2024. Overview and interpretation of total sediment test results in the context of ISO 8217:2024

CIMAC Guideline 05 2024. Design and operation of fuel cleaning systems for diesel engines

CIMAC Guideline 01 2024. The Interpretation of Marine Fuel Analysis Test Results

CIMAC Guideline 01 2019. Marine fuel handling in connection to stability and compatibility.

CIMAC Guideline 01 2015. Cold flow properties of marine fuel oils.

Standards

ISO 8217:2024 Products from petroleum, synthetic and renewable sources — Fuels (class F) — Specifications of marine fuels - ISO

EN 14214 Liquid petroleum products – Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) for use in diesel engines and heating applications – Requirements and test methods

ASTM D6751 Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel Blend Stock (B100) for Middle Distillate Fuels

EN 15940 Automotive fuels – Paraffinic diesel from synthesis or hydrotreatment – Requirements and test methods.

EN 590 Automotive fuels – Diesel – Requirements and test methods

BIOGRAPHY

JORGE MANUEL GOMES ANTUNES

TecnoVeritas

Dr Jorge Antunes has 40 years’ experience in ship performance and ship fleet energy management, becoming specialised on cruise ship environmental revamping, with a long track record on NOx control and decarbonization of existing vessels.

He served at sea, as a seagoing engineer, and obtained his BSc, MSc and PhD in Marine Technology from Newcastle University, becoming lecturer of MTEC at the University of Newcastle for 20 years. He covers, Nuclear, Diesel, Otto and gas turbine technologies, working as a consultant for some of the major engine manufacturers, in particular on dual fuel engines, he is presently developing the Hydrogen Pioneer project for MITSUBISHI.

Thirty years ago, he founded its own engineering innovation company, TecnoVeritas, Services of Engineering & Systems Technology ltd. The company won various prizes like SEATRADE AWARDS for Clean Shipping, Motorship and Green Projects Awards.

Author: Dr Jorge Antunes

Decarbonisation of the Existing Fleet, a new biofuel application BioHFO

Head of Innovation and Technical Manager, TecnoVeritas

Abstract

New decarbonisation regulatory standards, and goals are hard if not impossible to be achieved by most of the existing fleet vessels, posing a technology challenge to the marineindustry. Giventhatmanyvesselsinoperation todaywillbeinservice for another decade or more, effective decarbonisation solutions are time, and cost-critical, therefore a fast, feasible and non-expensive solution is required. This paper describes a novel solution for decarbonizing the existing fleet basedon a safe andextensive use of biofuel B100 together with HFO of any grade. The BioHFO project, launched in 2019, aimed to create a cost-effective “green” Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) fuel, that aligns with IMO and EU regulations and simultaneously defends shipowners from the stringent regulations in place. The paper makes an introduction to biofuel FAME or B100, outlines the advantages of combining B100 (100% Green) and VLSHFO, a method capable of substantial CO₂ reductions and their inherent ETS costs. Also presented are some research experimental results, supporting the development of the BioHFO system Additionally, it evaluates the potential of BioHFO for compliance with current and future regulatory standards, improving vessel Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) ratings and reducing costs under the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS). The BioHFO system results are also presented.

�ntro�uc�on

An important aspect to discuss decarbonisation, is that it is important to separate the possible technology solutions for the future fleet, from technology solutions for the existing fleet The existing fleet, depending on the type of the vessel is too new to be scrapped and therefore it will remain in service for the next decade or even more

Figure 1, represents the percentage of the vessels of main types as a function of their age

Page of 18

Figure 1. Types of vessels and their age percentage. (Source STATISTA)

As such, an urgent proven technology must be implemented to achieve the decarbonisation goals of IMO and EU regulations. From figure 1, it can be concluded that General cargo ships, Passenger vessels, and container vessels are not new, although there is no chance to stop these vessels,as the market needs them Only 17% of the general cargo vessels are less than 10 years old, being common to find these vessels approaching the25 yearsofoperation,thesameapplies toothers including most of the passenger vessels

��s��s

The FuelEU Maritime regulation mandates specific reductions in the GHG intensity of energy used on ships, measured as grams of CO₂ equivalent per megajoule (gCO₂e/MJ). The phased reduction targets are as follows:

2025: 2% reduction

2030: 6% reduction

2035: 13% reduction

2040: 26% reduction

2045: 59% reduction

2050: 80% reduction (compared to a 2020 baseline)

The IMO has set ambitious goals to lower SOx, NOx, and CO2 emissions: a 40% reduction in carbon intensity by 2030 and a 70% reduction by 2050, relative to a 2008 baseline

Page of 18

As the existing marine engines are already quite efficient, some of them have more than 50% thermal efficiency, it is important to propose to the marine industry better fuels, not necessarily hipocarbonic fuels with lower CO2 emissions but with compensated emissions, as it is the case of biofuels derived from used cooking oils and animal fat, known also by Fatty Acid MethylEsters (FAME) So, sustainability and interchangeability are the key aspects to consider for any fuel for marine purposes

FAME orB100,inverselytothealternativetechnologies like windsails,fuelcells andhull air lubrication, do not entail excessive costs nor reliability issues, provided it is used in a technically sound way.

Biofuels enclose a large number of possible different products, all based on biomasses, it is important that such biomasses are sustainable, i.e., do not compete with the food chain, either for humans or for animal feeding.

Considering the biofuel Fatty Acid Methyl Ester molecule Methyl Stearate (C₁₉H₃₈O₂), obtained from the transesterification of used cooking oils and animal fats, CO₂ emission reduction goals can be drastically reduced, as the feedstock used to obtain such molecules was already compensated, i.e., they are not more than waste transformed in a fuel.

FAME molecules can also serve “easily” as "drop-in" fuels, requiring minimal modifications to existing engines and vessel’s fuel systems. However, due to some negative results on theirearly tentative introduction as a marine fuel, the marineindustry has shown some reluctance to biofuels treating all of them in a cautious way.

Due to the referred first negative experiences, the called biodiesel has a maximum practical incorporation of 30% B100 (pure FAME) with 70% MGO, known as B30

B30 is a blend of 70% MGO and Fatty Acid Methyl Ester(supposedly ofrenewable B100 I.e., supposedly Methyl Stearate (C₁₉H₃₈O₂)), otherwise the CO2 emission factor may vary, namely if it is not of renewable origin (see FuelEU Regulations)

If the FAME used is not of renewable origin, then, carbon emission factors affect detrimentally the ship CII. A FAME certificate of origin, must be issued at any biodiesel bunkering operation,toobtain theFAME carbon emission factor E, asillustrated inFigure 2.

Oﬃcial support

Figure 2. PoS Proof of Sustainability Certificate example

Since the beginning of the BioHFO project, the Portuguese Maritime Authority, has been looking into ways of decarbonizing the Portuguese Fleet, and as such, candidate’s vessels received legal and financial support, receiving authorization to burn more than 30% FAME, provided it was used renewable B100 and the fuel system was designed to implement the maximum safety as possible i.e., the BioHFO

About FAME and HFO Molecule s

Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) are B100 molecules obtained through the transesterification of fatty acids with methanol. Examples include:

Methyl Stearate (C₁₉H₃₈O₂) – from animal fats and vegetable oils. Renewable.

Methyl Palmitate (C₁₇H₃₄O₂) – from palm oil. Non-renewable.

Methyl Oleate (C₁₉H₃₆O₂) – from olive oil and other vegetable oils. Nonrenewable

Methyl Linoleate (C₁₉H₃₄O₂) – from soybean and sunflower oils. Non-renewable

Methyl Linolenate (C₁₉H₃₂O₂) – from flaxseed oil Non-renewable

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The above molecules are diesel oil compatible, and as such, are commonly used as FAME molecules to produce biodiesel blend components with MGO, although only the Methyl Stearate is considered renewable or of the second generation, the others are obtained from dedicatedplantations,from cropsthat areconcurrentwiththehumanfood chain.

�irst�an� �e��n��enera��n �i��uels

First-generation biofuels, derived from food crops, pose challenges to food supply and prices. Second-generation biofuels, derived from non-food biomass and waste, offer a more sustainable decarbonisation solution Second-generation biofuels also improve decarbonisation metrics as their feedstocks have compensated carbon footprints For optimal outcomes in CII optimisation, sustainability certificates are mandatory for any bunkering operation involving B100 (biofuels 100%) fuel �ea�� uel �il �� ara�teris��s

HFO consists of dense hydrocarbons with a high sulphur content, nitrogen, and producing also high quantities of particulate matter, therefore having a significant environmental impact. Though slightly lower in carbon emissions than MGO, HFO generates higher particulate matter (PM), especially PM2.5, which has been associated various health risks, namely cancer.

Experimental Results

One of the main objectives of the project was the experimental study on the effect of incorporation of B100 with varying volume percentages ranging from 10% V/V to 50% V/V with Heavy Fuel Oil RMG Grade

The physicalproperties of both components are listed in table 1 and table 2 respectively By performing this parametric study on the incorporation by volume of B100 with HFO RMG Grade, it was possible to determine the ante-processing resulting fuel, which was then subjected to high-intensity ultrasounds and compared in terms of the improved combustion characteristics.

One other important objective was the study of the effect of high-intensity ultrasounds, to improve the mixture of HFO and B100. It was found that the effect of the high-intensity Ultrasounds, improved drastically the mixture, in terms of combustion development. Page of 18

Some experimental results and comments

Table 1. Heavy Fuel Oil physical characteristics RMG Grade used in the experimentation

Table 2. B100 physical characteristics used in the experimentation

Figure 3 Density versus processed % B100

FAME

Figure 4 Kinematic viscosity versus processed % B100

Point vs

(V/V) FAME + HFO)

Figure 5 Flashpoint versus processed % B100 Page 8 of

0,474

Sulphur vs % (V/V) FAME + HFO

% (V/V) B100 incorporation

Figure 6 Sulphur content versus processed % B100

In Service Results

As mentioned in the introduction, the BioHFO, is being produced and implemented onboard 10 Portuguese flagships and as the B100 incorporation is above the 30% recommended by some regulation bodies, the project was endorsed by the Portuguese Maritime Authority

Among the vessels, there are four passenger vessels, one Ro-Pax and five feeder container vessels

Among thedifferent types of vessels,the Pag e | 9CIIreality isquite different some are CII “A” rated, while other CII rated “F”

The graphs in figure 7 bellow illustrate the BioHFO on the impact on the CII rating for 10 vessels

Potential impact of BioHFO systemon the CII Portuguese vessels

CO2 Emitted in 2022 Expected CO2 emmited in 2026 CII impact in 2026

Figure 7. Impact on CII rating of BioHFO only on 10 existing vessels. Page of 18

Figure 8. Impact of using optimised incorporation of B100 with VLSHFO

Figure 8 illustrates the strong impact of BioHFO onvessels receiving the BioHFO system with optimised B100 quantity

Necessarily, to properly decarbonise existing vessels, it is necessary to have a thorough technical audit to explore energy conservation actions like energy recovery systems and integration of such energy systems For example, stop auxiliary boilers and use the generator’s exhaust gas energy for heating purposes.

Also is worth mentioning, that BioHFO system allows the European Trading Schem to be managed as required considering the CO2 allowances cost, as well as the CII and fuel costs

Considering the evolution of the emissions restriction mechanism of CII, in the years to come, BioHFO, poses an economic solution for a midterm to long-term solution

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Table 3. Impact of BioHFO on CO2 emissions.

As mentioned, despite some increase of NOx that may be observed in emissions of engines burning pure B100, the emissions levels are just about the same of the engines burning any other processed fuel percentage of residual fuel and B100, being evident the possible lower NOx emissions depending on the B100 component

Figure 9. NOx emission comparison between Diesel Oil, Residual Oil, B100 and blends of B30 to B80.

As mentioned, due to the existence of oxygen, lower kinematic viscosity, and the presence of pyrolytic radicals originated by the high-intensity ultrasound processing, the specific fuel consumptionwas found to decrease, therefore there is a decrease of carbon atoms and a consequent decrease of CO2 formation

This fact is illustrated in figure 9 as a function of load for a processed fuel of 20%B100 and 80MRK grade.

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Figure 10 CO2 emissions compared between HFO operation and B20 processed fuel

The Table 2 in Annex 1, is the summary of the expected fuel properties after being processed by the BioHFO module as a function of the incorporation percentage of B100 and compared with the different fuel Grades of residual fuel grades as per ISO82172017. All the parameters in red, are slightly exceed the quality of the Grade in question, but the resulting fuel is ok to burn in any circumstance.

For MGO/HFO+B100 samples, exhibit a decrease in the concentration of the different elements (C, H and N), with a more pronounced reduction in carbon (around 6.34%), which suggests a lower CO2 emission This fact is illustrated in figure 10

Processing fuel oil or marine diesel oil allows savings of around 40% in terms of CO2, allowing the customer to save 41.22% on the tonnes of CO2 emitted intotheatmosphere.

BioHFO Other Aspects

Based on the previous research, it was decided to provide an on-board solution for achieving CII compliance and reducing operational and ETS costs to an optimised minimum.

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Figure 11 Evolution of EU Carbon Permits cost €/CO2 tonne during 2024

Can be seen in figure 11, the EU Carbon Permits cost has been changing over the months during the present year. Considering the increased hardening of the CO2 emissions limits, the percentage of B100 to be processed needs to be economically defined, as this way the cost of optimising a particular vessel CII, may be counterbalanced by the cost of ETS permits

Therefore, a system christened as BioHFO was designed to process in-line B100 and VLSHFO (the sulphur-compliant cheapest marine fuel) and to offer what the market cannot offer to the industry, i.e., optimised “processed fuels” anywhere in the world, with renewable B100 to obtain a “cleaner” fuel, that will optimize combustion properties and lower emissions

BioHFO illustrated in figure 12, is not a blending system and does not use any blending tank or mixer, in fact to avoid the negative results reported in the past, B100 is kept segregatedfrom any mineralfuel (MGO orHFO) so that therisk of incompatibility,sludge deposition, or extreme oxidation originating deterioration of the FAME due to high storage temperature is avoided.

The processing unit is fitted just before the engine “Fuel Module”, being the processed fuel fed into it, just a few seconds before being injected into the engine cylinders. The returned fuel from the engine, enters into the mixing tank of the existing “Fuel Module”, and as such, it never comes back to the service tank

The control system is fully automated, i.e., the required quantity of B100 and HFO are entered in terms of percentage, being the system adaptable to the engine load. The usageof eachofthetwocomponents (B100 and HFO) is loggedforeffects ofCII control, FuelEU and MRV A comprehensive safety and alarm philosophy is implemented and Type Approved by major classes

The processing process

The quantities of B100 and HFO need to be defined by the economic objectives of the company, for example, to maintain a CII equal to “C”, at the lowest possible cost. As a first step the quantities of B100 and HFO are defined, so that both clean fuels, are metered by using Coriolis flowmeters, and are blended and immediately processed into two cavitation chambers where the high-intensity ultrasound enhances the fuel’s physical and chemical properties by:

Improving Reaction Rates: Cavitation (small gas bubble collapse in liquid) cracks the long-chain molecules and reorganizes them into smaller molecules, easier to burn

Enhanced Mixing: High-intensity ultrasound disperses cracked FAME and HFO molecules, promoting their rearrangement through covalent connections.

Molecular Size Reduction: Strong cavitation breaks large FAME clusters, improving combustion atomization

Oxidation and isomerization: The process aids the HFO and FAME molecules oxidation, improving combustion efficiency and lowering particulate emissions

Theoxidationprocessthat themolecules undergo, enhancedbythepresence ofoxygen, enables a cleaner burn with less CO and PM compared to HFO. Despite potentially increasing NOx emissions, BioHFO maintains or reduces NOx levels in most marine engine applications as it is illustrated in figure 7 below

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Figure 12. The aspect of one BioHFO hardware module

Conclusion

The BioHFO system represents a cost-effective, on-board fuel processing solution that significantly relief in the decarbonisation of the maritime sector, yielding benefits for Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) ratings and Emission Trading System (ETS) costs. By optimizing the processed B100 and Residual fuel BioHFO reduces emissions without compromising fuel stability or operational reliability.

This studypresentedpracticalresults from theBioHFO project,specifically inthecontext of decarbonizing the Portuguese maritime merchant fleet, focusing on processing residual fuel grades under ISO 8217 standards with B100. Key findings are as follows:

Incorporation percentages of B100 ETS (ETS control cost)

It was one of the objectives of this R&D project to investigate the possibility of using onboard processing of B100 with all residual fuel grades as per ISO8217 It was found that incorporations of B100 up to 50%, willimprove the combustion characteristics ofthe resulting processed fuel

Counteracting the high market cost of B100, is the avoided cost of Carbon allowances, whichdespitethe relativelylower trading cost these days, it is certain thatwill keep rising again

In-line processing

It was found, that the onboard in-line processing will limit drastically any type of possible problems like wax deposition, incompatibility and contaminations. Also, the segregation of bunkering tanks including bunkering lines is highly desirable for the same reasons

Also, onboard in-line processing will allow the ship owner or operator to optimise the incorporation of B100 based on the cost-benefit analysis scheme for the years to come

Sonochemistry

The preparation of the in-line process of B100 and Residual fuel processing, also promotes great flexibility in terms of incorporation of B100, but through the use of HighIntensity Ultrasounds the combustion characteristics of the resulting fuel are achieved through the oxidation, oxygen radicals (-OH) and absence of large asphaltenes agglomerates

The BioHFO is controlled by a strict adaptative control system, based on the measured engine load, having inline measurement of processed fuel oil characteristics like kinematic viscosity and density

Enhanced Fuel Properties and Emissions:

Residual marine fuels exhibit poorer fuel characteristics compared to distillate marine fuels (DMA) and B100 Blending residual-grade fuels with B100 not only enhances the physical and combustion properties of the fuel but also lowers emissions, improving the

CII.Proper certification of the resulting fuel can further reduce ETS or similar carbon capand-trade costs

Improved Safety through Higher Flash Point:

The higher flash point of B100 relative to marine residual and distillate fuels enhances the safety profile of the processed fuels, ensuring that safety standards are maintained

Sulphur Content Compliance:

Marine residualfuel oil may containupto 4.5 wt%sulphur basedonISO 8217 standards, whereas B100 is nearly sulphur-free Incorporating B100 into marine fuels results in a desirable decrease in sulphur content, aligning with the requirements of the 2008 MARPOL Annex VI amendment However, onboard fuel must remain below the 0.5% sulphur limit

Reduced Kinematic Viscosity:

Adding B100 to marine fuels reduces kinematic viscosity. For instance, incorporating 20 vol% B100 into an 80% RMA fuel blend decreases viscosity by 12.9%, improving fuel handling and efficiency

Enhanced Specific Fuel Oil Consumption (SFOC):

The reduced viscosity of the processed fuel leads to improved atomization, and the oxygen content in B100 molecules contributes to more efficient combustion This compensates for the potentially lower heating value of B100, also resulting in lower particulate emissions

Cleaner Engine Operation:

Engines, specifically piston rings and turbochargers, operate with significantly reduced carbon residue accumulation when running on BioHFO. Biodiesel combustion releases substantially lesscarbonresidue comparedtoresidualmarinefuels, withcarbon residue reductions up to 23.6% when 25 vol% B100 is blended with RMA.The of Lower Heating Value by Improved Combustion:

Although B100 has a lower heating value, this is counterbalanced by improved combustion quality and enhanced turbocharger cleanliness, resulting in more efficient and cleaner fuel use

Summarising, BioHFO offersa viable pathwayfor achieving decarbonisation goals inthe maritime sector, especially for the existing fleet, with considerable improvements in fuel efficiency, emissions reduction, and regulatory compliance and its inherent cost (ETS).

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References

LabTecno, Technical Report R-2306-025 “Investigação e Desenvolvimento para Blending em linha de B100 em HFO e MGO”, 2023;

ISO8217:2024, “Products from petroleum, synthetic and renewable sources — Fuels (class F) — Specifications of marine fuels”, Edition 7, 2024, ISO;

Cherng-Yuan Lin “Effects of Biodiesel Blend on Marine Fuel Characteristics for Marine Vessels” OPEN ACESS energies ISSN 1996-1073, Vol.6, 2013, 9, p.4945-4955.

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Bio-Fuels: Operational Experience for 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke Engines

BIOGRAPHY

STEFAN FAHRNHOLZ

Manager R&D - Decarbonisation, Carnival

Maritime

Stefan Fahrnholz is an R&D enthusiast at Carnival Maritime in Hamburg, the maritime operator of AIDA and Costa cruise ships. He specializes in decarbonization, with a particular focus on alternative fuels strategy. Stefan’s work encompasses a broad spectrum, from market scouting to the implementation of pilot projects aboard the ships and assessment of regulatory interplay.

Stefan holds an academic background in naval architecture and marine engineering. Prior to his current role, he worked at Neptun Ship Design in Rostock, where he contributed and developed expertise in fields of machinery and R&D.

Bio-Fuels: Operational Experience for 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke Engines

REMCO DE WITTE

Global Application Manager, Fuel & Lubrication Oil treatment, Alfa Laval

BIOGRAPHY

Remco de Witte works as Global Application Manager in the Fuel & Lubrication Oil treatment systems department of Alfa Laval’s Marine Division. In this role he has been part of several pilot projects around biofuel applications onboard. Remco has recently finalized a post graduate degree in Maritime Energy Management at the World Maritime University and is currently part time seconded by Alfa Laval to the Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller Center for Zero Carbon Shipping, part of Alfa Laval’s active contribution to decarbonization.

Marine biofuels - What to expect in the coming decades

1. Introduction

International shipping is responsible for a significant share of global CO2 emissions and corresponding emissions of other greenhouse gases (GHG), expressed collec.tively as a CO2 equivalent (CO2e). The industry emitted an estimated 1,056 million tonnes of CO2 in 2018, which is 2.89% of the global GHG emissions during the same year.1 Reducing carbon intensity is crucial for sustainable maritime transportation, and it requires a transition to cleaner energy sources with lower emissions.

As world trade demand and shipping activities continue to grow, the future trajectory of GHG emissions depends on collective actions. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), which is committed to combatting climate change, is aligning with industries, agreements and development goals2 worldwide. IMO is taking urgent action by addressing key issues and implementing reforms to achieve GHG reductions.

Recently, IMO revised its strategy. Decisions reached in mid-2023 during the 80th meeting of IMO’s Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), MEPC 80, aim to achieve significant reductions in CO2e emissions related to shipping. While maintaining the goal of a 40% reduction in CO2e emissions by 2030 compared to 2008, the revised strategy updates the target for 2050 to net zero GHG emissions.3 To support the revised strategy, IMO is adopting short-, mediumand long-term measures.

A transition to alternative fuels is necessary to reach IMO’s CO2e reduction goals and limit GHG emissions from international shipping as soon as possible.

A number of different fuel types are being discussed as potential replacements for fossil fuels, including green and blue hydrogen, ammonia, methanol and biogas. However, as the supply infrastructure and technological readiness for these fuels remain to be developed, these fuel solutions are measures for the long term.

Among the fuel alternatives, biofuels have been iden.tified as a low-carbon option that is relatively easy for the shipping sector to adopt as a short-term measure. Several biofuel types are already available, including fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and hydrotreated vegeta. ble oil (HVO). To accommodate the growing demand for sustainable fuels, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) revised the ISO 8217 specification of the marine fuel standard in 2024, allowing the use of FAME in unlimited blend concentrations in both distillate and residual fuel grades.

Even more biofuel types are expected to become avail.able in the near future. Yet while biofuels can contribute to reaching the IMO GHG reduction targets leading up 2050, the amounts available today are not enough to meet them. In addition, international sustainability requirements are under development to consider the full biofuel life cycle from production to use.

This paper focuses primarily on FAME and HVO, two available biofuel options that are considered favourable for the marine industry. It explores their advantages and challenges with regard to storage, treatment and opera.tion, as well as the production processes and sustainabil.ity aspects associated with them.

1 International Maritime Organization (IMO), 2020

2. Examples include United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 13 and the European Union’s Fit for 55 package.

3. International Maritime Organization (IMO), 2023

2. Biofuels in overview

2.1 What are biofuels?

Biofuels are fuels produced primarily with energy from renewable sources and biomass such as fats and veg CO2 etable oils. First-generation biofuels, which are the most widely available, are produced from feedstocks such as agricultural crops, vegetable oil or food waste. Secondgeneration biofuels are produced from non-food biomass and waste streams such as forest biomass and agricultural crop residues. Third-generation biofuels, which are still under development, derive from algae and microbes.

Today’s broad range of biomass-based fuels includes FAME, HVO, pyrolysis oils and alcohols such as ethanol and methanol. FAME and HVO, like ethanol, are among the many biofuels that have been adopted for automotive use. Based on experience from the automotive industry, FAME and HVO are believed to have the greatest poten.tial for application in marine diesel engines.

2.2 Biomass production and its impact

Although biofuels come from renewable sources, they are not without environmental downsides. One concern is the land used for growing biomass, especially when it comes to first-generation biofuels.

Biomass is generally grown on cropland that was previously used for agriculture. Competition with food production limits biofuel scalability, but it presents wider challenges as well. While the demand for biofuels has increased, the need for food and animal feed has not de.creased. On the contrary, biomass production is pushing agriculture into non-cropland areas, including areas with high carbon stock, e.g. forests, wetlands and peatlands.

The shift in land use due to biomass production is called indirect land use change (ILUC). Because ILUC may cause the release of CO2e stored in trees and soil, it risks negating the GHG savings from an increased share of biofuels in the market.4 It is therefore important to align biomass production with the agreements and energy policies that ensure best environmental, social and eco.nomic practices.

4. European Commission (EC), 2018

2.3 Biofuels in relation to GHG emissions

The potential of biofuels to reduce full-lifecycle GHG emis.sions, or well-to-wake (WTW) emissions in marine terms, varies according to the biogenic nature of their carbon. Some of them, such as advanced biofuels derived from woody biomass, can reduce GHG emissions by more than 90% compared to traditional marine fuel oils.

If combined with carbon capture and storage, a sustainably produced biofuel has the potential to be a net-zero-emission fuel.5 However, if the source of the feedstock contributes to ILUC, or if the energy used during refining has a negative impact on GHG emissions, the biofuel may have higher WTW GHG emissions. Thus, the feedstock source and the energy used in production are perhaps among the most important aspects to consider when evaluating a biofuel’s sustainability profile.

Although biofuels hold promise and are seen as key in the transition towards net zero emissions, they are not considered to have full potential as carbon-neutral fuels.

In addition to the sustainability factors already discussed, the production costs and the fact that biofuels are also needed in aviation and other sectors mean limited availability of biofuels to the marine industry.

2.4 Operational considerations when using biofuels

Because biofuels are very similar to today’s petroleum fuels, they are often spoken of as drop-in fuels. However, the chemical and physical properties of biofuels – including FAME (a biodiesel) and HVO (renewable diesel) – differ from those of fossil fuels in certain critical areas. As a result, biofuels require careful attention in respect to fuel handling and treatment on board.

The rest of this document examines FAME and HVO specifically, elaborating on their main differences from traditional fuels. The following chapters highlight the onboard issues related to fuel line equipment, which includes tanks, pumps, separators, fuel conditioning systems and filters. In addition, they explore the effects of these biofuels on engine performance.

5. EMSA, 2023

3. FAME – fatty acid methyl esters

3.1 General characteristics of FAME

FAME is a so-called biodiesel oil. Biodiesels are derived exclusively from fats and oils such as animal fats (e.g. tallow oil), vegetable oils (e.g. palm oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil) and used cooking oil.

More specifically, FAME comprises mono-alkyl esters produced through a transesterification process. Triglyceride from the feedstock reacts with methanol in the presence of a catalyst, which forms a mixture of FAME and glycerol.6 FAME’s physical and chemical characteristics depend on the length (number of carbons) and unsaturation level of the fatty acid molecule.

The exact chemical composition of a FAME fuel depends on both the feedstock and how the feedstock is processed. The production of FAME is a delicate, dynamic process that must be carefully controlled, as faults lead to composition changes, such as acid or glycol remaining in the FAME.

The unsaturation level of FAME molecules affects the behaviour of the fuel, such as its oxidation stability and cold flow properties. For example, oxidation is more likely to occur when the molecule chains of the feedstock have a higher level of unsaturation. Meanwhile, the cold flow properties of unsaturated FAME are generally better than those of highly saturated FAME.7 On the other hand, FAME produced from a feedstock that contains more saturated fatty acids has a lower tendency to react with other substances.

As a biodiesel, FAME can replace MDO and MGO in low- to medium-speed diesel engines. However, it is more commonly used as a blending component. Depending on its chemical composition, FAME in neat form can be compromised by cold weather, thereby causing problems in older engine systems.

6. European Biofuels – Technology Platform, 2011

7. International Council on Combustion Engines (CIMAC), 2024

3.3 Storage and treatment of FAME on board

FAME has characteristics that necessitate careful attention when it is used as a marine fuel. Storage and treatment routines must be adapted to mitigate the possible risks.

3.3.1 Water and microbial growth

The water content in fuels can be classified as free, emulsified and soluble water. FAME’s chemical composition and solvency characteristics result in a stronger affinity for water compared to petroleum-derived fuels, meaning that FAME attracts water more easily. The methyl esters absorb water and retain it in suspension within the fuel, whereas fossil fuels do not absorb or retain moisture to the same extent. Fossil fuels tend to shed water, producing a bottom layer of it in the storage tanks.

Water in the fuel often comes from water contamination. For example, water may enter the bunker tank by means of inadequate ventilation or leaking coils. FAME is also able to absorb moisture from the air (dissolving it to a level of 1000–1500 ppm) and form stable emulsions that make it prone to microbial contamination.8

Bacteria and fungi require moisture to grow and reproduce. Pockets of water within a tank create perfect conditions for uncontrollable growth, which may be devastating for the biofuel. By way of example, a 2014 survey performed by ECHA Microbiology Ltd. Guardian Marine Testing and Lloyds Register Marine examined samples of DMA-grade MGO containing some amount of FAME. Of the 2346 samples tested, around 45% displayed evidence of microbial growth.9

Microbial growth is a key challenge for FAME operation, as it poses a risk of clogging within the system. Consequently, microbial contamination can and should be controlled by minimizing water content. Water should be removed from the storage system actively and continuously, and frequent water level checks are recommended. Because condensate also contributes to higher water content, the tanks should be kept as full as possible.

Note that time is also needed for microbes to grow. Using the fuel as soon as possible is more critical for FAME than it is for fossil fuels.

Due to environmental and health concerns, reducing microbial growth with biocides is generally not recommended. Instead, thorough housekeeping of the fuel system is key. Clean tanks, continuous dewatering and control over the separation process allow FAME to be used just like any petroleum fuel.

8. Kalligeros et al., 2013

9. Hill et al., 2015

3.3.2 Oxidation risks

FAME’s oxidation stability must also be managed. FAME is less resistant to oxidation than petroleum-derived fuels, meaning it is more prone to degrade over time and form hydroperoxides, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, alcohols and insoluble material. These degradation products may lead to issues with cold flow properties, microbial growth, separation during storage and emissions when combust.ed. Additionally, the formation of acid groups can affect the fuel’s compatibility with metals and polymers.

Increased water content will accelerate the formation of acid products, because water facilitates the hydrolysis of esters into carboxylic acids when acids (low pH) or bases (high pH) are present.10 Moreover, adding water to FAME can cause soapy sludge to form. Saponification occurs when free fatty acids, stemming from an incomplete reaction in the production or degradation of FAME, react with water and salts. These interactions further underline the importance of good fuel system housekeeping, water removal and timely use of the fuel.

FAME’s high solvency may cause deposits within the fuel tanks and treatment systems to dislodge, creating a risk of clogging throughout the fuel line. Furthermore, it can degrade rubber parts or cause a reaction with certain metals.11 Some materials in the fuel system may be in.compatible, and the severity of this depends on the fuel’s FAME concentration and the amount of exposure.12

In order to limit the degradation of FAME, ISO and CEN have specified oxidation stability in ISO 8217 and EN 14214, respectively. However, FAME’s degradation and the resulting formation of acid products is inevitable. To avoid irreversible damage to fuel system components, corrosion must be monitored continuously, preferably by means of frequent visual inspections.13

In light of these concerns, a high level of caution and attention is recommended when operating on FAME for first time. Vessel operators should employ a low fuel flow, careful temperature management and other separation optimization strategies to facilitate efficient solids removal.

10. Felby and Hsieh, 2017

11. CIMAC, 2024

12. Alfa Laval has investigated compatibility with fuel blends containing FAME in various concentrations. Degradation effects were evaluated on various wetted components made of polymeric materials and steel, such as O-rings, seal rings and discs. The tested fuel blends were shown to be compatible, producing no noteworthy evidence of material degradation. However, fuel blends containing degradation products or off-spec FAME may degrade these materials if the components are used for an extended period of time.

13. Today’s Alfa Laval marine separators can withstand the acidity of FAME that conforms to EN 14214 or ASTM D6751, as well as the acidities specified in all fuel grades of ISO 8217. For older equipment, however, Alfa Laval recommends verifying compatibility.

3.3.3 Wax formation

FAME has a low viscosity, comparable to that of diesel oil. However, since it contains paraffins rather than glycerines, wax formation and wax precipitation are more severe and occur at higher temperatures. The cloud point for diesel oil blends, the wax appearance temperature (WAT) for residual oil blends and the wax disappearance temperature (WDT) are dependent on the specific fuel blend and may differ greatly between blends.

The temperatures for both storage and separation should always exceed the FAME’s cloud point or WAT. If wax crystals appear, the FAME must be heated to above its wax melting point in order to regain liquid properties. Normally, onboard gas oil systems have limited heating capabilities, which means the system design and ambient temperatures during sailing must be considered when selecting a suitable fuel. If the systems do not provide sufficient heating capabilities, there is a risk that any wax formed will keep the biofuel from being utilized and reaching the engine inlet as intended.

Waxes can form locally as well as generally. When stored in a double bottom tank, fuel can be cooled due to cold seawater conditions, especially when the vessel moves from summer to winter areas. These local waxes will reveal themselves later, when the tank is put in use, leading to the same problems mentioned above. While tank heating facilities can mitigate the risk, localized wax formation will always be a problem. It can best be countered by keeping FAME in areas on board where the surrounding temperature is not close to the cloud point. Although a sufficiently high storage temperature is required, note that temperatures which are too high may cause substances in the fuel to react and precipitate, resulting in a gum-like material. It is therefore important to avoid concentrated spots of higher temperature, i.e. hotspots

Vessels designed for biofuel will have their fuel and tank installations designed in a way that enables recirculation and heating. Likewise, they will have an appropriate tank coating and proper tank drainage. Fuel system designers and shipyards are expected to anticipate these needs and facilitate proper biofuel treatment.

To further help avoid issues with wax, vessel operators should make a routine of taking fuel samples from each bunker. The samples should be sent for laboratory analysis, always specifying the cold flow properties, and the new bunker should not be used until the laboratory report is received. Fuel contamination investigations have shown that fuel composition differs even among blends with the same notation, and that a proper quality surveillance program can help prevent undesired events.14

3.4 Combustion of FAME

When using FAME, the peak combustion temperature, which affects NOx formation, can be lowered by reducing the injection pressure and retarding injection times. The specifics of doing this should be confirmed with the engine maker.

Because FAME contains almost no sulphur, it drastically reduces emissions of SOx and particulate matter (PM).

14. CIMAC, 2013

4. HVO – hydrotreated vegetable oil

4.1 General characteristics of HVO

HVO, or renewable diesel, is derived through hydrogenation. It is also known as hydrotreated esters and fatty acids (HEFA) or hydrotreated renewable oil (HRO). HVO is produced from the same biomass as FAME, but it may also be produced from residual crops and industrial waste like wood spill.

HVO can be considered a first-generation or second-generation biofuel, depending on the biomass used. HVO made from biomass such as vegetable oils, e.g. palm oil, soybean oil or rapeseed oil, is a first-generation biofuel. HVO made from biomass such as residual crops or industrial waste is a second-generation biofuel. As a second-generation biofuel, HVO has a much smaller WTW carbon footprint compared to MGO – only 8–48 CO2e/MJ compared to 85–87 g CO2e/MJ.15

HVO, just like petroleum fuels, consists of hydrocarbons. However, the hydrocarbons in petroleum fuels are a mix, comprising both paraffins and aromatics. Because HVO is produced through hydrogenation, its hydrocarbons are mainly paraffins. This leads to new challenges when using it, such as a lower density that has an impact for marine vessels.

HVO quality is not specified in any marine fuel standard, but it is defined in the standard for automotive paraffinic diesel fuels: EN 590 B7 and EN 15940:2016 class A. Its density, 765–800 kg/m3, is specified in EN 15940:2016+A1:2018 +AC:2019 class A. Diesel engines can run on neat HVO, which is why the automotive indus.try considers it drop-in fuel. On marine vessels, however, the lower density places added requirements on the fuel treatment system.

4.2 Storage and treatment of HVO on board

HVO can be stored and treated in much the same way as marine petroleum distillate. In contrast to FAME, it is not more prone to microbial growth than fossil diesel oils. Nevertheless, the low fuel density may require adjust.ment of the separator for efficient water removal.

4.3 Combustion of HVO

EN 15940 specifies an HVO flashpoint of 55°C, which would violate onboard safety requirements that specify a minimum flashpoint of 60°C. This issue can easily be avoided by ordering HVO with a minimum flashpoint of 60°C.

Because HVO contains neither aromatics nor sulphur, it burns cleaner than fossil diesel oil. When combusted efficiently, it results in only minor soot formation, which limits ash content and protects the quality and lifetime of the lubrication oil.

The great density difference between HVO and residual fuels, however, increases the risk of soot formation and asphaltene precipitation during a fuel changeover.

15. Fridell et al., 2019

5. The outlook for biofuels

The introduction of the 0.50% sulphur limit on 1 January 2020 brought about a major change in fuel handling on board. The announced intent to decarbonize the shipping industry by 2050, with the first major milestone in 2030, has changed the industry as a whole.

In the short term, fleets have already begun taking steps to reduce GHG emissions. Indeed, some shipowners have been forced to do so to meet the requirements of the Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) and the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) or Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index (EEXI) for a given vessel. Engine power limitation, or slow steaming, is the easiest option today, and it is likely that that speed limits will soon be imposed on certain vessels or in certain regions. Both measures mean longer voyage times and will eventually lead to more vessels sailing on a given route.

Ultimately, decarbonizing the shipping industry will require switching to clean and sustainable fuels. As a result of the 2020 sulphur cap, alternatives to HSFO have already become more common. However, VLSFO and MGO do not affect a vessel’s carbon footprint. This point is acknowledged in IMO’s default carbon factors (amount of CO2 produced per tonne of fuel burned), which show very similar values for HSFO, VLSFO and MGO.

LNG has been seen as a clean alternative to fuel oil, producing no particulate matter, no sulphur emissions and 20% less CO2 per unit of energy when combusted. However, the dominant component of LNG is methane, which is itself a strong GHG. Since not all methane is burned during combustion (so-called methane slip), LNG may actually be a larger contributor to global warming than fuel oil. Both IMO and the EU are currently consid.ering the total WTW emissions for LNG, and the impact of regulation could have a severe impact on the LNG business case.

Simply put, meeting the IMO targets will require contin.ued innovation and the introduction of other fuel alternatives, as well as constant effort to reduce onboard energy demand. Development and testing are well underway in both the automotive and marine industries, but there are still many challenges left to solve. New fuel infrastructures will need to be laid out and renewable production set up, just as vessels will need to be designed for operation on the new fuel alternatives.

Biofuels like FAME and HVO are viable alternatives in many ways. They lower emission levels significantly compared to traditional marine fuel oils, and they are easy to integrate into existing fuel infrastructure and onboard treatment plants. However, their availability to the marine industry – and their pricing – is highly dependent on global availability and competition with other sectors.

Global biofuel production remains far below the levels needed to support today’s growing shipping industry, especially with the aviation and automotive industries requiring their own very large share. Likewise, much of the world’s vegetable oil supply is and will be needed as a critical food source. Depending on the type of biomass used, the production of biofuels can also lead to further environmental challenges, for example through deforest.ation and heavy water consumption.

Technical challenges remain as well. If biofuels are the way forward, lubrication oil producers will have to adapt. Despite the high total acid number (TAN) in FAME, both FAME and HVO are sulphur-free. This requires marine engine lubrication oils with a low total base number (TBN) and high detergency, so as to lubricate the engine efficiently and prevent scuffing. The continued use of a centrifugal separator to remove contaminants (insoluble content and water) from the lubrication oil will be needed to promote engine longevity and efficiency, no matter which biofuel oil is used.

Regardless of these factors, biofuels are likely to domi.nate in the near future, due to their existing supply chain and the ease of integrating them into current fuel and onboard infrastructure. In the coming years, the develop.ment of additional biofuel types and their implementation on board can be expected. Furthermore, ongoing work with the short-term measures that support IMO’s GHG strategy – EEDI, EEXI and CII – will likely make biofuels even more attractive.

EEDI and EEXI only account for tank-to-wake (TTW) emissions, but CII will account for WTW emissions as a result of the MEPC 80 guideline update. This marks the start of fuel lifecycle consideration with regard to emissions, and the development of a comprehensive WTW method to account for biofuel GHG emissions is expected. Likewise, IMO is developing legislation to include WTW emissions for all fuel types. This would have a positive effect on the energy efficiency calculation for most biofuels, making them even more preferable than they are today.

No matter which fuels become dominant in coming years, pilot fuels will still need to be cleaned, and lubrica.tion and control oil must remain in good condition. Thus, at least one thing is clear when it comes to biofuels: fuel oil and lubrication oil treatment will remain a necessity.

6. Financial considerations

A cost comparison between biofuels and fossil fuel oils shows that biofuels are significantly more expensive (Figure 1). However, FAME and HVO prices are volatile (Figure 2). They are highly dependent on both region and the price of the feed stock, which is largely independent from the crude oil price.

A cost comparison between biofuels and fossil fuel oils shows that biofuels are signifcantly more expensive (Figure 1). However, FAME and HVO prices are volatile (Figure 2). They are highly dependent on both region and the price of the feed stock, which is largely independent from the crude oil price.

To drive the use of biofuels in the marine market, strict legislation is needed – either in the form of regulation or in the form of economic incentives such as CO2 taxation.

The required tank volume plays a very important part in the evaluation of alternative fuels. Even though HVO is a low-density fuel, it has a relatively high volumetric energy content (34.4 GJ/m3) and hence requires less storage space than FAME (Figure 3).

To drive the use of biofuels in the marine market, strict legislation is needed – either in the form of regulation or in the form of economic incentives such as CO2 taxation.

Biofuel (B24, B30) 800–900

Biofuel (B100) 1000–1500

Ammonia (grey) 1300–1500

Methanol (bio) 2450–2550

Ammonia (green) 2800–2900

mass in metric tonnes and energy content in gigajoules (Biofuel Express, 2022; Neste 2022, Ship & Bunker 2022)

Figure 2: Price levels, Q4 2023. (Data source: DNV Alternative Fuels Insight)

Figure 3: Volumetric comparison of fuels expressed per equivalent energy content of MGO (=1) (Neste, 2020; Ship & Bunker, 2020)

7. Summary

The marine fuel market must change for the sector to cut global GHG emissions and reach the goals of the Paris Agreement. Biofuels, such as FAME and HVO, will con. tribute to decarbonizing the global shipping industry and are an excellent fuel option for reducing emissions today. To be truly sustainable, however, biofuels require sus. tainably sourced feedstocks, produced with the smallest land use footprint.

FAME and HVO are often considered drop-in fuels. As they require little or no modification to the existing tech.nology on board, they are a safe fuel choice when used according to the well-established safety procedures for diesel operation. Nonetheless, biofuel operation places new requirements on both equipment and operators. Special attention should be paid to a number of factors, including fuel storage and treatment.

When bunkering biofuels, the properties of each bunker should be analysed on a case-by-case basis. Fuel quality varies significantly, and fuel that is of low quality or out.side the latest marine fuel standard specifications poses a great risk of equipment breakdown. Moreover, there is a risk of incompatibility when mixing biofuels with residual and/or distillate fuels.

The most common issues when running on biofuels are related to storage and a low viscosity that is very dependent on temperature. Especially for FAME, microbial growth and oxidation must also be kept under control. This puts emphasis on tank and equipment cleanliness, as well as the fuel storage time. To avoid problems, vessel operators should ensure proper housekeeping and understand the biofuel in use, including how well it matches the onboard equipment.

The Alfa Laval Test & Training Centre in Aalborg, Denmark, includes facilities for testing both gas-related solutions and biofuels. It is the world’s most advanced test centre for environmental and combustion technology for the marine industry.

Biofuels can be treated in the same way as petroleum fuels. However, frequent and careful temperature checks are required. Sludge build-up, either from the fuel itself or from residues within the fuel system, may necessitate more frequent discharges or other optimization meas. ures, such as a lower fuel flow.

The solvency properties of biofuels are reason for ad.ditional control and maintenance, as they may degrade rubber and react with certain metals.

Finally, the flashpoint of FAME and HVO must be considered, as it affects both emissions and lubrication oil quality.

Based on all these factors, FAME and HVO require thought-through solutions before uptake. Fuel treatment equipment must be verified and possibly upgraded for operation with biofuels, especially if it was not originally designed with biofuels in mind. Likewise, crews must be prepared before putting these fuels to use. Discussion with experts is advised, especially when it comes to the needs surrounding fuel treatment equipment.

Cetane number

Density @ 15°C [kg/m3]

Flashpoint [°C]

Viscosity @ 40°C [mm2/s]

Lubricity [µm]

Aromatics [% (m/m)]

Sulphur content [mg/kg]

Carbon residue on 10% distillation

residue [% (m/m)]

Sulphated ash content [% (m/m)]

Water content [% m/m]

Total contamination [mg/kg]

Oxidation stability @ 110°C [h]

Acid value [mg KOH/g]

Cloud point [°C]

(CFPP) [°C]

Bibliography

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• Biofuel Express. 2022. List prices from Biofuel Express. Available at: https://www.biofuel-express. com/hvo100/ [Accessed: 20220314].

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• Hill, G., O’Malley, L. & Williams, G. 2015. A Global Survey of the Incidence of FAME and Microbial Contamination in Marine Distillate Fuels. Available at: https://echamicrobiology.com/ knowledge-hub/technical-publication/a-global-survey-of-the-incidence-of-fame-and-microbialcontamination-in-marine-distillate-fuels [Accessed: 20240711].

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• Ship & Bunker. 2020. Integr8: VLSFO Calorific Value, Pour Point and Competitiveness with LSMGO. Available at: https://shipandbunker.com/news/world/662089-integr8-vlsfo-calorific-valuepour-point-and-competitiveness-with-lsmgo [Accessed:20210326].

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THE RIGHT SPARE PART, ALWAYS AT

PHILIPP SIMMANK

Technical Advisor, VDR – German Shipowners‘ Association

BIOGRAPHY

As the Technical Advisor for Climate, Marine Research & Digitalization at the German Shipowners‘ Association VDR, Philipp Simmank is coordinating and representing the interests of the VDR and its members on the key topics of climate protection, research, development and funding of relevant ship- and in particular propulsion-technologies, alternative fuels, and digitalization towards national and international institutions (e.g. federal minis-tries and state authorities, partner associations, European and international shipowners’ associations and the International Maritime Organization IMO).

After having worked over a decade in the Two-stroke Marine Engine Research and Development Division of MAN Energy Solutions SE in Copenhagen, Denmark, Philipp recently moved back to Germany to complement the VDR-team. As a Senior Research Engineer at MAN ES Denmark, he was in charge for all topics evolving around the environmental certification of large twostroke marine engines. Involvement in various new-building and retrofit projects (especially dual fuel conversions) worldwide allowed him to gather sound marine knowledge and international experience, especially in, but not limited to, East Asia. Furthermore, as a part of his role at MAN ES, Philipp Simmank was, for several years, advisor in the Danish Delegation at the International Maritime Organization IMO.

Philipp holds a Master Degree (German Dipl.-Ing.) in Mechanical Engineering from Braunschweig Institute of Technology (TU Braunschweig). During his studies he focused on internal combustion engines and completed his studies with an experimental Master Thesis (Diplomarbeit) in collaboration with MAN Energy Solutions, investigat-ing optically the interior flow of marine-engine diesel fuel injectors. At MAN Energy Solutions he recently complet-ed the group-internal Management Development Program ‚Leadership Mastery‘.

CAPTAIN WOLFRAM GUNTERMANN Director Regulatory Affairs, Hapag-Lloyd AG

BIOGRAPHY

Captain Wolfram Guntermann graduated with his Masters Licence at the Marine Polytechnic Elfleth/Germany in combination with a scholarship at the Plymouth Polytechnic of Marine Science. He also received his Engineers Licence at the Hamburg Polytechnic in order to serve as Ship Operation Officer holding a dual licence.

After having set his feet for the first time on deck a vessel in 1979 he went through the ranks receiving his first command as Master in 1996. He also took various assignments ashore as Trio Tonnage Center London and Director Marine Operations in the Hapag-Lloyd America Office in Piscataway/New Jersey for almost nine years.

After repatriation to the Hamburg based Headquarters the current function as Director Regulatory Affairs was taken with a lot of challenging opportunities emerging in light of new environmental legislation and initiatives.

Fleet Upgrade and Green Recycling

The Hapag-Lloyd Sustainability Strategy includes besides Clean Shipping and Future Proof Propulsion also elements as Resource Conservation.

This spans from the presentation of current New Building Projects and examples of the Fleet Upgrade Program FUP.

Since not all vessels can be maintained in the modern fleet by taking actions for decarbonization, the presentation will also give insights to the Hapag-Lloyd Ship Recycling Policy.

BIOGRAPHY

MATTHIAS REICHMANN

Product Manager, EPLO, Senior Engine Expert, Accelleron

Matthias is responsible for the Product Engine Part Load Optimization for 2 stroke main engines. Beside the sales operation and managing projects he is responsible from concept to implementation.

Matthias began his career in 2017 with ABB Turbocharging, where he held several positions, including service engineer tasks and as senior engine experts for setting up the engine performance software of Accelleron Tekomar XPERT.

Since 2019 Matthias is responsible for EPLO and has followed so far every first vessel for the EPLO Projects for main engine adjustment and measuring the turbocharger performance on board.

He holds a Master’s degree in Mechanical Engineering from Heilbronn University of Applied Sciences.

ANDERS BERGH Head of Fleet Performance, Manta Marine

Technologies AB

BIOGRAPHY

Anders Bergh is the Head of Fleet Performance at Manta Marine Technologies. He has a degree in engineering physics from Chalmers University of Technology and a lifelong passion for the sea. Which is more important for enabling greener shipping? He’s happy to discuss.

Anders has worked with product development and sales in the marine engineering field for more than 15 years, always with a focus on efficiency gains for seagoing vessels. In his current role he is managing the Fleet Performance team within Manta Marine Technologies - Vessel Optimization; a team with the sole focus on enabling ship owners and operators to employ the right technologies and strategies to get from A to B with as little energy spent as possible.

GEORGIOS ATZAMPOS

Ship Design & Transformation Manager, Maersk Mc-Kinney Møller Center

BIOGRAPHY

Georgios Atzampos develops innovative ship design concepts and technologies to support the maritime industry’s decarbonization efforts. With a background as a naval architect and marine engineer, Georgios previously worked at Royal Caribbean Group, contributing to newbuilding projects and advancing technology development.

Before transitioning to the industry, he conducted research at the University of Strathclyde. Georgios holds a Master’s degree and a Ph.D. in Naval Architecture and is currently pursuing an Executive MBA.

CAT II BN40

Optimal Vessel Performance for Alternative Fuels Operations

Hydrogen: Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) and Fuel Cell Advances

DR. MARKUS MÜNZ

Managing Director, VDMA Large Engines

BIOGRAPHY

PATRIZIO DI FRANCESCO

North Europe Special Projects Business Development Manager, RINA

BIOGRAPHY

Patrizio Di Francesco, RINA North Europe Business Development Manager, Principal Engineer for alternative fuels and for decarbonization initiatives as well RINA representative at IACS Safe Decarbonization Panel. For over 15 years he has been dealing with the classification of ships as surveyor and pressure vessel, piping and automation approval engineer being involved in LNG fueled ships new construction as well retrofit of energy efficiency technologies.

Today he is in charge for the classification of innovative projects for the integration of LNG, LPG, Methanol, Ammonia, Hydrogen as fuel and for fuel cell on new and existing ships as well research projects aimed to develop novel technologies like reforming/cracking and storage systems.

Moreover he is giving technical advice to the owners for the development of the right sustainable strategy in order to comply with the IMO emissions target, ETS and FuelEU Maritime regulations through the use of alternative fuels.

Hydrogen installations on board passenger ships

Status of art about hydrogen rules (IMO Guideline, class rules), hydrogen technology availability and technical challenges for the hydrogen and fuel cell installation on passenger ships in international trade.

Hydrogen: Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) and Fuel Cell Advances

JEREMY BOWMAN Chief Technical Officer, Hyper-Motive

BIOGRAPHY

As CTO of Hypermotive Ltd, which he co-founded in 2016, Jeremy leads a team of engineers specialising in development and integration of electrical powertrain technologies including hydrogen fuel cell and battery systems for a variety of motive applications.

His technical background is in controls engineering gained in the aerospace, defence and automotive sectors. He has worked in the field of hydrogen energy for the last fourteen years, delivering projects into on-road and off-road vehicles as well as marine, rail and aerospace applications.

Jeremy is motivated by the need to decarbonise this planet’s production, distribution, storage and end use of energy vectors in transport and motive applications. He believes that zero harmful emissions, outstanding system efficiencies, sustainability, and the affordability of solutions is the goal as successful technologists in this field.

Jeremy has been responsible for R&D on PEM fuel cell systems, developing stack and balance of plant (BoP) technologies, for an international fuel cell OEM, prior to setting up Hypermotive.

ERIK HOFMEESTER

Head of Fleet Management - Vessel, Samskip

BIOGRAPHY

Erik Hofmeester is the Head of Vessel Management at Samskip, a role he has held since June 2018. Based in Rotterdam, he oversees Samskip’s in-house ship management of six container vessels and two LNG-driven multipurpose vessels. He leads the Vessels Newbuilding Dept. building two hydrogen driven Seashuttles and running more innovative green projects, such as the use of biofuel, CO2 capturing systems, and plug-in hybrid LNG vessels, wind assistance & solar panels, “digital twins” , emphasizing environmental sustainability in maritime operations.

Previously, Erik served in various leadership positions at Vroon Shipping, where he managed ship management teams, technical operations, and fleet performance for a diverse range of vessels, including tankers, bulk carriers, and offshore support vessels. His extensive career spans over 40 years, starting as a Marine Engineer at Nedlloyd, continuing a shore career as Superintendent up to Managing Director of Vroon Ship Management, giving him deep technical expertise in dry-docking, conversions, and newbuilding.

Erik’s career reflects his strong commitment to safety, operational excellence, and green innovation in ship management.

Hydrogen: Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) and Fuel Cell Advances

Making green logistics easy

In its quest to pioneer green logistics, Samskip has made significant investments in sustainable vessel technology to reduce emissions and improve efficiency. These efforts align with the global shift towards cleaner marine propulsion systems and contribute directly to reducing the carbon footprint of marine logistics.

Marine Biofuels: A Pioneering Approach

Since 2018, Samskip has been a pioneer in the adoption of marine biofuels. By 2023, approximately 20% of the fleet was fully operational on sustainable biofuels, achieving an average annual CO2 reduction of 89% on 5 vessels.

The use of biofuels represents a substantial stride in emission reductions, particularly in the maritime sector, which has historically been heavily dependent on fossil fuels. Biofuels used by Samskip are sourced from sustainable feedstocks, ensuring that they do not compete with food crops or contribute to deforestation.

By 2021, 4,440 metric tons of biofuel had been used, resulting in a CO2 reduction of 14,000 metric tons. This increased to 12,887 metric tons of biofuel in 2022, achieving a cumulative reduction of 54,000 metric tons of CO2. The year 2023 saw further growth, with biofuel consumption reaching 15,000 metric tons, cumulatively reducing 69,000 metric tons of CO2.

The use of biofuel is licensed by DNV and Cyprus Flag as of 2021, underscoring compliance with international maritime regulations and demonstrating Samskip’s commitment to sustainable operations.

Hydrogen-Powered Vessel: The Sea Shuttle

The “Sea Shuttle” project is another ambitious step towards decarbonizing marine transportation. The hydrogen-powered vessel, registered under the Norwegian flag and supported by Enova and DNV, is equipped with cutting-edge technology that maximizes fuel efficiency and minimizes environmental impact.

Key features include:

n Hybrid Propulsion System: The vessel is dual-fuel , a combination of diesel and hydrogen-electric DC power grid, allowing a mix of green hydrogen and diesel to be used, which provides both fuel redundancy and flexibility. The vessel can also run on 100% green hydrogen, completely 0-emmision.

n Fuel Cells and Batteries: The ship is outfitted with hydrogen fuel cell modules that can be activated as required, along with battery storage to provide peak shaving and fuel cell support. This configuration ensures optimal efficiency across different power demand modes.

n Operational Advantages: The vessel’s fuel cells and battery systems and hull are designed to enhance efficiency, making it one of the most energy-efficient configurations available for green hydrogen utilization.

The hydrogen-powered vessel offers significant benefits in terms of scalability and futureproofing. It allows Samskip to adapt to varying fuel availability and maintain efficiency regardless of changes in the fuel landscape.

Autonomous Seashuttles

Samskip has introduced zero-emission and autonomous-ready “Seashuttles” as part of its plan to revolutionize the efficiency of maritime transport. These vessels are capable of autonomous operations and are being developed to transition from “autonomous-ready” to fully autonomous over the next few years. Samskip has partnered with Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences to conduct research on the impact of autonomous sailing on logistical and nautical processes. The research aims to understand how the reduction of crew onboard affects port operations, including berthing, unberthing, and cargo handling.

Digitalization and Technological Integration

The backbone of Samskip’s future success lies in its strategic commitment to digitalization. As outlined by the “Digital Twin” initiative, digitalization facilitates seamless integration between different logistics modes, enabling real-time monitoring and efficient decision-making.

Real-time data on vessel performance and fuel consumption allows Samskip to optimize routes and reduce unnecessary fuel usage, leading to overall emission reductions.

Samskip’s digital services ensure transparency and reliability for its customers, offering valueadded services like customs clearance, temperature monitoring, and condition-based vessel maintenance.

Retrofitting Projects: Hydrogen Fuel Cells and Carbon Capture

Samskip’s fleet is undergoing significant retrofitting to enhance its environmental performance, focusing on both hydrogen fuel cells and carbon capture technology.

n Hydrogen-Powered Retrofitting (HyEkoTank Project): In an ambitious move towards zero-emission logistics, Samskip is part of the HyEkoTank project, which involves retrofitting the LNG vessel Samskip Kvitnos with hydrogen-powered fuel cells. These fuel cells provide an efficient and emission-free power source, which reduces overall greenhouse gas emissions and contributes to operational efficiency. This project aligns with Samskip’s strategy to phase in hydrogen-based energy solutions progressively.

n Carbon Capture Technology: Another vessel, the Samskip Kvitbjorn, will be retrofitted with a carbon capture system capable of achieving capture rates of up to 80%. This system enables the vessel to reduce CO2 emissions effectively by capturing and storing carbon that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere. The captured carbon can potentially be stored or reused in industrial

These retrofitting projects are representing an efficient and cost-effective way to achieve sustainability goals.

Methanol Vessel SK-1100

The SK-1100 vessel, designed specifically to run on methanol, represents one of Samskip’s major potential investments in alternative fuel technology. Methanol, a low-carbon fuel, provides operational flexibility and can be employed in multiple regions due to its adaptability. The design of the SK-1100 was reviewed and approved by DNV, ensuring that it meets the highest standards of safety and efficiency.

Methanol, providing a cleaner-burning alternative to conventional marine fuels. The vessel can operate in various markets, ensuring that Samskip can meet the logistical demands of its diverse customer base without compromising on sustainability. Design approval by DNV, which highlights the vessel’s adherence to stringent environmental and safety standards.

Challenges and Opportunities

The transition to a sustainable energy model in maritime logistics presents both significant challenges and opportunities. While the technological advancements and adoption of alternative fuels are promising, there are several logistical, technical, and market-based hurdles that must be addressed.

Technical and Logistical Challenges

n Supply Chain for Green Hydrogen: The supply chain for green hydrogen remains underdeveloped, particularly in terms of infrastructure for storage and transportation. Establishing a reliable supply of hydrogen across key markets is essential for large-scale adoption.

n Equipment and Storage Costs: The high cost of hydrogen storage equipment, particularly cryogenic tanks, and the operational demands of cryogenic bunkering represent major financial barriers for shipping companies looking to adopt hydrogen as a primary fuel source and will initially requires subsidies and support in Capex & Opex.

n Regulatory and Safety Issues: Hydrogen storage and handling require stringent safety protocols due to the risks associated with high pressure and cryogenic temperatures. Ensuring compliance with international safety regulations will require ongoing adaptation as the technology evolves.

Prospects for Green Hydrogen Supply in Europe

Europe presents a promising landscape for the development of green hydrogen, with significant investments being made in production facilities, particularly in the Netherlands and Norway. These nations are poised to become leading suppliers of green hydrogen, with ambitious projects underway to expand production capacity and establish robust supply networks. The expansion of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar in these regions is expected to further support the production of green hydrogen, ensuring that it becomes a viable, scalable fuel option for the maritime sector.

Conclusion

The transition to sustainable propulsion and future fuels in the maritime industry is an imperative driven by the need to reduce emissions and combat climate change. Samskip’s pioneering efforts in adopting marine biofuels, investing in hydrogen-powered vessels, and developing innovative technologies such as autonomous Seashuttles demonstrate a robust commitment to leading the industry towards a greener future. While challenges remain, particularly in the areas of hydrogen supply and technological costs, the prospects for achieving a sustainable marine logistics network are promising. Continued investment, innovation, and collaboration with regulatory authorities and technology partners will be key to unlocking the full potential of alternative fuels and digital solutions. As Samskip continues to expand its green logistics initiatives, it is setting a standard for the maritime industry and charting a path toward a more sustainable future.

ARCHIE WATTS-FARMER Chief Executive Officer, Carnot Engines

BIOGRAPHY

CEO and leading Carnot through its journey. MEng in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Bristol. After Graduating, Archie spent 10 years as lead engineer / project manager on various Rolls-Royce engine programs including the Joint Strike Fighter LiftFan, the Harrier Pegasus engine and the A350 Trent XWB qualifying as a chartered engineer. In 2014, he moved to Brazil to complete a post-graduate degree in Offshore Systems Engineering at the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, learning Portuguese and obtaining a distinction in his dissertation on Twin-Screw Multiphase Pumps. In Rio, he was Attaché for the Fiji Olympic team.

The essential and authoritative source of information for maritime energy professionals

The ship.energy platform provides a comprehensive, accurate – and always independent – view of the multi-faceted global marine fuels industry and its evolving and critical role in the decarbonisation of shipping and ports.

A key element of the ship.energy offering is Bunkerspot magazine which, for over 20 years, has delivered news, analysis, articles and interviews about the technical, operational, commercial, environmental and legal aspects of bunkering. Over that time, the magazine has established itself as a world leader in providing information and insights on the marine fuels sector, which is delivered by a strong and highly experienced editorial team alongside top industry experts.

As the shipping and port sectors are evolving to meet energy transition targets and ambitions, Bunkerspot magazine is keeping its readers abreast of these changes and developments, as well as innovations and trends in maritime and vessel technologies.

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www.ship.energy

Incorporating Petrospot and Bunkerspot brands

(fuel

supply, after treatment, new engines, pollution control, fuel tanks) SESSION 6.1

Ammonia: Challenges and

Solutions

LARS ROBERT PEDERSEN Deputy Secretary General, BIMCO

BIOGRAPHY

Lars Robert is furthermore responsible BIMCO’s activity related to regulatory developments relevant for shipping at international, regional and national levels.

KRISTIAN MOGENSEN

Promotion Manager MAN Energy Solutions

BIOGRAPHY

Kristian Mogensen is working as a promotion manager for MAN Energy Solutions in Copenhagen, where he assists and supports various stakeholders in the maritime industry. He started his career as a seagoing marine engineer, later went ashore to work with energy efficiency in a shipping company. In 2015 he started in MAN Energy Solutions’ two-stroke operation department. During his five years in the operation department, Kristian was the author of serval service letters and operational guidelines, as well as responsible for the lubrication oil strategy for the LNG burning engines.

Two-stroke engine operating on ammonia

Ammonia as a marine fuel is put into perspective as this paper presents our current knowledge about ammonia as a potential long-term fuel fortwostroke marine engines. We address the challenges encountered by the maritime market, which are best described as a paradigm shift to ensure compliance with global decarbonisation goals.

To develop an engine for a new fuel such as ammonia calls for partnerships, cooperation and an understanding of the market interests. MAN Energy Solutions works diligently towards designing the MAN B&W engine for operation on ammonia and offering retrofit conversions of existing two-stroke engines to ammonia.

Decarbonisation constitutes one of the largest transitions encountered, and the short deadline to succeed requires a united and committed approach from the entire supply chain from well to wake.

1. Introduction

One of the future fuel candidates receiving a growing global interest and likely to play a significant role in the decarbonisation is ammonia (NH3). Our aim with this paper is to share our current knowledge about ammonia as a potential long-term fuel for two-stroke marine engines and to give a new update on the development of an ammonia-based propulsion.

Thanks to the carbon- and sulphur-free molecular composition of NH3, combusting it in an engine creates near-zero CO2 and SOX emissions.

From a well-to-wake perspective, ammonia becomes a carbon-neutral fuel when produced from renewable energy sources like electricity produced from hydropower, wind or solar energy. Furthermore, emissions of air pollutants related to carbon (black carbon or soot, unburned hydrocarbons (HC), methane slip, and carbon monoxide (CO)) are eliminated.

One of the characteristics defining the two-stroke engine portfolio of MAN Energy Solutions in Fig. 1 is the fuel diversity.

Another distinctive feature is the ability to operate on almost any fuel or fuel quality with no or limited decrease in efficiency and with the reliable performance and operating characteristics as the conventional two-stroke engine even in adverse weather conditions.

The fundamental reasons for the large tolerance to poorly ignitable and burning fuels are the low speed of the engine, allowing time for the combustion to finish, and the large dimensions, leading to large volume-to-surface ratios, which is beneficial for a complete combustion and low wall heat losses.

The beneficial carbon-free nature of ammonia also implicates that ammonia combustion physics will not fully resemble the combustion characteristics of previously known two-stroke fuels. To provide our customers with an optimised and reliable engine of the well-known standard of MAN Energy Solutions, it is vital to research the entire propulsion solution and twostroke engineprocesses, that is, ignition, combustion and emissions as well as fuel handling.

One of the characteristics defining the two-stroke engine portfolio of MAN Energy Solutions in Fig. 1 is the fuel diversity.

provide our customers with an optimised and reliable engine of the well-known standard of MAN Energy Solutions, it is vital to research the entire propulsion solution and two-stroke engine

Therefore, research of ammonia as a fuel for two-stroke engines involves extensive testing with a complete engine monitoring setup to achieve fundamental information about, for example, the ignition properties of ammonia in a two-stroke engine, pilot fuel requirements and emissions. These research results will govern the final design of the ammonia-burning engine and auxiliary systems.

2. United effort towards a future decarbonising fuel

At MAN Energy Solutions, we are committed to optimise the environmental impact of our engines. To develop an engine for new fuels such as ammonia calls for partnerships and an understanding of the market interests. An analysis of the actual potential is also essential before starting the development of the ammonia engine. In this case, the fuel can enter the market as an intermediate fuel until green ammonia is available and the logistics are in place.

Minimising the impact of shipping on the climate and the environment is a crucial contribution to reaching the global climate targets. One of the ultimate goals would be carbon-neutral transportation. Currently, worldwide maritime transport emits around 3% of the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Like other industries, the marine industry must decarbonise, and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has set a target of net-zero CO2 emissions from shipping by 2050.

Another uncertain and most essential parameter in the decision of the future fuel is the prices of the future fuels. On the one hand, if green ammonia was available today, it would be several times more expensive than very-low-sulphur fuel oil (VLSFO) and LNG. On the other hand, we acknowledge that the marine market widely understands that if CO2 and GHG footprints are to be reduced for the foreseeable future, some kind of international regulation of the CO2 and GHG emissions needs to come into force.

We have entered into commitments with other players to investigate the opportunity for ammonia as the coming future fuel and hydrogen carrier.

In this connection, we are happy to announce that the Innovation Fund Denmark has decided to support the development within the framework of the project AEngine, the project’s aim being the design and demonstration of an ammonia-based propulsion system. MAN Energy Solutions is the AEngine project coordinator and a part of the cross-functional project team together with Eltronic FuelTech (fuel supply systems), the Technical University of Denmark and the classification society DNV GL [1].

LNG

Ethane Methanol

LPG Ammonia

ME-GI

→ 2024

Fig. 1: MAN B&W dual-fuel two-stroke engine portfolio

MAN Energy Solutions will integrate existing technology in the ammonia-based propulsion system while designing the ammonia fuel injection, combustion components, exhaust gas after-treatment technology and engine components. In addition, MAN Energy Solutions will provide the engine test bed and conduct the engine trial run.

As a step on the transition path towards decarbonisation, Maersk, MAN Energy Solutions and five partners have joined forces in launching the Maersk.

Mc-Kinney Moller Center for Zero Carbon Shipping in Copenhagen [2]. Brian Østergaard Sørensen, Vice President and Head of R&D Two-Stroke Business at MAN Energy Solutions, has framed the nature and successful progress of the present task:

“Decarbonisation will be one of the largest transitions that we will see within the maritime industry for years and requires a holistic approach looking at the complete supply chain from well to wake. No technology or company can do this alone, which is why we need to join forces across the supply chain to meet this challenge. We at MAN Energy Solutions have decarbonisation as part of our corporate strategy, and developing sustainable technologies and solutions is at the core of what we do. While two-stroke engine technology will likely remain the prime mover for deep-sea shipping, cleaner fuels will play a larger role in the future. MAN Energy Solutions recognises that there are several pathways to achieving a carbon-neutral economy and that we need to work together, which is why we are happy to have joined the Center.”

The Maersk Mc-Kinney Moller Center for Zero Carbon Shipping will be an independent research centre, bringing together stakeholders from the shipping sector, industry, academia and authorities. A highly specialised, cross-disciplinary team will collaborate globally to create overviews of decarbonisation pathways, accelerate the development of selected decarbonising fuels and powering technologies, and support the establishment of regulatory, financial, and commercial means to enable the transformation.

Furthermore, besides working closely together with our licensee Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding in a partnership agreement we also work together with different universities.

3. Reflections on ammonia as a future two-stroke marine fuel

Physical/chemical properties of ammonia govern many of the design aspects of an ammoniafuelled propulsion system and auxiliary systems, including storage.

Vessel owners have to consider ammonia storage and availability, vessel trade pattern and related emission regulations combined with an increased focus on the environmental impact of the vessels.

3.1 Physical properties

Generally, ammonia is produced via the Haber-Bosch synthesis process from hydrogen and nitrogen. While the nitrogen comes from air separation, several production routes can be used to produce hydrogen, most prominently from steam reforming of hydrocarbons or from electrolysis of water, as outlined in more detail below.

For comparison, Table 1 shows the physical properties of ammonia, other alternative fuels, and MGO.

Currently, parameters for fuel supply and injection pressures for NH3 are 80 bar and 600–700 bar, respectively.

However, these parameters make up the topics of further research and optimisation in the engine test scheme.

A comparison of the properties related to storage in Table 1 shows that hydrogen (H2) liquefies when cooled to temperatures below -253°C, and LNG at -162°C. By contrast, ammonia liquefies already at -33°C.

Liquid ammonia can be stored at a pressure above 8.6 bar at ambient temperature (20°C). To keep it in the liquid phase if the ambient temperature increases, it is common to design non-refrigerated ammonia tanks for approximately 18 bar.

3.2 Transition towards green ammonia production

Although it is in the nature of things that combustion of ammonia emits no CO2, as it contains no carbon atoms, large-scale industrial productions of ammonia are based mainly on a fossil fuel feedstock for grey and blue ammonia production. This conventional ammonia production produces CO2 as a by-product. Blue ammonia production involves capture of the generated CO2, which is liquefied and stored using the carbon capture and storage (CCS) principles. However, ammonia has the potential to become the sustainable future fuel choice, when it is produced using hydrogen obtained by using renewal energy sources.

1) The relative fuel tank size for ammonia has been provided for both cooled (-33°C) and pressurised tanks (45°C) 2) Assuming fully refrigerated media

Table 1: Alternative fuel comparison

Ammonia (or anhydrous ammonia) is a globally traded commodity. The annual global ammonia production is approximately 180 million tonnes, of which approximately 80% becomes feedstock for fertiliser production [3]. Therefore, transport and storage of ammonia from production facilities to end users have been going on for years.

3.2.1 Electrolysis of water

To produce sustainable green ammonia using hydrogen obtained by electrolysis of water (2H2O ? 2H2 + O2), the electricity must be produced using only renewable energy sources.

3.2.2 Nitrogen separation from air

Separation of nitrogen from air for ammonia production takes place via various technologies depending on the required purity and amount of ammonia. In large-scale productions of nitrogen, air is liquefied and separated into its constituents.

However, when it comes to the ammonia synthesis, the Haber-Bosch process is still the industrially applied method.

3.3

Challenges and advantages of ammonia fuel

There are challenges but also advantages associated with storage, transport and combustion of ammonia governed by the physical and chemical properties [3], see also Table 1:

– NH3 is carbon- and sulphur-free and gives a clean combustion with near-zero generation of CO2 or SOX

– The volumetric energy density of NH3 is higher than for H2

– NH3 can be cracked to N2 and H2

– NH3 is non-explosive unlike H2

– The widespread use of ammonia in industrial processes and as an agricultural fertiliser means that it is already a commercially attractive product

– It is less expensive and less complex to transport and store than hydrogen and other fuels in need of cryogenic temperatures

– The low risk of ignition in an ambient atmosphere makes the storage of large quantities of ammonia safer than hydrogen in terms of fire safety.

The lower heating value (LHV) of approximately 18.6 MJ/kg for ammonia is comparable to methanol. The energy density per unit volume of ammonia (12.7 MJ/L) and the other alternative fuels, is lower than that of MGO (35 MJ/L). To carry the same energy content of ammonia relative to MGO will require an approximately 2.8 times larger volume if the ammonia tank is cooled.

Although ammonia has the potential to become the future fuel, it is a toxic substance that, regulation-wise, has not yet been released for use as a marine fuel.

3.4 Thermophysical properties of ammonia

Some of the physical properties of ammonia differ significantly from those of other fuels typically used for marine propulsion (see Table 1). These differences will dictate both the combustion system and the performance layout of an ammonia two-stroke engine.

Even though ammonia has a lower LHV than most other standard fuels, the low stoichiometric air-fuel ratio compensates for this, resulting in a comparable in-cylinder energy content. In this context, ammonia is similar to methanol. Ammonia as a fuel has a low flame speed compared to the other common fuels. This leads to a slower combustion process, which can reduce the efficiency.

Ammonia has a high autoignition temperature and a high heat of vaporization, which acts to cool the in-cylinder charge. These combined effects can make the Diesel-type compression ignition of directly injected liquid ammonia challenging.

Ammonia also has an unusually high minimum ignition energy, which can be challenging for igniting a premixed ammonia/air mixture with an ignition system. However, these properties also have some positive aspects. These include a high resistance to knocking (indicated by the research octane number (RON)), which enables high compression ratios in engines using premixed combustion, increasing the efficiency.

3.4.1 Handling characteristics of ammonia

The physical properties for storage and fuel distribution are similar to those of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).

From a handling perspective, the most important aspect of ammonia is its high acute toxicity, which will have consequences for the design of storage, supply, engine, and after-treatment systems.

Despite the high toxicity, methods to safely handle ammonia have also been developed in other industrial applications – such as refrigeration.

Ammonia has been stored and transported in tanks under modest pressure similar to LPG, and bulk transport of ammonia on board large chemical tankers is done using established technology. It is a common global commodity, which means that the handling and shipping infrastructure is readily available.

Because of the low reactivity, the hazards of accidental combustion or explosions are much lower than for other fuel gases and liquids. Despite the high toxicity to humans, a slip of ammonia to the environment, even in large amounts, leaves no significant long-term effects. Due to the high volatility in the gas phase, large solubility in water, and rather high chemical reactivity in water, it is readily diluted and disintegrated in the environment.

3.5 Trends in marine fuels

As phrased by Thomas S Hansen, Head of Promotion & Customer Support at MAN Energy Solutions: “No one can afford to go green alone“

Introduction of regulation initiatives will be one of the cornerstones of the transition. To incentivise the industry to invest in equipment for future fuels, regulation initiatives governed by subsidies, CO2 or GHG taxes have to be introduced.

The general public opinion is that the global warming challenge needs to be addressed and that the maritime industry must contribute to the CO2 emission reduction. Today, the maritime industry accounts for approximately 3% of the global human-caused CO2 emission. The existing fleet consumes close to 300 million tonnes of fuel oil annually. However, it also plays a fundamental role in the global economy, transporting more than 80% of the world’s total trade volume [3].

3.5.1 Prediction of the future fuel

It is difficult, if not impossible, to predict which fuels will carry off the title as future fuels. Since the future costs of different fuels is hard to predict, the shipowners want to be prepared. They are aware that the transition requires new fuels instead of the fuels we know today. The shipowners face a complex puzzle in the light of carbon-free or carbon-neutral fuel prices several times higher than the fuel oil prices today, and the fact that fuel often makes up the largest operational costs for vessels.

3.5.2 Regulation initiatives

For future CO2-emission-free fuels to become attractive, the fuel prices, when considering all costs/incentives, must be comparable with traditional fuel prices. If achieved by a CO2/GHG regulation as mentioned, the period for engine conversion to a future fuel can be short once the regulation becomes effective, and the implications to shipowners and yards must not be underestimated.

The question remains whether a part of the existing fleet will be CO2/GHG regulated even stricter than required by the energy-efficiency design index (EEDI) or the energy-efficiency operational indicator (EEOI), or if regulations will apply only to new vessels from a certain date [4]. Based on the assumption that CO2/GHG regulations will become effective within the next few years, a regulation of both existing and new vessels might be expected. Not to the same extent, but in a way that allows the environment the impeding benefit from the CO2 emission reduction and at the same time avoids distorting the industry.

When looking at the market, we have picked up a distinct preference for ammonia compared to hydrogen. The explosion risk is one argument, but the discussion more often concerns the actual handling of hydrogen and the cost of handling it ashore and on board. Another important aspect is the high energy consumption required to liquefy hydrogen at -253°C, a more efficient approach is to use the hydrogen gas in the production of ammonia, which liquefies at -33°C. Handling of hydrogen is complicated and expensive compared to the ammonia solution. Engineering a practical solution for handling hydrogen that can be adapted to a typical twostroke engine room is not without its hurdles. Still, many projects are ongoing and continuously increasing in number. The projects concern the development of production facilities, logistics, propulsion plant engines, and fuel supply systems (FSS) to handle ammonia.

The early, considerable, and increasing interest in using ammonia as a fuel made it part of the zero-emission strategy of MAN Energy Solutions to investigate and provide technology that utilises ammonia as fuel.

3.5.3 Ammonia fuel mixture

Today, many of the vessels delivered are ready for later dual-fuel adaption, as the engine builders are ready or working on being ready to retrofit their engine design accordingly.

The shipping industry has updated its GHG emission reduction targets to 20% reduction by 2030, and 70% by 2040, aiming for net-zero emissions by around 2050. The adoption of alternative fuels is emphasised, with a goal to account for at least 5% of the energy use by 2030. Expectations for fossil fuels to remain in the maritime industry for many years to come are lower based on the new MEPC80 regulations.

This possibility will lower the risk related to investing in a ship operating on ammonia, since conventional ammonia is a commercial commodity traded in large quantities.

4. In the process of developing the first two-stroke, dual-fuelled engine for ammonia

4. In the process of developing the first two-stroke,

As Fig. 3 shows, one of the characteristics describing the two-stroke engine portfolio of MAN Energy Solutions is the fuel diversity. Since the beginning, the development of the MAN B&W two-stroke engine has been adapted to combust diverse fuel types.

engine for ammonia

In 2019, the journey towards a two-stroke engine operating on ammonia began, as illustrated in Fig. 4.

conducted several hazard identification, and hazard and operability studies (hazid/hazop) together with classification societies, shipowners, yards and system suppliers.

We started a pre-study of the fuel supply and injection concept and conducted several hazard identification, and hazard and operability studies (hazid/hazop) together with classification societies, shipowners, yards and system suppliers.

Presently, we are working on verifying the development concept of the injection system and the engine design in general. We finalised the development process of the ammonia engine in 2021 and the commercial design verification is scheduled for 2023. At the same time, we have been able to confirm the R&D potential of ammonia as a fuel during July 2023, when the first combustion confirmations tests were obtained at the test facility Research Centre Copenhagen (RCC) of MAN Energy Solutions [5].

We started a pre-study of the fuel supply and injection concept and

able to confirm the R&D potential of ammonia as a fuel during July 2023, when the first combustion confirmations tests were obtained at the test facility Research Centre Copenhagen (RCC) of MAN Energy Solutions [5].

When the engine design is released, the first engine can be prepared for test bed. The ammonia development project reaches a major milestone when the first ammonia engine is installed in a vessel during the first six months of 2024.

Fig. 3: Fuel diversity and engine types

Pre-study

✓ 4T50ME-X test

✓ NH3 combustibility investigation.

✓ Engine basic engine received as concept defined platform for the based on R&D and ammonia engine devel- simulations. opment.

✓ HAZID workshop on engine concept.

✓ Combustion chamber 1st

✓ Ammonia fuel supply & auxiliary systems specified.

✓ Ammonia fuel supply & auxiliary systems established in Research Centre Copenhagen (RCC).

✓ ammonia at RCC. – Full scale engine test at RCC evaluated for 1st commercial design.

✓ confirmation at

✓ 1 cylinder engine and auxiliary system preparation at RCC.

– Full scale design work. engine delivered to

– Specification of evaluation. emission after -treatment.

4.1 Engine foundation

When designing an engine governed by altered combustion physics due to the chemical composition of a new fuel, it requires thorough research of the influence on all conceivable engine design parameters to provide an efficient and safe engine and fuel supply system to the customers.

Currently, MAN Energy Solutions carries out research at the RCC and in different partnerships to assess the combustion and heat release characteristics of ammonia. The findings of the research will guide the development of the specific fuel injection properties and clarify the nature of two-stroke emissions, when operating on ammonia.

Ammonia is a toxic substance, and proper safety measures must be in place to safeguard the ship’s crew and the surrounding environment. In addition to catering for these requirements, MAN Energy Solutions brings technology to the market that is engineered to adapt to the skills and work routines of the crew and the

resources onboard. This is achieved without fundamentally changing the ship operation. An advantage of the ammonia-fuelled low-speed two-stroke engine is that it will not fundamentally change merchant shipbuilding or operation, and thus a simple and well-engineered solution is in place to cater for the requirements of this novel fuel.

The findings will also govern the FSS configuration. Part of the ongoing testing includes installation aspects and the FSS design will eventually be adapted to the outcome, we assume that the configuration for ammonia will inherit main features from the well-known LGP supply system for liquid injection.

As for the engine, development of an FSS calls for a safe and reliable design based on the outcome of hazid and hazop investigations. Currently, we have performed three hazid investigations observed by representatives from the classification societies, shipowners, yards and suppliers of components for the FSS.

Fig.

Fig. 4: Two-stroke ammonia engine development schedule

alloys, alloys with a nickel concentration larger than 6%, and plastic

The ideal solution is to reuse part of the dual-fuel LPG injection system on the ammonia engine and part of the LPG fuel supply system from tank to engine [6].

In principle, the main differences between the fuel characteristics governing the ME-LGIP and the ammonia engine designs are related to heating values, the foul odour, and the corrosive nature of ammonia:

– lower heating values (LHV) of the fuels: - 46.0 MJ/kg for propane (LPG) - 18.6 MJ/kg for ammonia

4.2 Fuel supply system considerations

Fig. 5 and the following sections highlight the main principles of the fuel supply system for the ammonia engine and dualfuel operation.

– ammonia is corrosive to copper, copper alloys, alloys with a nickel concentration larger than 6%, and plastic

The ideal solution is to reuse part of the dual-fuel LPG injection system on the ammonia engine and part of the LPG fuel supply system from tank to engine [6].

4.2 Fuel supply system considerations

Fig. 5 and the following sections highlight the main principles of the fuel supply system for the ammonia engine and dual-fuel operation.

Fig. 5 Principles of the ammonia supply system showing main components

4.2.1 Principles of dual-fuel operation

During dual-fuel operation, the ammonia fuel supply to the engine comes from the storage tanks via the fuel supply system. To maintain the required fuel conditions at the engine, a small portion of the ammonia fuel continuously recirculates to the FSS via the recirculation system. When the engine is not in dual-fuel mode, the double block-and-bleed arrangements of the FVT depressurise and completely isolate ammonia fuel systems inside the engine room from ammonia fuel supply and return systems. Before every start, the systems are pressurised with nitrogen to verify the tightness of the system.

When dual-fuel operation stops, the nitrogen pressure pushes back the ammonia fuel from the engine to the recirculation system. When the purging sequence is complete, the FVT will once again ensure the isolation of engine room systems from supply and return systems.

MAN B&W

Fig. 5 Principles of the ammonia supply system showing main components

Throughout the entire operation, the double-walled ventilation system from existing MAN Energy Solutions dual-fuel engines detects any ammonia fuel leakage and directs it away from the engine room to a separate ammonia trapping system.

4.2.2 Recirculation system

The recirculated ammonia fuel will heat up in the engine during operation. To avoid two-phase conditions, a certain amount of ammonia fuel is recirculated to a dedicated recirculation line. The same recirculation line recovers the ammonia fuel from the engine whenever dual-fuel operation is stopped.

The recirculated fuel may contain traces of sealing oil from the injection valves. The recirculation line eliminates the risk of contaminating fuel storage tanks with oil. The recirculation line also separates and bleeds off nitrogen from the recovered ammonia fuel.

4.2.3 Fuel supply system

The FSS contains the equipment necessary to ensure that ammonia fuel is delivered to the engine at the required temperature, pressure and quality. In most cases, the FSS has a high-pressure pump, a heater, filters, valves, and control systems to maintain the ammonia fuel pressure and temperature at varying engine consumptions.

4.2.4 Fuel valve train

The fuel valve train (FVT) is the interface between the engine and auxiliary systems. The purpose of the FVT is to ensure a safe isolation of the engine during shutdown and maintenance, and to provide a nitrogen-purging functionality. The engine software control system actively monitors and controls the valves in the FVT. This functionality ensures a safe environment on the engine after shutdown.

4.2.5

Nitrogen system

Nitrogen must be available for purging the engine after dual-fuel operation, for gas freeing prior to maintenance and for tightness testing after maintenance. The capacity of the nitrogen system must be large enough to deliver a certain flow at a pressure higher than the service tank pressure. The flow required depends on the engine size.

4.2.6 Double-walled ventilation system

To maintain a safe engine room, it is vital to detect any leakages from the ammonia fuel system and direct these to a safe location. This has led to the double-walled design of ammonia fuel systems and piping inside the engine room. A constant flow of ventilation air is kept in the outer pipe in accordance with IMO requirements. The system is already part of other MAN B&W dual-fuel engine designs.

4.2.7

Ammonia capture system

Ammonia systems must be designed with an ammonia capture system (ACS) to prevent release of ammonia to the surroundings. The system consists of a knockout drum where the ammonia pressure will be released, see Fig. 5. Flash evaporation results in ammonia in liquid and vapour phases in the drum. The liquid phase is pushed back

to the nitrogen separator, and ammonia in the vapour phase is captured in several columns filled with water. The amount of ammonia emission is controlled by the total water volume in the columns. During operation of the ACS, part of the water is drained off and replaced by freshwater.

4.2.8 Safety and control systems

The engine control system used for an ammonia engine is based on the system used for previous dual-fuel engines such as ME-GI (natural gas) and ME-LGIP (LPG). However, most similarities are found with the ME-LGIM (methanol) system.

The control and safety strategies used for methanol and ammonia are largely unchanged since the demands are quite similar. Both media are toxic to humans and pose a significant fire hazard if they enter the engine room.

The double-walled piping is continuously monitored to detect fuel leakages during engine operation. A positive detection leads to a controlled stop of ammonia operation on the engine while the piping containing ammonia is purged clean using nitrogen, and any further leakage is prevented. Note that a leakage takes place from the inner to the outer pipe and not to the engine room. This additional barrier keeps the ship and crew safe at all times.

4.3 Emission reduction technologies

It is expected, that the raw engine NOX emission level of a two-stroke engine running on ammonia will be at a level comparable to a conventional low-speed diesel engine. However, the pathway of NOX production during combustion is quite different from the conventional engine, and hence also the sensitivity to changes in engine performance.

Obviously, ammonia will only be an environmentally viable fuel if emissions known from a conventional engine are not merely replaced with other types of harmful emissions. Naturally, it is an important part of MAN Energy Solutions development efforts to ensure that only very low levels of any problematic emission escape from the ammonia engine, and that the new fuel will not create a new problem for the shipping industry to consider.

4.3.1 Selective catalytic reduction technology

To reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2, commonly referred to as NOX) and to fulfil the regionally different emission regulations, engines from MAN Energy Solutions have been equipped with, for example, advanced selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technology. The SCR system using ammonia was introduced in the 1990s in four bulk carriers. Pending the outcome of the first engine test results, an increase in SCR volume and ammonia consumption may be necessary to achieve compliance in Tier III mode.

The SCR technology is an after-treatment process, where NOX formed during the combustion is removed from the exhaust gas in a catalytic reduction.

Normally, the ammonia (reducing agent) required is added by injecting a urea solution (CH4N2O + H2O) into the exhaust gas, however, ammonia can be injected as the catalytic agent instead of urea. One of the benefits of this is that an ammonia-fuelled vessel already carries ammonia. The consumption of ammonia for the SCR system will be very small compared to the ammonia fuel consumption.

Fig. 6 outlines the principle of selective catalytic reduction of the NOX content in the exhaust gas.

the

results, an increase in SCR volume and ammonia consumption may be necessary to achieve compliance in Tier III mode.

4NO + 4NH3 + O2 → 4N2 + 6H2O 6NO2 + 8NH3 → 7N2 + 12H2O

4NO + 4NH3 + O2 ? 4N2 + 6H2O

The SCR technology is an after-treatment process, where NOX formed during the combustion is

6NO2 + 8NH3 ? 7N2 + 12H2O

By ensuring a complete combustion, the emission of unburned NH3 (ammonia slip) and the formation of nitrous oxide (N2O) will be minimised.

In the catalytic reaction, NH3 and NOX are converted to diatomic nitrogen (N2) and water (H2O):

By ensuring a complete combustion, the emission of unburned NH3 (ammonia slip) and the formation of nitrous oxide (N2O) will be minimised.

5. Summary and outlook

Decarbonisation is a central and highly integrated part of developing sustainable technologies and solutions at MAN Energy Solutions.

Ammonia is used as an energy carrier of sustainable hydrogen and it is intrinsically carbon free. MAN Energy Solutions develops a dual-fuel two-stroke engine operating on ammonia. The technology developed aims for 90% decarbonisation of the ship powertrain in a tank-to-wake sense, while maintaining high power, energy density and efficiency, and low emissions.

However, as decarbonisation remains a global endeavour and one of the largest transitions within the maritime world, it will require a united maritime industry to question and evaluate the entire supply chain.

The Innovation Fund Denmark supports the AEngine project with the aim to design and demonstrate an ammonia-based propulsion system. MAN Energy Solutions is the AEngine project coordinator and part of the cross-functional project team together with Eltronic FuelTech (fuel supply systems), Technical University of Denmark and the classification society DNV GL.

As an important step towards a carbon-neutral economy, MAN Energy Solutions has joined forces with important players on the market in the launch of the Maersk Mc-Kinney Moller Center for Zero Carbon Shipping in Copenhagen. The combined global and cross-disciplinary effort will take us one step closer to the research required to highlight decarbonisation pathways. Research, which can guide and accelerate the development of carefully selected decarbonising fuels.

Fig. 6: The selective catalytic reduction process

Furthermore, the global teamwork will support the establishment of vital regulatory, financial and commercial means to enable the transformation.

The future will see cleaner fuels, and the two-stroke engine technology will likely remain the prime propulsion motor for deep-sea shipping. Our engine portfolio shows that the MAN B&W two-stroke engines combust various fuel types. MAN B&W ME-C engines are based on futureproof technology that already can be retrofitted to run on LNG, LPG, ethane, and methanol as the fuel. The development of an engine type for ammonia supplements our extensive dualfuel portfolio with an engine that will meet future market demands for CO2-neutral propulsion including retrofits.

The future installation of an ammonia-combusting engine can be adapted to the customer, for example as a dual-fuel, modular retrofit solution for existing electronically controlled engines, as an ammonia-ready engine, or from newbuilding.

MAN Energy Solutions works diligently towards offering retrofit conversions of existing two-stroke engines to ammonia, preferably accommodating the vessels’ five-year docking schedules after Q1 2025.

The advanced research and development of MAN Energy Solutions supports the transition of the industry by delivering the technology that helps our customers bring emissions to regulatory compliance, and even all the way to net zero.

DR LUCA LORI

Global Application Manager Fuel Supply Systems Global, Alfa Laval

BIOGRAPHY

Dr. Luca Lori works for Alfa Laval Marine as a member of the Fuel Supply Systems Global Sales Team. With a degree in chemistry, Luca has gained experience working for a few companies that supply various technologies to the shipping industry. After that, in 2007, he began working with Alfa Laval in several positions. Luca joined the Fuel Supply Systems Central Team in 2011 and has been the Application Manager since 2019.

Luca assists customers with Alfa Laval technologies that are applicable to both traditional and alternative fuel oils within the group that is in charge of business and product development related to the fuel supply application.

Alfa Laval Solutions for the Use of Ammonia as Fuel

As the shipping industry navigates the route to decarbonization, Alfa Laval has broadened its portfolio by introducing a range of technologies and solutions that enable the use of future fuels, including methanol, biofuels, LPG, and now ammonia.

EDWARD NG

General Manager – Technology Gulf Oil Marine Ltd

BIOGRAPHY

Edward Ng is the General Manager – Technology at Gulf Marine, bringing nearly twenty years of expertise in the lubricant and lubricant additive industry. His career spans roles in research and development, product management, marketing, and technical service, where he has made substantial contributions to marine lubricant technology. Prior to this, Edward worked for seven years in the automotive sector, gaining extensive technical experience. He holds both a PhD and a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering from the National University of Singapore, reflecting his deep knowledge in lubricant chemistry, formulation development, and engine tribology. At Gulf Marine, Edward leads efforts to drive innovation and develop advanced lubricant solutions that address the needs of the maritime industry. His work has played a crucial role in enhancing marine engine performance, efficiency, and durability, aligning with Gulf Marine’s commitment to providing top-tier, reliable solutions for global shipping.

Lubricants Enabling Alternative Fuels for Maritime Decarbonization

This study examines ammonia’s impact on engine oil degradation by artificial ageing. The aged oils’ performance was evaluated for oxidation, corrosion, deposit formation, and wear properties.

GAVIN ALLWRIGHT Secretary General, IWSA

BIOGRAPHY

Gavin Allwright is the secretary of the newly formed International Windship Association (IWSA). Established in 2014, this grouping of maritime wind propulsion companies and projects supported by academia, NGO’s and seafarers aims to promote and facilitate the uptake of wind propulsion solutions in commercial shipping. He has also been working closely with the Oceania Centre for Sustainable Transport on the development of sustainable shipping in the South Pacific and gained extensive knowledge of the small vessel sector from his work as the Commercial Director for the Greenheart Project, a not-for-profit organisation he joined in 2005, designing a zero-emissions, sail/solar electric cargo vessel for least developed regions.

Gavin holds a Masters degree in Sustainable Development, specialising in the development and impact of low carbon vessels in developing countries and has recently collaborated on a soon to be released IRENA technical brief – Renewable Energy in Shipping.

International Windship Association

OSKAR LEVANDER

VP Strategy & Business Development Integration & Energy, Kongsberg

BIOGRAPHY

Oskar Levander, VP Strategy & Business Development for the Integration&Energy division at Kongsberg Maritime, joined the company with the acquisition of Rolls-Royce Commercial Marine in 2019. He joined Rolls-Royce in 2012 from Wärtsilä, where he spent the earlier part of his career after graduating from Helsinki University of Technology in 2000, with an MSc in Naval Architecture.

Oskar has been driving the development of novel ship and propulsion concepts and has pioneered many emerging marine technologies. Today he spearheads the development of decarbonization concepts and intelligent ship solutions, including remote & autonomous ships.

Taking fuel savings to the next level with integrated wind solutions

n Holistic approach to wind assisted vessel design

n Integration of wind propulsion with machinery and other energy saving measures

n Introducing a novel bulker concept that will deliver fuel savings of 40-50%

HASSO HOFFMEISTER Senior Principle Engineer, DNV

BIOGRAPHY

With over 30 years at DNV, Hasso Hoffmeister brings extensive expertise in assessing marine structures, sailing yachts, and rigs. With a degree in Naval Architecture, he developed several standards and guidelines, including the DNV Guidelines for Structural Design of Racing Yachts and those for Superyacht Carbon Rigs.

In addition to his work at DNV, Hasso was part of the design team for “United Internet Team Germany” during the 32nd America’s Cup in 2007, serving as the team’s rig designer. He also contributed as a member of the 36th America’s Cup Rules Committee in 2021.

At DNV, in the 2010s, Hasso began applying his sailing expertise to the shipping industry, pioneering standards for wind-assisted propulsion on seagoing vessels. He has led the development of technical rules and standards in this area, assembling a strong team of experts to address the challenges of this fast-evolving technology.

ALFRED RAPAPORT

Performance Engineer (Naval Architect), Oceanbird

BIOGRAPHY

Alfred Rapaport is a passionate sailor and Naval Architect. He is a graduate from The Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm and wrote his thesis in 2020 on structural integration of wind propulsion at Swedish shipping company Wallenius. For the last three years, he has been in charge of performance predictions at Oceanbird, a company developing wind propulsion systems (rigid wing sails) for shipping. His areas of expertise are performance predictions as well as stability and maneuverability analysis.

Oceanbird Wing 560 – bringing sailing back to shipping

Background

Close to 20 years ago, the Naval Architects of Swedish RoRo shipping company Wallenius studied different means of reducing the environmental impact of their fleet. Wind propulsion was identified as a key technology. 2019 saw the birth of a research project involving Wallenius, the Swedish department of transportation Trafikverket, well-known maritime research institute SSPA and KTH Royal Institute of Technology.

Fast forward to 2021, and a joint venture was formed between Wallenius and Maritime equipment provider Alfa Laval – Oceanbird. Wallenius contribute with their shipping know.how, while Alfa Laval brings industrial strength, sourcing and a vast service network. The companies have a history of successful joint ventures with the ballast water treatment system PureBallast. Wind is a free, completely clean energy source to use for ship propulsion. It used to propel ships before, and it can do it again. The idea is to replace parts (under good circumstances all) of the energy provided by the ship’s main engine, thus saving ship fuel. The fuel saving translates to lower emissions, better fuel economy and improved regulatory status. Future carbon-friendly fuels are expected to be costly and scarce. Any means of reducing fuel consumption and exposure to volatile fuel prices is therefore welcome.

System overview

Figure 1 – Overview of the Wing 560

Oceanbird’ s main product is the Wing 560, a 560 m2 rigid wing sail. It consists of two wing profiles, referred to as the main and the flap. The flap is hinged and can be set at an angle relative to the main. The main is connected to the foundation and can rotate 360.. The flap allows Wing 560 to create camber (asymmetry) between the two surface sides of the wing sail. This increases the maximum lift produced and the trimming options. The wing sail can be folded and stowed on deck when out of operation. Actuation is powered by hydraulics. Figure 2 illustrates the trimming of the wing sail for different apparent wind directions.

The wing sail is taken out of operation if wind conditions are unfavorable, in case of severe weather or for practical reasons. Figure 3 indicates the three different operational states of the sail.

Figure 2 – Point of sail under different wind conditions

Figure 3 – Operational modes of Wing 560

Sailing principles

In sailing, one must distinguish between the true wind and the apparent wind. The true wind represents the current wind condition and depends on the weather. The apparent wind considers the effect of the ship moving forward, the “speed wind”. This is the wind that an observer onboard the vessel will experience, and the wind that the wing sail is operating in.

The apparent wind will always be directed more towards the bow of the ship. Figure 4 displays the effect of ship speed (14 kt) on an even wind distribution. Clearly, performing well in upwind sailing conditions is important for any wind propulsion technology.

Performance

As indicated by the power-speed curve in Figure 5, thrust provided by a wing sail can be used in two ways. Either keeping constant engine power and increasing the speed (red) or keeping speed and reducing engine power (green). A third alternative would be a combination of the two (blue).

Figure 4 – Shift in wind distribution when considering ship speed (14 kt)

Figure 5 – usage of wind propulsion for the ship

For maximizing fuel savings, power reduction is preferable. The generated thrust and corresponding fuel savings vary with wind conditions. Figure 6 illustrates the power reduction for a car carrier sailing at 16 kt in 10 m/s true wind. The dashed line represents the default, nonsailing mode while the blue line represents the wind-assisted mode. Clearly, power savings well above 1 MW are to be expected under good conditions.

Figure 6 – Performance polar of a car carrier sailing at 16 kt in 10 m/s true wind

Average fuel savings will vary greatly depending on the ship it is installed on and whether its sailing on a favourable route. For a large car carrier with one sail installed, savings are expected to be in the range of 5-10%.

Full-scale prototypes

Oceanbird is pursuing two parallel tracks in the development process. One full-scale unit will be installed on shore at Oresund Dry Docks repair yard in Sweden. The second unit will be installed on the Wallenius-Wilhelmsen car carrier Tirranna.

Land-based prototype

The purpose of the land-based unit is to perform testing and development in a controlled environment. It also serves as a location for crew training. Figure 7 shows the foundation and base of the sail inside the assembly hall, before moving outdoors. Component and system testing is well underway and the sail will go operational during winter/spring 2025.

During her dry-docking in June 2024 the hull was strengthened to ensure good load transfer from the sail to the hull. The foundation was welded in place on the weather deck as shown in Figure 9. In the second half of 2025 the wing sail will be installed onboard Tirranna.

Figure 7 – foundation of the land-based unit

Figure 8 – Tirranna during dry-docking in June 2024

Tirranna ship installation

Future outlook

The industry is steadily picking up speed when it comes to wind propulsion. Different technologies are being developed and put to the test. The team at Oceanbird is looking forward to exciting times ahead with the two prototypes, as well as engaging in discussions with ship owners and the rest of the industry.

Figure 9 – foundation installed on Tirranna’s weather deck

MIA ELG R&D Manager, Deltamarin Ltd

BIOGRAPHY

Mia has 17 years of experience with various ship energy efficiency and machinery design related tasks.

Mia Elg’s current role as R&D manager is related to leading the development of Deltamarin’s new products and services, managing the larger joint industry development projects and also consulting customers. Mias areas of expertise include: Thermal engineering, product development and productization of different energy- and environmental services, energy balance calculation, energy flow simulation and environmental impact assessment. In addition to this, she has led the development of zero emission ship machinery in several projects.

Mia has a Master’s degree in Thermodynamics. At the side of the work at Deltamarin Mia is also committing doctoral studies at Aalto University in the field of energy efficiency in marine applications. As a “high level task” both at Deltamarin and in the studies, Mia develops an advanced energy efficiency analysis method, suitable for maritime and offshore domain.

Decarbonising long distance shipping with alternative fuels, technology synergy and digital design –case bulk carrier

We review a case of wind assisted bulk carrier design from an EU-funded project CHEK, where the machinery concept and various other energy saving technologies’ synergies are the key to future ship designs. The results of project CHEK do not only showcase a possible path to decarbonised shipping but also provide a pragmatic view to ship owners how various solutions could be screened for their future vessels or when planning fleet retrofits.

Introduction to project CHEK

Project CHEK was a EU-funded joint industry-development project running during 2021-2024. The project focused on decarbonisation of long-distance shipping. The project revolved around conceptual design of two main case ships: a Kamsarmax sized tanker and a Meraviglia class sized cruise ship. The decarbonisation of the ships was done as a combination of technology and design synergy and, finally, by considering alternative fuels. The technologies were integrated digitally for the conceptual vessels, but the data for the modelling was collected, as far as possible, either from in-lab measurements from the CHEK technology partners or from real life demonstrations. The largest real-life demonstration of technologies was installing two WindWings by BAR technologies and Manta Marine onboard an existing bulk carrier. CHEK project was recognised in 2023 by the European Commission as a research and innovation project success story.

Project CHEK partners included BAR technologies, Cargill, Climeon, Deltamarin, Hasytec group, Lloyd’s register, MSC, Silverstream technologies, University of Vaasa, World Maritime University, Wärtsilä and Manta Marine. The technical improvements that were studied for the bulk carrier, in addition to improved ship hull were sails, fuelflexible hybrid machinery, waste heat recovery, air lubrication, shore power availability during the port calls, gate rudder and solar panels.

Ship digital design features for decarbonised shipping

A ship design process itself includes many analyses that support the ship layout and documentation generation. Traditionally, the focus and aim of the design has been in verifying the ship feasibility and performance in a few, selected dimensioning conditions, such as maximum capacity and design speed etc. Also, ships will have to pass the energy efficiency design index (EEDI). However, new requirements for the ship performance are introduced continuously. Decarbonisation of the industry is one key driver behind the need to keep improving ship performance.

Figure 1. Bulk carrier Pyxis Ocean fitted with two WindWings

Ship decarbonisation is a combination of efficient operation, good design and technical improvements and, eventually, low carbon fuels. The operational profile is, thus, a leading driver and an integral part of the decarbonisation. To incorporate all this efficiently in ship design, new process to support the traditional ship design process is necessary.

Figure 2. Digital design layers contributing to a LCA

The future-proof vessel (FPV) design platform was one of the development areas in CHEK. This is a developing entity that aims to produce ship designs with low emissions. We lift forward several dimensions which are considered in the FPV platform. One dimension is the physical ship hull and volume dimension, which is the typical work that is done for dimensioning the vessel correctly and it’s required for compiling the ship specification and other documents for ship building. Another dimension is the ship external forces, which are not documented in ship design materials, but they impact the ship operation. A third dimension is the ship functional dimension focusing on energy system interactions and energy conversions. For decarbonised shipping, the operational stage represents a large share of the emissions, but also several other processes contribute to the ship entire environmental impact. Therefore, the fourth and final digital design and FPV design platform layer is the life cycle analysis (LCA), where the other layers provide input. Figure 2 illustrates the LCA framework combined with the operational analysis tools. The project CHEK bulk carrier life cycle analysis work was presented in a separate article (Dong et al., 2024).

The digital modelling for CHEK ships was developed in three separate “generations” with each round adding more details around the studied ship cases, backed up by measurements from the field. The bulk carrier ship and the studied main technologies were presented after finishing the second round of modelling in the HIPER 2023 conference (Sandberg et al., 2023). Therefore, this paper focuses on summarising the new aspects of the modelling and the final results from project CHEK bulk carrier vessel.

Integrating wind power for propulsion prediction

The operational and propulsion layer of the FPV design platform is called DeltaSeas. Typically, and in it’s simplest form DeltaSeas would include a speed profile for the ship. In traditional ship design, the weather and other resistance adding factors on top of ship calm water propulsion prediction is added on top of the propulsion power in form of a fixed “sea margin.”

Nevertheless, for the CHEK vessels this was not a satisfactory approach. Instead, for the ship routing, a set of geographical coordinates was generated with navigational routing software Wartsila FOS coupled with an interpolation algorithm. The operational routes are illustrated in Figure 3. The seasonal weather variation was covered by assuming that the ship sails along

3 Waypoints of the bulk carrier routes studied

each of the routes 12 times, starting on the first day of each month. The main operational speed was constant 12,5kn and typical expected loading conditions for the vessel were considered in the analysis (ballast or laden). Based on the vessel’s position and assumed time the wind and wave parameters were gathered from the weather database. The main databases used in the project are provided by the European Commission initiative called Copernicus (Global Ocean Waves Analysis and Forecast, n.d.; Global Ocean Wind L4 Near Real Time 6 Hourly Observations, n.d.). This initiative aggregates data provided by European meteorological institutes.

For studying more accurately the impact of sails to the ship and impact of technologies such as gate rudder, the effect of wind propulsion on the propeller thrust is considered in the study. The wind propulsion system generated additional side forces and yaw moments that must be balanced by the hydrodynamic forces and the rudder action. When in equilibrium, the total moment acting must be zero. This results in the aero- and hydrodynamic forces acting along one line (Elger et al., 2020). The procedure for finding the best possible angle of attack of sails to achieve equilibrium of forces and moments is shown in the flow diagram in Figure 4.

4. DeltaSeas algorithm for extraction and processing of data for ship added resistance for the bulk carrier during the final modelling round

Figure

The effect of heel angle on the drift forces, yaw moments, driving force and the hull resistance is neglected. The first step is to calculate the lift and drag forces of the sails for an angle of attack that generates the highest lift coefficient. The initial drift angle is zero. Having calculated the driving and side force provided by the sails, the drift angle is calculated using an iterative procedure. When drift angle in steady state condition is found, the resistance due to the drift and rudder is calculated. Now, if the aero- and hydrodynamic moments are not in balance then the angle of attack of sails is decreased, and all calculations are performed in the loop again until the force and moment balance is achieved. Once this condition is satisfied, the final resistance and the effective thrust of the propeller is calculated. The full description with their respective formulas can be referred to from (Elger et al., 2020).

Figure 5

diagram of waves for 12 voyages

Figure 5 shows the scatter diagram of the waves for 12 different cruises. A visualisation of the relationship between wind speed and direction can be found in Figure 6.

Figure 5 Scatter diagram of waves for 12 voyages

Scatter

6 Polar plot true wind speed – 12 voyages

Energy system modelling and flexible machinery development for wind assisted ships

A system level energy model is another necessary layer of the FPV design platform, called DeltaKey. The inputs for the model include ship fuel types, machinery components and the energy requirements. The propulsion power is an input from DeltaSeas. The model is coded by Deltamarin and it was further developed in project CHEK on top of Matlab and Simulink tools, as described in (Sandberg et al., 2023).

A system level energy model is another necessary layer of the FPV design platform, called DeltaKey The inputs for the model include ship fuel types, machinery components and the energy requirements. The propulsion power is an input from DeltaSeas. The model is coded by Deltamarin

Figure

and it was further developed in project CHEK on top of Matlab and Simulink tools, as described in (Sandberg et al., 2023).

In project CHEK the focus was in implementing various technologies in the ship energy system. Part of the technologies, such as sails was considered in the DeltaSeas code, but for instance air lubrication system (ALS) was considered both in DeltaSeas (reduced ship hull resistance) and in DeltaKey (the electricity need). For the Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC) an entire logic how several units would be implemented in a ship was developed during CHEK.The final round of simulations included absorbing in the master simulation loop an external powerplant model in form of a Functional Mock-up Unit (FMU), produced by Wärtsilä.

The baseline ship machinery model is comprised of a 2-stroke engine model directly connected to fixed pitch propeller (7,4m diameter with 1100kN upper thrust limit)) The fuel type utilised was VLSFO (LHV 40,6 MJ/kg) and the engine type reference was MAN 5S50ME with 9500kW installed power and variable speed (89,8 RPM at 100% load) The engine performance data was obtained from the engine maker CEAS software. The hotel load is produced by 3 x 500 kWe Yanmar auxiliary engines with an engine switch point at 65% load. Furthermore, the FMU automatically calculates added electrical consumption for Lube oil, HT and LT pumps as well as for auxiliary blower for Main engine loads below 35% Figure 7 illustrates the baseline machinery configuration.

The baseline ship machinery model is comprised of a 2-stroke engine model directly connected to fixed pitch propeller (7,4m diameter with 1100kN upper thrust limit)). The fuel type utilised was VLSFO (LHV 40,6 MJ/kg) and the engine type reference was MAN 5S50ME with 9500kW installed power and variable speed (89,8 RPM at 100% load) The engine performance data was obtained from the engine maker CEAS software. The hotel load is produced by 3 x 500 kWe Yanmar auxiliary engines with an engine switch point at 65% load. Furthermore, the FMU automatically calculates added electrical consumption for Lube oil, HT and LT pumps as well as for auxiliary blower for Main engine loads below 35%. Figure 7 illustrates the baseline machinery configuration.

A fuel-flexible 4-stroke engine power plant configuration was studied in project CHEK that could answer to the large variations in ship powering requirements due to the energy saving technologies. Figure 8 illustrates the principle of this configuration.

The propulsion in the 4-stroke machinery is comprised of two four-stroke Wärtsilä 31 (600 kW/cylinder) engines connected to controllable pitch propeller (diameter 7,4m, min./max pitch 0,4m/1,55m and 1100kn propeller thrust upper limit) via a two-speed gearbox as well as two Wärtsilä 20 (1170 kW) auxiliary engines that can boost propulsion via power take in (PTI) function. The electricity can be produced by auxiliary engines or shaft generators with a maximum capacity of 2000kW. Additional hotel load for the LNGPac system is calculated automatically within the model. A battery in the power train enables allowing higher engine loads up to 100%. The main fuel is MDO or liquid bio gas (LBG).

The 4-stroke FMU is an optimiser, which finds the optimum combination of propeller pitch and engine operating point that will minimise either fuel energy consumption, propeller power or total GHG emissions from the engines. The scalable powerplant has more control parameters associated with it, which are listed for the studied configurations.

Figure 7. Bulker: Components of the 2-stroke engine model

8. Bulker: Components of the 4-stroke engine model

Naval architectural considerations

The backbone of each digital ship design is the ship layout, hull, space and volume model, including all naval architectural analysis which is necessary to ensure that the ship design is feasible and efficient. All this in the FPV design platform we call “DeltaWay”. In practice, any new technology that is installed onboard or added in design during conceptual design stage, will require the necessary space, and there is impact for ship weight and, therefore, also consumption. However, this is not straight forward, since sometimes the added weight of the ship does not necessarily reduce the amount of cargo transported, if the cargo is more volume-critical than weight-critical. Therefore, the full impact of technologies on the ship layout was not the focus in CHEK and the simulations were performed with fixed draught of the vessel. Nevertheless, a stability review was performed for the ship regarding the technologies to ensure that there would not be any show stoppers.

Table 1 summarises some impact that introducing the machinery with LBG as fuel and some of the largest energy saving technologies, the sails, brings. For instance, compared to the reference, more weight is added to ship, which has a theoretical impact to ship cargo carrying capacity. Slightly more volume is available for cargo, but the weight carrying capacity is reduced. We approximated based on the ship design data that a 20cm addition to draught at the 12,5kn operational speed could increase the propulsion power by 1,6%. The impact at higher speeds is larger, but still rather moderate.

Table 1 Examples of impact of selected CHEK combinations to vessel draught (T) and cargo carrying capacity.

Table 1 Examples of impact of selected CHEK combinations to vessel draught (T) and cargo carrying capacity. HFO / 2-stroke LBG + 4-stroke LBG + 4-stroke + sail

HFO / 2-stroke LBG + 4-stroke LBG + 4-stroke + sail

hold volume diff % ref 0,64% 0,64%

Figure

Figure 8. Bulker: Components of the 4-stroke engine model

Figures 9a and 9b illustrate the difference in the general arrangement between the standard vessel with a two-stroke engine having HFO as fuel and the dual fuel 4-stroke engine configuration utilising LBG as fuel.

9a and 9b: Bulk carrier profile in the engine room area with HFO as main fuel (left) and gas fueled 4stroke machinery (right)

Figure 9a and 9b: Bulk carrier profile in the engine room area with HFO as main fuel (left) and gas fueled 4-stroke machinery (right)

CHEK technologies and simulation main results

The bulker simulation cases are presented in Table 2. Each of the cases has been performed on the 9 voyages presented previously and with a starting time in each of the 12 months. The simulations outlined in grey are based on the 2-stroke machinery concept acting as industry baseline. The main engine uses VLSFO and Auxiliary engines with boilers use MGO. Within the 2-stroke concept, improvement in hull and fouling levels has been studied, which then serves as the baseline for the 4-stroke machinery concept. Project CHEK reference ship performance was defined as EEDI phase 2 requirements fulfilling ship.

The cases outlined in light blue are done for a 4-stroke scalable power plant concept with various combinations of technologies. All simulations are done with MDO as the primary fuel. Finally, the light green shade represents simulations with LBG as primary fuel. Additional alternative in the form of electric heaters in ports was added to calculate the final impact on the vessel’s energy consumption.

Table 2. Simulation matrix in terms of technologies. Each simulation is performed for each of the 9 routes, starting in each month of the year. Fuel types are mentioned in the second column and they show primary fuel for the Main and Auxiliary engines.

CHEK EEDI

Phase II baseline

CHEK EEDI

VLSFO/ MGO

Phase II baseline VLSFO/ MGO

2s_base_foul10 VLSFO/ MGO

The baseline energy consumption and emissions are calculated based on the scaling of the clean hull condition simulation.

2-Stroke engine with reference hull (BR1) and 10% resistance increase relative to clean hull due to 10% hull fouling margin

2s_base_foul10 VLSFO/ MGO 2-Stroke engine with reference hull (BR1) and 10% resistance increase relative to clean hull due to 10% hull fouling margin

2s base hasy5 VLSFO/ MGO

2-Stroke engine with reference hull (BR1) and 5% resistance increase relative to clean hull due to Hasytec’s ultrasound antifouling benefit

2s base hasy5 VLSFO/ MGO 2-Stroke engine with reference hull (BR1) and 5% resistance increase relative to clean hull due to Hasytec’s ultrasound antifouling benefit

2s DM hasy5 VLSFO/ MGO 2-Stroke engine with reference hull (BR1) and 5% resistance increase relative to clean hull due to Hasytec’s ultrasound antifouling benefit

Figure

Below runs include the new hull form and Hasytec’s ultrasound antifouling by default. Furthermore, all 4-stroke cases have 2 MW PTO/PTI capacity included by default

4s DM hasy5

4s 8c CI

4s 8c ORC

4s 8c ALS

4s 8c Sails

4s 8c power

4s 8c power ALS

4s 8c power Sails

4s 8c combo

4s 8c combo LBG

4s 8c combo LBG ELB

MDO

Wärtsilä’s

Scalable power plant, 8-cylinder engines, including PTO/PTI and Battery as spinning reserve as the base case.

MDO